back of entering insect.

SPOT.2
Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
COMMENTS:
Pollen grain 1 Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from
Stigma
the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same or
Male germ-oell different flower through biotic or abiotic means.
2. The pollen are deposited on the stigma. Here, the
Pollen tube pollen germination starts with the absorption of
nutrients and water.
A small pollen tube is produced through the style to
3.
the ovary.
4. The tube cell moves out of the pollen grain through
Oary one of the germ pores and forms a pollen tube.
5. The nucleus of the tube moves down to the tip of the
Female germ-ell pollen tube.
6. The generative cells also pass into it and soon divide
Germination of pollen 1 two male gametes.

on Stigma 7. During double fertilization, one of the two sperms

fuses with the egg cell of the ovule. This helps in embryo
development.
8. The other cell combines with another subsidiary nuclei of the ovule that helps
in the formation of endosperm.
9. The growing ovule is transformed into a seed.

21

SPOT. 4
Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.

(b)Prophase (c) Prophase (c) ProphaseI

(a) Prophase
(Leptotene) Y9otene) (Pachytene) (Oiplotene)

(e) Prophase
(Oiakinesis
( Metaphase (9) Anaphase (h) Telophase

0 Prophase II 0) Metaphase I (K) Anaphase I (0) Telophase II

Fig. 5.3A: Different stages of Meiosis (diagrammatic)

cOMMENTS:
(1)Prophase I: In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the
centre of the cell. It consists of five different sub-phases:
a.
b.
Leptotene: The homologous chromosomes replicate.
Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes start.
c. Pachytene: The sister chromatids separate but the homologous
chromosomes remain attached.
d. Diplotene: The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and
disintegrate between the chromosomal arms.
e. Diakinesis: The condensation of chromosomes stop at this stage and the
chiasmata is clearly visible under an electron microscope. The nucleolus and the
nuclear envelop disappear at this stage and the centrosome moves to the equator.
(2)Metaphase I: The homologous chromosomes that contain two different alleles for
each gene, line up on the metaphase plate to be separated.
(3)Anaphase I: The separated chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles on
either side of the cell.
(4)Telophase I: The chromosomes are completely pulled apart and new nuclear
envelope forms.
(5) Prophase II: In this stage, the nuclear envelope disintegrates and centrioles
develop.
(6)Metaphase II: The chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate and the
chromatids are on either side of the metaphase plate.
(7)Anaphase II: The sister chromatids separate and are known as sister
chromosomes.
(8)Telophase II: The cell divides into two and new nuclear envelope surrounds the
chromosomes.
experiment 10

Cuscutaf
stem
host plant
stem

Root nodules

Root branch
 cUSCUTA
Cuscuta is commonly called dodder. It is a stem parasite that naturaly grafts to its
host plants to extract water and nutrients,Sincet lacks chlorophyl. t cannotdo
Dnotyne es neps n n s o Ougn parslc roos cae
food and water. To grow, they depend on other plants for nutrients, which weakens the host
plant. Multiple adjacent hosts are often parasitized by one or more Cuscuta plants
simultaneoOusly, forming connected plant clusters.

LICHEN
Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a
ungus and an aiga. ne dominant parther 5 the rungus, whicn gives the chen tne majority
of its charactenstics, rom its thallus shape to its ruiting bodieS. The fung provide a moist.
sheltered habitat for the cyanobacteria or algae. and, in tum, they provide tood tor the fungi
Lichens are important as eary stage primary succession organisms. h e algal patner of
lichen is called phycobiont and fungal partner is called mycobiont.

SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION IN ROOT NODULES

The root nodules of leguminous plants are caused by nitrogen-fixing bacteria belonging to
the genus Rhizobium. Rhizobium bacteria are present which convert inert nitrogen into
nitrates for the use of plants, Thus by nitrogen fixation, it increases the soil fertility,
The Rhizobium bacteria divide and form colonies. These get attached to the root hairs and
epidermal cells. The root hairs get curled and are invaded by the bacteria. This invasion is
followed by the formation of an infection thread that carries the bacteria into the cortex of the
root. The bacteria get modifhed into rod-shaped bacteroides. As a resuit, the cells in the
cortex and pericycle undergo division, leading to the formation of root nodules. The nodules
finally get connected ith the vascular tissues of the roots for nutrient exchange.

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