KINDS OF CONCEPT PAPER

Concept paper- A preliminarily written document that outlines the purpose, motivation, and methodology of a
planned study. §In addition to giving a general summary of the topic a researcher wants to undertake, it examines a
concept or idea in depth.

2 types/ Kinds of Concept Paper

1. Explicit- is used to define a situation that has been thoroughly elaborated and expressed without leaving anything
untouched.

 Explicit is an adjective that describes information that is stated directly and clearly, without any
question about the meaning.

2. Implicit- is "implied or understood though not plainly or directly expressed." So therefore the term implicit is used
to express something indirectly implied, making the scenario under consideration not directly stated.

THEIR DIFFERENCE

Explicit- expresses the actual meaning of the sentence, it means that it is direct and has no hidden meaning.
Implicit- is used to express the implied meaning that does not exist, its meaning is suggested.

Identifying & Analysing Arguements

Arguments- are an attempt at persuasion. They are an attempt to convince you of something or to get you to believe
something.

 Similarly, an explanation is not an argument. An explanation attempts to show why something is the
way it is, not that it is a certain way.
 A story is not an argument. Often people will tell stories with no "moral" or point to them, that is,
with no conclusion.
 A claim is not an argument. If I make a claim without any supporting reasons or evidence, I haven't
made an argument.
 bad arguments are still arguments. In order to count as an argument, there only has to be a conclusion
with one premise put forward to support it. The conclusion could be totally absurd and the premise may
be known to be false or true but completely irrelevant. It's still an argument.

Analysing Arguments

1. To analyze any argument, first look for the conclusion.

 Often the conclusion will come at the end of the series of statements, though sometimes it comes at the
beginning or some place in the middle.
 The conclusion is usually precided by words like, "so", "therefore", "thus", "in summary", and sometimes
even "in conclusion".
2. Once you have identified the conclusion, look at the premises. Premises are often preceded by words like
"because," "for" or even "for the reason that."
An argument consists of 2 parts:

Part 1: A claim or statement that summarizes the main idea.

Part 2: Evidence to support the claim or reasons why the claim is true.

Main purpose of Identifying Arguments

 Is used to understand the context, identify the reasons and identify the conclusion of the statement.

POSITION PAPER
Position Paper- A detailed report that suggests a course of action on a specific issue.

 Its main purpose is to Convince the audience that your opinion is valid and worth listening to.

TYPES OF POSITION PAPER

1. EVALUATIVE
 A type of argument that provides evidence to justify a writer opinions about a subject.
 Judge a certain criteria.
 Purpose: to present an opinion or viewpoint on subject or body of work.

2. CONSTRUCTIVE
 Provides factual information, critical analysis and space for more than one viewpoint.
 Proposes what should be done or believed in.

3. EXPOSITORY
 Asserts or falsifies an interpretation based on a particular viewpoint.

4. COMPARATIVE
 Requires you to consider two or more ideas or objects and compare main points regarding these subjects.
 Defends the similarities and differences between positions.
3 PARTS OF A POSITION PAPER

1. INTRODUCTION
 The introductory part aims to attract the reader's Attention to the covered subject matter. Ideally, you
should begin with several opening sentences about the specific issue to hook the reader.

2. BODY
 The body part involves background information, evidence to back up your opinion, and analyses of both
sides of the subject matter.
 By conducting thorough research, you will collect enough data to support your claims. The main point is
to address both aspects of the argument. That way, you will show the reader that you are objective in
your statements.

3. CONCLUSION
 In the conclusion part, you need to restate the key points of your essay without adding anything new.
Depending on your topic, it makes sense to suggest a solution on the problem.

Kinds of support in position paper

Supporting evidence includes the following:

 Factual Knowledge- Information that is verifiable and agreed upon by almost everyone.
 Statistical Inferences- Interpretation and examples of an accumulation of facts.
 Informed Opinion- Opinion developed through research and/or expertise of the claim.

