THEUNI

VERSI
TYOFDODOMA

SCHOOLOFSOCI
ALSCI
ENCES

DEPARTMENTOFDEVELOPMENTSTUDI
ES

DODOMA

DEVELOPMENTPERSPECTI
VESCOMPENDI
UM

DS102

MODULES
I
ntr
oduct
iont
odev
elopmentst
udi
es,theor
iesofdevel
opment
,dev
elopmentet
hics
anddev
elopmentissues

Thi
sCompendi um examineskeyi
ssuesindevel
opmentwit
hspecifi
cfocuson
Af
ricandev
elopment .TheManuali
sessenti
all
ypr
eparedforunder
graduat
e
st
udents.

Pr
epar
edbyRebeccaJer
emi
ah&Si
rSul
uluJacob

2017/
2018
 PREAMBLE

WhyDev
elopmentSt
udi
es?
Itisov erfortyyear
ssi ncemostAf r
icancount r
iesat tainedpol i
ti
calindependence.
Dur i
ng t his per
iod,African pol i
ti
call eaders and the Af r
ican people hav e made
strenuous ef fort
st o ov ercome dev el
opmentpr oblems and chal l
enges. These
i
ncl udeov ercomingunder developmentanddependencywi t
ht hecentralfocusbeing
rai
si ng theirliv
ing st
andar ds and t o over
come per sistentpov erty,disease and
i
gnor ance.Pol i
ti
calstabi li
tyand sust ai
nabl
e dev elopmentar e goalst hatmany
Africanl eadershavebeent ry
ingt oat t
ainoverthey ear s.Despi t
et heseef f
orts,t
he
roadt odevelopmentformostAf r
icancountri
esr emai nsel usiveandt her
ei sli
ttl
eto
showf ortheireff
ort
s.

Afri
car emai nsunderdevel
opedandi sbecomi ngmor eandmor edependentont he
developed west ern countri
es. Gr inding pov er
ty,disease and ill
ness,human
degradat i
on and dest i
tuti
on,conf li
cts and pol iti
cal i
nstabil
i
ty have become
characteri
st i
csoft heAf r
ican cont
inent .I tcan bear gued thatthepr ocessof
developmenti nAfr
icaappearstobet akingast epbackwards.Ther eisli
ttl
edoubt
thatAfricai sinser
iousneedt ochartoutanewcour seofdevelopment.Indeedthe
overri
dingi ssueofthiseraishowcanAf r
icancountri
esdevelopandcopewi t
hthe
demandsofanewer a–aner aofrapidchangeandt heeraofglobali
zat
ion.

Dev elopmentst udi es is a cour se whi ch uses an i nterdiscipli

nar y appr oach to
exami nedev elopmentpr ocessesandpr ovi
desacr it
icalt oolsofanal ysist hatis
aimedatpr ovidi
ngunder standingoft hedy namicsofsoci o- economi candpol it
ical
dev el
opmenti nt het hirdwor ldandAf ri
cai nparti
cular.Dev elopmentst udiescour se
i
sai medatpr ovidinguswi t
hananal y t
icaltooltocar ryoutacr i
ti
calandi n-
depth
anal y
si sofoursi tuat i
on.Fori nstance,forthoseofusi nAf ricawhati soureconomi c
andpol it
icalposi ti
oni nt heexi stinginternati
onalwor ldor derandhow dowebest
situateour sel vest ot akeadv ant ageoft hebenef i
tsofgl obal i
zat i
onandatt hesame
ti
mebeabl et oav oidthewor stexcessesofgl obali
zation?Theon- goingpr ocessof
globalizationi sl eadi ngt ounbr idledeconomi cli
berali
zat i
onandt hedomi nanceof
the f ree mar keteconomy ,whi ch demands t hatt hi
r d wor l
d count ri
es such as
Tanzani ar emov e al ltrade rest ri
cti
ons and compet e on equalf ooti
ng wi t
ht he
dev el
opedcount ries.Howcancount ri
essuchasTanzani acopei nt hissituat i
on–i n
otherwor ds,whatar ethedev elopmentopt i
onsleftt othesecount ries? Thesear e
someoft hecr i
ti
cal issuest hatar ecoveredbyt heDev elopmentSt udiescour se.

Itishopedt hatthismanualwi l
lr ousei nter estindev elopmenti ssuesi nAfricaand
Tanzani ai npar ti
cul ar
. Theai m ofdev elopmentst udi esisnotonl ytopr ovi
de
under standingofwhati shappeni ngar oundus,butal sohi ghli
ghtst heincreasing
reali
tyt hatanef fecti
veunder standingoft hepr ocessofdev elopmenti sv i
tali
f
Tanzani a and ot hert hi
rd wor l
d count ri
es ar et o pr ogress and ov er
come t he
persistentst ateofunder developmentr eflectedbyi ncr easi
ngmasspov erty . As
academi cians,weneedt odevelopacl earunder standi
ngoft hedev elopmentpr ocess
andt of ormulateconcr etestrategiesf ordev elopment .Themanuali sorgani zedin
fourbasi cpar t
s.Par tonedeal swi tht heint roductiont odev elopmentst udies;part
twodeal swi thdev elopmenttheor ies,par tt hreedealswi thdevelopmentet hicsand
partfourdeal swithdev el
opmenti ssues.

2
 PARTONE

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTODEVELOPMENTSTUDI
ES

Def
ini
ti
onofkeyconcept
s

i
. Dev elopment
Developmentmaybedef inedasanongoi ngandi nterventioni
stprocessofqual i
tati
ve,
quantit
ati
veand/ ordi str
ibuti
onalchangel eadingt osomedegr eeofbet ter
mentf or
groupsofpeople( BullerandWr i
ght,
1990) .Mobugunj e( 1989)condent sthat,
inorder
to know ifacount r
yhasbeen dev eloping oneshoul df i
nd outwhathasbeen
happeningtopov erty,unemploy mentandi nequali
ty.Headdst hatifthethreeaspects
have been decl ining,t hen dev elopment has been t aki
ng pl ace. Therefore,
developmentshoul di ncludechangesi nt heindicatorsi ncl
uding:Income( I
ncome
percapit
al& GDP) ,Food secur i
ty,heal th servi
ces,educat i
on ser vi
ces,soci al
di
mensi ons(genderequal i
tyandequi t
y),poli
ti
cal(democr acyandgoodgov ernance),
l
ifeexpectance,wat ersupply,adequateinfrast
ructureset c.

ii
. Dev elopmentst udi es
Developmentst udies ar e a mul ti
discipli
nar
y br anch of soci alsci ence whi ch
addressesi ssuesofconcer nt odev elopingcount ri
es.Ithashi stori
call
ypl aceda
part
icularf ocusoni ssuesr elatedt osoci alandeconomi cdev el
opment ,andi ts
rel
evance may t herefore extend t o communi t
ies and r egions out si
de oft he
developing wor l
d. Dev el
opment St udies is a mul ti
discipli
nary subj ect that
i
ncorpor atesal laspect sofdev elopmentt hr
oughoutt hewor l
d,mor especif
ically
,the
developingwor ld.Thei ni
ti
alemphasi sf al
lsont heratherdiverseconceptofpov ert
y
andal litsmani festations.Thissubj ectaddr essest henumer ousgl obalchallenges
thatar ef aced i nt he dev elopi ng wor l
d and ident i
fi
es the possi ble soluti
ons.
DevelopmentSt udiesasast udyf iel
ddeal swi t
hdev elopmentef fortsthr
oughr ef
orm,
capacitybui l
dingandempower ment .

Thest udyoft hissubjectwi llbeofgr eatvaluet oallthosewhoar ei nvolvedi none

wayoranot heri ndevelopment . Thishol dst r
uef ortheper sonr esponsi bl
ef orthe
dayt odaymanagementofdev elopment ,butal sof orthepol icymakerandt he
strategicmanager .Knowl edgeoft hissubj ectcan al so beputt o good useby
personnelof f
icersinthepr i
vatesect orandt hepubl i
csectoratl ocal,prov i
ncialand
nationall evel
. Thi ssubj ectendeav ourst o cr
eat e"new pr ofessionali
sm"among
thosei nvolvedi ndevelopmentt hatwi l
lenablepeopl eatthegr assrootsl eveltotake
responsi bil
i
tyf orthei
rowndev elopment . Fi
nally,thi
ssubjectcangi v econt extand
under standingf ortheper sonnotdi rectl
yinvolvedi ndevelopment ,butnonet hel
ess
fulfi
ll
ingaf unctionindev elopingcount ri
essuchasSout hAf ri
ca.

3
WhoUsesDev
elopmentSt
udi
es?

Aftergraduati
ngfrom aDev el
opmentSt udiescourseatTheUni versi
tyofDodoma
youwi l
lhav eahuger angeofempl oymentopportunit
ies.Graduat esty
picall
yfind
wor kinNGOs,char i
tabl
ei nst
it
uti
ons,localorinternat
ionalgov ernment,resear
ch,
teachi
ngandv ari
ousadv i
soryorganizat
ions.Inanypr of
ession,anempl oyerwil
l
valueTheUniversi
tyofDodomagr aduateinDevel
opmentSt udies.

Thesubj ectmatt
erofDev elopmentSt udies
DevelopmentSt udies has a shar ed i nteresti n‘less devel
oped countri
es’
,or
devel
‘ opingcountri
es’ t
,or‘heSout h’
,or‘ post -
coloni
alsocieti
es’
,(
1950’
sand1960’ s)
formerl
yknown as‘ t
heThi r
d Wor ld’,
.I ncreasi
ngly,DevelopmentSt udi
esisalso
recognisi
ngcontext-speci
fi
cmat t
ersandmov i
ngawayf rom univer
sallaws.The
connectingthemeis,ingeneral,post-colonialcountr
iesandst andar
dsofl i
vi
nghav e
beenimpr ovi
ngslowly.

Theboundar iesofDev elopmentSt udies

Dev el
opmentSt udi
eshasashar edi nt
erestin‘ multi
-disci
pli
nari
lywithoutfrontiers’
asanappr oacht ounder standi
ng‘mul ti
-dimensionaldev elopment’.Teachingand
researchsincethel at
e1970s,andi npar t
icularsincet he1990l aunchoft heannual
UNDPHumanDev elopmentRepor t
,haveemphasi sedt hewi derangeofdi scipl
inary
perspecti
ves to appr oachi ng developmenti ssues,t heori
es,and epi st
emol ogies
acrosseconomi cs,soci ology,ant
hropology ,
ethics,pol
itics,
geography,andsoon.

Thehi
stor
yofDev
elopmentSt
udi
es

Theemer genceofdev elopmentst udi

esasanacademi cdiscipl
ineint hesecondhal f
Th
oft he20 cent uryi si nl argepar tduet oi ncr
easi ng concer n abouteconomi c
prospect sf ort het hirdwor ldaf terdecolonizat i
on.Int heimmedi atepost -warperiod,
dev elopmenteconomi cs,abr anchofeconomi cs,aroseoutofpr ev i
ousst udiesi n
coloni aleconomi cs.Byt he1960s, anincreasingnumberofdev elopmenteconomi sts
fel
tt hateconomi cs al one coul d notf ull
y addr ess issues such as pol it
ical
effectivenessandeducat i
onalpr ovi
sion.Dev elopmentst udiesar oseasar esultof
thi
s,i nitiallyai mingt oi nt egratei deasofpol i
ticsandeconomi cs.Si ncet hen,ithas
becomeani ncreasinglyi nter-andmul ti-
discipli
narysubj ect,encompassi ngav ariety
ofsoci alsci enti
ficfields.I nr ecenty earst heuseofpol it
icaleconomyanal ysi
s-t he
appl i
cat ionoft heanal yticaltechni quesofeconomi cs-t otryandassessandexpl ain
politi
calandsoci alfact or sthatei t
herenhanceorl imitdev el
opmenthasbecome
i
ncr easi ngl ywi despr eadasawayofexpl ai
ningt hesuccessorf ail
ur eofr eform
processes.The er a of moder n developmenti s commonl y deemed t o hav e
commencedwi t
ht hei naugur at i
onspeechofHar ryS.Tr umani n1949.I nPoi ntFour
ofhi sspeech,wi t
hr ef erencet oLat i
nAmer i
caandot herPOORNATI ONS,hesai d
that" fort hef i
rsttimei nhi st
or y,humani t
ypossesst heknowl edgeandski l
ltoreli
ev e
thesuf feringoft hesepeopl e."Butdev elopmentst udieshassi nceal sot akenan
i
nter esti nl essonsofpastdev elopmentexper iencesofWest erncount ries.

4
Mor erecently,theemer genceofhumansecur i
ty-anew, people-
ori
ent
edappr oachto
understanding and addr essi
ng globalsecur i
tyt hr
eats -has led to a growing
recogniti
onofar el
at i
onshipbet weensecur i
tyanddev elopment
.Humansecur it
y
arguest hatinequal i
ti
esandi nsecuri
tyinonest ateorregionhaveconsequencesfor
globalsecurityandt hati tisthusint heint
erestofallstatestoaddressunderly
ing
developmenti ssues.Thi srelat
ionshipwithst udi
esofhumansecur it
yisbutone
exampl eofthei nterdiscipli
narynatureofdevelopmentstudies.

Thehi stor yofDev elopmentSt udi esinTanzani a

Whent hegov ernmentdeci dedt oi ntr
oducenat ionalSer vicei nor dert opr epare
educatedy out hst oser vet henat i
oni n1966,334st udent satt heUni versit
yCol l
ege
demonst ratedagai nstt hegov er nment ’
sdeci sionandt hei rbur sar i
eswer ewi thdr awn.
Whent heUni v ersi
t ywasst il
lint hedebat e,t hegov ernment ,in1967,wenti nf ort he
ArushaDecl ar ation, wi thani ntent i
ont obui l
dasoci alistst atebasedont hetradi ti
onal
communalwayofl i
fe,Uj amaa.TheUni versityCol l
egewenti nanot herdebat e.One
thi
ng,howev er,iscl earf rom t her eact
ionsoft heUni versityCol l
egewi tht het wo
governmentmov es:t herewasagul fbetweenwhatt hest udent swer elearningand
the aspirat i
ons oft he Tanzani an nation.Af t
ert he pr omul gat i
on oft he Ar usha
Declaration, theUni v ersit
yCol lege, DaresSal aam, conv enedaconf erencet odi scuss
theRol eoft heUni ver si
tyCol lege,DaresSal aam i nSoci ali
stTanzani a.Onedef init
e
recommendat i
onoft heconf erenceont her oleoft heUni v ersityinsoci ali
stTanzani a
wast hei nt r
oduct i
onofacommoncour se( Dev elopmentSt udi es)t obeunder taken
byallst udent s.Att hebegi nningt hecour sehadnodef i
nedst ructur es:Thecour se
conti
nuedbet ween1967and1970whent heor gani sat ioncamecl osert ot hef acul t
y
ofSoci alSci encesbyhousi ngt heDepar tmentofDev el opmentSt udi es.Thest ructure
ofthet wo- yearcompul sorycour sedi dnotchanget illin1973whent heInst i
tut eof
DevelopmentSt udieswasest abl i
shed.

Thecr i
tiquesofDev elopmentSt udi
es
Recenty ear shav eseennumer ousat tacksonDev elopmentSt udi
es,ofwhi chthr
ee
standoutt obet hemostser i
ous:
1.A‘ delivery’cr it
ique:Dev elopmentSt udi
es isir
r elevantsincemuchoft he‘Thir
d
Wor l
d’ isnobet terofft hanin1950sorev enbefor
e.
2.The ‘ neo-col onial’or‘ post-development’crit
ique:Dev elopmentSt udies i
sa
neocol oni aldiscour sewhi chf r
ames, shapes,andcont r
olsthe‘Thir
dWorld’.
3.The‘ depol i
ticisati
on’ cr
iti
que: Dev
elopmentSt udiesi sapol it
ical
,orev
ent hati
tisa
vehiclef ordepol iti
cisat i
on,t hr
ought heexpansionofDev elopmentSt udiesasa
poli
ticallyneut r altechnocr ati
cappl i
cat i
on.

RelevanceofDev el
opmentSt udiesinTanzania
Whyshoul dwecont i
nuest udyingDev el
opmentSt udi
esinTanzania?Iti
s,t
her
efore
i
mpor tantStudyi
ngDev el
opmentSt udi
esthatwillgi
veyouthenecessar
ybackground
foral argerangeofhigh-l
ev elcareers.Student
soft hesesubj
ectswilll
earnabout
topicsthatcanbeappliedtomanycar eer
s.

i
ii
. Theor i
esofSocialDevel
opment
Developmentt heor
ies ar
e statements orgroup ofstatements establ
i
shed by
reasonedargumentbasedonknownf act
s,i
ntendedtoexpl
aintheprocessofsoci
al
development.Theor
iesofsocialdevel
opmentthusofferar
gumentst hatat
temptto

5
expl
aint
hepr
ocessofsoci
aldev
elopment
.

PARTTWO

DEVELOPMENTTHEORI
ES

THEORI
ESANDCONCEPTSOFDEVELOPMENT

LECTUREOUTLI
NE

SECTI
ON1:I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Thispar tseekst ointroducet ostudentsandot herinterestedleadersthebasi c
concept sofdev el
opmentandsoci alchange.Whati sdev elopment ?,
Whati s
Pover t
y?Whati st hedi st
incti
onbet weengr owt handdev elopment?Whyi tis
i
mpor t
antt o anal yze/understand the process ofdev elopmentand soci al
change, part
icularl
yi nthir
dwor ldcountri
es, et c.
 Provideacr iti
calexami nati
onofexi sti
ngt heor i
esofsoci aldevelopmentand
tohighlightthesi gnifi
canceofat heoreticalunder standingoft hepr ocessof
developmentandsoci alchange. Themodul ewi llseekt o underscore/
emphasi zet heobser vati
ont hatat heoreticalunder standingisnecessar yt o
explainthepr ocessofdev elopment,forinst ancewhysomecount ri
esar every
“developed”whi leother sremainengulfedi ni ncreasingmasspov ert
y.

SECTION2:Theor iesofSoci al Devel

opment
Inthispar t
,weshal lhav einsightsont hetheor i
esofdev elopment .Thet heoret
ical
approachest ounder standi
ngsoci etydif
ferwidelyandt heyaffecthowoneassesses
thecurrentlyprevail
i
ngsoci ety,thesy st
em tobet r
ansf ormed,anddet er
mi nat
ionor
defi
niti
onoft heway s,concr etedirect
ionandl eadingf orcesf ortransformation.
Generall
yspeaki ng,t hen,theor i
esofdev elopmenti nar eimpor tantbecauset hey
off
erexpl anati
onsont hedifferentprocessesofdev elopment .Thepar tbeginswi t
h
thediscussionont hei ntel
l
ect ualori
ginsofdev el
opmentt heor i
es,whichisf ol
lowed
bytheimpor tanceoft heori
esof

6
development.In anothersect i
on,t he partpresent
st he moderni
sati
on theories,
fol
lowed byt he developmentt heories.The part,t
hen,presentsthe dif
ferences
betweenthemoder nisati
onanddependencyt heori
esandwindsupwi thacrit
iqueon
thetheori
esfrom apost -
moder nperspecti
ve.
This partseeks toi ntroduce and exami ne the main contr
asti
ng theori
es on
developmentandtheirunderstandi
ngofsoci aldevel
opment.

(
i)Mar
xistTheor
yofDev
elopment
 BackgroundofMar xistt
heoryofsocialdevel
opment
 Themat eri
ali
sttheor yofsoci
aldevelopment
 Marxistunderst
andi ngofsocialdevel
opment
 Marx’
s5st agesofdev el
opmentofsoci ety
 Analy
sisofMar xisttheory

(
ii
)Bour
geoi
sTheor
iesofDev
elopment
 BackgroundofBour geois/Moderni
zati
ontheor i
es
 Bourgeois/
Or thodox/Moder ni
zati
ontheoryofdev elopment
- Rost ow’sst agesofEconomi cGrowt h
- Nur kse’sViciousCircleofPovert
y
- Schumpet er'stheoryofMotiv
eFor ce,ProcessandGoal
- Galbr ait
hand' TheConceptofCount er
vail
ingPower '
- TheGapAppr oach
 Themodul ewi l
lseekt o hi
ghli
ghtthemai n cont entsofeach theor
eti
cal
approach
 Wil
lprovideani n-depthcrit
iqueofbourgeois/Moder nizat
iont
heor
ies

(
ii
i)DependencyTheor i
esonUnder devel
opment
 Wi l
lseektoprovideabackgr oundofdependencyanddependencyt heori
es
 Theor i
esofdependencyandunder devel
opment
Frank,Graffi
n,Fur t
ado,Sunkel ,Szentes,and ot her
s who use the Lat
in
American experi
encetoexami ne underdevelopment.
PaulBoranont hePolit
ical
EconomyofBackwar dness
 Cont r
ibut
ionofdependencyt heorytounderstandingofunder
devel
opmenti n
Thi
rdWor l
dcount r
ies

(
iv)ChangingTheoretical
Perspecti
ves
 Perspect
ives,contr
oversi
esinthestudyofAf
ri
candevel
opment
 Towardsat heoreti
calunder
standi
ngofAfri
candev
elopment

SECTI
ON3:Concl
usi
onsandt
heRoadAhead
 Summar yandconcludingremar
ksont hedevel
opmentdebate
 Summar y of strengths and weaknesses of the vari
ous theor
ies on
development
 Contribut
ionoft het heori
esoncr i
ti
calunderst
andi
ngoft hedevel
opment
processinthethi
rdwor l
dandAfr
icai
npar t
icul
ar

7
I
ntr
oduct
ion

1.1. TheConceptofDev elopment

Inthispart
,weshal ldi
scusst hreeconcept s;Pov ert
y,Devel
opmentandTheor i
esof
Development,andshowhowt heyar er elat
ed.Aswehav eseeni nt hepr evi
ouspar t,
DevelopmentStudieshasasgener al concernt or educeglobalpov erty.Thedi sci
pline
i
tselfhasascor econceptdev el
opment ,whichi sdi rectl
yli
nkedwi tht henor mative
aspectofDev el
opmentSt udies,impr ovingpeopl e’ sli
ves.Thus,therei snowayt hat
whoev erdeal
swi thDev el
opmentSt udiescanshyawayf r
om under st andi
ngwhat
povertyanddevelopmentandt heoriesofdev elopmentar eandt heirdy nami cs.So, i
n
thi
spar t
,weshalldealwi t
ht hreemai nquest ions:1)whati spov ertyand2)whati s
development?3)aretheori
escanr educepov erty?

Devel
opmenthascapt uredtheattent
ionofeconomistsandpol
it
ici
ansalike.I
ndeed,
i
tcan bear gued t
hatt heprocessofdev el
opmenti stheveryessenceofl i
fe.
Devel
opmenti ntheThirdWor l
dr emainspr
oblematicwit
hmanyoft hesecount r
ies
makingl i
tt
leornopr ogresstowardsi mpr
ovi
ngt hequali
tyoflif
eoft hemaj ori
ty
populat
ion.Thisispart
icul
arl
ysoi nt
hecaseofAfrica.

TheAf ri
cancont inentr emai nsanunder dev el
opedeconomywi thi tssoci etystil
lin
transit
ion. The pol it
icalpr ocess is st il
li nt r
ansiti
on with many count ri
es
abandoni ngt heone- partypol i
ticalsyst
em i nf avorofmul t
i-
part
yliberaldemocr acy .
Themul ti-partypol i
ticalsy stemsi nAfricashow l it
tlesignsthati twi llleadt oa
stablepol iti
calenv i
ronmentwher ebythemaj or
itypopul ati
onwi l
lhav et heirsayi n
keydeci sions.Democr acyinAf ri
caisstillverymuchont heagenda.Economi call
y
Af r
icahasnotf airedbet terandi nmanyr espectst herehasbeenr etrogression.I n
spiteofmor ethanadecadeofSAP,t heAf ri
caneconomi cconditionhasr emai ned
crit
ical
.Percapi taincomehascont i
nuedt ofall
,theexpor tsectorisdepr essedand
thebur denofdebtr emai nsmostexcr uciating.Popul at
iongrowthi sst il
lv eryhigh
andgi vent het echnol ogicalbackwar dnessoft hef oodandagr i
culturalsect or,Afri
ca
i
sbecomi ngi ncreasinglydependentonf oodai dandi mportsfort hesur vivalofits
people.I nanut shel l
,itcanbear guedt hatAf ricai slockedinav iciousci rcl
eof
dependencyandunder dev el
opment .

