Chapter 13

Meiosis and Sexual

Life Cycles

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

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 • Overview: Hereditary Similarity and Variation
• Living organisms
– Are distinguished by their ability to reproduce
their own kind

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 • Heredity
– Is the transmission of traits from one generation to
the next

• Variation
– Shows that offspring differ somewhat in
appearance from parents and siblings

Figure 13.1

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 • Genetics
– Is the scientific study of heredity and hereditary
variation

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 • Concept 13.1: Offspring acquire genes from
parents by inheriting chromosomes

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 Inheritance of Genes
• Genes
– Are the units of heredity
– Are segments of DNA

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 • Each gene in an organism’s DNA
– Has a specific locus on a certain chromosome

• We inherit
– One set of chromosomes from our mother and
one set from our father

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 Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• In asexual reproduction
– One parent produces genetically identical
offspring by mitosis

Parent
Bud

Figure 13.2 0.5 mm

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 • In sexual reproduction
– Two parents give rise to offspring that have
unique combinations of genes inherited from
the two parents

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 • Concept 13.2: Fertilization and meiosis
alternate in sexual life cycles
• A life cycle
– Is the generation-to-generation sequence of
stages in the reproductive history of an
organism

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 Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• In humans
– Each somatic cell has 46 chromosomes, made
up of two sets
– One set of chromosomes comes from each
parent

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 • A karyotype
– Is an ordered, visual representation of the
chromosomes in a cell

Pair of homologous
chromosomes 5 µm

Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Figure 13.3
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 • Homologous chromosomes
– Are the two chromosomes composing a pair
– Have the same characteristics
– May also be called autosomes

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 • Sex chromosomes
– Are distinct from each other in their
characteristics
– Are represented as X and Y
– Determine the sex of the individual, XX being
female, XY being male

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 • A diploid cell
– Has two sets of each of its chromosomes
– In a human has 46 chromosomes (2n = 46)

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 • In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred
– All the chromosomes are duplicated and thus
each consists of two identical sister chromatids
Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosome
Centromere

Two nonsister Pair of homologous

chromatids in chromosomes
a homologous pair (one from each set)
Figure 13.4

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 • Unlike somatic cells
– Gametes, sperm and egg cells are haploid
cells, containing only one set of chromosomes

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 Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle

• At sexual maturity
– The ovaries and testes produce haploid
gametes by meiosis

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 • During fertilization
– These gametes, sperm and ovum, fuse,
forming a diploid zygote

• The zygote
– Develops into an adult organism

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 • The human life cycle
Key
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Haploid (n)
Ovum (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm
Cell (n)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Ovary Testis Diploid

zygote
(2n = 46)

Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
Figure 13.5 adults (2n = 46)
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 The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• The three main types of sexual life cycles
– Differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization

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 • In animals
– Meiosis occurs during gamete formation
– Gametes are the only haploid cells
Key
Haploid
Diploid

n n
Gametes
n

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Zygote
2n 2n

Diploid Mitosis
multicellular
organism
Figure 13.6 A (a) Animals

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 • Plants and some algae
– Exhibit an alternation of generations
– The life cycle includes both diploid and haploid
multicellular stages Haploid multicellular
organism (gametophyte)

Mitosis n Mitosis
n n
n n
Spores
Gametes

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Diploid
multicellular 2n
2n
organism Zygote
(sporophyte) Mitosis
Figure 13.6 B (b) Plants and some algae

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 • In most fungi and some protists
– Meiosis produces haploid cells that give rise to
a haploid multicellular adult organism
– The haploid adult carries out mitosis,
producing cells that will become gametes
Haploid multicellular
organism

n
Mitosis Mitosis
n
n n

Gametes n

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

2n
Zygote
Figure 13.6 C (c) Most fungi and some protists
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 • Concept 13.3: Meiosis reduces the number of
chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
• Meiosis
– Takes place in two sets of divisions, meiosis I
and meiosis II

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 The Stages of Meiosis
• An overview of meiosis Interphase
Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids Diploid cell with
replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with

replicated chromosomes

Meiosis II

2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

Figure 13.7
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 • Meiosis I
– Reduces the number of chromosomes from
diploid to haploid

• Meiosis II
– Produces four haploid daughter cells

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 • Interphase and meiosis I
INTERPHASE MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

Centrosomes Centromere Sister chromatids

(with centriole pairs) (with kinetochore) remain attached
Chiasmata Metaphase
Sister
chromatids plate
Spindle

Nuclear
Microtubule Homologous
envelope
Tetrad attached to chromosomes
Chromatin
kinetochore separate
Chromosomes duplicate Tertads line up Pairs of homologous
Homologous chromosomes chromosomes split up
(red and blue) pair and exchange
Figure 13.8
segments; 2n = 6 in this example

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 • Telophase I, cytokinesis, and meiosis II
MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids
TELOPHASE I AND PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage Haploid daughter cells

furrow Sister chromatids forming
separate

Two haploid cells

form; chromosomes During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
Figure 13.8 are still double four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes

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 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Meiosis and mitosis can be distinguished from
mitosis
– By three events in Meiosis l

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 • Synapsis and crossing over
– Homologous chromosomes physically connect
and exchange genetic information

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 • Tetrads on the metaphase plate
– At metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the
metaphase plates

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 • Separation of homologues
– At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs
move toward opposite poles of the cell
– In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister
chromatids separate

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 • A comparison of mitosis and meiosis
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma (site of
MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Prophase I
Prophase
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome 2n = 6 synapsis of homologous
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
Metaphase
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologues

Telophase separate during Anaphase I
separate
anaphase Telophase I
during
anaphase I;
sister Haploid
chromatids n=3
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I
2n 2n
Daughter cells MEIOSIS II
of mitosis

n n n n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

Figure 13.9
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 • Concept 13.4: Genetic variation produced in
sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
• Reshuffling of genetic material in meiosis
– Produces genetic variation

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 Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
• In species that produce sexually
– The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
and fertilization is responsible for most of the
variation that arises each generation

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 Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes
– Orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis

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 • In independent assortment
– Each pair of chromosomes sorts its maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Paternal set of
chromosomes

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Figure 13.10 Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

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 Crossing Over
• Crossing over
– Produces recombinant chromosomes that carry genes derived
from two different parents
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids

Tetrad

Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over
Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Recombinant
Figure 13.11 chromosomes
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 Random Fertilization
• The fusion of gametes
– Will produce a zygote with any of about 64
trillion diploid combinations

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 Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation
Within Populations

• Genetic variation
– Is the raw material for evolution by natural
selection

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 • Mutations
– Are the original source of genetic variation

• Sexual reproduction
– Produces new combinations of variant genes,
adding more genetic diversity

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