Seven (7) steps to write a position paper

1. Choose a topic
2. conduct research
3. Do a pre-writing exercise
4. draft a thesis
5. create an outline
6. Write a draft of your paper
7. Review and create the final draft

CRITERIA IN WRITING OBJECTIVES

1. Behavior- A specific bahavior as indicated by action verbs (summarize, enumerate, compare, defend and justify.)

2. Criterion - Description of criteria used to indicate whether the behavior has been demonstrated
 For example: Judgement in writing based on grammar, spelling, sentence, construction and
organizations.

3. Audience- Description of the subjects who are expected to demonstrate the behavior.

4. Condition- Circumstances, equipment, or material used when demonstrating the behavior (with or without class
notes, open book, using graph paper)
Writing Measurable Learning Objectives
1. Identify the subject or noun or thing. It could be person a person or thing that is being discussed, described, or
dealt with.
2. Identify the time constraint when the action would be performed.
3. Select a verb that is observable to describe the behavior at the appropriate level of learning.
4. Add additional criteria to indicate how or when the outcome will be observable to add context for the subject..

OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF REPORTS

OBJECTIVE OF REPORT- Are specific result that a persons or a system aims to achieve within a time frame and with
available resources.

 It is more specific and easier to measure than goals

 Basic tools that underline all planning and strategic activities.
 They serve as the basis for creating a policy and evaluating performance

REPORT- is a written. document that is organized to identify and examine issues, events, or findings that have
happened in a physical sense or from a research.

 It is important to discuss the objectives and structure of a report to know what is best suited for your data.
 Reports are written daily by technocrats.

QUALITIES OF REPORTS

 So here, qualities can be abbreviated with SMART

S- stands for Specific.

M- stands for Measurable.
A- stands for attainable.
R- stands for realistic.
T- stands for timebound.

KINDS OF REPORT

FORMAL REPORTS- It analyzes information, determines conclusion and offers recommendations to solve problem.

 So results of the gathering and analyzing of large amounts of data.

 It also concentrates on objectivity and organization and contains deeper detail of the subject.
 Example: Annual Report

INFORMAL REPORTS- This are documents that are shared within an organization.

 These are relatively short messages with free flowing casual use of language.
 Ex. memos, emails, minute of meetings and others.
PARTS OF FORMAL REPORTS

1. Title- It bears the title of the report, the writers. name, and the date of the report transmission.
2. Dedication Page- it is an offering of the report to an individual or group of individuals.
3. Acknowledgement Page- It contains words of thanks to those who have helped in the completion of the report.
4. Abstract- It is a condensed summary of the entire report.
5. Table Of Contents- This is a chronological list of the items contained in the report with contents corresponding
pages.
6. List Of Figures- This are chronological list of tables, charts, maps, and other graphic aids with corresponding
pages.
7. Body- It contains Introduction, discussion proper, conclusion and recommendation of the report.
8. Appendix- it contains supplementary materials added at the end of the report.
9. Definition Of Terms- these are alphabetical list of technical terms and their corresponding meanings.
10. References- List of references material used in the report such as books, magazines, newspapers and journals
and others.

DESIGNING, TESTING, & REVISING QUESTIONNAIRES

Questionnaire- is a list of planned, written questions about a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response
to each question, intended to be answered by a number of people.

 Most commonly used instrument in research, particularly in quantitative research.

 it can be structured or unstructured.

Structured- possible answers are provided and respondents just have to select from them.

Unstructured- the questions are open-ended meaning no options are provided and the respondents are free to
answer however they wish.

To ensure the accuracy of the data gathered, questionnaires must be properly designed as they might be a source of
bias. It is crucial to prevent errors in respondent comprehension and interpretation, as well as to prevent influencing
or offending respondents.