At heor eti
calunder standingoft hepr ocessofdev el
opmenti st
husv it
altoacqui rean
i
n- depthunder standingofAf ri
ca’sdev el
opmentpr oblemsandchal l
engesandhow
these count ri
es ar e t o pr ogress and ov er
come t he per si
stent st at
e of
under dev el
opmentr efl
ectedbyi ncreasingmasspov erty
, sl
uggishagricult
uralgrowth
andsev ereenv ir
onment aldegradation.Weneedt odev elopacl earunderstandingof
thedev el
opmentpr ocessi nor derformulateconcretepol i
ciesandstrategiesthatwi l
l
addr ess t he abov e situation and pr opelt hese count r
ies towards sust ai
nable
dev elopment .
Ourt aski nt heselecturesist heref
or etoexami neandhi ghli
ghthowv ariousschol ar
s
from di f
ferentschool s oft houghthav etri
ed t o explai
nt he process ofsoci al
dev elopment .

1.2.Theor
iesofSoci
alDevel
opment
ATheor yi
sast at
ementorgr oupofst
atement
sestabl
ishedbyreasonedar
gument
basedonknownf act
s,i
ntendedtoexpl
ainapar
ti
cul
arfactorevent
.Inthisr
egar
d,a

8
theory of soci aldev elopmenti s ai med atexpl ai
ning t he process of soci al
dev el
opment .Associalsci ent
istsweneedasetofwor kingassumpt ionstoguideus
i
n our st udy of under standing t he dy namics of soci aldev el
opment .These
assumpt ionswillhelpi ndet er miningandsuggest i
ngwhi chpr oblemsar ewor t
h
i
nv estigatingandt heyoff eraf ramewor kf orinter
pretingt her esultsofourf i
ndings
ondev elopment.Theoriesofsoci aldev elopmentt husof ferar gument sthatatt
empt
toexpl aint hepr
ocessofsoci aldev elopment .Weshal linthismodul emakeacr i
tical
anal y
sisofexi st
ingtheoriesofsoci al development.

Whati sDev el
opment ?
Developmenti sat ermt hatof t
enhasdi ffer
entmeani ngf ordifferentpeopl eand
hencedi ff
erenttheoret i
calper specti
ves.Gor anHy den(1994)cor rectl
ypointsout
thatdev el
opmenti st hepr oductofhumanef f
orts. Asar esult,ithasbot hits
architectsandaudi tors.Thef ormeraret ypi
callypersonswi thav i
sion, weddedmor e
orlessexpl i
cit
lytoagi veni deology.Dependi ngonbot hcont extandt iming,ideas
mayormaynotgo i nshapi ngt hedevelopmentofagi vensoci ety.Thepr inci
pal
auditorsofdev elopmentar eacademi cs. Thei rtaski stoassess,wi thi
nagi ven
theoret i
calperspectiv
e,howsuccessf ulthearchitectsarei nshapingt heprocessof
social changeaccor di
ngt ot heirownmodul es.

Therear et hosewhot endt oconf usedev elopmentwi theconomi cdev elopment .

Economi cgr owthisthust hekeyi ndicatorofdev el
opment .Thi sist hev iewt hatis
heldbymanyeconomi stsandwest ernliberalschol ars.Thei ranal y
sisisf oundedon
thewor ksofcl assi
caleconomi stsi ncludingAdam Smi thandDav i
dRi cardo.Thi s
perspect i
veofdev elopmentt husconsi derr isei nt hepercapi t
ai ncome,Gr oss
Domest ic Product( GDP) ,i ncr ease i nt he l evelofi nv estment ,mar kets,et c as
i
ndicat orsofdev el
opment . A dev el
opedeconomyi sconsi der edt obeonet hat
carri
esonpr oducti
onwi t
hal argeamountofcapi t
alinv estment ,al argeamountof
machi nery and usi ng adv anced t echniques. The av ail
able human and ot her
resour cesar eemploy edt ot hemaxi mum;consequent ly,thepr oduct i
onef fi
ciencyi s
very hi gh leading t
o hi gh percapi t
ai ncomes. Thi si s dev elopment ! I n an
under developedeconomy ,pr oduct ioni scar r
iedonwi t
hr el
ativelysmal lamountof
capitalandusual l
ywi thpr imi ti
v eandol dt echni ques.Theappl icati
onofsci entifi
c
and t echnologicalimpr ovement st o pr oduct i
oni slimi ted. Asar esul t
,t her eal
i
ncomesperheadofpopul at ionandst andar dsofl iv
ingar eusual lylow.Her et hereis
l
ittl
e/slowdev el
opment !

Ther ear eot herswhoconsi derdev elopmentasapr ocessofcl assst ruggle.“ The
historyofal lhithertoexi sti
ngsoci etyisthehi st or
yofcl assstruggles.Fr eemanand
slave,pat ri
cianandpl ebeian,lordandser f,guild-mast erandjour ney man,i nawor d,
oppr essorandoppr essed, st
oodi nconstantopposi ti
ont ooneanot her,carri
edonan
i
nt errupted,now hi dden,now openf i
ght,inaf ightthateacht imeended,ei therina
revolut i
onaryr econst ructi
on ofsoci et
yatl ar ge,ori nt he common r uin oft he
cont endingcl ass”(TheCommuni stMani festo).
Other s see dev el
opmenti nt erms ofpol it
ics:democr acy and f reedom oft he
i
ndi vidualt o par t
icipatei n poli
tics isv i
ewed as a f undament alcor nerstone of
dev elopment-t huspol iti
caldevelopmenti sgiv enov erallemphasi s. Ther ear ealso
thosewhoemphasi zet hesocialaspectofdev el opmentandhencev iewt hepr ocess
ofdev el
opmentasapr ocessofhumanpr ogress.

9
From theabov eonecannot ethattherearediffer
entperspect
ivesondev elopment,
thatist het er
m dev elopmenthasdi f
fer
entmeani ngs. Itishoweverev i
dentt hat
Developmenti samul t
i-
dimensionalconcept.Ev eni fyouconcentrat
eonsome
aspectofi t,forinstance,oneconomi cdevel
opment ,thereareanumberofot her
dimensions,whi chmustbet akeni ntoaccounti nordertogetacompr ehensive
understandingoft heconceptofdev elopment.Onehast odealwithdevel
opmenti n
awi dersense, i
ncludingtheeconomi c,soci
al,cult
uralandpoli
ti
calaspectswi t
ht he
economy .

Cautionr equirest hatweat t

emptt ost eerawayf r
om cer tai
nl ogicaldanger si nher ent
i
n def i
ning anymul ti
-faceted concept ,like 'development '
. Si nce 'dev elopment '
,
howev erunder stood,i samul t
i-
pr ongedpr ocess,possi bl
ywi thsev eralst agesof
'
development ,'iti stempt i
ngt oi ncludei nt hedef init
ionoft hatconceptsev eralor
someoft hosecondi ti
onswhi chi nf actexpl aindev elopment ,atleastt ot heext ent
thattheyar eset t
ingt hest age(s)f orl aterstagesi nt hepr ocess.I ftoomanysuch
explanatorynot ionsar ei ncorporatedi nt hev er
ydef initi
onofdev elopment ,t henwe
mayei therbel ef twithav erysmal lr emai nderofway st oexpl aindev elopmentonce
wehav ef inisheddef iningit,orwer unt her i
skofi nvolvingour selvesinl ogicalci rcles
i
nexpl ainingi t.Tost eerf reefrom suchl ogicaldanger soneshoul dat temptt omake
theconceptofdev el
opmentassi mpl eandel ement aryaspossi ble.Ourt aski nt his
modul eist ol ookf ort hemeani ngoft heconceptof" development "asr ev eal ed,or
beclouded,i nsev eraloft hedev elopmentt heories,whi chhav ebeenatt hecent erof
controversiesov ert hel astf ew decadesand f r
om t her
eat temptt o def inet he
conceptofdev elopment .

Dev elopmentandi tsIndicat

orsinAfri
ca
Whati sani ndicator?
Ani ndicatorisapoi nter.I
tcanbeameasur ement ,anumber ,af act,anopini
onora
percept i
ont hatpointsataspecificcondi
ti
onorsi tuation,andmeasur eschangesin
thatcondi t
ionorsi t
uationoverti
me.Inotherwor ds, i
ndicatorsprovideacloselookat
theresultsofi ni
ti
ativesandacti
ons.Forthisreason, theyaref r
ont-l
ineinst
rumentsin
moni t
or i
ngandev al
uat i
ngdevel
opmentwor k.

SinceI ndependence,mostAfricancountr
ieshavebeenconcernedwithdev
elopment,
and y et,problems are sti
llthere and many.Todaywe hearmuch t alk about
sust ainabil
it
y,parti
ci
pation,goodgov er
nance,democrat
izat
ion,civi
lsoci
ety,anda
cultureofpeace.Thesear esimpl ynewwor dsf
oroldconcepts:humanbeingsli
ving
fl
our ishingli
vesintheirowncont ext
s.

ProblemsofDev elopmenti nAfri

ca
Today ,howev er
, weappeart ohav elostourwayindevelopmentbecauseconcer nfor
thecommongoodhasl ar
gelydisappearedfr
om oursoci eti
es.Thati swhywe
conti
nual l
yr eadi nnewspaper sandmagazi nesaboutwhati s“ wrong”wi thAf r
ica
today:war s,ref
ugees,anddi spl
acedpeople,pover
ty,unemployment,thebr aindrain,
exter
naldebt ,cor rupt
ion and fr
aud,SAPS,gr eed and self
ishness,tri
balism and
ethnocentrism,andsoon.Theonecommonal it
ytheset hi
ngssharei sthatt heyare
human- madepr oblems.Thatmeanst hathumanbei ngsaretheoneswhocanbegi n
thepr ocessof" fixing"theseproblemsThesear esomeoft hehistori
cal,struct
ural,

10
and i deologi
cal reasons t hat have cont ri
buted to t he current st ate of
"maldev el
opment"inAfri
ca.Ofcourse,iti
seasytol ookbackandseet hemi stakesof
thepast ;iti
smuchmor edi f
fi
cul
ttopr oposealternat
iveapproachesf orthefutur
e.
The“ problemsofAf r
ica”ther
efor
e,hav eahistori
calbasisandhav el
edt othemany
andv ariousprobl
emst oday.Atasemi naronethicsanddev el
opment, studentswere
askedt ogivereasonswhyAf ri
cais“underdev
eloped”.Theirr
easonswer easf oll
ows:

tr
ibali
sm,super sti
ti
on,genderinequalit
y,theeducat i
onsystem,povert
y,l
ackofself-
confidence,economi cdependence,corruptleadership,di
seaseandlackofheal t
h
care,mi sappr
opr i
ationofpubl i
cf unds,colonial
ism andneo- col
oni
ali
sm,reli
gion,
self
ishness,genoci de,et hni
c cleansing,and war s,fearand lack ofidentit
y,
i
nferiori
tycompl ex,andarmsandmi li
tari
sm.

Thisl istofpr oblemsshowst hatt hedev elopmentpar adi

gmsandt acti
csusedov er
thepastdecadeshav ehad dev ast ati
ng consequencesi n Afri
ca.Weknow t hat
somet hingwentwr ongandar enow r ealisingj usthow wr ongiti s.Allofushav ea
problem i nawor ldwher e1.3bi l
li
onpeopl el i
veonl esst hatonedol l
araday ,wher e
841mi l
lionpeopl ear eunder nour i
shed,wher e880mi ll
ionpeopl ehav enoaccesst o
healthcar e,andwher e885mi ll
ionadul tsar ei l
lit
erate.Thus,despi tet he“progress”
humanbei ngshav emade,especi all
yi nt hel astcent ur y,i
tisestimat edt hatbetween
20and50percentoft hewor ld’spopul ationi sexcl udedf r
om t he“ benefi
tsoft his
progress” .Whi lemanypeopl edor ealiset hatt herei ssomet hingwr ongwi thour
wor l
dandar et r
y i
ngt odosomet hi
ngabouti t,thewaysol uti
onsar eappl i
edof ten
l
eads t o ev en gr eaterpr oblems.A st or y aboutr ecentdev elopmenti n Ghana
i
llust
r atesanot herdev elopmentpr oblem.
Thisst or yi l
l
ustratest hef actt hatapr operunder st andingofpeopl e'sreali
ti
esi s
crucial fort hedev elopmentpr ocesst omakeanymeani ngful pr
ogr essinAf ri
catoday.
Lessonswecanl ear nher eincl udet hef ollowi ng:
1.dev el opmenti sf irstandf oremostaboutpeopl e;
2.dev el opmentcannoti gnorepeopl e'scul tures, and;
3.dev el opmentmustbegear edt owar dsbr i
ngi ngoutpeopl e'sown
potent ials.

Dev
elopmenti
nAf
ri
cai
s‘Dev
elopmentWi
thout
’

Wehav eal
readyseenhowdev elopmentwasgearedinthewrongdirecti
onwi tht
he
resul
tthatAf r
icaisstillexper i
encingsomanypr obl
emst odaywhil
eot herworl
d’s
populati
onliv
eaf f
luentlifestyl
es.Accordi
ngtothe1993UNI CEFreport,Stateoft
he
Wor l
d’sChil
dren,therear esev endeadl
ysinsofdevel
opment ,mostofwhi chhave
beencommi t
tedinthepr eviousdecadesofdevel
opment:
1.developmentwithoutinf r
astructure
2.developmentwithoutpar tici
pation
3.developmentwithoutwomen
4.developmentwithoutempower ment
5.developmentwithoutt hepoor
6.developmentwithoutt hedo- able
7.developmentwithoutmobi li
zati
on.
Wecoul dalsoadd: developmentwi t
houtt
hepeopl
e.

11
Whati
spov er
ty?
‘
Whatispover
ty’hasbecomeanemot i
onalquest
ionf
ort womainreasons:
1.Tomanypeopl e,pov
ert
yisobvious;ever
ybodyunderstandswhatpover
tyi
s.Then
whyshoul
doneaskwhati tmeans?Amani nKenya(1997)said:Don’
taskmewhat
povert
yi sbecauseyouhavemetitoutsidemyhouse.Lookatthehouseandcount
thenumberofhol es.Lookatmyutensi
lsandt
heclothesthatIam wear
ing.Lookat
everyt
hingandwr i
tewhatyousee.Whatyouseeispovert
y.

2.Thesecondreasonfortheemot i
vi
tywiththisquesti
onisthatmanypeopl
edefi
ne
pover
tysubj
ect
ivel
y,dr
ivenbytheirexper
iences.Anotherper
sonsaid,
try
ingt
odefi
ne
pover
ty:Pov
ert
yishumi l
iati
on,t
hesenseofbei ngdependentonthem,andofbei
ng
f
orcedt
oacceptr
udeness,
insul
ts,
andi
ndi
ff
erencewhenweseekhel
p.

Theemot i
vi
tyindefiningpovert
ycausedbyt heapparentl
ycl earunder
standingof
povertyandt hesubj ect
ivi
tyindef
ini
ngpov ert
yhavel edt o manydefini
tionsof
poverty.Someat t
emptt oreducei
tt onumbers,whileot hersarguethatamor e
ambi guousdefi
nit
ionmustbeused.I ntheend,acombi nati
onofbot hmet hodsis
best.Today,mosteconomi st
sandsocial
workersusetwoway stodefi
nepov ert
y.

Socialdef
ini
ti
onsofpov er
ty
Somepeopl edescri
bepov er
tyasal ackofessent i
ali
tems–suchasf ood,cl
othi
ng,
water,andshelt
er–neededf orproperli
vi
ng.Att heUN’sWor l
dSummi tonSocial
Development,t
he‘CopenhagenDeclarat
ion’descri
bed
povertyas“…acondit
ioncharacter
isedbysever edepr
ivat
ionofbasi
chumanneeds,
i
ncludi
ngfood,saf
edr
inki
ngwat
er,sani
tat
ionfaci
l
iti
es,heal
th,shel
ter,educat
ionand
i
nformati
on.
”Whenpeopleareunabletoeat,got oschool,orhav eanyaccesst o
heal
thcar
e,t
hent
heycanbeconsi
der
edt
obei
npov
ert
y,r
egar
dlessoft
hei
rincome.

Stat
ist
icaldefi
nit
ionsofpov er
ty
Whilethere arev ar
ious numer i
cal
lydef i
ned met hods t
o measure and quanti
fy
povert
y,twoar esimpleenought hattheyar eoft
enusedt odef
inepov er
ty:r
elati
ve
povert
ymeasur ementandabsol utepover
tymeasur ement.Bot
harebasedoni ncome
orconsumpt i
onvaluesmakinggat her
inginfor
mationt ocompi
lestat
ist
icsonpov er
ty
mucheasi er
.

Marxi
stUnderst
andingofSocial
Devel
opment
:
Marxi
stt
heoryisoneoftheleadi
ngt
heori
est
hatat
temptt
opr
ovi
deacr
it
ical
anal
ysi
s
oft
hedevelopmentprocess.

3.1TheCont extofMarxistTheor y
ThefounderofMar xi
sttheor ywasKar lMar x,aGermanphi losopherwhol i
veddur i
ng
thenineteent
hcenturyinEur ope.Mar xliveddur
ingaper i
odwhent heov erwhelming
majorit
yofpeopl einindust r
ialsoci
etieswer epoor. Thi swast heear l
yper iodof
i
ndustrial
izat
ioni
nsuchnat i
onsasEngl and,Ger
many ,andt heUnitedSt ates.Those
whoownedandcont rol
ledt hefactor
iesandot hermeansofpr oductionexpl oi
tedthe
massest hatworkedfort hem.Ther uralpoorwerefor cedorl ur
edi nt
oci ti
eswher e
employmentwasav ail
abl eint hefactor i
esandwor kshopsoft henew i ndustr
ial

12
economies.I nthiswayt her uralpoorwer econv ert
edi nt
oanur banpoor .Int he
Unit
edStates,chil
drensomeasy oungasf i
veorsixy earsold,wer eempl oyedint he
cott
onmi ll
soft heSout h. Theywor ked12hour sadayatt hemachi nes,sixand
sevendaysaweek( Li
pseyandSt ei
ner,1975) ,
andreceiv edonlyasubsi stencewage.
The" i
ronlaw ofwages" -t
hephi losophyt hatjusti
fi
edpay i
ngwor kersonl yenough
moneyt o keep them alive-
prevailed duri
ng thisear l
yper iod ofi ndustr
ial
izat
ion.
Meanwhile,thosewhoownedt hemeansofpr oductionpossessedgr eatweal th,
power,andpr esti
ge. Mar xt ri
edt ounder st
andt hei nsti
tuti
onalf r
amewor kthat
producedsuchcondi t
ionsandl ookedf orameanst ochangei tinor dertoimprov e
thehumancondi ti
on.

Ondev elopmentofsoci ety

,Mar xarguest hattheent i
rehistoryofhumansoci eti
es
maybeseenast hehi storyofclassconf li
ct:theconfli
ctbet weenthosewhoown
andcont rolthemeansofpr oducti
onandt hosewhowor kf orthem-t
heexploit
ersand
theexploited.Hebel i
ev edthatowner shi
poft hemeansofpr oducti
oninanysoci et
y
deter
minest hedistr
ibutionofweal th,power,andev enideasi nthatsociet
y. The
poweroft hewealthyisder i
vednotj ustfrom theircontr
oloft heeconomybutf r
om
thei
rcontr oloft
hepol i
ti
cal,educati
onal,andreli
giousinsti
tuti
onsaswel l
.

3.
2.Mar
xistPer
spect
ive:Mai
nEl
ement
swi
thi
nMar
xism
 Thedi al
ect icalappr oacht oknowl edgeandsoci etydef i
nest henat ureofr eal ityas
dy nami candconf lictual.Changesar eduet ocl assst ruggl eandt hewor kingout
ofcont radictionsi nher enti nsoci alandpol iti
calphenomena.Accor dingt oMar x
” Menmaket hei rownhi stor y,
butnoti nci rcumst ancesoft hei rownchoosi ngand
notj ustast heypl ease”
 The second el ementofMar xism i s a mat er ialistappr oach t o histor y
;t he
dev el opmentofpr oduct ivef orcesandeconomi cact iviti
esi scent raltohi storical
changeandoper at est hr
ought hecl assst ruggl e.St ruggl eov erdistri
but i
onoft he
soci alpr oduct /sur plus-Thepr imacyofcl assst r uggl e.ThusMar xmadecl ass
domi nat ioncent ralt ohi sconcept ionofsoci alor der ,andcl assconf l
ictadef i
ning
feat ur eofchangei nsoci ety.
 Mar xistsbel i
ev et hatasoci al
istsoci etyi sbot ht henecessar yanddesi rabl eend
ofhi storicaldev elopment .Thi swi llbeachi evedt hr oughov ert
hrowoft her uli
ng
classandt heest abl ishmentofadi ctatorshipoft hepr oletar iat.
 Mar xar guest hatatacer tainst ageoft heirdev elopment ,themat eri
alpr oduct iv
e
forcesofsoci etycomei ntoconf l
ictwi tht heexi st ingr elationsofpr oduct ion; there
thenr esul tsat r
ansf or mat i
onoft heeconomi ccondi ti
onsofpr oduction,andwi t
h
the change oft he economi cf oundat ion,t he ent ire super structurei s al so
transf ormed.I not herwor ds, Mar xhel dt hatar ev ol utionar ysi tuati
onoccur swhen
anexi stingmodeofpr oduct ionr eachest hel imi tsofi t scont r
adi cti
ons. The
deci siv econt radict ionsar eeconomi ccont radict ionst hatdev elopbet weent he
soci alf or cesandt hesoci alrel ationsofpr oduct ion. I nt ur n,intensifyingcl ass
conf licti s gener at ed bet ween t he exi sting domi nantcl ass and t he r i
sing
rev olut i
onar ycl ass. Mar xistt heor yst r
ongl ysuggest edt hatr evolut i
onsshoul d
occurf i
rsti nthemosteconomi callyadv ancedsoci alf ormat ionsofagi v enmode
ofpr oduct i
on.

3.Mar
3. x'
s5StagesofDevelopmentofSoci
ety:
Marxi
denti
fi
edf
ivestagesofdevel
opmentofsoci
ety
.

13
•Pri
mit
iveCommunali
sm •Feudal
ism •Capi
tal
ism •Soci
ali
sm and •
Communism/communali
sm.

(
1)Primiti
veCommunal ism/ Communalmodeofpr oduction:
-Itmarkst her i
seofsoci etyfrom sheerani mal tohumansoci ety.
-ProductiveFor ces:( Thei nstr
ument s)ofl abourwer ecrude,underdev el
oped.
Duet ot hist hepr i
mi ti
vemanwasunabl et oengagei npr oducti
onal onei .
e.
withoutt he hel p ofot hers. Owner ship oft he means ofpr oduction was
communal owned.
-Relati
onsofpr oduct i
on:Ther elati
onsofpr oductionwer ecollectiv
e;peopl e
l
ivedtoget herandj ointl
yconduct edthei reconomyf orsurviv
al.
-Labourpr oduct ivity:Wasl owwi t
hnosur pl
us.Ther ewasequaldi str
ibuti
onof
thepr oduct s
-Organization:No cl asses and t herefore no stat
es,ki ngdoms et c. Peopl e
organi zedt hemselvesi nclanor
f
ami ly.
-Iti
snot ablet hatatt hisstaget herear enocl assesandnocl assstr
uggl es.

(
2)Feudalism/ Feudalmodeofpr oduction:
-Emergenceofsur pl
usi npr oduct ionandt heemer genceofcl asses
-Thi
smodeofpr oduct i
onwasbasedoncl assant agonism –Conf l
ict/
struggle
betweenopposi ngcl asses.
-Was based on pr ivate pr oper tyinl and,i tconsisted oft wo classes:the
l
andowner sandt heser fs. Ser fswer enotsl avesbecauset heyhadal and
hol
dingt obui l
dtheirshel ters.Theyr entedt hi
slandhol di
ngf rom t
helandlord.
Howev er,theserfsownedt heirmeansofl abour
-Thelandl ordsexploitedt heser fsandt heser fsst r
uggledt of r
eethemsel ves
fr
om thi
sexpl oi tativerelati
onshi p.
-Contradicti
onsandgr owi ngcl assstr uggleledtothedi si
ntegrati
onoffeudali
sm.