BENEFITS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

 Acquiring needed data is easier and faster

 Anonymity of respondents
 Inexpensive and Practical
 Covers a wide range of respondents
DESIGNING
REMEMBER:

 Use familiar terms

 Be sensitive
 Create brief and simple questions
 Do not ask leading questions

STEPS IN MAKING A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Identify the research aims and the goals of the questionnaire.
2. Determine question format.
 Closed-ended can be answered by a simple "yes" or "no" (or another super-short reply), while Open-
ended questions require a more detailed response.
3. Make a clear question.
 1.Questions must be clearly written, easily understood, and unambiguous.
2. Questions must not introduce bias.
3. Respondents' Ability to Answer
4. Respondents' Willingness to Answer

4. Questionnaire Evaluation
 To evaluate questions a researcher must ask themselves three questions:
1. IS THIS QUESTION NECESSARY?
2. IS THIS QUESTIONNAIRE TOO LONG?
3. WILL THE QUESTIONNAIRE PROVIDE ALL THE NEEDED INFORMATION?

Determine Question Format

Types of Questions:

1. Yes or No type- Items are answerable by a yes or no.

2.Recognition type- Fixed alternative answers are already provided, the respondents simply choose from among the
given choices. It contains close ended questions

3. Completion types- The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with type necessary information. Questions are
open-ended

Popular Survey Questions:

1. Rating scales- Display a scale of answer options from any range (1 to 100, 1 to 10, etc).

2. Likert scale- The "do you agree or disagree" questions you often see in surveys and is used to gauge out
respondents' opinions and feelings.

3. Matrix Question- a series of likert scale questions.

TESTING
TESTING QUESTIONNAIRE
 fundamental components of the data production process
 help validate the survey questionnaire
 opportunity to enhance, develop, or clarify questionnaire.
 Testing it between your colleagues and respondents

PRETESTING QUESTIONS- a preliminary part that aims to test the effectiveness of the questionnaire.
PURPOSE:

 determine whether questions are properly formed and that it is easily understood.
 determine whether there is a need to add or remove a question
 the instructions presented are clear

STEPS IN PRETESTING:

1. Select the sample similar in socioeconomic background and geographic location which is intended to be used
in the main study.
2. Instruct interviewers to note all respondents' remarks regarding instructions or question wording.
3. Administer the questionnaire.
4. Check the results.

REVISING

REVISING SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

 listen to the samples' review
 apply changes
 finalize the questionnaire
 prepare and wait for approval

WAYS TO CONDUCT SURVEY, EXPERIMENTS, OR OBSERVATIONS

SURVEYS- Asking participants about their opinions and behaviors through a short questionnaire

EXPERIMENTS- In business research, experiments can be conducted for studying cause-and-effect relationships.

OBSERVATIONS- Observing and measuring the world around you including observations of people and other
measurable events.

SURVEYS - Surveys are one form of an observational study, since the researchers do not influence the outcome.

 A survey may focus on opinions or factual information depending upon the purpose of the study.
 Surveys may involve answering a questionnaire or being interviewed by a researcher.
How to Organize survey
1. PLAN AHEAD
2. IDENTIFY GOALS
3. PROVIDE INSTRUCTIONS
4. LENGTH OF THE SURVEY

Types of Questions

Open Format

 The respondents can formulate their own answers.

 Use it if you are looking for respondents to provide specific comments or feedback

Close Format

 Respondent are forced to choose between several in given options e.g. Multiple choice, yes/no and ranking

How To Arrange The Questions  Do not start with demographic and personal
questions
 Go from general to specific
 Go from easy to difficult How to Ask Respondent
 Start with closed format questions
 Use short and simple sentences
 Start with questions relevant to the maim
 Ask for only one piece of information at a
subject.
time.
 Avoid negative as possible

OBSERVATIONS- is a way of collecting data through observing.

 This data collection method is classified as a participatory study, because the researcher has to immerse
herself in the setting where her respondents are, while taking notes and/or recording.
 Observation data collection method may involve watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording
behavior and characteristics of phenomena.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

Naturalistic observation- observation occurs directly in the environment where the phenomenon occurs.

 The observations are made as unobtrusively as possible with the researcher not directly interacting with the
participants in any way.

Participant observation- researchers actively participate in the study itself. In addition conduct interviews, take
notes, look at to observing behaviors, a researcher might documents, and take photographs.

Structured observation- researchers do not observe in the natural setting, but instead in a lab or a simulated
environment.