(
3)Capitalism:-Emer gedast her esultoftheindustr
ialrevolut
ioninEurope.
-Capitalism led tot heemer genceofcommodi t
ypr oduction.
Undercapi tali
st
commodi typroduction,allpr oductsbecamecommodi t
iesbeingpr oducedf or
exchange.Humanl aboural sobecameacommodi ty.
-Private owner shi
p ofmeans ofpr oducti
on is a basi c characteri
stic of
capitalism
-Relati
onsofpr oductionareexpl oit
ati
ve:capi
tali
sts-whoar eowner sofmeans
ofpr oduction,expl
oi tthewor kers. Thewor ki
ngcl assi sexploi
tedbysel l
ing
thei
rlabourpower .
-Accor dingtoMar xists,capitali
steconomi esexpandt hroughexportofcapi tal
andt hisbecomeadr i
vi
ngf orcef orimperi
ali
stexpansion
-Thecont r
adict
ionsbet weencapi t
alandlabourleadtot hedownf al
lofcapital
ism.

(
4)Social
ism:-I s establ
ished af
tert he overt
hrow ofthe capit
ali
stsy
stem.
Social
ism accordi
ngt oMar x,
isthe
- logicalstage ofsoci aldevelopmentaf t
ermat ur
e capi
tal
ism. Iti
st he
consequenceoft hegrowthofproducti
veforces.

14
 -Socialism establishest hedictatorshipoftheproletar i
at /
wor kingclass
-Publicowner shipandcont roloft hemaj ormeansofpr oductionanddi st
ri
bution.
Allmeansofpr oduct i
onarei nthehandsoft hewor kingcl ass
-Relationsofpr oduct ionarenon- antagonist
ic/non- exploitati
ver elati
ons.Ther e
i
snoexpl oit
ationofanyman’ slabourbyanyot herman;peopl ewi l
lwor knot
becauset heyar ef orcedtobutbecausel abourhasf ort hem t hef i
rstnecessity
oflife.Ther efore,al lpeoplewi llwor kaccordingt ot heirabi li
ti
esandwi llbe
remuner atedaccor dingtotheirneeds.
-Thedi st
inctionbet weent hephy sicalandment all abourwi lldisappearand
l
ikewi sethedi ff
er encebetweenci tyandcountryside.

(
5)Communi sm:
-I
ssupposedtobet hehighestl
evelofsoci
aldevel
opment
-Absenceofexploi
tat
iverel
ati
onsofproduct
ion
-Thereisa“wi
theri
ng”awayoft hest
atetowardsaclassl
esssoci
ety
-I
nacommuni storsociali
steconomy,inv
estmentandconsumpti
onarepr
imar
il
y
deter
minedbythenationalpl
an.

Thus,Mar xexplainsthei nnerlogi

cofsoci alchangebyemphasi zi
ngt hatsoci al
transfor mationscannott akeplacei ndependentl
yoft heeconomi cst r
ucture. But
owner shiprelati
onsareonl yonepar toftheeconomi cbasi s,theot herbei ngthe
forcesofpr oducti
onthatisthecharacteroftechnologyort hekindoft ools(includi
ng
i
nt ell
ectualones)whi char eutil
izedatacer tai
nst ageofdev elopment. Thus,t he
conf l
ictofeconomi cclasseswilldependont hetechnologicallevelofdev elopment
oft hesoci ety.

From aMar xi
stperspecti
ve,devel
opmentisseenastheunfoldi
nginhumanhi stor
y
oftheprogressi
veemanci pati
onofpeoplesandnati
onsfrom thecontrolofnat
ure
andfrom thecontrolofotherpeopl
esandnati
ons.Amajort askthenbecomesthat
ofexplai
ningwhyt hisprocesshasprogr
essedmuchmor ewi thsomepeopl esand
nati
onsthanothers.

3.4.Anal ysis/Cr iti

queofMar xistAnalysisofDev el
opment :
Mar xist'univ er
sal 't
heor yv iewswor l
dcapi t
alism int ermsoft he' cent re'andt he
'
peripher y'
,andt hedev elopmentpr ocessasadi alecticalone. Capi talism att he
centredev elopedani nt ernaldy nami sm ofi tsownwhi chi sabsentatt heper iphery-
theper ipher yiscompl ement ar yto,anddomi natedby ,thecent r
e( Ami n,1976) .The
Mar xistsar guet hatthedev elopmentpr ocesst heref
or ecannotbeagr adual,steady
mov ementt owar ds equi l
ibrium.They ar gue t hati ti s a process t ypi
fied by
i
mbal ancesandsoci alconf li
cts. Acl osel ookatt hedev el
opmentpr ocessunder
capitali
sm v eri
fi
est het ruthoft hisobser vation.Thegapbet weent her i
chandt he
poor ,bet ween t he dev eloping and dev eloped count r
ies isincr easing. Cl ear
ly,
developmenti snotagr adualpr ocess,st eadymov ementast hewor ldwi tnesses
i
ncreasi ngsoci al confl
ictsandv er
ymani festcl assstruggl es.

Marxi
sttheor
yisoftencri
ti
cizedbybourgeoistheor
istsforconcentrat
ingtoomuch
onconfli
ct-cl
assst r
uggl
eandchangeandt ooli
tt
leonwhatpr oducesstabi
l
ityin
soci
ety
.Theyar ealsocri
ti
cizedforbei
ngt ooideologi
call
ybased.Thosewhoput
for
wardthisargumenthowev erfai
ltorefutetheexistenceofconf li
ctsandclass

15
struggl ei nsoci etyandt her eal i
tythatconf li
ctsandcl assst ruggleschar act erizethe
dev elopmentpr ocess.
Mar xistt heor yisdescr ipt i
veandpr edi
ctiveofsoci all i
fe. Thet heor yi sabl eto
prov i
deadescr ipti
vepi ct ur eofsoci o-economi cf ormat i
ons,par t
icularl
yt hatoft he
capi t
alisteconomi csy stem.I t smai nst r
engt hli
esi ni t
sanal ysi
sofsoci alr elati
ons
thatar isei nt hepr ocessofpr oductionandt heconf l
icti
ngsoci alclassest hatare
event ual l
yt hemot ivef or ceofdev elopment .
Thecel ebr atedAf ri
cant heor istandpol it
icalact i
vist,Ami lcarCabr al,ar guest hat
“t hosewhoaf fir
mt hatt hemot i
v eforceofhi storyi st hecl assst ruggl ewoul d
certainlyagr eetoar ev isionoft hisaf f
ir
mat iontomakei tmor epr eciseandgi veitan
evenwi derf iel
d ofappl icationi ftheyhad abet terknowl edgeoft heessent ial
char acter isti
csofcer taincol onizedpeopl es,thati st osay ,peopl edomi nat edby
i
mper ialism ( A.Cabr al,Rev olut i
oni nGui nea,1969) . WhatCabr ali spoi ntingout
highlight ssomeoft hei nadequacyofMar xism inpr ov i
dingessent i
alknowl edgeon
thechar act erist
icsofi mper ialism inunder developedandaboutt hemot ivef orceof
dev elopmenti ncoloni zedcount r
ies,parti
cul ar
lythosei nAf ri
ca.

Indeed,thisleadsust oposethefol
lowi ngquest ion:doeshi storybegi
nonl ywi t
ht he
developmentoft hephenomenonof‘ class’andconsequent l
yofcl assstruggle? To
replyintheaf fi
rmat i
vewouldbet opl aceout sidehi storythewhol eperiodofl if
eof
humangr oupst hatexist
eddur i
ngthepr i
mi ti
vecommunal ism stage. Thiswoul d
meant hatv ari
oushumangr oupsi nAf r
ica,Asi aand Lat i
nAmer i
cawer el i
ving
withouthistory,oroutsidehi
stor
y.Itisf rom thisperspect i
vet hatot
hershav eargued
thatifclassst r
uggl eisthemot i
veforceofhi story;itisonlyi naspecifichistori
cal
period.Thi smeanst hatbef
oretheclassst ruggle–andnecessar il
yafterit–oneor
severalf actors was and wi l
lbe t he mot ivef or
ce ofhi story(i
n ot herwor ds,
development )

Othershav ecr i
ti
cized Mar xi
stanaly si
sthatthet heorydoesnotgi vepar t
icular
att
entiont otheAfricansituat
ion.I notherwords,whatkindsofclassesexistedi n
Afri
ca( ifany),t
henat ur
eoft herelati
onsofpr oducti
on,thenatureoft heclass
str
ugglei n Afr
ica et c. Ther efore,one can ar gue that Marxi
st theory of
underdev el
opmenti snotcompl ete.Thistaskhasbeent akenoverbyneoMar xists
whoat t
emptt opr ovideanswer stot heprev
ail
ingstateofunderdevelopmentand
backwar dnessofthirdworldcountri
es.

Marxistemphasi sist haton thewor king cl assast hel eadi

ng forcef orsoci al
economicdev elopment .Thereisnocleari ndicati
onoft her ol
esofot hersectionsof
societ
yafterest abl
ishmentof‘thedict
atorshi pofthepr olet
ariat
’indeed,whatabout
Afri
cancountrieswhi chdonothav easi gnificantworkingcl ass/
proletar
iatthatisto
l
eadt herevol
ut ion? Withthemajorit
ybei ngr uralfar
mer s/peasants,iti
sdi f
ficul
tto
rel
atetheMar xisttheor
yt otheAfr
icancont ext.

Manyoft he wor l
d’s poorcount ri
es,par ti
cular
lythose in Af ri
ca,hav e noty et
experi
encedanysi gnif
icantdegr eeofagr i
cult
uralimprovement sast hebasi sfor
i
ndustri
ali
zation.Thef ailur
et ohav eyetundergoneanagr i
cult
uralr evol
uti
onmakes
thepresentpr obl
em ofaccelerati
ngdev elopmentf armorediff
icultthanitwasf orthe
now developedcount ri
eswhent heyenteredupont hei
rindustri
alr evolut
ions. For
i
nstance,Af r
icadoesnotasy ethaveadi sti
nctwor ki
ngclassast hatf oundinEurope.

16
Thepeasant s/
smallscalefarmersinAf r
icaarealsodisti
nctl
ydiffer
entfr
om the
far
mer si
nEur opeandel sewher
e.Underthesecondit
ions,iti
sdiff
icul
ttoconsi
der
how thesocial
istr
evolut
ionledbythewor ki
ngclasscanbr i
ngaboutchangeinthe
Afr
icancontext.Thi
sissueisnotsuf
fi
cientl
yaddr
essedbyt heMarxi
sttheor
y.

TheMar xistpolicypr escripti

onf ordev el
opingcount riesist hatonl yar adicalbr eak
ont hepar tofdev el opingcount r
ieswi tht hegl obalcapi talistsy st
em wi l
lper mi t
genuinedev elopment .Al t
hought hi
spr escripti
onr emai nsv ali
df orthedev eloping
world,Mar xi
stt heor ydoesnothi ghlightt heuni queandv ar y
ingsi tuationoft he
developingcount ri
es.Theuni versali
tyoft histheor ymakesi tdiffi
cultt obeputi n
practi
cei ndifferentt hirdwor ldcount r
ies.
Itis howev eri mpor tantt o emphasi ze thatMar xistt heoryr emai ns si gnificant
becausei tsabi l
it
yt ohi ghl i
ghttheexpl oitativenat ureoft hecapi t
alisteconomi c
system andhow t hisgi vesr i
set ocl asses/ socialdiv isi
onsandconf licts. I ndeed
theMar xistt heoryi sar ev ol
uti
onar yt heoryasi tadv ocateschange–achangef or
thebet t
erawayf r
om expl oi t
ati
on, i
njust i
ceandi nequal it
y.Thi sisofgr eatr elev ance
asmostAf ri
canr emai nengul fedi nav iciousci rcleofpov ertywhi chi sbei ng
perpetuatedbycapi talisteconomi cdev elopmentunderi tsnewf aceofgl obalization.
Thet askofpr esentdayAf ri
candev elopmentt heor i
stsi stoexami neexi stingsoci o-
economi candpol i
ticalsi t
uat i
onsi nindi vi
dualcount r
iesandt husbeabl et opr ov i
de
answer stof orindividual count r
iesandhowt heyrelatet oothercount r
ies.

3.5.Mar xistTheor yonConf l

ict
Thesev eralsoci altheori
est hatemphasi zesoci alconf li
cthav er oot sinthei deasof
KarlMar x(1818- 1883) ,t
hegr eatGer mant heor i
standpol i
ti
calact i
v i
st.TheMar xist
,
conflictappr oachemphasi zesamat erialistint er pret
ationofhi story,adi alecti
cal
met hodof anal ysis,acr i
ticalstancet owar dexi stingsoci alarrangement s,anda
poli
ticalpr ogr am ofr evoluti
onor ,atleast ,ref orm.Themat eri
al i
stv i
ew ofhi story
startsf r
om t hepr emiset hatt hemosti mpor tant det ermi nantofsoci alli
fei st he
work peopl e ar e doi ng,especi all
y wor kt hatr esul t
si n provision oft he basi c
necessi t
iesofl ife,food,clothingandshel ter .Mar xt houghtt hatthewayt hewor ki s
sociallyorgani zedandt het echnologyusedi npr oduct ionwi l
lhav east rongi mpact
onev eryot heraspectofsoci ety.Hemai ntainedt hatev eryt
hingofv alueinsoci ety
resultsfrom humanl abor.Thus,Mar xsawwor kingmenandwomenasengagedi n
maki ngsoci ety ,
incr eati
ngt hecondi t
ionsf ort hei rownexi stence.
Mar xsummar izedt hekeyel ement softhismat erial i
stviewofhi st oryasf ol
lows:

“Inthesoci alproductionoft heirexi stence, meni nevit

ablyent erintodef i
niterelati
ons,
whi char eindependentoft heirwi ll,namel yr el
at i
onsofpr oduct i
onappr opriatetoa
givenst agei nthedev elopmentoft hei rmat eri
alforcesofpr oduction.Thet ot ali
tyof
theser elati
onsofpr oducti
onconst itutestheeconomi cstructureofsoci ety,ther eal
foundat i
on,on whi ch ar i
ses a l egaland pol i
ti
calsuper structure and t o whi ch
correspond def ini
tef ormsofsoci alconsci ousness.Themodeofpr oduct ionof
mat eri
all i
feconditionst hegener alpr ocessofsoci al,poli
ti
calandi ntel
lectuallife.It
i
snott heconsci ousnessofment hatdet erminest heirexistence,butt heirsoci al
existencet hatdeterminest heirconsci ousness”( Mar x1971: 20).
Mar x divided historyi nto sev eralst ages,conf ormi ng to br oad patterns i nt he
economi cstructur
eofsoci ety.Themosti mpor t
antst agesf orMar x'
sargumentwer e
feudalism, capit
ali
sm, andsoci ali
sm.

17
Thebul kofMar x'swriti
ngi sconcer nedwi t
happlyingt hemat eri
ali
stmodel ofsoci ety
tocapi t
ali
sm,t hest ageofeconomi candsoci aldev el opmentt hatMar xsaw as
dominantin19t hcent uryEur ope.ForMar x,thecentralinst ituti
onofcapi t
alistsoci ety
i
spr iv
at eproper t
y,thesy st em bywhi chcapi t
al( t
hati s,money ,machi nes,t ools,
fact
ories,andot hermat erialobject susedi nproduct ion)i scont r
oll
edbyasmal l
minori
tyoft hepopul ation.Thi sar rangementl eadst ot woopposedcl asses,t he
ownersofcapi tal(call
edt hebour geoisie)andt hewor ker s(call
edt hepr oletari
at),
whoseonl ypr opertyi
st heirownl abort ime, whi
cht heyhav et osellt
ot hecapi tali
sts.
Owner sareseenasmaki ngpr ofi
tsbypay i
ngwor ker slesst hant hei
rwor ki swor t
h
and,thus,expl oiti
ngthem.( InMar xistterminol
ogy ,mat erialforcesofpr oduct ionor
meansofpr oductionincludecapi tal,l
and,andl abor ,wher eassoci alrelationsof
producti
onr efertothedi vi
sionofl aborandi mpl
iedcl assr elati
onships.)

Economi cexpl oi tationl eadsdi rect lyt opol i

ticaloppr essi on,asowner smakeuseof
theireconomi cpowert ogai ncont roloft hest ateandt ur ni ti ntoaser vantof
bour geoi seconomi ci nter est s.Pol icepower ,forinst ance, i
susedt oenf orcepr oper ty
ri
ght sandguar ant eeunf aircont ract sbet weencapi talistandwor ker .Oppr essi onal so
takes mor e subt lef orms:r eligion ser ves capi tal i
sti nt er est s by paci fying t he
popul ation;i nt ellectual s,pai ddi rect l
yori ndirectlybycapi talist s,spendt hei rcar eer s
j
ust i
fy i
ngandr ational izingt heexi st ingsoci alandeconomi car rangement s.I nsum,
theeconomi cst ruct ur eofsoci etymol dst hesuper struct ur e,i ncl udi ngi deas( e. g.,
mor ality,ideol ogi es,ar t,andl iterat ur e)andt hesoci ali nst itut ionst hatsuppor tt he
classst ruct ureofsoci et y( e.g.,t hest at e,theeducat i
onalsy stem,t hef ami l
y,and
reli
gious i nst i
t utions) .Because t he domi nantorr uli
ng cl ass ( the bour geoi sie)
contr olst hesoci alr elationsofpr oduct ion, thedomi nanti deol ogyi ncapi talistsoci ety
i
st hatoft her ul ingcl ass.I deol ogyandsoci ali nstitut i
ons, int ur n, ser vet or epr oduce
andper pet uat et heeconomi ccl assst ructur e.Thus,Mar xv iewedt heexpl oitat ive
economi c ar rangement s ofcapi t alism as t he r ealf oundat ion upon whi ch t he
super struct ureofsoci al ,pol iti
cal ,andi ntel l
ect ualconsci ousnessi sbui lt.
Mar x'sv iewofhi st orymi ghtseem compl etel ycy nicalorpessi mi st ic,wer ei tnotf or
thepossi bilit
iesofchanger ev eal ed byhi smet hod ofdi alect icalanal ysi s.( The
Mar xistdi alect icalmet hod,based on Hegel '
sear l
ieri deal ist icdi alectic,f ocuses
attent i
ononhow anexi st i
ngsoci alar rangement ,ort hesi s,gener atesi tssoci al
opposi t
e,orant it
hesi s,andonhowaqual i
tativelydi fferentsoci alf or m,orsy nt hesi s,
emer gesf rom t her esul ti
ngst ruggl e.)Mar xwasanopt i
mi st .Hebel ievedt hatany
stageofhi stor ybasedonexpl oitativ eeconomi car rangement sgener atedwi thi ni tthe
seedsofi tsowndest ruct ion.Fori nst ance,f eudal ism,i nwhi chl andowner sexpl oited
thepeasant r
y ,gav er iset oacl assoft own- dwel lingmer chant s,whosededi cat i
ont o
maki ngpr ofit
sev ent ual lyl edt ot hebour geoi sr ev olut i
onandt hemoder ncapi talist
era.Si mi l
ar ly,t hecl assr elat ionsofcapi tali
sm wi lll eadi nev i
t abl yt ot henextst age,
social i
sm.
Thecl assr elat ionsofcapi talism embodyacont radi ction:capi talist sneedwor ker s,
andv icev ersa,butt heeconomi ci nt erest soft het wogr oupsar ef undament al l
yat
odds.Suchcont radict i
onsmeani nher entconf li
ctandi nst abi lity,t hecl assst r
uggl e.
Addi ngt ot hei nst abili
t yoft hecapi tal i
stsy stem ar et hei nescapabl eneedsf orev er -
widermar ketsandev er-gr eat eri nv estment si ncapi talt omai nt aint hepr of itsof
capitalists.Mar xexpect edt hatt her esul tingeconomi ccy cl esofexpansi onand
contr action,t oget herwi tht ensi onst hatwi llbui l
dast hewor ki ngcl assgai nsgr eat er

18
understandi
ngofi t
sexploi
tedposition(andt husattainsclassconsciousness),wi
ll
eventuall
yculmi nat
einasoci al
istrevolut
ion.Despitet hi
ssenseoft heunal t
erabl
e
l
ogicofhi st
ory,Mar xi
stsseetheneedf orsoci alcr
it
ici
sm andf orpoli
ti
calacti
vityt
o
speedt hearri
v alofsociali
sm,whi ch,notbei ngbasedonpr i
vatepropertyisnot
expectedtoinvolveasmanycont radict
ionsandconf li
ctsascapital
ism.

Mar xistsbel i
evet hatsoci alt heor yandpol i
ticalpracticear edi al
ect icallyintertwined,
witht heor yenhancedbypol iti
cali nv olvementandwi thpol i
ti
calpr act i
cenecessar ily
guidedbyt heor y.I ntell
ectual sought ,t her efore,toengagei npr axis,t ocombi ne
polit
ical criti
cism andpol i
tical act i
vity.Theor yi t
selfisseenasnecessar il
ycr it
ical and
value-laden,si nce t he pr ev aili
ng soci alr elati
onsar ebased upon al ienating and
dehumani zingexpl oi t
ationoft hel aboroft hewor kingcl asses.Mar x'si deashav e
beenappl iedandr einterpret edbyschol ar sf orov erahundr edy ears,st arti
ngwi th
Mar x'
scl osef ri
endandcol labor ator, Friedr i
chEngel s( 1825-95),whosuppor tedMar x
andhi sf ami lyformanyy ear sf rom t hepr ofit
soft het exti
lefact oriesf oundedby
Engel s'f ather,whi leMar xshuthi msel fawayi nthel ibraryoft heBr iti
shMuseum.
Later,Vl adi mirI.Leni n(1870- 1924) ,leaderoft heRussi anrevolution,madesev eral
i
nfluent ialcont ri
but i
onst oMar xisttheor y.Inr ecenty ear s,Marxistt heor yhast akena
greatv arietyoff or ms,not ablyt hewor ld-systemst heor ypr oposedbyI mmanuel
Wal l
er stein( 1974,1980)andt hecompar ativetheor yofr evolutionsputf orwar dby
ThedaSkocpol( 1980) .Mar xi stideashav eal soser vedasast artingpoi ntformanyof
themoder nf emi nistt heorist s.Despi tet heseappl i
cat ions,Mar xism ofanyv ar i
etyis
sti
llami nor it
yposi tionamongAmer i
cansoci ologi
sts.

3.6.Mar xi
stTheor y–I tsImpactonCont empor ar yTheor iesonSoci alDev el
opment
Mar xistTheor yMar xism asani deologyandt heor yofsoci alchangehashadan
i
mmensei mpactont hepr acticeandt heanal ysisofsoci almov ement s.Mar xism
arosef rom ananal ysisofmov ement sst r
uctur edbyconf l
ictsbet weeni ndust rial
wor kersandt heircapi talistempl oyersint he19t hcent ury.I nthe20t hcent ur
ya
vari
et yofneo- Mar xisttheor ieshav ebeendev elopedt hathav eopenedt hemsel vest o
addingquest ionsofr ace,gender ,environment ,andot heri ssuest o ananal ysis
cent eredin( shif
ting)pol i
ticaleconomi ccondi tions.Cl ass-basedmov ement s,bot h
revolutionaryandl abor-refor mist,hav eal way sbeenst rongeri nEur opet hani nt he
U.S.andsohasMar xistt heoryasat oolf orunder standingsoci almov ement sbut
i
mpor tantMar xistmov ement sandt heorieshav eal soev ol
vedi nt heUS.Mar x i
st
appr oacheshav ebeenandr emai ninfl
uent ialway sofunder standi ngt her oleof
poli
t i
caleconomyandcl assdi fferencesaskeyf or cesi nmanyhi st oricalandcur rent
socialmov ement s,andt heycont i
nuet ochal l
engeappr oachest hatar el i
mi t
edby
theirinabil
it
yt oimagi neser iousal ternati
vest oconsumercapi t al
istsoci al structur
es.