 A structured observation is meant to observe a specific, limited set of behaviors.

 This method is less natural, but enables less variables to be at play.
CONDUCTING OBSERVATIONS IN RESEARCH

1. Identify Objective- Determine what you want to observe and why.

2. Establish Recording Method- To make observations most effective, it's important that you minimize or
eliminate any disruptive or unfamiliar devices into the environment you wish to observe.
3. Develop Questions and Techniques- Determine whether you are conducting an informal or a formal
observation Knowing your objective, determine if there are specific questions you have or if you are going in
completely open-minded.
4. Observe and Take Notes- Visit the space you are hoping to get information from. Be as unobtrusive as
possible, taking notes, photographs, audio, and film, only where it is allowed, you have permission, and it
makes sense for the research without disrupting the environment.
5. Analyze Behaviors and Inferences- Separate the difference between what you observed (which are factual
behaviors) and why what you observed happened.

EXPERIMENT- is a particularly useful method to explain change, to look at cause and effect, or to deduce a
hypotheses from a theory.

 An important proviso is ability to isolate the independent or causal, variable from other causes of the
particularly effect you are examining.

Ways to Conducting Experiments

STEP 1: Review pertinent literature to learn what has been done in the field and to become familiar enough with the
field to allow you to discuss it with others.

STEP 2: Define your objectives and the hypotheses that you are going to test. You can't be vague. You must be
specific. A good hypothesis is:

a. Clear enough to be tested

b. Adequate to explain the phenomenon
c. Good enough to permit further prediction
d. As simple as possible

STEP 3: Specify the population on which research is to be conducted.

STEP Ч: Evaluate the feasibility of testing the hypothesis. One should be relatively certain that an experiment can be
set up to adequately test the hypotheses with the available resources.

 Therefore, a list should be made of the costs, materials, personnel, equipment, etc., to be sure that
adequate resources are available to carry out the research. If not, modifications will have to be made to
design the research to fit the available resources.
STEP 5: Select Research Procedure:

a. Selection of treatment design is very crucial and can make the difference between success or failure in
achieving the objectives.
b. Selection of the sampling experimental design and number of replicates. This is the major topic of this course
so this will not be discussed further other than to comment that in general one should choose the simplest
design that will provide the precision you require
c. Selection of measurements to be taken. With the computer it is now possible to analyze large quantities of
data and thus the researcher can gain considerably more information about the crop. etc. than just the
effects of the imposed variables on yield.
d. Selection of the unit of observation, i.e., the individual plant, one row, or a whole plot, etc? One animal or a
group of animal
e. Control of border effects or effects of adjacent units on each other or "competition".
f. Probable results: Make an outline of pertinent summary tables and probable results. Using information
gained in the literature review write out the results you expect. Essentially perform the experiment in theory
and predict the results expected.
g. Make an outline of statistical analysis to be performed.

STEP 6: Selection of suitable measuring instruments and control of bias in data collection:

 Measuring instruments should be sufficiently accurate for the precision required. Don't want a gram balance
(scale) to weigh watermelons or sugarcane. Experimental procedure should be free of personal bias,

STEP 7: Install experiment Care should be taken in measuring treatment materials (fertilizers, herbicides, or other
chemicals, food rations, etc.) and the application of treatments to the experimental units. Errors here can have
disastrous effects on the experimental results

STEP 8: Collect Data:

 Careful should be measurements made with the appropriate instruments. It is better to collect too much
data than not enough. Data should also be recorded properly in a permanent notebook.

STEP 9: Make a complete analysis of the data: Be sure to have a plan of analysis, e.g.,

 which analysis and in what order will they be done? Interpret the results in the light of the experimental
conditions and hypotheses tested.
 Statistics do not prove anything and there is always the possibility that your conclusions may be wrong.
 One must consider the consequences of drawing an incorrect conclusion and modify the interpretation
accordingly.
 Do not jump to a conclusion just because an effect is significant.
 This is especially so if the conclusion doesn't agree with previously established facts.
 The experimental data should be checked very carefully if this occurs, as the results must make sense!