Bourgeoi
s/Orthodox/Moder nizati
onTheor iesofDevelopment:
MostBour geois/
Moder ni
zat i
ont heori
esar guethatcountr
iespasst hroughphases
dur
ingthecour seofdev elopmentandt hatbyidenti
fyi
ngthesestages,accordingto
cer
taincharacter
ist
ics,acount rycanbedeemedt ohavereachedacer tainstageof
1
devel
opment .Thesi mpl eststaget heoryisthesectorthesi
sofFi sher andCl k2
ar

19
whoempl oyt hedi stinctionbet weenpr imary ,secondar yandt ert
iar ypr oductionasa
basic oft heory ofdev elopment . Count ries ar e assumed t o st artas pr i
mar y
producer sandt hen,ast hebasi cnecessi ti
esofl i
fear emet ,resour cesshi ftinto
manuf acturingorsecondar yacti
viti
es.Fi nally,owingt or i
singi ncome,mor eleisure
andani ncreasinglysat ur at edmar ketformanuf acturedgoods,r esour cesmov einto
servi
ceort erti
aryact ivi
tiespr oducing'commodi t
ieswi thahi ghi ncomeel ast i
cit
yof
demand.
Naturallyenoughi nt hi
sschema,t hel essdev elopedcount riesgeti dent if
iedwi t
h
pri
mar y pr oduct i
on,t he mor e dev el
oped count r
ies wi t
h t he pr oduction of
manuf acturedgoods,andt hemat uredev elopedeconomi eswi t
hahi ghper cent age
oftheirresour cesint heser v i
cesector.
Thus,t omostbour geoi st heori
stsdev elopmenti scommonl ydef inedasgr adual
advanceorgr owt ht hroughpr ogressivechanges.I notherwor dst odev elopi mpl i
es
amov ef rom onest aget oanot her-ahi gherst aget hant hepr ev i
ousst age( W. W.
Rostow) .
TheBour geois/Moder nizat iontheoristout l
ookofdev elopmenti st hatmanyt hings
arei nvolved i nthe dev el opmentpr ocess. These i nclude mar kets,r esources,
i
nfrastructures,organi zation,ent repreneurshipandi nvest ment .Al lthesear erelated
tooneanot her. Thesoci alaspect sthatensur ei nthepr ocessofpr oductionar e
overl
ookedasnotbei ngsi gnifi
cantinthedev elopmentpr ocess.
Exampl esoft hebour geoi st heori
esofdev elopmenti ncludeNur kse' sVi ci
ousCi rcl
e
ofPov ertyandRost ow’ sSt agesofeconomi cgr owt h.

4.
1.Rostow’sStagesofEconomicGrowth:
Rostow’
sstage–of -
growt
hmodeli sthebestknownandmostexpl
i
citpr
esent
ati
on
ofthebour
geoisviewofhi
stori
caldev
elopment
.

Prof.Rost
ow inhisbookTheSt agesofEconomi cGr owth,1960appl i
esast age
approachtothecour
seofdev el
opment .Rost owpr esentsapoli
ti
calt
heor yaswel l
asadescr i
pti
veeconomicstudyoft hepat t
ernoft hegr owthanddev elopmentof
nati
ons. Theessenceoft heRost ow thesi
si sthati tislogi
cal
lyandpr act
icall
y
possibl
etoident
if
ystagesofdevelopmentandt oclassif
ysociet
yaccordingt ot
hose
stages.

Rost
ow’
sst
agesar
edi
sti
ngui
shed byconsi
der
ati
on oft
hest
agesoft
he
f
oll
owi
ng:

 Productiv
ecapacit
yandtechnol
ogy
 Manuf actur
ingi
ndustr
y
 Transport
 Savings,i
nvestmentandt
rade.

Rost
ow’
sFi
veSt
agesofGr
owt
h:
 The“t
raditi
onalsociety”
 Theemer genceoft hepr e-
condit
ionsfortake-of
f
 The“take-of
f'(transit
ionalstage)–The“ take–off”i
smeantt obet
hecent
ral
not
ioninRost ow’sschemaandhasr ecei
vedt hemostat
tent
ion.
 Thedriv
et omat urit
y

20
 Theageofhi
ghmassconsumpt
ion

(
1)TheTr
adi
ti
onalSoci
ety
:
 At radi ti
onal soci etyi sonewhosest ruct urei sdev elopedwi thinl i
mi tedpr oduct i
on
funct ion– v eryl ittlepr oduct i
on-subsi stencel iv ing – t hesewer et hebasi c
char act er isti
csoft het radit
ional soci et y.
 Aper i
odi nhi stor ywhenmenhadl ittleknowl edgeoft heout si
dewor l
de. g.many
thoughtt hatt hatt hewor l
dwasf l
at!
 Low l ev elofsci enceandt echnol ogyhencel i
mi t edpr oduct ion– t hel evelof
pr oduct ivitywasl i
mi tedbyt hei naccessi bili
tyofmoder nsci ence, it
sappl i
cat i
ons,
andi tsf rameofmi nd.
 Av er yhi ghpr opor tionoft hei rr esour ceswasdev otedt oagr i
cul t
ure. A hi gh
pr opor tionoft hewor kforceisal soengagedi nagr icul ture
 Thest oryoft r
adi ti
onal soci
et ieswasast oryofendl esschange
 Fami lyandcl an/ tri
balconnect ionspl ay edal arger olei nsoci alor ganization.The
uni tofpr oduct ionwast hefami ly.
ForRost owt hewhol eoft heNewt onianwor ldconsi st edoft raditionalsoci eties;for
exampl et he dy nast ies of Chi na,t he ci vil
izations of t he Mi ddle East ,t he
Medi ter raneanandMedi evalEur ope, etc.
Tr adi tionalsoci eties ar e accor di ng t o Rost ow r ecogni zabl e by a v ery hi gh
propor tionoft hewor k-forcei nagr icultur e( great ert han75percent )
,coupl edwi th
ver yl i
t t
lemobi li
tyorsoci alchange,gr eatdi visi
onsofweal thanddecent r
alized
pol iti
calpower . Todayt herear ev eryf ew, ifany ,soci et i
est hatonewoul dcl assas
tradi tional . Mostsoci eti
esemer gedf rom t het radi tionalst age,asdescr ibedby
Rost ow,some t i
me ago,mai nly undert he i mpactofext ernalchal l
enge and
aggr essi onornat i
onal ism.
ThecaseofAf r
icahowev erappear st obeuni quei nt hesenset hatt hecont inent
seemst obe now mov i
ngi nt hedi rect ionoft het radi tionalsoci etyr athert han
mov i
ngoutoft het radi ti
onalsoci et ytowar dst henextst age ( i
.e.pr e-conditionsf or
take- of f
) . Thi si s because we now wi tness t he sy st emat i
c and pr ogr essive
dest ruct ionofAf rica'scapaci tyt opr oduce.Theagr icul turaleconomybasedont he
handhoest illpredomi nat eswhi l
et hedev elopmentofi ndust ryandt hebui l
dingofan
i
ndi genous t echnol ogi calcapabi lityi nt hese count r i
es ar e bei ng gr adual l
y and
sy stemat icallydest royed.Ov er50%ofAf rica' spopul at ionar el i
vingi ncondi tionsof
ext remepov er t
yandonsubsi stencel iving.Af ricai stheonl ycont inentwher epov ert
y
i
si ncr easi ngt hreat eningt hedev elopmentpr ocessandt hev eryf abricofhuman
exi stence.I tappear st hatAf r
icaisnotmov i
ngf or war di nt er msofdev elopmentbuti s
becomi ngmor eandmor eunder dev eloped.

(
2)Emer genceoft hePre-Condi tionsfor“ Take-
of f
”(Transit
ionalStage):
Thestagebet weenf eudalism andt ake-of
fRost owcal l
sthetransi
ti
onalstage.
 Themai n economicr equirementi nt het r
ansi t
ion phaseist hatt helevelof
i
nvestmentshoul dber aisedt oatl east10percentofnat i
onalincomet oensur e
sel
f-sust
aininggrowth.( Ont hispar t
icularpoint,asweshal lsee,thereseemst o
bev eryl
itt
lediff
erencebet weent het r
ansiti
onst ageandt helaterstageoft ake-
off
).
 Advanceofmoder nsciencehasbeent ransl
atedintonewpr oductionfuncti
onsin
bothindustryandagricultur
e.

21
 Themai ndir
ectionofinv estmentmustbei ntransportandot hersoci aloverhead
capitaltobui l
dupsoci ety'sinfr
astruct
ure.Thepr e-conditi
onsofar iseint he
i
nv estmentr ati
o consistofa wi ll
ingnessofpeopl et ol end r iskcapi t
al,the
availabi
li
tyofmenwi ll
ingandabl etobeent repreneursandt oi nnovate,andt he
will
ingnessofsoci etyatl argetooper ateaneconomi csy stem gear edtot he
factoryandthepr i
ncipl
eoft hedivi
sionoflabour.
 Ont hesocialf r
ontanewel i
temustemer getofabrictheindust rialsocietyandit
mustsuper cedei naut horitytheland-basedelit
eoft het r
adi t
ionalsoci ety
.The
new el i
temustchannelsur plusproductf r
om agr i
culturetoi ndust ry,andmen
mustbewi l
li
ngt otakerisksandt orespondt omat eri
alincentives.
 Because oft he enormityoft he taskoft ransit
ion,t he establ i
shmentofan
effecti
vemoder ngov er
nmenti svit
al.

Thel engthoft het ransi

ti
onphasedependsont hespeedwi thwhichlocaltal
ent,
energyandr esour cesaredev ot
edt omoderni
zationandt heovert
hrow oftheold
order,andinthi
sr espectpoli
ti
call
eader
shi
pwi l
lhaveani mport
antpar
ttoplay.
Brit
ainwast hef i
rstcountryt
odev el
opful
l
ythepr e-condi
ti
onsfort
akeoff–t he17th
tothe18thcentury.

(
3)The“
Take-
Off
”:
 Ther eappear slittl
edi stinct i
onbet weent het r
ansi t i
onal periodandt ake- off.
 TheTake- offi sadeci sivet ransi tioni nasoci et y’shi story( A si gnifi
cantl eap
forwar d) .
 Itisashor tst ageofdev elopmentdur i
ngwhi chgr owt hbecomessel f-
sust aining.
 Itis aper i
od“ whent hescal eofpr oduct iveeconomi cact ivityr eachesacr it
ical
l
ev elandpr oduceschangeswhi chl eadt oamassi veandpr ogr essiv est r
uct ural
transf ormat i
oni neconomi esandt hesoci et i
esofwhi cht heyar epar t.
 Thebegi nningoft het ake- offcanusual lybet racedt oapar ti
cul arshar pst i
mul us
(somet hing, whi chi sthecauseofact ivi
ty:lighti sast imul ust ogr owt hi npl ants).
Thest imul usmayt aket hef or m ofapol i
ticalr ev ol uti
onwhi chaf fectsdi rectlythe
balance ofsoci alpowerand ef f
ect ivev alues,t he char acterofeconomi c
i
nst itutions,t hedi stri
but i
onofi ncomepat ternofi nvestmentout l
ay sandt he
propor t
ionofpot ent i
ali nnov ationsact ual l
yappl ied. Suchwast hecasef or
exampl ewi tht heGer manr evolut ionof1848,t heMei jirest orat i
oni nJapanof
1868 and t he mor er ecentachi ev ement s ofI ndian i ndependence and t he
communi stv ictoryi nChi na.
 TheTake- offmayal socomeaboutt hroughat echnol ogical( includi ngt ranspor t)
i
nnov ation,whi chset si nmot i
onachai nofsecondar yexpansi oni nmoder n
sect orsandhaspower ful exter nal economyef f
ect s.
 Itmayt aket hef orm ofanewl yf av or ablei nternat ionalenv ir
onmentsuchast he
openi ngofBr i
tishandFr enchmar ket st oSwedi sht imberi nt he1860’ s.
 Itrequi resal l oft hef ollowi ngr elat edcondi tions:
a.Ar isei nt her ateofpr oduct ivei nv estmentf rom say5%orl esst oov er10%of
nat i
onali ncomei nor derf orpercapi tai ncomet or isesuf f
icient l
yt oguar antee
adequat ef uturelev elsofsav ingandi nv est ment .
b.Thedev el opmentofoneormor esubst ant i
almanuf act uringsect or swi t
ha
highr at eofgr owt h.
c.The exi st ence orqui ck emer gence ofa pol i
ti
calsoci aland i nstit
ut i
onal

22
 framewor kwhi chexpl oi
tst heimpul sest oexpansi oni nt hemoder nsect orand
thepot enti
alext ernaleconomy-Asi t
uationt hatwoul dlaythef oundationst o
exploittheeffectsoft hetake- offandgi vet othegr owt h/developmentpr ocess
anon- goingchar acter. -I not herwor ds,apol i
ti
cal ,socialandi nsti
tut i
onal
framewor kwhi chwi llenabl et ot akeadv antageoft heexpansi oni nt he
moder nsect oraswel last hebenef itsandpot enti
al oftheext ernaleconomy .
d.Thet hirdconditioni mpl i
esaconsi derablecapabi li
tyt omobi l
izecapitalfrom
domest i
cresour ces.Hi st
or icall
y ,domest icf i
nancef ortake-offseemst ohav e
comef rom twosour ces.Thef irsthasbeenf rom adi v er
sionofpar toft he
productofagr iculturebyl andr efor m andot hermeans. Theexampl esof
TsaristRussi anandMei jiJapanar equot ed,wher egov er
nmentbondswer e
substituteforthel andowner '
scl aimt ot heflow ofr entpay ments.Asecond
sourcehasbeenf rom enter prisingl andlords'voluntar i
lyploughingbackr ents
i
nt ocommer ceandi ndustry .

 Somet ake-
offshav eoccurredwithv ir
tual
l
ynocapi talimpor tse.g.Br i
tai
nand
Japan.Somet ake-off
shavehadahi ghcomponentoff orei
gncapitale.g.theUSA,
Russi
aandCanada.Butsomecount ri
eshaveimpor t
edl argequantiti
esoff or
eign
capi
talforlong per i
ods which undoubtedlycontributed to creati
ng t he pre-
condi
ti
onsf ortake-offwit
houtactuallyini
ti
ati
ngt ake-off,e.g.Argentinebefor e
1714,Venezuela,(Mexico,Brazi
l?),downt or ecenty ears,theBel gi
anCongo
(Democrati
cRepublicofCongo).

(4)Thedr ivet omat urity

Rostow def inest hi
sast heper iodwhensoci et
yef fecti
v elyappl i
edt herangeof
moder nt echnol ogytot hebul kofi tsresour ces.Dur i
ngt heper i
odofmat uri
ty,new
l
eadingsect orsreplacet heol d,andRost ow seest hedev elopmentoft hest eel
i
ndust ryasoneoft hesy mbol sofmat ur
ity.Int hisr espectAmer i
ca,Ger many ,France
and Gr eat Br i
tain ent ered t he st age of mat ur i
ty r oughl y t oget her.
Accompany i
ng changesi nt he i
ndust r
ialst ructur e willbe st r
uct uralchangesi n
soci
et ysuchaschangesi nt hedistri
buti
onoft hewor k-f
or ce;thegr owt hofanur ban
popul ation;ani ncreasei nt hepr oporti
onofwhi te-coll
arwor kers;andaswi t
chi n
i
ndust r
ial l
eader shipfrom t heentrepreneurt ot hemanager .
Matur ityal sohasi mpor t
antpol i
ti
cal feat
ur es.Themat urit
yst agei st heperiodwhen
nati
onsgr ow conf i
dentandexer tthemsel vespol iti
cally- wit
nessGer manyunder
Bismar ckand Russi a underSt al i
n. Thi si sal so t heper i
od when f undament al
poli
ticalchoi ceshav et obemadebysoci etyont heuset owhi chgr eaterweal t
h
shouldbeput .Shoul di tbedev otedt ohi ghmassconsumpt i
on,t hebui l
dingofa
welfar est ate,orimper iali
stends?Thebal ancebet weent hesepossi bil
iti
eshasv ar i
ed
overt i
mewi thincountries, aswell asv ar
yingbet weencount ri
es.

(
5)TheAgeofHi
ghMassConsumpt
ion:
 Therei sincreased pr
oduct i
vit
yt o sati
sfysociety'
sdemands. Theeconomy
producest hosegoodsandser vi
ceswhi chpeopl edesire. Thusthisstageis
character
izedbyasoci etywithawi dechoiceinthemar ket.Technol
ogyishighl
y
advancedandconsumer s’soverei
gntyishighl
yexpected.
 Freecompet i
ti
oni sthekeyt oeconomi cdev elopment. Economicgrowt his
vi
rtual
lyautomat i
c.

23
 Thepr
ocessofdev
elopmenti
svi
rt
ual
l
yaut
omat
icandt
echni
cal
l
ydet
ermi
ned.

Accor dingtoRostowf r
eechoicesareexpect
edtoovercomescarci
tyandt oresultin
progr essthroughtheaut omati
cadjustmentsoffreeexchangei nmar kets. The
forcesofcompet iti
onensurethattheeconomyproducesthosegoodswhi chpeopl e
desi r
eandt hatmaximum out putisproducedint hemostef fi
cientmanner .I f
dev el
opmenthasnotoccur redthenthereasonmustbet hatsomet hi
ngi nter
feres
witht hisaut
omaticprocess.

4.2.Anal ysis/Cr it
iqueofRost ow' sTheor y
Rost ow descr i
beshi ssy stem asa“ non- communi stmani fest o".Rost ow poseshi s
fiv
est agesofgr owt hagai nstMar x'
sst agesoff eudalism,bour geoi scapi tali
sm,
socialism andcommunal i
sm.Rost ow’ st heor yassumest hatt hecondi ti
ons,whi ch
all
owedwest erncount riest oi ndust ri
alize(andt husdev elop) ,woul dbei dent icalto
youngi ndependentst ates.Thi siscl earlynott hecaseasi si ndi cat edbypr esentday
reali
tiesi nt hesey oungi ndependentcount ries,par ticul
ar l
yi nt hecaseofAf rica.
Indeed,i tcan bear gued t hatRost ow’ sst agesofeconomi cgr owt h bearl i
ttl
e
resembl ancet oAf r i
caandot hert hirdwor l
dcount ri
es.Fori nst ance,whatst ageof
economi cgr owt har eTanzani aandot herAf ricancount ri
es?Theyappearnei therto
bei nt het radi tionalst ageort hepr e-condi t
ionsf ort ake-of f
.Theyar edef initelynot
att het akeof fst ageoratt hest ageofmat urit
yormassconsumpt ion.Onecan
therefor enotbeabl et odet ermi neAf ri
ca’sst ageofeconomi cdev elopmentbyusi ng
Rost ow’ sst ages.Wecont endt hatAf ri
cai smov ingt owar dst het raditionalst ageor
toast ageev enl owert hant het radi t
ionalst age.I fthisist hecaset hanRost ow’ s
stagesofeconomi cgr owt har eofl it
tlerelevancei nhel pi
ngusdet ermi net hest ageof
economi cdev elopmentt hatAf ri
cahasr eached. Af r
icancount riesbecauseoft heir
uniquehi stor i
calexper iencewi llpasst hroughdi fferentst agesofeconomi cgr owt h.
Thisr ealit
yi sl ostt oRost ow t husmaki nghi st heor ytobeweaki nsorf aras
explaini ngt hedev el opmentpr ocessi nAf ri
ca.
Rost ow'sl inearv i
ewofdev elopmentbegsahostofquest ionsaboutt henat ure,
causesandobj ectivesofdev elopment .I ttendst of ocusonconst r
aintsor
obst acles( par ticularlyl ackofcapi tal)ofwhi chwoul dsetf reet he“ natur al”forces
maki ngf ort hest eadymov et owar dev erhi gheri ncomes.Theunder l
yingcauses
ofl ackofcapi tali nthi rdwor ldcount ri
essuchasTanzani aar enoti ndicated.The
pat ht odev elopmentbei ngt akenbyt hesecount ri
esi scl ear l
ydi ff
er entf rom that
takenbyt oday ’
sdev el opedcount r
ies.Thi saspecti snothi ghl i
ght edi nRost ow’ s
theor y.
Mostcr i
ti
cshav ehingedonwhet herav ali
dandoper ati
onallymeaningfuldi st
incti
on
canbemadebet weenst agesofdev elopment ,especiallybetweent heso- called
tr
ansiti
onalphaseandt ake- off,andbet weent ake-offandmat urit
y.Cr iti
cshav e
att
empt ed to argue thatt he char act
er i
sti
cs thatRost ow disti
nguishes f orhi s
dif
fer
entst agearenotuni quet othosest ages.Thus, thedemar cati
onbet weent ake-
offandt r
ansiti
oni sblurredbecauset hechangest hattakeplacei nthet ransiti
on
phase also seem t ot ake pl ace i
nt he t ake-offphase,and si mil
ar l
ywi t
ht he
demar cat
ionbet weentake- offandmat urit
y.
Oneoft hemostout spokenofRost ow'scr i
ti
csisKuznet s,andsomeofhi scr i
ti
cisms
maybequot edasr epr
esent ati
veoft hecr it
ici
smst hatRost ow hasr eceivedi n
general.First
,thereisthedi ffi
cult
yofempi ri
callytesti
ngt hetheory,whichRost ow
himselfmakesnoat t
emptt odo.Foronet hingtherei sagenerallackofquant it
ative

24
evidence f orasser t
ions made,and f oranot herRost ow' s descri
pt i
on oft he
charact er
isti
csofsomeoft hest agesar enotsuf f
icientlyspecifi
ct odef i
net he
relevantempi ri
calevi
denceev enifdat awereav ail
able.Wi t
hrespectt othet ake-
off
stage,f orexampl e,whati sa" poli
ti
cal,socialandi nstituti
onalframewor kwhi ch
exploitstheimpulsest oexpansioni nthemoder nsect or"?Kuznet sargues:"itseems
tomet hatRostow…def inesthesesoci alphenomenaasacompl exthatpr oducest he
effecthe wi shes to expl ai
n and then t r
eatst hi
si dent i
fi
cati
on as i fitwer ea
3
meani ngfulidenti
fi
cati
on" .Kuznetsseemst obecal l
ingi ntoquest i
ont hewhol eof
Rost ow'sscientif
icmet hod and iscl ai
ming asunsci ent i
fictheal lt oo common
practice ofobser vi
ng phenomena,dev elopi
ng hy potheses on t he basi s oft he
4
phenomena, andthenusi ngthephenomenat osuppor tthehy potheses!

Asr egar dsquant it

ati
v eev i
dencet hati sav ail
ablef ort esti
nghy potheses,Kuznet s
quest i
onsRost ow' sfiguresofi nv estmentandt hei ncrement alcapi tal
-outputr ati
o
dur i
ngt het ake-of fperiodinthecount riesstudied.Hesay s;'
Unl essIhav ecompl etely
mi sunder stood Pr ofessor Rost ow's def i
ni t
ion of t ake- off,and i t
s st at i
stical
char act erist
ics,Icanonl yconcludet hattheav ailableev i
dencel endsnosuppor tto
5
hissuggest i
ons. Andont heconceptoft het ake-offst agei ngener al
,Kuznet s
concl udest hatlackofcommonexper i
encet ypifyingcount riesi nt het ake-of fstage,
i
nr elationt oinv estment ,
etc,"castsser i
ousdoubtont hev alidityofdef init
ionoft he
take- offas a gener alst age ofmoder n economi c gr owt h,di st i
nctf r
om what
Prof essorRost owcal ltheprecondi ti
on, ortransition, stagepr ecedi ngi tandt hesel f
6
-sust aininggr owt hstagef oll
owingi t".
Weaknessesi nRost ow’ sanalysi
sofsoci aldev elopmentar ef urtherhi ghli
ght edi nhi s
anal ysisofsoci aldev elopmenti nt hirdwor ldcount ri
es,par t
icul ar l
yt hosei nAf rica.
Rost ow’ sanal ysisoft hedy nami csofunder dev el
opmenti nt hird wor l
df ai
lst o
i
ndi catet hebegi nningorendoft hispr ocess.

4.3.Rostow’sTheor yofUnder development

The use ofRost ow's modelas a f ramewor kf oranal ysi
s oft he pr ocess of
development assumes t hat pr esent -day dev el oped count ries wer e once
underdevelopedandt hatallcount ri
esmov ethr oughal lthesestagesofgr owth.Thi s,
ashi stor
icalexper i
encei ndicatesi snott hecasef ormanyt hir
dwor l
dcount r
ies,
parti
cularl
yAfricancount riest hatsuf f
er edf rom sl av eryandcol onial
i
sm.Fort hese
Afri
cancount ri
es,under developmenti snotanat ural stageofhumandev el
opment .
Wecannotequat etoday '
sLeastDev elopedCount ries( LDC's)tot heear l
yst agesof
thepr esentl
ydev elopedcount ri
es. Theper sist
enceofunder devel
opmenti nthe
worldeconomyposessomer efract
orypr oblemst hatwer eabsenti nearli
ercasesof
successfuldevelopment .Ifwer ecogni zet hesedi ffer ences,wemayhesi tatet oj
oin
Rostowi nconcludingt hatintheendt hel essonofhi st oryisthat"t
hetricksofgr owth

25
arenotal lthatdi f
ficult."
Int hef ir
stpl ace, poorcount ri
esar eat tempt ingt oaccel er atet hei rdev el opmentf r
om
al owereconomi clev elt hanwast ruef ort hepr esent l
yr ichcount riesatt het i
meof
theirr api dr at esofdev elopment .Theso- cal leddev elopedcount ri
esest abl ishedt he
basi sf ort hei rt ake- of font hebasi sofl oot i
ngandst eal i
ngf rom ov ersease. g.I ndi a,
theMi ddl eEastandont hebasi soft hesl av et rade.Whi leont heot herhand, thepoor
count riesoft odaywer eexpl oitedundert hesl av et rade,t henbycol oni alism andby
i
mper ialist’
sexpansi on-sot heycannotexpectt odev el opal ongt hesamer oadas
thedev elopedcount ri
es.
Itisdi f f
icul tt osi tuat eAf ri
cancount ri
esi nRost ow’ sst agesofdev elopment .Ar e
thesecount riesst illint he' tradi t
ionalst age'orar et heynear' take- off'?I ndeedone
canconcl udet hatAf ricancount r
iesdonotf itinanyofRost ow' sst ages.Ot her scan
argue t hatAf rica i s mov i
ng t oy etanot herst age ofdev elopmentbef or et he
'
tradi ti
onal 'st agebecauseofgr owi ngpov ertyanddependencyont hedev el oped
capi talistcount r i
es. I not herwor dsAf r
icaappear st obemov ingbackwar dsor
dev elopi ngi nazi gzagmannerandnoti nthel i
nearf ormt hatRost owsuggest s.
Dev el opment ,accor dingt oRost owi sal i
nearpat hal ongwhi chal lcount riest rav el.
Theadv ancedcount ri
eshadatv arioust imes, passedt hest ageof“ take- of f”,andt hat
thedev elopi ngcount ri
esar enowf ollowi ngt hem andt hatt hosewhi char enotdoi ng
somustbedoi ngsomet hi
ngwr ongorar enotf ollowi ngt her equi redpr escr iption.I n
thisr egar ddev elopmenti sseenpr imar il
yasamat terof“ economi cgr owt h” ,and
secondar i
lyasapr obl em ofsecur ingsoci alchangesnecessar il
yassoci at edwi th
growt h.
Ithasbeenar gued-wi thi ncr easi ngsubst ance-t hatRost ow’ sst agesandt hesi si s
i
ncor rectpr imar i
lybecauset heydonotcor respondatal lt ot hepastorpr esent
realityoft heunder dev elopedcount rieswhosedev elopmentt heyar esupposedt o
guide.I ti sexpl icitinRost ow asi ti si mpl i
ci tinHosel itz,t hatunder dev el opmenti s
theor iginalst ageofwhatar esupposedl yt raditionalsoci et ies–t hatt her ewer eno
stagespr iort ot hepr esentst ageofunder dev elopment .I ti sf urtherexpl iciti n
Rost ow’ st heor yt hatt henow dev elopedsoci etieswer eonceunder dev elopedand
thatpr esentdayunder dev elopedcount ri
eswi l
lbecomedev eloped. Butal lt hisi s
quitecont raryt of actasar guedbymanyt heor i
st si ncl udi ngFr ank,1969;Rodney ,
1975;et c.). Rost ow does nott ake i nto ser i
ous consi der ation t he hi st orical
exper i
enceoft heunder dev elopedcount riesort hecont inuousexpl oitat ionoft hese
count riesbyr ut hlessmul t
inat ional /transnat ionalcompani es.
Arewet hent oconcl udef rom al lthi st hatRost ow' scont r i
but i
oni sofl i
ttlev alue?I n
gener alt ermst heanswer ,par ticular l
yi nr egar dt odev el opmenti nAf ri
cancount r
ies,
theanswermustbei nt heaf firmat i
v e.Howev er,onecannotf ai ltonot et hatRost ow
offer ssomeext remel yv aluabl ei nsi ght si ntot hedev elopmentpr ocess,par ticular ly
economi cdev elopmenti ndev elopedcapi t
al i
stcount rieswher edev elopmenti smor e
orl ess det er mi ned. The essent ialchar acter i
st i
cs and st ages ofeconomi c
dev elopmenti nadev elopedmoder neconomyar eout li
ned.I ti sassumedt hatt he
dev elopi ngcount ri
eswi l
lfol l
owasi mi larpat h.Thi spoi ntcannotbeeasi lydi scar ded
ast her ear ecer t
aindev elopmentpr ioriti
eswhi chcount riespl anni ngdev elopment
maynegl ectatt heirper il
. Fori nst ance, ther oleofi nv est menti nr aisingt her ateof
growt hi spar t i
cul ar l
yst ressed, asar ecer t
ai npol iticalandsoci ol ogi calpr econdi ti
ons
fordev elopment ,whi checonomi st sar epr onet of orget .I fRost owf ailst opr ov i
de
ananal yti
calbr eakt hrough,hehasar ousedonceagai nt heor eticali nt er esti nt he
histor yandcausesoft hegr owt hoft heweal thofnat ions.

26
5.0.NURKSE' SVI CI OUSCI RCLEOFPOVERTY:
RagnarNur kse( 1907–1959)wasapr omi nenteconomi stpr ofessorwhoat tempt ed
toexami nepr obl emsofcapi talf or mat ioni nunder dev el opedcount ri
es. Nur kse’ s
theor yexpr essest heci rcul arr elationshi pst hataf flictbot ht hedemandandt he
suppl ysi deoft hepr obl em ofcapi t
al format ioni neconomi cal l
ybackwar dar eas.
Nur ksest ressest her ol eofsav ingsandcapi talf or
mat ioni neconomi cdev elopment .
Hewasoneoft heear l
yexpounder soft he“ bal ancedgr owt h”doct r
ine.Accor di ngt o
Nur kseasoci etyispoorbecausei tispoor .Asoci etywi t hl owi ncomehasbot hl ow
l
ev elsofsav i
ngsandl owl ev el sofconsumpt i
on.Thel owl ev elofsav ingsmeanst hat
l
ow i nv est ment ,whi let hel ow l ev elsofconsumpt i
onmeansnoenoughmar kett o
i
nducei nv est ment s-t hati s,ev eni ft hecapi talf orinv est mentwer eav ai
labl e.Thi s
l
ow i nv est menti nt ur nmeansl itt
leabi lityoft hesoci et yt oexpandi tspr oduct ive
capaci tyort ransf or mt hequal ityoft hepr oduct ivef orcesasawhol e.Thi sf inal l
y
l
eadst oacont i
nuat ionofl ow i ncomesi nt heeconomyandt hent heci rcl ebegi ns
agai n.
Accor di ng t o Nur kse one oft he mosti mpor t
antr easons why t he backwar d
count ries hav e been pr ev ent ed f rom enj oy ing the st imul ating ef fect s oft he
manuf act ur ing i ndust r yi s nott he wi ckedness off or eign capi talist s and t heir
exclusi veconcer n wi thr aw mat er i
alsuppl ies,butmer elyt hel imi t ation oft he
domest i
cmar ketf ormanuf act ur esar t
icles.
Whati st hewayoutoft hisci r
cl e?Theanswer , accordi ngt oNur ksei st oenl ar get he
mar ket .Appl icationofcapi talmustbemadet oawi der angeofdi ffer enti ndust ries.
Thiswi llleadt otheenl ar gementoft hemar ket .Nur kseemphasi zest hedoct rineof
balancedgr owt h.
Nur kse( 1953) ,al somadet heobser vat iont hati nanunder developedeconomy ,
char act er izedbya" vici ousci rcleofpov erty ",thei nv est mentpr ogr ammemustbe
bothmassi veandbal ancedf orgr owt ht ooccur . Nur ksewashowev ernotv ery
optimi stic aboutt he r ol ef orei gn ai di n dev eloping count ri
es and i nst ead put s
emphasi sondomest i
csav ingsandt her ol eoft hest at easi mpor tantf act orsf or
balancedgr owt h.
Itisi nt er est ingt onot et hat ,t houghst atedi nmor emoder nt erminol ogy ,muchof
Nur kse’ st heor yi sl i
ttlemor et hananel abor ati
onofel ement scont ainedi nt he
classi calmodelofdev el opment . Adam Smi th,Mal thusandJ.S.Mi l
lconcent rat ed
onhowt hemar ketmi ghtbeext ended,ont hepossi bilit
iesofi ncreasi ngpr oduct i
v it
y
byt hedi visionofl abourandont hepr obl em ofcapi talaccumul ation.Thi si smor eor
l
esssi mi lart o Nur kse’ ssuggest ion ofbr eaki ng thev i
ci ousci r
cleofpov ertyi n
under dev el oped/ backwar deconomi es.

NURKSE'
SVI
CIOUSCI
RCLEOFPOVERTY:

LowI
ncome

Inabi
li
tytopr
oduct
ive LowSavings
capacit
y Lowbuyi
ngpower
Lowconsumpti
on

27

Capi
taldef
ici
ency
Lowrateofcapi
tal
 LowInvest
ment
Lackofmarket
s

5.
1.Rel
evanceofNur
kse’
sTheor
y
Whi l
et her
eisl i
ttl
edoubtt hatThirdwor l
dcount ri
es,parti
cularl
ythoseinAf r
ica,
arelockedi nav i
ci
ouscircleofpov er
ty,thehistori
calcausesofpov er
tyarenot
under l
i
nedbyNur kse’
stheory.Ar eali
sti
cwayoutoft hisvi
ciouscirclei
salsonot
providedbyNur kse'
stheory. Thet heoryignorest hereal
ityofunder developed
count r
iescharacteri
zedbydependenteconomi es,whichmakesi timpossibleto
createanenv i
ronmentf ormassiveinvestmentandbal ancedgr owth.
ThusNur
kse'stheory
,li
kethatofRost
ow,onlysucceedsinindi
cat
ingtheextent
ofpov
ert
y/backwardnessoftheunder
dev
elopedcountri
esitthr
owsv er
yli
tt
leon

28
 ourunder
standingofthecausesofpov er
ty/
backwardness. Ot
herbour
geoi
s
schol
arsi
ncl
udingSchumpet
eralsodemonst
rat
ethisweakness.

6.
0.Schumpet
er’
sTheor
yofMot
iveFor
ce,
ProcessandGoal

Prof .J.Schumpet eri n hi s Book,Capi tali

sm,Soci alism and Democr acy al so
cont r
ibut es tot he dev elopmentdebat e. Schumpet er’st heor yhi nges on t hree
aspect s:mot i
vef orce, processandgoal .I nSchumpet er'smodelofdev elopmentt he
gener atingf orcei spr ovidedbyt heent repreneur ,thepr ocessi si nnov ati
on; t
hegoal
i
st he est ablishmentofa posi t
ion ofweal th and powerf ort he ent repreneur .
Accor dingt oSchumpet ertheact ionofcr eativeent repreneur swillproducespur tsof
i
ndust rialpr ogr ess. Ev ent houghi nnovationsor iginatedeacht imei napar ti
cular
i
ndust ry,t hemonet aryef fectsandot herci rcumst anceswer esuchast opr omot e
eacht imeawav eofnewappl i
cationofcapi taloverawhol er angeofi ndust ries.
ThatSchumpet er '
st heorydoesnotsat i
sfyt hecaseoft helessdev elopedcount ri
es
i
sf airl
yobv ious.Theent r
epr eneuri nmostAf ri
cancount ri
esi snott hemai ndriv i
ng
force,innov ationi snott hemostchar acteri
st i
cprocess( indeedi thardl yexists!)
, and
pri
v ateenr i
chmenti snott hedomi nantgoal .Fori nstance,i nTanzani awehav ean
i
ncr easingnumberofpet tyt r
ader s-t he" Machi ngas"–whocannoti nanywaybe
descr i
bedasent repreneur snorasadr ivi
ngf or
cef oreconomi cdev el opment .The
process of I nnov ati
on and t echnol ogical dev elopment r emai n out side t he
dev el
opmentpr ocessi nmostAf ricancount ri
es.Thegoalofpr i
vateenr i
chmentf or
the Af rican has y ett o“ take of f”as enr i
chmentofmul ti-
nationalcor porations
becomest hegoal inmostAf ri
cancount ri
es.

7.0.J.K.Gal braithand' TheConceptofCount er vai l

ingPower '
Prof.J. K.Gal braithanAmer i
caneconomi standf ormeradv isert oPr esidentJ. F.
Kennedyhasputf orwar dat heor ywhi chat tempt st opr ov i
deani nterpretat i
onof
economi c backwar dness i nt he USA and i n backwar d count ri
es. I n hi s book
Amer i
canCapi talism:' TheConceptofCount erv aili
ngPower '
,mai nt ainst hatt he
growt hofmonopol yint headv ancedcount ries,par t
icularlyint heUSA hasbeen
accompani edbyagr owt hof' count ervail
ingpower 'ont heopposi tesi deoft he
mar ket,e. g.t r
adeuni ons,r etai
lchai nst ores,co- oper ati
vesoci et i
es,f armer '
suni ons,
etc.Thegr owt hofmonopol yincr easest hegai nsf rom bui ldingupt hecount erv ai
li
ng
powerandi nducest hegr owthi tsgr owt handt hispr ov i
desanew sel f-
regul atory
mechani sm tot heeconomyi nawor ldofmonopol y.
InPr of.Gai lbrai
th'st erminol ogy,then, economi cbackwar dnessmaybedescr ibedas
aphenomenonwhi char i
sesbecauset hepr ocessof' economi cdev elopmenthas'
hasbeent oor apidandt hei nitialcondi ti
onst oounf av ourablet ogi ver i
set oan
effective' count ervaili
ngpower 't ocheckt he' for eigneconomi cdomi nat i
on'oft he
backwar dpeopl es.Oner emar kablet hingaboutpr ofessorGal braith'sar gumenti s
thatal thoughhei sconcer nedwi ththeeconomi callymostadv ancedcount ryi nt he
wor l
d,t heUSA,t hesect or soft heeconomywhi chher egar dsasbei ngpar ti
cul arl
yi n
needoft hecount ervail
ingpower-agr icul
ture,consumer s'goodsmar ket,andt he
l
abourmar ket-ar eexact lypar allel
edi nt hebackwar dcount rieswi tht hei
rexpor t-
i
mpor tmonopol iesandl argescal emi ningandpl ant ationbusi nesses.
Like ot her bour geoist heor i
es,t he t heory makes l i
ttle headway t owar ds a
compr ehensi veanal y
sisofeconomi cbackwar dnessi nt hedev elopi ngcount ries
and t her efor et hesuggest ed pr escription ofacount er vail
ing poweri sofl it
t l
e

29
rel
evanceint heAfri
cancont
ext.
A numberofunanswer ed quest
ions remain. Fori nst
ance,how can backward
countri
es giver ise t
o thi
s countervai
li
ng power whi let hese countri
es ar
e
economicall
ydependentonthedev el
opedcapital
i
stcountries?Ev enift
hispoweri
s
devel
oped,how can i tini
ti
ate devel
opmentt hatwi l
lt ackl
et he probl
em of
underdevel
opmentandt hedependentnatureofAf r
icaneconomi es? Theseare
questi
onst hatleadtotheneedf orani n-
depthcr i
ti
queofbour geoistheori
eson
devel
opment .

8.0.TheGapAppr oach
Leibeinstei
n( 1960)hasa l ong listofl imi ti
ng factor s( wer efert o ast heGap
Appr oach). Accor ding t o him,f irst ,is a pr edomi nantsubsi stence agr i
cultural
economywi t
hpoorcr editandmar ket ingf acili
ti
es.Two,unf avourabl edemogr aphic
featuresinthef orm ofl ar geandy oungpopul ati
ons.Thr ee,veryloweducat i
onaland
culturallevel. Four ,t echnologicalbackwar dness. Fi ve,unf av our
able nat ural
endowment s(poorsoi lsandt r
opical cl i
mat e.Si x, l
owpr oducti
vit
y.
Thesol uti
onaccor dingt oLei bei
nst eini smassi veai d. Notet hedi f
ferencewi th
Nur kse who i s pessi mi sti
c off or ei gn ai d. Li ke ot hermoder nizati
on theorists,
Leibeinstei
ndoesnotpr ovidecleari ndi cator showt hesecount ri
escanobt ainthisaid
andhow bestt heyut i
lizet hisai d. I ndeed,t heappar entdanger sofi ncreasing
dependencyonf or eignai darei gnor ed.

9.Cr iti
queofBour geoi s/Moder nizationTheor i
es
Accor dingtomoder nizati
ont heorists,thet askofpl anneddev elopmenti stohast en
theev oluti
onofpr econditionstof acil
itatet het akeof fperiod.Secondl y,ther apid
successoft het akeof fper i
odi st i
edt or adi calchangesi nmet hodsofpr oduct i
on.
Otherst houghhav ethatinflowsofi ndustrialt echnologymustbesuppl ement edwi th
“moder nmanagement ,moder neducat i
on,et c…”( Mat thew’s:1981) .Thegoali st o
createeconomi candsoci al conditi
onssi milart othosei ncur rentlydevelopednat i
ons
i
nt hehopet hatthesecr eatedcondi tionswi l
l achievesi mil
arr esults.
Thebour geoisv i
ew ofdev elopmentgr owsoutoft hemodelofcompet i
ti
vemar ket
capitali
sm. I tist houghtt hatanaut omat ic,sel f-
regulatedmechani sm tomanage
economi caffair
snat urall
yemer gesi nthecour seofhi story.Thesef r
eechoi cesar e
expect edt oov ercomescar ci
tyandt or esul ti npr ogresst hrought heaut omat i
c
adjustment soff reeexchangesi nmar kets.Thef or cesofcompet i
ti
onensur et hat
theeconomypr oducest hosegoodswhi chpeopl edesi reandt hatmaxi mum out putis
producedi nt hemostef fi
cientmanner . Thi sDSAF| fprocessappear snott obe
functioning in mostt hir
d wor ld count r
ies br ing tot he for et he vali
dit
yoft he
bourgeoi stheoreti
cal understandingofdev elopmenti nthet hirdwor ld.

Bourgeoi stheori
esofdev elopmentcanbef aultedfrom differ
entangles.Firstofal l
i
st heirisolat
edt r
eatmentoft henat i
onaleconomyf rom therestofthewor l
d.Ev en
wheret hewor ld economyi sconsi dered,t hisexagger ated thepossibl
eposi ti
ve
i
mpact soft hei nter
nationaleconomi crelationshi
psont hedev el
opingcount ri
es.
Secondly ,i
tcanbear guedt hatthesetheoriesar ebot hmechani st
icandtautological
.
Tot hinkt hatsimpl ybyexpandi nginvestmentacount r
ywi l
lbeabl etor aiseits
i
ncomeort hatbyraisingincomet hecountrywi llr
aisesav ingsandconsumpt ionisa
hi
ghlymechani calwayofl ookingatt hi
ngs. Weseei ncreasedinvestmentinmany
developingcount ri
es,butt hishasnotgi venr i
setosav i
ngs,consumpt i
onormor e

30
i
mpor tanttosustai
nabledevelopment.Indeed,
therei
sli
ttl
eincommonbet weenthe
pre-
industri
alinter
naleconomi c and soci
alcondit
ions ofcur r
entl
y dev el
oped
countri
esandt hosecurrentl
ydev el
opi
ngcountr
ies.Theref
ore,i
twil
lnotbepossi bl
e
fort
hedev el
opi
ngcount ri
estof oll
owasimil
arpathofdevelopmenttothattakenby
thedev el
opedcountri
es.
Bourgeoi s/ moder ni zat i
ont heoriesf ailtoexpl ainthest ruct ureanddev elopmentof
thecapi tal i
stsy stem asawhol eandt oaccountf oritssi mul t
aneousgener at i
onof
underdev elopmenti nsomepar tsandofeconomi cdev elopmenti not hers.I not her
words,whyar e west er n count ri
esbecomi ng r i
cherand r i
cherwhi le dev eloping
countries,par t
icular l
yAf ri
cancount r
iesar ebecomi ngpoor erandpoor erandmor e
andmor edependentont hewest ernwor l
d?
Reasonsgi venbybour geoist heor i
stsar enotsuf fi
cientt oexpl aint hecausesand
persi
st ence ofunder dev elopmenti n dev eloping count ries. They l ook att he
sympt omsbutdo notadequat elyexpl ai
nt hecausesoft hesesy mpt omsand
consequent l
yt heyar eunabl et ocomeoutwi thanymeani ngfulsol utiont ot he
problem ofunder dev elopment /absenceofdev elopment .
Recent lyt herehasbeenar esur genceoft hebour geoisschooloft hought .Ledbyt he
Wor l
dBankandt heI MF,t henew bour geoisschooli dent i
fiesandconcent rat eson
probl
emsofi nefficiental locat i
onandut i
l
izationofr esour cesr athert hanl ackof
product i
v ecapaci t y,backwar dpr oductiont echniquesori nvestment . Thi si sal so
shown t o be t he r esul tofbad economi c pol i
cy f ramewor k and subsequent l
y
economi cmi smanagement .Thi sschooloft houghtr ecommendsERP' sandSAP' st o
sti
mul ate economi cef fi
ciency . The r eali
tyi st hatdev eloping count ri
esr emai n
underdev elopedwhi l
et hepowerofi nternationalf i
nanciali nstit
uti
onsi ncreasest o
theextentofdi r
ect ingt hedev elopmentpr ocess.

10.Bour
geoi
sTheor
ist
sandMar
xist
sTheor
ies:ACompar
ati
veAnal
ysi
s
 Wecanr ecogni zesomebr oadsi mi lar i
tiesbet weenRost ow' sanal ysisandMar x'
s
sequenceofsoci aldev elopment .Bot har eat t
empt st oi nt erprettheev olutionof
whol esoci etiespr i
mar il
yf rom aneconomi cper spect ive. Bot hr ecogni zet hat
economi cchangehassoci al ,pol i
tical andcul tur alconsequences.
 Differencesbet weenRost owandMar xistanaly sis:
- Mar x highl ightst he pr obl ems ofcl ass conf l
icts,expl oitati
on and i nher ent
stresseswi thint hecapi tal i
stpr ocess.Rost ow andot herbour geoi st heor i
sts
i
gnor et heseaspect sFori nst ance,Rost owi nt erpret snethumanbehav iour" as
anactofbal ancingal ter nat i
v eandof tenconf licti
nghumanobj ectivesi nt he
faceoft her angeofchoi cesmenper ceiv etobeopent ot hem. "
- Rost owav oidst heMar xianasser tiont hatthebehav iorofsoci etiesi suni quely
det erminedbyeconomi cconsi derat ions.
-I ngener alRost owandot herbour geoi st heorist'sout lookofdev elopmenti st hat
manyt hingsar ei nv olvedi nt hepr ocessofdev el
opment :mar ket s,resour ces,
i
nf rastruct ur es,or gani zat ion,Ent repr eneurship and i nv estment s. Thesear e
relatedt ooneanot her.
- TheMar xi stsdev elopmenti nv olvespeopl e,classr elations/ classst ruggle.
- Rost ow bel ieves t hatf ort he pr esent ly under dev eloped nat i
ons,t he i nner
mechani csoft het ake- of fi nvol vepr oblemsofcapi talf ormat ion.I ftheirt ake
offsar et osucceed,t heunder dev elopedcount ries" mustseekway stot apof f
i
nt ot he moder n sect or,r aise i ncome abov e consumpt ion lev els hither t
o
ster i
l
izedbyt hear rangement scont rol l
i
ngagr icul t
ure.Theymustseekt oshi ft

31
 menofent erprisefrom t radeandmoney -
lendingt oindust r
y .Andtot heseends
patternsoff iscal,monet ary,andot herpol icies( i
ncludingeducat i
onpol ici
es)
mustbeappl ied,simi lartothosedev elopedandappl i
edi nthepast.
- ToMar xistsitisonl ybyunder standingt hef orcesofunder dev el
opmentt hatthe
contradicti
onscanbel ocat
edandt hest rugglel aunchedt or esol
vethem.
- Rost ow'st heorydoesnotf ocusont heuni quesi tuationoft heLDCsandhow
theirhistoryandcur r entposi t
ioninfluencest heirdev elopment .KarlMar xalso
did notgi v epar ticularat tenti
ont ot heAf ri
cansi t
uat i
oni .e.whatki ndsof
classesexi st
edi nAf ri
ca,thenat ureoft her elat
ionsofpr oducti
on,thecl ass
strugglei nAf ri
caet c.Ther efore,hist heoryofunder developmenti salsonot
compl ete.