Step 10: prepare a complete, correct, and readable report of the experiment.

 This may be a report to the farmer or researcher or an extension publication.

 There is no such thing as a negative result.
 If the null hypothesis is not rejected, it is positive evidence that there may be no real difference among the
treatments tested.

3 R'S OF EXPERIMENTATION:
1. Replicate: This provides a measure of variation (an error term) which is used in evaluating the effects observed in
the experiment. This is the only way that the validity of your conclusions from the experiment can be measured.

2. Randomize: Statistical theory requires the assignment of treatments to the experimental units in a purely random
manner .

 This prevents bias.

3. Request Help: Ask for help when in doubt about how to design execute or analyze your experiment. Not everyone
is a statistician but should know the important principles of scientific experimentation. Be on guard against common
pitfalls and ask for help when you need it. Do this when planning an experiment, not after it is completed.

COMPARISON

Observations

 Observe only, no "treatment" assigned

 Generally a control group is not needed
 Reports an association
 May (or not) use random sample sets
 May (or not) generalize to population

Experiment

 "Treatment" assigned
 Uses control group for comparison
 Reports a cause and effect
 Randomization of sample group
 Generalize to population

SUMMARIZING FINDINGS THROUGH NARRATIVE AND VISUAL

GRAPHIC FORMS
Narrative Summary- is a written summary of your studies research findings.

Summarizing- selecting out key feature of a text to create a shorter version

Findings- The principal outcomes of a research: what the research suggested. revealed or indicated.

KINDS OF DATA
Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

 are mainly numbers.  information that cannot be counted

 data that can be counted or measured in measured or easily expressed numbers.
numerical values  are mainly words, audio and images.

Visual/Graphics- Is a supplement words with pictures, graphs, or other useful images.

 It also helps the audience understand and remember, increase their interest and act as notes or reminders for
the speaker.
GRAPHICAL METHOD OF PRESENTING YOUR DATA

1. Table
 Used in displaying numbers in columns.
 It condenses and classifies information to make comparison between and among data and helps the
readers grasp relationship that might be available in prose.
 It contains atleast two columns with heading at the top (boxhead) and on the far left column (stub).
2. Chart- is graphical representation that makes use of symbols like arrows boxes and lines
 Two Common Type:
1) Organizational Chart- a chart that presents ranking, classification and levels of ideas.
2) Flow chart- a chart that illustrates a process or direction of steps.
Shape and its meaning:
 Rectangle - used to refer for steps or action to take.
 Diamond - shows a decision point in the process.
 Rounded box- denotes the start and the end of the whole process

3. Graph- Is a common method is to visually illustrates the pattern or relationship in the data.
 The purpose of the graph is to present data that are complicated to be describe effectively in the next.
 This are also used to:
 display data that are grouped into categories -Compare data among different categories
 Show large data changes overtime
 Present Distribution of data when we have more than three categories.

4. Diagrams- Is a picture or graphic design used to communicate information.

 Provides an alternative means for people to connect with inormation and process its significance.

5. Infographic(Images and text)- Is a collection of imagery. charts and minimal text that gives an easy-to-
understand overview of a topic.

6. Mind maps- Is used for summarizing information and presenting information visually.

TYPES OF GRAPHS
1. Line graph- Illustrate how related data changes over a specific period of time.
2. Bar graph- Are the most popular types of graph in research and other discipline like economic, statistics and
marketing.
 It consist of rectangular or horizontal bars that has length and height Proportional to the values that they
represent.
 A bar chart can be categorized into two broad types:
1) Vertical Bar Graph- is a data representation technique that depicts the data using vertical rectangular bars.
 best when comparing means or percentage between distinct categories.
2) Horizontal Bar Graph- It is a graph whose bars are drawn horizontally. The data categories are shown on
the vertical axis and the data values are shown on the horizontal axis.
3. Pie graph- a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph.
 represents the different parts of a whole.
4. Pictograph- Uses pictures or symbols to display data instead of bars.
 Each Picture represents a certain number of items.
 It can be useful when you want to display data in a highly visual presentation such as infographic.