11.
0.DependencyTheor
iesofDev
elopmentandUnderDev
elopment

11.
1.Basicfeaturesofunderdevelopment
:
Diff
erentaut hor
shav edescr i
bedtheprocessofdependency
. Theseincl
ude
Frank (1969) ,Palma ( 1978),Evans (
1979),Szent
es (1970)
,Gilber
t and
Haralambidis( 1973) and others. They poi
ntoutt he basi
cfeatur
es of
underdevelopment:
 Theeconomi csy stem oftheunder developedcount ri
esisdependentuponf orei
gn
tr
adeandf oreigninvestment .
 Dependencyoni mpor tedtechnologyandf i
nancei sverygreatandis,fur
thermore,
i
ncreasingatar apidrate
 Underdevelopmentexpr essesapar t
icularrelati
onshi
pofexpl oit
ati
on:namelythe
expl
oitati
onofonecount r
ybyanot her.
 Generalfeaturesofunder devel
opmenti ncludepov ert
y,low labourproducti
vi
ty,
backwar dtechnology,inadequat eequipment ,sci
ence,technologyandaheav y
dependenceuponapr imiti
v eagrari
ansect or.
 Underdevelopmental so mani f
estsi tselfi n cult
ural
,mi li
tary and economic
aspects.

11.
2.Dependencyt
heor
ist
sonunder
dev
elopment
:
 "Dependencei sacondi t
ioningsituati
oni nwhi chtheeconomi esofonegr oupof
count ri
esarecondi ti
onedbyt hedev elopmentandexpansi onofot hers.Ar elation
ofinterdependencebet weent woormor eeconomi esorbet weensucheconomi es
andt hewor l
dt r
adingsy stem becomesadependentr elati
onshipwhensome
count ri
escan expand on asa r efl
ection oft he expansion oft he domi nant
count ri
es,whi ch mayhav e posit
ive ornegat ive eff
ects on t heiri mmedi ate
development ".(DosSant os, 1970).
 Dependencyt heoristsincludeFur t
ado,GunderFr ank,Graffi
n,Sunkel,DosSant os,
Szent esandot herswhomayal lbel ooselydescr i
bedaspar tofthedependency
school .
 Dependency t heor i
sts are concer ned wi tht he whol er elat
ionship bet ween
advancedcount r
iesandt hir
dwor l
dcount r
ies. Thedependentr elationshipi s
exhibitedincul t
uralaswel laseconomi cf eatur
esoft hir
dwor l
dcount ries.The
dependentr elati
onship per v
ades pol it
icalinstit
uti
ons and pol i
ticaldeci sion
maki ngaswel l
.Asar esul tmanyt hir
dwor l
dcount ri
esarei ncapableoff oll
owi ng
anal ternat
ivepat h.Thi si snotonl ybecauset hewor l
deconomi cf actsofl i
fe

32
 make i ti mpossi ble,butbecause t he cul tur al,psy chol ogi caland economi c
pressur esoft hedependentr el ationshi phav econdi tioneddeci si on- maker si n
thirdwor ldcount riessot hatt heydonotwi sht of ollowanal ter nat ivest rategy .
 Dependencyt heor istsconcent rat eonexpl ai ningt hef undament alspeci f
icf lows
ofmoder nizat i
onappr oaches.Theyagr eet hatsomeef f or twi t hindev elopi ng
count riesmustbemadet obr eakt hecy cleofeconomi candpol iticalr eli
anceon
domi nantcapi t alistnat ions.
 Thedependencyschooloft houghtencompassesmanyv ar iations. Ther ear e
thosewhoset houghtor i
gi nat esf rom Mar xi stanal ysi s( oftencal ledneo- Mar xism)
-PaulBar oni sconsi der edf at herofneo- Mar xism.Fort hem dependencyi st he
i
nev i
tabl eout comeofcapi talistdev elopmenti nt headv ancedcount ries,andt he
i
nt ernal izat ionofconf lict swi thi nt het hi rdwor ldr epr esent st heMar xistcl ass
struggl et ransf er redt ot het hir dwor ld.Forot her sdependencyt y peanal ysishas
i
tsor igi ni nLat i
nAmer icandi scussi onondev elopmentandunder dev elopment
(e.g.Fur tado&Fr ank) .
 Usi ngt heexper i
enceofLat inAmer ica,Andr eGunderFr ankpoi nt soutt hatt hird
wor ldcount riescannotmov ef r om t radi tionalsoci et yt owar dst hest ageofHi gh
Massconsumpt ion.Hear guest hatt heunder dev el opedcount r
iescanhar dlybe
regar dedast radi tionalsi ncet hecapi talistsy stem has" effect ivel yandent i
rely
penet ratedev ent heappar ent lymosti sol at edsect orsoft heunder dev eloped
wor ld." Thi s penet rat ion he suggest s has made t he economi es of t he
under dev elopeddependentupont hoseoft hedev elopednat ions.Fr anksuppor ts
thev iew t hatt her el ationshi pbet weent hedev el opedcapi t ali
stwor ldandt he
under dev elopedwor ldi si nher ent lyexpl oi tativ e.Thati st osay ,i tl eadst ot he
cont inuedenr ichmentofsomenat ionsandt heper pet ualst agnat i
onandpov er t
y
ofot hernat i
ons.
 A cent r alar gumentoft hedependencyschooli st hatdependencegener at es
under devel opment .
 Theunder dev el opmentt heor ist schal lengedt heconv ent i
onalwi sdom ofwest ern
economi st soft he1950s,asi l
lust rat edbyWal tRost ow' sst agesofgr owt h.Thi s
conv ent ionalwi sdom hel dt hatgr owt handdev el opmentwer euni l
inear ; t
hatt her e
wer ev ar iousst agesofdev elopmentt hatsoci etieswentt hr oughont hewayt o
i
ndust rial i
zat ionanddev el opment .Thepoorcount riesoft hewor l
dwer esi mpl ya
replicaoft hei ndust rializedcount ri
esatapr ev i
ousst ageofdev elopment .Gi ven
ther i
ghtsor tofcondi tionst heywoul di nev itabl yoccur ,gi vent her ightsor tof
condi tions. Theor i
esofunder dev elopmentt heuni l
inearandpr ogr essv iew of
dev elopment . Theyar gued t hatt het hi rd wor ld di ffer ed f rom t headv anced
count ri
esatanear lierst agebecauseoft heexi stenceoft headv ancedcount ri
es,
andt hei mpactoft hei rsoci etyont hem.
 Dependencyt heor i
st s ar gue t hatt he economyofunder dev eloped count ries
cannotnotbeanal yzedi ni solat ionf rom t hedev elopmentofcapi talistcount ries
becauset heireconomywasi nl argepar tcondi tionedbyev ent si nt headv anced
count ri
es;t hr ought rade,mi gr at i
on,capi talandt echnol ogyf lows.I nt hiswayt he
adv ancedcapi tal i
stcount riesdet er mi net henat ur eoft heeconomyoft hirdwor l
d
count ri
es.
 Dependency t heor ists ar gue t hatt he under dev el oped st at e oft hird wor l
d
count rieswasat tribut ednott ot hef actt hatt heywer eatanear l
ierst ageof
histor yt hant headv ancedcount ries,butt ot hef actt hatt hei mpactoft he
adv ancedcount ri
esont het hi rdwor ldhadcausedt hei runder dev el opment .

33
 Thenat ur eoft hei mpactoft headv ancedcount ries,par ti
cularlyoft hecapi tal i
st
count ri
es,ont het hir
dwor ld,andt het ermsofsuchi mpact ,wer esuchast o
i
mpov er isht het hirdwor ldeconomi cal
ly,cul t
urallyandpsy chol ogicall
y.Thusi t
wasar gued( e.g.byFr ank, RodneyandGr i
ffi
n)t hatmanypoorcount ri
eswer enot
onlyr elat i
velybet terof fsayi nt heei ghteent hcent ur y,butabsol utelypercapi ta
i
ncomewassubst ant i
allyhi ghert hani tistoday .
 Accor dingt oFr ank,under dev elopmentwasnotanor i
ginalst age,butr athera
createdcondi t
ion;t oemphasi zet hi
s,hepoi ntst ot heBr i
ti
shde- industri
al i
sat i
on
ofI ndia,t hedest ructiveef f
ect soft hesl avet r
adeonAf ri
cansoci eti
esandt he
dest r
uct ionoft heI ndianci vil
izationsi ncent ralandSout hAmer ica.
 Thef irstpr er equi siteoff oll
owi ngnon- dependentr elati
onshi pandi mpov erishi ng
polici
esi st hent obr eakt hedependentr elationship.Butev ent hi
smaynotbe
possibl ebecauseoft heal l
-embr acingnat ureofdependencypr event i
nganysuch
breakout .I tisher et hatMar xistsanddependencyschoolpar tcompany .Whi l
e
mostoft hedependencyappear st obel i
ev eabr eaki spossi bl e,mostMar xist s
woul dnot ,consi der i
ngt her elationshipast hei nev i
tableout comeofcapi tal i
st
development-onl ya change att he cent ermakeschange att he per ipher y
possibl e.
 Thedependencyt heor ywasamostv aluabl econt ributi
ont o moder nsoci al
science. Notonl ydi di tcont ainanef f
ect i
v ecr it
icism oft hemoder nization
paradi gm/ t
heor y;ital sopr ov i
dedanal ternat iv
eper spect i
veandst il
lfunct ions
asacat alysti nthedev elopmentt heor y,whichi st akingshapeatt hepr esent .

11.
3.Cr
it
iqueofDependencyTheor
y:
 Theor iesofdependency ,wor l
d-sy stemsandunder dev elopment( Wal lerstein1974)
cert ainlyhav et heirlimitati
ons, par t
icularlyi
nnegl ect i
ngt her oleofcont empor ary
i
nt er nalpol iti
calandeconomi ccondi ti
ons,butt hisdoesnotj ustif
yacompl ete
abandonmentoft hoset heor i
es,andt heirunder l
yinghi storicalobser vations.
 Exter naldependency ,int he pastand atpr esent ,i s a necessar ybutnota
suf ficientf actort or eckonwi thinexpl aininglackofdev elopment .Inpur suingt his
l
ineofst udy ,internalpol it
icsmustcer tainl
ybeaddedt otheanal ysisofext ernal
i
mpact s,butal way swi thahi stori
calappr oach,andwi thsomemet hodol ogical
stringencyi ndef iningdev elopment ,andunder dev elopment ,beforeat tempt ingt o
expl ai nthem.
 Theul timat ecausesofunder developmentar enoti dent ifi
edapar tfrom t het hesis
thatt heyor iginatei nacent er.
 Somuchst ressi sputont heext ernalobst aclest odev elopmentt hatthepr oblem
ofhow t oi niti
ateadev elopmentpr ocess,oncet heseobst acl
eswer er emov ed,
wasr athernegl ected.
 Thecr ucialr oleoft hedependencyschoolwast of ocusupont hepar ti
cular
condi tionsaf fectingt hedev elopmentpr ocessi nt het hir
dwor l
dandt hemany
unf or eseencont r
adi cti
onst hatchar acteri
zedt hispr ocess. I tscor respondi ng
weaknesswast heexogeni stbias,bei nganant i
thesi st ot heendogeni stbi asi n
themoder nizat i
onpar adigm, aswel last heclassical Mar xistappr oach.
 Dependencyanal ysisnegl ect stheant hropologicall ev elofanal ysis,i.
e.t hel ocal
communi ty.Whathappensatt hel ocallevelisi ndependencyt heoryar eflection
ofpr ocessesgoi ngoni nar emot ecent er.

34
11.4. Addi ti
onalNot esonDependencyTheor y
(Ci
tedf rom Benj ami nF.Hadi s, “Soci ol ogyandSoci al Change” ,2002)
Dependencyt heor i
st smai nt aint hatunder dev el opmentent ai l
sast agnat i
onsi t
uat ion
thatdev elopi ng nat i
ons cannotov ercome because t hey ar e dependentupon
i
ndust rial
izednat ionst hatbenef itf rom t hedi spar itiesbet weendev el opmentand
under development .The maj orf act orpr ev ent ing dev elopment ,accor di ng t ot his
dependencyschool ,i st hest ruct ur alphenomenon ofdependencewher eby" the
economyofcer taincount ri
esi scondi tionedbyt hedev el opmentandexpansi onof
anot hereconomyt owhi cht hef ormeri ssubj ect ed. "
Accor dingt ot hisschool oft hought ,under dev elopmenti snotsi mpl yast aget hatpr e-
datesdev elopment ,ast heev olut ioni stschemeoft hemoder ni zat iont heor yst at es.
Rather ,under dev elopmenti st he hi stor i
calconsequence ofdependence:poor
count ri
esar e" under dev eloped"because t heyhav e been col oni zed bycount ri
es
whosedev el opmentandf ur therenr ichmenti sbasedont hepi l
fer ageoft hef or mer .
The" classi cal "dependenceent ailednotonl yt heext ract ionofmi ner alr esour cesor
theest ablishmentofpl ant ationeconomi est hatnotonl ydi stor tt heeconomi cand
cultur allifest y l
esoft hei ndi genouspopul at ions,butal sot heexpl oitat ionoft he
i
ndi genouspopul ation'sl abor .I ncont radi st i
nct i
ont ot hei ncr easi ngpol i
ti
caland
economi cpar ticipat ionoft hewor kingcl assi nt he" dev eloped"West ernsoci eties, the
wor kingpoorr emai nsexcl udedf r om anenj oy mentofeconomi cgai nsandpol itical
participationi nt hedependentsoci eties.Thei ncr easi ngeconomi cpar ti
cipat i
onoft he
West ern wor king- classes r esponded t ot he l ogi c oft he need ofan expandi ng
consumermar ket.Wagei ncr easest ransl at edt herei nagr owt hoft hedemandf or
consumerpr oduct s.Thel ogi cofdependence,howev er ,i sout war dlyor ientedand
precl udest heexpansi onoft hei nt ernalmar ket .Thei nter estofagr icul tur alexpor t i
ng
busi nessesi st omai ntaint hecostofpr oduct i
onl ow.Becauset hemar keti sout si de-
i
nt hecor ecount ries-t her ei snopoi nti nencour aginganexpansi onoft hedomest ic
mar keti nt hef orm ofhi gherwages.Ther ef or e,dev el opmenti si mpossi blef ora
count rywhoseeconomyi sdependentupont heeconomyofadev eloped- orcor e-
count ry.
Thedependencyschooli nsi stedt hatt heonl ywayoutoft heper ipher yisbybr eaki ng
awayf rom ast ruct ureofdependence.Si ncet hest at ei scont rol l
edbyt heupper
classesi nper i
pher ysoci et ies, andsi ncet hosecl assesbenef i
twi t
ht hemai ntenance
oft hest ruct ureofdependence,t her efor msPr ebischandt hedev elopment al i
st s
recommendedi nt hef or m ofst at ei nt er vent ionwoul ddol ittl
et of ost erdev elopment .
Theonl ywayoutoft hisst ruct ur alst agnat iont hatl i
mi tseconomi cgr owt handsoci o-
economi cdev elopmenti s,f ort hedependencyschool ,ar ev olutiont hatwoul dbr i
ng
anendt opr ivat eowner shi pofcapi tal, andwhi chwoul df ost ercent ralpl anni ngoft he
economy :asoci alistr evol ut i
on.
Theear lypr opounder soft hedependencyschoolt husr ul edouti ndust ri
alizat ion,
economi cgr owt h,andcapi talaccumul at i
oni nt heper ipher yont hegr oundst hat
dependencel eadst o ani rrev er sibl eeconomi cst agnat i
on.Ther api dpr ocessof
i
ndust rial
izat ioni nsomeoft henat i
onsoft he" dependentper i
pher y" ,howev er, cal l
ed
theat tentionofsomeoft heschol ar sassoci atedwi tht hedependencyschool .The
1970ssaw ani nter estingr ev isionoft henot ionofdependencef rom wi thint he
dependencyschool ." Capi talaccumul ationt ookpl acei nt heper ipher yev enunder
condi tions of' classi c dependence, 't hati s,t he expor tofpr imar y pr oduct si n
exchangef ormanuf actur edgoods.Thepr ocessofaccumul at ionasi ti scur rent ly
occur ri
ngi ncount riessuchasBr azi li s,howev er,ofadi fferentor der .Iti sdi fferent

35
becausei ti ncl udesasubst ant ialdegr eeofi ndust rialization,andal sot hemor e
(
14)
compl exi nter naldi vi
sionofl aborandi ncr easedpr oduct iv
ityt hatt hi si mpl i
es."
Pet erEv anshasl abel edt hi st y peofeconomi cgr owt h" dependentdev el opment "
becausehedi dnotconsi dert hatt heki ndofaccumul at ionheanal yzedi nBr azilhas
elimi nat ed dependence. Ev en wi th i ndust rializat ion,t his new gener at i
on of
dependence anal yses suggest s,f or eign capi talpl ay s an i ncreasi ngl yt horough
penet rat ion.Thedependentchar act erofdev elopmentst emsf rom t hef actt hatt he
mostf undament aldeci si onsast owher e- andi nwhat -t oinv estar est illmadei nt he
corecount ri
es,att heheadquar ter soft r
ansnat ionalcor porat ions.Ther efor e,i ft he
ri
singpr iceofl abori nt hecor ecount riesj ustifiest heexpor tofi ndust ri
alcapi talt o
theper ipher yi nor dert ot akeadv ant ageoft hecheaperper i
pher yl abor ,dependency
i
s st illi n pl ace r egar dless ofwhet hert he pr oduct st hatl aborpr oduces ar e
agricul t ur al ori ndust rialones.
The f ocus oft he dependency schooli s on t he st ructur e ofdependence as
exper i
encedbydependentsoci eties.Theuni tofanal ysi sint hest udi esunder taken
bydependencyt heor istsi st he dependentsoci eties oft he per i
pher y.Thatt he
dependencyt heor yt akest heper spect i
v eofdependentsoci etiesi snodoubtr elat ed
tot hehi st oricalci rcumst ancet hatt hist heor ywasbor n, intheper ipher y ,ofper ipher y
soci alt hi nker s.Anot hert heor et icalf ramewor kt hatshar esmanyoft heconcer nsof
thedependencyschool ,andwhi chal soanal yzest hepr ocesswher ebyt hecor e
count riesshor t-changet hecount riesoft heper ipher y,i st hewor ldsy stemst heor y.
Thewor ldsy stemst heor ywasi nspi redbyt hewor kofdependencyt heor ists,buti t
wasent i
rel yconcei vedi ncor ecount ries.Rat hert hant akingt heper spect i
v eoft he
dependent ,per ipher ysoci eties,t hewor ldsy stemst heor yf ocusesont hesy stem of
wor ldr elat ionsasi tsobj ectofst udy .
Fordependencyt heor y ,as al readydi scussed abov e,t he det ermi ni stic ext er nal
char act erofdependencei ssucht hat ,despi t
eofv ariat ionsi nt hei nt ernalcondi t i
ons
from count ryt o count ry ,t her ei s no r ealescape f rom t he ext er nal l
yi mposed
under dev el opment .Byf ocusi ngont hewor ldsy stem asawhol east heuni tof
anal ysi s,r athert hanoni ndividualdependentsoci eties- ast hedependencyschool
does-t hewor ldsy stemst heor yov ercomessomei mpor tantshor tcomi ngsoft he
dependencyschool .Mostnot abl y ,t hewor ldsy stem per spect iv
et heor izest hatt he
stratificat ionbet weencor eandper ipher yi smai ntai ned( i
.e.,r epr oduced)ev eni f
i
ndi vidual count ri
esmov eupordownt hehi erarchy .
One i mpor tant t heor eticalf l
aw at tribut ed t o dependency t heor istsi st hei r
char act er i
zat i
onoft heper ipher y( andev ent hesi xteent hcent uryWest er nEur opean
soci eties)ascapi tali
str at hert hanpr ecapi tali
st .Thi si sseenbyChi nchi l
laandDi etz
as doi ng " violence t o much obser v abl e r eal ity". Whet her t he per i
pher yi s
char act er i
zedascapi talistorpr ecapi talisti st heor et ical lylinkedt ohowcapi talism i s
defined.Al t
houghder i
vingmanyoft hei rconcept sandt heoret icalpr oposi ti
onsf r
om
Mar xi sm ( andLeni n'st heor yofi mper i
al i
sm) ,t hedependencyper spect ivesf ocuson
theunev ennessoft hedi stribut ionofweal thbet weencor eandper ipher y.

11.
5.Moder
nizat
ionTheor
yVsDependencyTheor
y:

Ondiff
erencesi
nweal t
hbet
weenr i
chandpoorcount r
ies
How canweexpl ai
nt heegregi
ouseconomici nequali
tybet weenr i
chandpoor
count
ri
es?Scholarshavefor
meddi f
fer
entt
heoriestointerpret
,anal
yze,andr
esol
ve
theeconomicgapbet weenri
chandpoorst at
es. Theset heori
esincl
udeMarxi
st,

36
Moder nizati
onanddependency . Thesehav edefinedt hepol i
ti
caldebateont he
dev el
opmentgapbet weenr i
chandpoorcountri
es.Ourf ocushereistoexami nehow
moder nizati
onanddependencyt heor
iesexplai
nthedi ffer
encesi nwealthbetween
ri
ch and poorcount ri
es. " Nort
her
n spokespersons often appeal
,impl i
cit
ly,to
moder nizati
ontheory,whichemphasizesthebenefit
soft heSout hofopennesst o
tradeandi nvest
mentf r
om theNort
h.ThirdWorldrepresentat
ives,ont
heot herhand,
regular
lyi nvoke dependency t
heory as a basi
sf ordemandi ng refor
m ofan
exploit
ativeworl
deconomi csyst
em."

Moder nizationt heor yf ocusesont heindustri

ali
zingexper ienceofr i
chcount ri
esi n
thei
rj ourney t owar d moder nity
. Fora count ryt o become moder n,ithas t o
i
ndust ri
alizefi
r st .Schol arswhoespousemoder nizati
ont heory( Rostow,Nurkse,et c)
beli
evet hatt he r ich count r
ies are wealthyt odaybecause oft heirsuccess i n
embraci ngt heconceptofmoder nity
.Moder nit
y ,f
ort hem,br ingst heblessingsof
progressi nev er yspher eofhumanl if
e.Moder nizationtheor i
stsseet heobst acl
est o
Thir
d Wor l
d dev elopmentt hrough the prism oft he Nor th's own dev elopment
experience.TheNor thgrewr i
ch...notbyexpl oit
ingt heSout h,butbydi scovering
thesecr etsofsust ai
nedeconomi cgr owth.Thecul tur
alv aluesandsoci al
,polit
ical,
and economi ci nst i
tuti
ons thatpr ovided the keyst o nor thern developmentar e
embodi ed i nt he not ion of moder ni
ty. The moder n per son,accor ding t o
moder nizationt heor ybel i
evesinthepowerofr easont ot ameandt r
ansform natur e.
Thus, moder nsoci eti
esar ecreativeandopent ochange.

Theeconomi esoft r
adit
ionalsoci
et i
esont heotherhandaccor dingtoModer nization
theoriesof tenr estuponei thersubsi st
enceagr i
culture,whereext endedf ami l
ies
produceonl yfort heirownneeds, orfeudalorsemif eudallandholdi
ngar r
angement s,
wher er elat
ivel
ysmal lnumber sofl ar
gelandowner sli
v eoffofthesur pl
usproduced
byani ndenturedpeasant r
y." Themostcr i
ti
calelementi nt hetransiti
onf rom a
traditi
onalsoci etytoamoder none, "Lair
sonandSki dmor eargue,"istheemer gence
ofasy stem ofr ewardsf ori
nnovation.Thesoci et
ymustnotonl ycomet oexpectand
wel comechangeandt oembr acet henotionofpr ogress,butalsowi ll
i
nglytolerate
thei nequaliti
eswhi chr esul
tf r
om al l
owingi ndi
vidualstor eaphandsomepr i
vate
returnsf ori
nnov ati
onsthathavehi ghsocialval
ue."

Modernizat
iont heory ,
therefore,suggest sthattheriseofcapi
tal
istinsti
tutionsisthe
keyinturni
ngt r
adi t
ionalsocietiesintomoder nones.Thepoorcount r
iesoft odayare
poorbecauset heyhav enotdi scar dedtheir"tr
aditi
onalwaysofor ganizingsoci et
y."
Asar esult
,moder ncapitali
sti nsti
tuti
onscannotemer ge.AsLai r
sonandSki dmore
expl
ain:Moder nizationtheor i
stssuggestt hatbeforesustai
nedandsel f-generati
ng
economicgr owthbecomespossi bl
ei ntheSout h,
thirdWorl
dsocietiesmustunder go
thesamet ransitionf r
om t r
adit i
onali
sm t omoder nitypr
evi
ouslyexper i
encedbyt he
North.

Thepat ht odevelopmentt husl i

est hr
oughemul at
ionoft heNor t
h. Thepr i
ncipl
e
obstacl
et omoder nizat
ionarisesf r
om thepersistenceoft raditi
onalculturalv
alues
and insti
tuti
ons i
nt he Southt hatarei ncompat i
ble with economic gr owth and
i
ndustrial
izat
ion. Forexampl e,inIndia'
spastno ent repreneuri
alclassemer ged
becausewhat everwealthani ndivi
dualmayhav esav edinhisl i
feti
mer evertedtothe
Mogult reasuryuponhi sdeat h. Thus,ostent
atiousdisplayofweal t
hbecamet he

37
normi nMogulI ndia.Nosur pl
uswasgener atedt ofi
nanceot hereconomi cventures.
Thiswasal sothecasei nFr ancewher et heabsol uteruleoft heBour bonkingsst i
fl
ed
theentrepreneurialspir
itbycr eati
nganat mospher eofuncer t
aint
yandf ear. The
Engli
sh monar chs,on t he otherhand,nev erachieved t he divinel
y-sanct
ioned
absoluti
sm oftheFr enchkings( Charl
esIhadt hetemeritytot ry,
buthel osthishead).
Mor ei mportantly,the landed ar i
stocrats,many ofwhom wer e member s of
Parli
amentt hemsel ves spearheaded t he I ndustri
alRev olution bydest royi
ng the
feudalorderthroughtheencl osuremov ement .

Suppor t
ersofmoder niz
at i
ont heoryagreet hateconomi cinterdependencebetween
ri
chandpoorcount r
iesisusef ul,notonlyf ortheexchangeofmat eri
albenefi
ts,but
also" forthebenef i
ciali
mpactsucht i
eshav einhelpi
ngt oerodeandunder minet he
traditi
onalsoci alvaluesandst ructur
est hathol dbackdev elopment .
" Thisist he
reasonwhyt heUnitedSt ates,thecontempor ar
ychampi onofcapi t
ali
sm andear t
h's
remai ninghegemony ,wantst hepoorcount ri
estointegr
ateintotheglobaleconomi c
sy stem, sothattheycanr eceivet hebountiesoft r
adeaswel lasabsor bmodernizing
val ues.

Finally,crit
icsofmoder nizati
ont heory(incl
udi ngdependencyt heor i
sts)cont endthat
thepr obl em ofunderdevelopmentl i
esnotwi tht heinabil
it
yofpoorcount ri
est obreak
theirt radit
ionalcharacteri
sti
cs,butwi ththeexpl oitat
iverelationshi pbet weenr i
ch
andpoorst at
es. Theyi ll
ustrat
et hisrelationshi pbyusi ngacent erandper i
phery
anal ogy .Thecent eriscomposedofcount riest hathaveadv ancedi ndustr
iali
zati
on,
adv ancedt echnol
ogy,highwager ates,andhi ghl i
vi
ngst andar ds;t heper iphery
,on
theot herhand,i scomposedofcount ri
est hataret hecompl eteopposi teoft he
cent er.Thecent erexploitsthepoorcount riesbybuy i
ngt heper i
pher y
'scheapr aw
mat erialsandsel l
ingtot hem theirexpensivei ndustri
alproduct s( sincewor ldmar ket
pricesf orrawcommodi tiesarelowert hant hepr i
cesofmanuf act uredgoods) .

Fur ther more,mul t

inati
onalcor porati
onsbasedi nther i
chcount r
ieshel pexpl oi
tthe
poorcount r
iesbybr i
ngingt echnol ogyt hatisoflit
tleusei nthelocalcont extandby
repat ri
atingt heirprofi
tsbackt ot hehomecount r
y.Lai r
sonandSki dmorer evealthe
originoft hi
sr elati
onship:Thi r
dWor l
dcount ri
eswer edr awnintothecapi tali
stwor l
d
economyt hrough col oniali
sm aswel last heexpansi on ofEur opean t radeand
i
nv est ment .Eur opeancount ri
esusedt heirpoli
ti
caldomi nati
ontocr eateandenf orce
adi visionofl abor ,whichr eservedt hemostdy nami csegmentoft hewor ldeconomy
fort hem.Nor th-Southtradewasbui l
tar oundthemov ementofmanuf acturedgoods
from Nor thtoSout handt het ransferofpr imaryproducts...f r
om Sout ht oNor t
h....
Col oniali
sm l efttheeconomi esofSout herncount r
iesgear edmoret owardt heneeds
ofnor thernmar ketst hant hedomest icneedsoft hei
rownsoci eti
es.Thi ssetof
economi cr elati
onships...out l
ivedcol onial
ism i
tself.

12.ChangingTheor et
ical
ApproachestotheSt udyofAfri
canDev el
opment
GoranHy den( 1994)pointsoutt hatoneoft hemostst riki
ng thi
ngsaboutt he
developmentdebateinAf ri
caishow li
tt
leithasbeenshapedbyAf r
icanarchi
tects
(poli
ti
call
eadersandper sonswi t
hav i
sion)andthatthisrefl
ectsther el
ati
onsof
poweri nthewor l
d. Gor anarguesthatitistheinter
nati
onalcommuni tythathas
helpedsettheAfri
candev el
opmentagenda.I ti
stotheideol
ogicalper
specti
veoft he
donorcommuni tythatAfr
icahastorespond.

38
GoranHy deni
dent
if
iesf
ourshi
ft
sindev
elopmentt
heor
ydur
ingt
hepastf
ort
yyear
s
orso.Thesear
e:

12.
1.St
ruct
uralFunct
ional
ism
Pul lingt oget herv ari
oust hreadsi nnon- Mar xistsoci alscience,Tal cottPar sonsi n
soci ologyandl aterGabr ielAl mondi npol i
ticalsci encebecamet hef l
ag-bear ersof
struct uralfunct i
onalism.
Thist heor yimpl i
edt hatsoci etiesregardl essoft heirpeculiariti
esi nher entlyper for
m
thesamebasi cf unctions,butt heyar edi f
ferent iatedi nter msofwhi chst ructures
perfor mt hesef uncti
ons.Thus, f
orinstance, acount ry'sdev elopmenti smeasur edin
termsofhow t hedi fferent i
atedi t
sst ruct uresar e,t heassumpt ionbei ngt hatt he
mor epl urali
sticacount r
y, t
hemor edev el op.
Struct uralf unctionali
sm wasbui l
tont heassumpt i
ont hatdev elopmenti sal i
near
evolut ion,i nvolving st r
uct uraldi f
ferentiations and cul t
ur alsecul ari
zation,usi ng
west er ndemocr acyast heul timatest age( refert oRost ow,Nur kse'st heor i
esof
dev elopment ). St ructures wer et he f aci l
i
t ators of dev elopment . St ructural
funct ionalism wasmeantt obeacount erpoi ntt ot heUni versal istambi tionsof
Mar xi sttheory .
Byt hesecondpar toft he1960s, thecr i
tiqueofst ructuralf
unct i
onal ism hadgr ownt o
suchanext entt hatitsleadi ngr olewasi nquest ion.Acar efulscr ut i
nyofi tsbasi c
premi sessuggest edthatt heywer eunt enabl e. Fut uredev elopmentt heoryhadt o
seeki tsinspirationfrom ot hersour ces.

12.2.Neo- Mar xi
stPol it
ical Economy
Ar eleadingadv ocat esoft hedependencyt heor y. NeoMar xistsat temptt oappl y
Mar xism t oadv anceMar xistpol i
ticaleconomyona“ new’f r
amewor ktosuitexisting
condi ti
ons.NeoMar xistspr ovideacr it
iquetost ruct uralfunct i
onal ism.Theyar gue
thatst ructuralf unctional i
sm wasnai v einassumi ngt hatdev elopmenti st hebest
pursuedi ncondi ti
onsofsoci alhar monyorequi l
ibrium.
Tot heneo- Mar xists,dev el opmentgr owsoutofconf l
ict
,not ablyt hosest emmi ng
from changesi nthemat erialcondi ti
onsofl if
e.Fur thermor e,st ructuresarenotonl y
facili
tati
ngbutar eal soconst raining, holdingbackhumanpot ent i
al.
Neo- Mar xist
sst ressedt hei nt ernational characteroft hesest ruct uralconstraint
s,and
hencet heneedf ort hepoorcount r
iesoft hewor l
dt oemanci pat et hemsel v
esf rom
theirdependenceont her i
chercount ries.
Class anal y
sis,i ni ts or thodox f orm ( Marxi
sm) ,was al so br oughtback i nto
dev el
opmentt heor y.Dr awingmuchofi tsinspirationf rom Fr ant zFanon’ sscat hing
crit
iqueoft henew l eadersi nt hi r
dwor l
dcount ri
es( 1963) ,thi sanal ysi
sf ocused
primar i
lyont heweaknessofr ulingcl assesint hesecount ri
es.Anexampl eoft his
anal y
sisi sIssaShi vji’
saccountoft hecl assst ruggl esinTanzani a( 1975),wher ehe
ri
dicules t he ‘pet t
y-bour geoi sie’and makes her oes oft he count ry
’s suppressed
wor kersandpeasant s. Thi sgr oupm al thoughusi ngaMar xistcl assanal ysi
scan
alsobesai dtobel ongt ot heneo- Mar xistcamp.

12.3.Neo-Liber
alPol i
ti
calEconomy
Foremostoft hesewast heneo- li
beral‘r
ati
onalchoi
ce’t
heorywhichbeganitsimpact
ondev elopmentt heoryinthel att
erpar tofthe1970s.Cont r
aryt obothstr
uct
ur al
functi
onali
sm and neo- Marxistpol it
icaleconomy ,t
his new theorystr
essed the
i
mpor tanceofi ndiv
idualactors.Tot hem developmenti
st heaggregat
eoutcomeof

39
amult
it
udeofi
ndi
vi
dualdecisions.Operati
nginamarketcontext
,peopl
emaket hei
r
owndeci
si
onsi
nav ol
unt
aryf ashion.SamuelPopki
n(1979)andRobertBat
es(1981)
ar
eamongthel
eadi
ngneo-l
iber al
s.Their
sisessent
ial
lyatheoryofthemarket
.

12.4.TheNewI nsti
tutionalism
Thistheor et i
calappr oachi sconcer nedwi th‘inst
ituti
ons’ ,thel ayerbet weeni ndividual
actorsandsoci et
alst r
uctures. Thet heoryr etainswhati sl argelyav olunt ari
st
perspect i
v e,butar guet hatsoci alact i
oni spr imar ilyi ntegr at
ive,ai medatgoi ng
beyondsel f- i
nterest. Thi st heoreti
calper spect i
vecor respondst ot heideol ogical
concer nwi than‘ enabl i
ngenv ir
onment ’
. Thef ocusi soni nsti
tuti
onali ssues:t he
questionofhowt ost rengtheni nstit
utions( ‘
inst
itution- building’)andt heconst raints
andoppor tuniti
esf orusi ngt hem as‘ tools’ofdev el opment .Leadi ngadv ocat esof
thi
st heor eticalappr oachi ncludeAmi taiEtzioni,
Aar onWi ldawsky ,JamesMar chand
J.P.Ol sen.
Alltheabov et heoreticalcont ri
butet ot hedebat eondev elopmentbutar easot her
theories bef oret hem unabl et o prov i
de a mor e cr i
ticalunder standi
ng oft he
developmentpr ocessesi nAf ri
ca. Mor ei mpor tantt heyf ailtopr ov i
deal ternative
developmentst rategiest oaddr essdev elopmentpr obl emsi nTanzani a.

13.I
ssust
ainabl
edev
elopmenti
nAf
ri
cai
nthe21stPossi
ble?
 Asr ecentexper iencesi nAf ri
caindi catei tisnoteasyt obreakt hechai nsof
dependencyandi niti
ateapr ocessofsel f
-r
eliantdevelopment.
 Thegr owi ngi nfl
uenceoft heWor ldBank,t heI MFandmul t
inati
onalcompani es
i
ndicat eagr owingt endencyt owardsi ncreaseddependency-par t
icul
arlyinthe
economi car ena.
 Developmentef for t
sar epresentl
ychannel edt owar
dseconomi cgrowth,ignori
ng
therelat ionsofpr oducti
on,whichar ebecomi ngmor eandmor eantagonisti
c.The
major it
yofTanzani a'spopulati
oni sbecomi ngmor eandmor eimpov er
ishedwith
thecount rynowdi videdwithincreasingsoci al tensi
ons.
 Thedev elopedcount ri
eshav eignoredt hecr yf oranew i nt
ernati
onaleconomi c
order( NI EO)f r
om t hir
dwor l
dcount ri
es.
 Thei ntroduct ionofaf reemar keteconomy ,tradeLiberali
sat
ionandpr ivati
zati
on
ofkeyi ndust ri
est hatisgoingoni nmanyoft heAfri
cancount ri
esallpointtothe
need f ora new t heoreti
calper spect iv
et o exami ne/anal
yze the process of
under dev elopment /
developmenti nthesecount ri
es.

14.Summar
yofMai
nIssues
 Neit
her t he bour geois nor t he Mar xist theor y suffi
cient
ly expl ai
ns
underdevelopmentandt huscomeupwi tht entat
ivesuggest i
onsoner adicati
ng
underdevelopment.
 The Bour geoi
s t heorists successfull
y depi ct t he existi
ng si t
uati
on of
underdevelopmenti ndev el
opingcountri
es. Theydonotgi vereasonsf orthe
emergenceofunder developmentnori t
spersistence.
 TheMar xistsatt
emptt oexpl ainthecausesofunder devel
opmentbutt heydonot
comeupwi t
hsubstanti
v esuggestionsofeli
mi nati
ngunder devel
opment .
 TheDependencyt heoristsal socontri
but
esi gnifi
cantlytothegener aldebateof
underdevelopment, par t
icularl
yt he external relations between dev elopi
ng
countri
esandt hedev el
opedcount r
ies.

40
 TheMostappr opriat
et heoryisone,whi ch inar eal
ist
icand balanced way
addr
essesbot htheproblemsofi nadequate,i
nter
naleconomicstruct
uresandthe
ext
ernalunfav
ourableandunf ai
rexternaleconomicrel
ati
ons.
 Thepr ocessofdev el
opmenti nourv i
ew mustincl
udeal laspects–economi c,
pol
it
icalandsocialaspects.

PARTTHREE
DEVELOPMENTETHI
CS

GENERALOVERVI
EW

41
Wear enow goi ngtoseet heappl i
cationoft henotionofet hicsint othei ssueof
development .Allint
erventi
onsoft hegov ernmentthatdealwi t
ht heallevi
ationof
humanpr oblemsai m atdev elopment,whi chshouldbel ookedatpr omot i
onoft he
l
ivel
ihoodsoft hepeopl e.Thati sther easonast owhyi ti si mportantthatwhen
deali
ngwi thethicsandintegrit
yi ngovernment ,i
tisi
mpor t
antt olookatdev elopment
ethi
cs.Theagendaofdev elopmentet hicsistoappl yethicalwisdom t oenhance
humanwel l
-bei
ngandi nternationaldevelopment.
OBJECTI VESOFTHEPART:
1.Tounder standwhatdev elopmentet hi
csmeans.
2.Tounder standthesour cesofdev el
opmentethics.
3.Tounder standareasofconsensusi ndevel
opmentet hics.
4.Tounder standareasofcont r
oversiesindevel
opmentet hi
cs.

Meani ngofEt hicsandDev elopmentEt hi

cs:
Ethi
csi sconsi deredasaphi losophicalstudyofmor alj
udgment sandaboutwhati s
ri
ghtandwhati swr ong.Whi l
edev elopmentethicsisethicalref
lectionont heends
andmeansofsoci o-economi candpol i
ti
calchangewhenmaki ngi nterventionsin
ordert oenhancet helivel
ihoodsoft hepeople.Dev el
opmentet hicsagr eet hatthe
ethi
caldi mensi onofdev elopmentt heoryandpr acti
cei sv er
yi mpor tant,itisas
i
mpor tantasanyot herscientif
icandpol icycomponent .Forinstance,whati soften
call
eddev elopmentoreconomi cgrowt hmaybebadf orpeople,communi t
iesandt he
envir
onment ,andi tisdev elopmentet hi
cstoinform ov ersuchi ssues.Hence,t he
processofdev elopmentshoul dber econceivedasbenef ici
alchange, usuallyspecifi
c
asalleviat
inghumanmi seryandenv ironmentaldegradati
on.

Dev
elopmentet
hics

Isafi
eldofenquir
yt hatr
eflect
sonbot ht heendsandt hemeansofeconomi c
devel
opment.Itt
ypicall
ytakesanor mativestanceaskingandanswer i
ngquesti
ons
aboutthenat
ureofet hi
call
ydesirabl
edev elopment,whatet hicsmeansforachi
evi
ng
devel
opment,anddiscussesv ari
ousethicaldil
emmast hatthepracti
ceof
devel
opmenthasl edto.Inshortit
saimi stoensurethatv al
ueissuesarean
i
mpor t
antpartofthediscourseofdevelopment .
(Wiki
pedi a,2010).

Keyt
hemes

I
tty
pical
l
ylooksatdev
elopmentt
heor
iesandpr
act
iceandt
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
pswi
th:

 soci
alj
ustice
 humanrights
 basi
cneeds

Amaj orfocusofthi
spar
tisont
he"
ethi
csofthemeans"
.Thi
sinv
olvesaski
ngabout
,
notonlyhowt oreal
izet
hegoal
sofdevel
opmentbutal
sowhatareethi
calli
mit
sin
thei
rpursuit

DenisGoul
et,
oneoft
hef
oundi
ngf
ather
soft
hedi
sci
pli
near
guedi
nTheCr
uelChoi
ce
(1971)

42
That;
Developmentethi
csisuselessunl
essitcanbet r
anslatedintopublicacti
on.By
publ
icacti
onismeantactiontakenbypubli
cauthori
ty,aswellasact ionstakenby
pri
vateagentsbyhavingi
mpor t
antconsequencesforthelifeofthepubl i
c
community.Thecentr
alquesti
onis:Howcanmor alguidel
inesinfluencedecisi
onsof
thosewhoholdpower ?

Ther
efor
e,thenat
ureofdev
elopmentethicsi
sdependentonsomequesti
onsthatare
setf
orwardinsear
chforethi
calpr
inci
plesrel
evantt
osocialchangei
nint
erv
entions
i
nordert
o:

a)causesocialt
ransf
ormati
on,
b)analy
zeandassesst hemoraldi
mensionsofdev
elopmenttheor
ies,and
c)resol
vethemor ali
ssuesr
oseindevel
opmentpoli
ciesandpract
ice.

Suchquestionssetf orwar dinsearchforethicalprinci

plesrel
evanttosocialchange
i
nintervent
ionsinclude:
a)I nwhatdirecti
onshoul dasoci et
ydev elop?
b)Bywhatmeansshoul dasoci et
ydevel op?
c)Whoi smor all
yresponsi bl
eforbeneficialchangeofanysoci ety
?
d)Whatar et heobl igati
onsofwhoi sresponsi bleforanybenef i
cialchangein
soci
ety?
e)Whati sthemor alobli
gat i
onofarichcount r
ytowardsthepoorone?
f) Whataret hemor alobligati
onsofthepoorcount rytowardsitspoverty
?

SourcesofDev elopmentEt hics:

Wehav eseenwhatDev elopmentEt hicsi s.Acr ucialquest i
onwhatar et hesour ces
ofDev elopmentEt hics?Fr om whi chsour ceshasDev elopmentEt hicsev ol
v ed?
Inthi
ssect i
on, letusseeanout l
ineoft hesev er alsourcesf oret hi
calassessmentof
the theoryand pr act i
ce ofdev elopment .Ther e are sev eralsour ces f ormor al
assessmentoft het heor yandpr act i
ceofdev elopment .
a)Begi nningi nt he1940s, activistsandsoci alcr i
ti
cs,suchasGandhii nI ndiaand
Frant zFanoni nAf ricacr iti
cizedcol onialr ul
eandt hesoci o-economi cand
politi
calsy stemst hatdev elopedf rom t her uleandoror thodoxeconomi c
dev elopment .
b)Si ncet heear ly1960s,economi stsandsoci alsci ent i
stshav ear guedt hat
dev elopmentneedst ober edef ined,demy sti
fi
edandt hrustint othear enaof
mor aldebat e.Thi si sbecausesoci alplanni ngaswel lasgr assr oot siniti
ati
ves
exper ienced i n numer ous pr ojectsi n poorcount ries demonst rated that
dev elopmenti nterventionshav ecosthumansuf ferings,hav el ostmeani ng
andhav eamount edt oant i-dev elopment .Oneoft hemosti mpor t
antl essons
taughtbyGoul et,insuchst udiesasTheCr uelChoi ce:ANewConcepti nthe
Theor yofDev elopment( 1971)i st hatsocal l
eddev elopment ,owi ngt oits
cost si n human suf f
ering and l oss ofmeani ng,can amountt o anti-
dev elopment .Ther efore,ther eisaneedf oranot hertypeofdev elopment .

c)At hi
rdsourceofdev el
opmentethicsistheef f
ortofAngl
o-Amer i
canmor al
phil
osopher
st odeepenandbroadenphilosophi
caldebat
eaboutf aminerel
ief
andf oodai
d.Int hebegi
nni
ngofear lyseventi
es,oft
eninresponset oPeter
Singer’
suti
li
tari
anargumentforf aminer el
ief(1972)and Garr
ettHardin’s

43
 l
ifeboatet hics(1974),manyphi losophersdebat edwhet heraf f
luentnat i
ons(or
theircitizens)hav emor alobligat i
onstoai dst arv i
ngpeopl einpoorcount ri
es
andi ftheydo,whatar ethenat ur e,basesandext entoft hoseobligations.By
theear lyei ghties,however,mor alphil
osopher s,suchasNi gelDower ,Onora
O’NeillandJer omeM.Segal ,hadcomet oagr eewi t
ht hosedev el
opment
specialistswhof ormanyy earshadbel iev
edt hatf aminer el
iefandf oodai d
were onl yone par toft he sol ution t
ot he pr oblems ofhunger ,pov er
ty,
underdev elopmentandi nternationalinjusti
ce.Whati sneeded,ar guet hese
phil
osopher s,isnotmer elyan et hi
csofai d buta mor e compr ehensive,
empi r
ical l
yi nformedandpol icyr el
evantet hicsofThi rdWor ldDev elopment .
Theki nd ofassi stanceand Nor t
h-Southr elationst hatar ecalled f orwill
dependonhow( good)developmenti sunder stood.

d)Thelastsour ceofdev elopmentet hicsi

st hewor kofsomeeconomi stssuch
as the wor k ofPaulSt reeten and Amar tya Sen.Bot h economi sts hav e
addressed t he causes of gl obal economi c i nequali
ty, hunger and
underdev el
opmentandat tackedt hesepr oblemswi t
h,amongot hert hings,a
concept i
onofdev el
opmentexpl i
citlyfor
mul atedinter msofet hicalpr i
nci ples.
Buil
ding on St reet
ens basi c human needs st r
at egy,Sen ar gues t hat
developmentshoul d be under stood ultimately notas economi c gr owt h,
i
ndust ri
ali
zationormoder nization,whi char eatbestmeans( andsomet imes
notv erygoodmeans) ,butast heexpansi onofpeopl e’
sv al
uablecapabi l
iti
es
andf unctioning’s:whatpeopl ecanorcannotdo.Eg.Whet hertheycanl iv
e
l
ong, escapeav oidablemor bi
dity ,
bewel lnour ished,beabl etoread, writ
eand
communi cate,takepar tinl i
teraryandsci entifi
cpursui t
s,andsof orth.( Sen
1984, p.
497, Nussbaum andSen1993andNussbaum andGl over1995) .

Thesefoursourceshavebeenespeci al
l
yi nfl
uenti
alinthewor kofAnglo-Ameri
can
devel
opmentet hi
cs.Whenpract
icedbyt heAmer icans,Asians,Afr
icansandnon-
AngloEuropeans,devel
opmentet hicsof tendrawsonphi l
osophi
calandmor al
tr
adit
ionsdist
incti
veofthei
rculturalcont ext
s.Seef orexampl e,thewr i
ti
ngsof
LuisCamacho( CostaRi
ca)andGodf reyGunat i
ll
eke(Sril
anka).

QUESTI ONS, PARAMETERSFORETHI CALLY- BASEDDEVELOPMENTAND

CONTROVERSI ES
Developmentet hicsasanyot herdisci
plinecannotgowi thouthav i
ngdi ff
erences
i
nmat tersofopi nion.Howev er,eventhought hereareanumberofdi f
ferences,
developmentet hi
cistsexhibitawi deconsensusaboutt hecommi t
ment st hat
i
nformt hewhol ear eaofdev elopmentet hi
cs,t
hequest i
onst heyar eposingand
theunreasonabl enessofcer t
ainanswer s.
i
)Questi
ons:
Thef ollowingar esomeoft het ypi
calquestionsindev el
opmentet hi
cs.The
developmentet hicist
s are day and ni ghtconcerned int r
ying to givet he
appropriateanswer s.
a)Whatshoul dcountas( good)dev el
opment ?
b)Shoul dwecont inueusingt heconceptofdev el
opmenti nsteadof,forexampl e,
progress,transf ormat
ion,l iber
ati
on,orpost -
development ,alternati
ves t o
development ,li
veli
hoodspr omotion,etc?
c)Whatshoul dbeasoci ety’sbasiceconomi c,pol
iti
calandcul t
uralgoal sand

44
 str
ategies?
d)Whatpr incipl
esshoul di nform thesel ect
ionofsoci et
y’sbasic,economi c,
poli
ti
cal andcul turalgoal s?
e)Whatet hical i
ssuesemer gei ndevelopmentpol icymaki ngandpr acti
ce?
f) Howshoul dt heseethi cal i
ssuesber esolved?
g)How shoul dt hebur densand benef itsofdev elopmentbeconcei ved and
di
stri
but ed?
h)Who orwhatshoul d be r esponsiblef orbringing aboutdev elopment?A
nati
on’sgov ernment, civi
l societ
yort hemar ket
?
i
) Whatr ole,i fany ,shoul dmor eadv ant agedst ates,int
ernat
ionalinsti
tut
ions,
nongover nment alassoci at i
onsandi ndiv i
dualshav eintheself-
developmentof
l
essadv ant agedcount ri
es?
j
) Whatar et hemostser iousl ocal,nationalandi nter
nati
onalimpedi mentsto
gooddev elopment ?

Thesear esomequest ions.Ther ear esomanyot hers.Atf irstsi ght,theycanbe

consi der ed easy and non- issue quest ions.Howev er,af ter obser v i
ng how
dev elopmenti ntervent i
onsar et akingpl aceandconf ront i
ngt hei nt ervent i
onswi th
ethical pr inciples, theni tbecomescl earthatsuchquest ionsar ef undament al.
i
i
)Par amet er sofet hically-
basedDev elopment :
Inaddi ti
ont oaccept i
ngt hei mpor tanceoft hesequest ions, dev elopmentet hici
st s
shar ei deasaboutt hei rf i
eld and t hegener alpar amet ersf oret hically-based
dev elopment .
a)Fi rst,dev elopmentpr act icesandt heor i
eshav eet hicalandv aluedi mensi ons
thatcanbeusedf oret hical anal ysisandcr iticism f ordev el opment .
b)Second,dev elopmenti samul tidisci
plinar yf ieldt hathasbot ht heor eti
caland
pract i
calcomponent st hatwor kt ogetheri nv ar i
ousway s.Hence, dev elopment
ethicist sai m notonl yt ounder st anddev elopmentasdesi rablesoci alchange;
butt heyal soai m atar gui ngf orandpr omot ingspeci ficunder standi ngofsuch
change.
c)Thi rd,al thoughdev elopmentcanbeunder stoodi nt omanydi fferentway s
accor di ng t ot he cont extofwher e dev el opmenti s bei ng i mpl ement ed,
commi tmentt o dev elopmentshoul d aboutunder standi ng and r educing
humanpr obl emsi nlessadv ant agedpopul ations.
d)For th,aconsensusexi stst hatdev elopmentpr ojectsandai dgi ver sshoul d
l
ookf orst rat egiesinwhi chbot hhumanwel l-beingandaheal thyenv i
ronment
j
oint lyexi st.Thehumanwel l
-bei ngandt heheal thyenv i
ronmentmustbe
mut ual lyr einforcingoneanot her.
e)Fi fth,t herei sawar enesst hatwhati sf requent lycal led dev elopment ,f or
i
nst ance, economi cgr owt h, hassol v
edmanypr oblemsandhascr eat edmany
probl emst oo.Dev el
opmentcanbeusedbot hdescr i
ptiv elyandnor mat iv
ely.
● I nt hedescr i
pt i
v esense,f orinst ance, dev elopmenti susual l
yi dentifi
ed
ast hepr ocessofeconomi c
growt h,i ndust ri
al i
zat ion and moder nizat ion t hatr esulti n a soci ety’s
achi evingahi ghgr ossdomest i
c
product( GDP) .Dev elopmentunder stoodi nsuchamannerwhenanal yzed
i
nagi vensoci ety ,t
hat
dev elopedsoci etymaybeei thercel ebr atedorcr it
icized.
● I nt henor mat i
v esense,adev elopedsoci ety,r angi ngf rom v il
lagest o

45
 nat
ional andr egional
societi
es,i sonewhoseest abl
ishedi nsti
tuti
onsr eal
i
zeorapproxi
mate
worthwhi l
egoal s,mostcent r
all
y,
theov ercomi ngofeconomi candsoci alproblems.
f) Sixt
har enaofagr eementist hatdev elopmentet hi
csmustbeconductedat
vari
ousl evels.Developmentet hi
csshoul dassess:
i
) basi cet hicalpr
inci
ples;
i
i)dev elopmentgoal sandmodel ssuchaseconomi cgr owt
h,gr
owthwith
equity,basicneeds,sustainabledev elopment ,and;
i
ii
)speci fi
ci nsti
tuti
onsandst rategi
es

g)Seventh,dev el
opmentet hicsshoul dbeani nter national concer n:
●Et
hicist
sengagedi nt hi
swor kcomef r
om manynat ionsi ncl
udi ngpoorone
●Theyar eseekingt oforgeani nternati
onalconsensus, andt hatthi
sconsensus
emphasi zesacommi tmentt o al l
evi
ati
ngwor ldwi depr oblems.
g)Eighth,although manydev el
opmentet hicistscont end thatatl eastsome
developmentpr incipl
esorpr ocedur esarer elevantf oranypoorcount ry
;most
agreethatdev elopmentst rat
egiesmustbeputi nt ocont ext.
h)Ninth,t hi
sf lexibi
lit
y concer ning dev el
opmentmodel s and strat
egies i
s
compat ibl
e wi t
ht he r ejecti
on ofcer t
ain ext remes.Forexampl e,most
developmentet hici
stswoul drejecttwomodel s:

●t hemaximizati
onofeconomi cgr
owthinasociet
ywi t
houtpayi
nganydir
ect
att
enti
ontoconv er
ti
ng gr
eaterweal
thintobetterhumanli
ving
condi
ti
onsf ori
tsmember s.
●anaut hori
tari
anegalitar
iani
sm inwhichphysi
calneedsaresati
sfi
edatthe
expenseofpoli
ti
calli
bert
ies.

i
ii)AreasofCont rov ersi
es:
Inadditi
ont ot hesepoi ntsofagr eement ,t
herearesev eraldi
visi
onsandunset tl
ed
i
ssuesi ndevelopmentet hi
cs.Thesei ncl
udethefollowing:
a)Oneunsol vedi ssueconcer nst hescopeofdev el
opmentet hi
cs.Dev elopment
ethi
csor i
ginatedaset hicsofThi rdworl
dDev elopment.Therear egoodr easons
todropt heFi rst,SecondandThi rdWor l
dcat egori
es.Therei snoconsensus,
however,onwhet herornotdev elopmentethi
csshoul dextendbey onditscentral
concernofassessi ngthedev elopmentendsandmeansofpoorsoci et
ies.Some
arguethatdev elopmentet hi
cistsshouldcrit
ici
zehumanpr oblemswhat everbe
exit
s and t hose r i
ch countri
es,si nce t
hey t oo have problems ofpov erty
powerlessness, andal i
enati
on, ar
eunderdevelopedandhence, fallpr
operlywithi
n
thescopeofdev elopmentet hi
cs.

b)Thereisdivi
sionont hestat
usoft hemor
alnormst
hattheyseektojusti
fyand
appl
y.Threeposit
ionshave
emerged:
i
) Thosewho ar guet hatdevel
opmentgoal
sand pr
inci
plesar
ev ali
df oral
l
soci
eti
es.

i
i
) Thosewhoar guethateachnati
onorsociet
yshoulddr
aw onl
yonitsown
t
radit
ionsanddeci
dei
tsowndev el
opmentet
hicsandpath.
i
i
i)Those who argue t
hatdevel
opmentethi
cs shoul
dfor
ge a cr
oss-
cul
tur
al

46
consensusi n whi ch a soci ety’sown f reedom t o makedev elopmentchoi cesi s
sensiti
v etot hedi fferencesi nt hesoci et y.
c)Ther eisal soanongoi ngdebat eabouthowdev elopment ’
sbenef i
ts,bur densand
responsi bil
it
iesshoul dbedi st r
ibut edwi t
hi npoorcount r
iesandbet weenr i
chand
poorcount ri
es.Thi shast akensev er alposi t
ionsonout l
inedi nt helistt hatfol l
ows:
i
)Somepr escr i
bemaxi mi zationofi ndi v
idual uti
li
ties.
ii
)Ot hersadv ocat et hati ncomeandweal thar etobemaxi mi zedf ort hel eastwel l
-
off.
iii
)Ot herscont endt hatasoci et yshoul dguar anteenof orm ofequal ityapar tf rom
equal fr
eedom f rom t he interferenceofgov ernmentandot herpeopl e.
iv)Ot hersdef endgov ernment alr esponsi bili
tyt oenabl eev eryonet obeabl et o
advancet oal evel ofsuf f
iciency .
d)Ther earesomedi f
ferenceswi thr espectt owhet hersoci et aldev el
opmentshoul d
haveasanul ti
mat egoal the
promot ionofv aluesot hert hant hepr esentandf uturehumangood:
i
)Somedev elopmentet hicistsar guet hathumanbei ngsar esuper iort oot her
beings.
ii
)Ot hersar guet hatnon- humani ndi v
idual sandspeci es, aswel lasecol ogical
communi ti
es, hav eequal andev ensuper iorv aluet ohumani ndi vi
dual s.
i
ii
)Thosecommi tt
edt oeco- dev elopmentorsust ainabledev elopmentdonoty et
agreeonwhatshoul dbesust ainedassuch.
SUMMARY
Inthispar t,wehav ebeenabl etoseewhatdev elopmentet hi csmeans,i tssour ces,
theareasofconsensusandt hoseofcont r
ov ersies.
1.Dev elopmentet hicsi set hi calr efl
ect ionont heendsofmeansofsoci o-economi c
andpol i
ti
calchangewhenmaki ngi nter ventionsi nor dertoenhancet hel i
v el
ihoods
ofthepeopl e.
2.Dev el
opmentet hicshasor i
gi ninact ivi
st sandsoci alcr i
tics,economi sts,and
socialscient i
stsandsomeet hicist swhot r
iedt odeepenandbr oadendebat esabout
developmentai d.
3.Dev el
opmentet hicistsar econcer nedwi thmanyquest ionsandhav et riedt o
establishmanypar amet erst odet ermi neanet hicall
y -
baseddev elopment .St il
l,like
anyot herdi scipline,dev elopmentet hi csi snotwi thoutcont rov ersiesandar easof
unsettledissues.

47
 PARTFOUR

DEVELOPMENTI
SSUES

DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE1

GOODGOVERNANCEANDDEVELOPMENT

Democr
acy
,Publ
icSect
orRef
ormsandHumanRi
ght
s

WHAT I
S GOOD GOVERNANCE?

Recentlytheterms" gov ernance"and" goodgov er

nance"arebei ngi
ncreasi
nglyused
i
ndev elopmentl it
erature.Theopposi t
eofi t
,isBadGov ernancewhi chthelatteris
bei
ngi ncreasi
nglyregar dedasoneoft herootcausesofallevilwit
hinoursocieti
es.
Majordonor sandi nternationalf
inancialinst
it
uti
onsareincreasingl
ybasingtheirai
d
and loans on t he condi tion t
hatr eforms thatensure" Good Gov ernance"ar e
undertaken.

Thi
spar ttri
esto expl
ain,assimplyaspossi
ble,what"gov
ernance"and "
good
gov
ernance"means,
it
scharact
eri
sti
csaswel
lasi
mpor t
ance.

GOVERNANCE

Theconceptof" gover
nance"isnotnew.I
tisasoldashumanci vi
l
izati
on.Simplyput
"governance"means:thepr ocessofdecisi
on-makingandt hepr ocessbywhi ch
decisions ar
ei mpl
ement ed (ornotimplemented)
.Gov ernance can be used in
severalcontext
ssuchascor porat
egover
nance,int
ernat
ionalgovernance,nati
onal
governanceandlocalgovernance.

48
Gov ernancecanbeseenast heexerci
seont hreelegsofeconomi c,pol
iti
caland
admi nist
rati
veauthorit
ytomanageacount r
y'
saf fai
rsatalll
evels.Itcompr i
sesthe
mechani sms,pr ocesses and inst
it
uti
ons through which cit
izens and gr oups
art
iculatet heiri
nterest
s,exerci
se t
hei
rlegalr i
ghts,meett heirobl i
gat
ions and
medi atetheirdi
ff
erences.

Economi cgov ernancei ncl

udesdeci sion- makingpr ocessest hataf f
ectacount ry'
s
economi cactivi
tiesandi tsrelati
onshipswi thot hereconomi es.I tclearl
yhasmaj or
i
mpl i
cati
onsf orequi ty,
povertyandqual i
tyoflife.Poli
ticalgovernancei stheprocess
ofdecision-
maki ngt of or
mulat epoli
cy .Admi nistrat
ivegov er
nancei sthesy st
em of
poli
cy implement ati
on.Encompassi ng al lthr ee,good gov ernance defines the
processesandst r uct
uresthatguidepol it
icalandsoci o-economi crelati
onships.

Thegoalofgovernancei ni
ti
ati
vesshouldbetodevelopcapaci
ti
est
hatareneededto
real
i
sedevelopmentt hatgivespri
orit
yt othepoor,advanceswomen,sustai
nsthe
envi
ronmentandcr eatesneededopportuni
ti
esforemploymentandotherl
i
veli
hoods
(UNDP1994I ni
ti
ati
v esforChange)

GOODGOVERNANCE

Good gov ernancehasEi ghtmajorchar act

eri
sti
cs.I tisparticipatory,consensus
ori
ented,account abl
e,t
ransparent
,responsiv
e,effecti
veandef ficient,equi
tabl
eand
i
nclusiveandf ollowsther uleoflaw.Itassurest hatcorrupt
ioni smi ni
mized,t he
vi
ewsofmi norit
iesaretakenintoaccountandthatthev oi
cesoft hemostv ulnerable
i
nsoci et
yarehear di
ndecision-
making.I
tisalsoresponsiv
et othepr esentandf uture
needsofsoci ety
.

Sour
ce:

Fi
gur
e2:Char
act
eri
sti
csofgoodgov
ernance

49
Par
ti
cipat
ion

Partici
pationbybot hmenandwomeni sakeycor nerstoneofgoodgov er
nance.
Partici
pationcouldbeei t
herdir
ectort hroughlegit
imateintermediatei
nstit
uti
onsor
representati
ves.Iti
simpor t
anttopoi ntoutthatrepresentat
ivedemocr acydoesnot
necessarilymeant hattheconcernsoft hemostv ul
nerableinsocietywouldbet aken
i
nto consi derat
ion i
n decisi
on maki ng.Par t
ici
pati
on needs to be informed and
organized.Thismeansf r
eedom ofassoci at
ionandexpr essionont heonehandand
anor ganizedcivi
lsociet
yontheot herhand.

Rul
eofl
aw

Goodgov er
nancerequir
esfai
rlegalf
rameworksthatar
eenf or
cedimpart
ial
l
y.Ital
so
requi
resful
lprotect
ionofhumanr i
ght
s,parti
cul
arl
ythoseofmi nori
ti
es.Impart
ial
enfor
cementofl aws requi
res an i
ndependentjudi
ciar
y and an impart
ialand
i
ncorrupt
ibl
epoli
ceforce.

Tr
anspar
ency

Transpar
encymeanst hatdeci si
onst akenand thei
renforcementaredonei na
mannert hatfol
l
owsr ulesandr egul
ati
ons.Ital
someanst hatinf
ormati
onisfreel
y
avail
abl
eanddi r
ectl
yaccessibletothosewhowi l
lbeaffect
edbysuchdeci si
onsand
thei
renforcement.I
talsomeanst hatenoughinf
or mati
onisprovidedandthatiti
s
provi
dedineasil
yunderstandablefor
msandmedi a.

Responsi
veness

Good governance r
equir
es that i
nsti
tut
ions and pr
ocesses t
ryt
o ser
ve al
l
st
akehol
derswithi
nareasonabl
eti
meframe.

Consensusor
ient
ed

There are severalact or

s and as many v iew point
si n a given soci
ety.Good
governancerequiresmedi ati
onoft hediffer
entint
erestsinsocietytoreachabr oad
consensusinsoci etyonwhati sinthebestinter
estofthewhol ecommuni tyandhow
thi
scanbeachi eved.Italsorequiresabr oadandl ong-
term perspect
iveonwhati s
neededf orsustainablehumandev elopmentandhow t oachievet hegoalsofsuch
devel
opment .Thiscanonl yresultfrom anunderstandi
ngoft hehi st
ori
cal,cul
tural
andsocialcontextsofagi vensocietyorcommuni t
y.

Equi
tyandi
ncl
usi
veness

Asociet
y’swellbeingdependsonensur ingthatal
lit
smember sfeelthatt
heyhavea
st
akeinitanddonotf eelexcl
udedf
rom themainstr
eam ofsoci
ety.Thisr
equir
esall
gr
oups,butpar ticularlythe mostv ul
nerabl
e,have opport
uni
ties toimprove or
maint
ainthei
rwell being.

50
Ef
fect
ivenessandef
fi
ciency

Goodgov er
nancemeanst hatpr
ocessesandinst
itut
ionsproduceresul
tsthatmeet
theneedsofsocietywhi
lemakingthebestuseofr esourcesatthei
rdisposal
.The
conceptofeff
ici
encyint
hecontextofgoodgovernancealsocoversthesustai
nabl
e
useofnatur
alresour
cesandtheprot
ecti
onoftheenvironment.

Account
abi
li
ty

Account abi
l
ityisakeyr equi
rementofgoodgov ernance.Notonl ygovernment al
i
nst i
tuti
onsbutal so t
he priv
ate sectorand ci vilsocietyor ganizati
onsmustbe
accountabletothepubl i
candt otheirinst
it
uti
onalst akeholder
s.Whoi saccount abl
e
towhom v ari
esdependi ngonwhet herdecisionsoract i
onst akenar einternalor
externaltoanor gani
zati
onori nst
it
ution.I
ngener alanor ganizationorani nst
ituti
on
i
s account ablet ot hose who wi llbe af fected by i t
s deci sions or actions.
Account abi
l
itycannotbeenf or
cedwi t
houttranspar encyandt her uleoflaw.

Aspect
stosust
ainabl
ehumandev
elopment

Therearefi
veaspectstosust
ainabl
ehumandev
elopment-al
laf
fect
ingt
hel
i
vesof
thepoorandvul
nerabl
e:

 Empower
ment-Theexpansi
onofmenandwomen'
scapabi
l
iti
esandchoi
ces,
i
ncr easet heirabili
tytoexerciset hosechoicesandi ncreasest heiroppor tunit
y
topar ticipateindeci si
on- makingorendor sedecisionst hataffectt heirli
ves.
 Co- oper ati
on-Wi thasenseofbel ongingimpor tantf orper sonalf ulfi
ll
ment ,
wel l
-bei ng and a senseofpur poseand meani ng,human dev elopmenti s
concer nedwi ththeway sinwhi chpeoplewor ktoget herandi nteract.
 Equi ty-Theexpansi onofcapabi li
ti
esandoppor tuniti
esmeansmor et han
i
ncome-i tal so meansequi t
y,such asan educat ionalsy stem t o which
ever ybodyshoul dhav eaccess.
 Sust ainabili
ty - The needs of t his generation must be met wi t
hout
compr omi sing the r i
ghtoff uture generat
ions t o be free ofpov ertyand
depr i
v ationandt oexercisetheirbasiccapabil
it
ies.
 Secur ity-Par t
icular
lythesecur it
yofl i
veli
hood.Peopl eneedt obef reedf r
om
threats, suchasdi seaseorr epressionandf r
om suddenhar mf uldisruptionsin
theirlives.

For
ms

I
ninternat
ionalaf
fai
rs,anal
ysi
sofgoodgov
ernancecanl
ookatanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
r
elat
ionshi
ps:

 bet
weengovernmentsandmar kets,
 bet
weengovernmentsandcit
izens,
 bet
weengovernmentsandthepr i
vateorv ol
untar
ysector,
 bet
weenel
ectedoffi
cial
sandappoi ntedoffi
cial
s,
 bet
weenl
ocalinst
it
uti
onsandur banandr uraldwell
ers,
 bet
weenl
egisl
atur
eandexecut i
vebr anches,and

51
 Bet
weennat
ionst
atesandi
nst
it
uti
ons.

Ref
orm andst
andar
ds

Threei nsti
tuti
onscanber eformedt o promotegoodgov er
nance:thest ate,the
pri
vatesect orandci v
ilsociety.Howev er,amongstv ari
ouscul t
ures,theneedand
demandf orrefor
m canv arydependi ngont hepriori
ti
esoft hatcountr
y '
ssociety.A
vari
etyofcount r
yl eveliniti
ativ
esandi nter
nati
onalmov ement sputemphasi son
vari
oust ypesofgov ernancereform.Eachmov ementf orreform est
abli
shescr i
teri
a
forwhatt heyconsidergoodgov ernancebasedont hei
rownneedsandagendas.The
fol
lowingar eexampl esofgoodgov ernancestandardsforprominentorganizat
ionsin
theint
er nat
ionalcommuni ty
.

The I nternationalMonetaryFund ( I
MF)decl ar
ed in 1996 t hat"promot i
ng good
gover nancei nal lit
saspects,includi
ngbyensur ingt her ul
eofl aw,impr ovi
ngthe
effi
ciency and account abili
ty oft he publ
ic sector,and t ackl
ing corrupt
ion,as
essent ialelement sofaframewor kwithinwhicheconomi escanpr osper.
"TheI MF
feel
st hatcorrupti
onwithi
neconomi esiscausedbyt heineffect
ivegovernanceofthe
economy ,
eithertoomuchr egul
ationort ool
it
tl
eregulation.Toreceiveloansfrom t
he
IMF, count r
iesmusthav ecertai
ngoodgov er
nancepol i
cies,asdeterminedbyt heIMF,
i
npl ace.

TheUNf
lag

TheUnitedNat i
onsemphasi
zesref
ormthroughhumandev el
opmentandpol i
ti
cal
i
nsti
tut
ionrefor
m.Accordi
ngtotheUN,goodgovernancehaseightchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
Goodgov er
nanceis:

 ConsensusOr i
ented
 Partici
pat ory
 fol
lowingt heRuleofLaw
 Effecti
veandEf fi
cient
 Account abl e
 Transpar ent
 Responsi v e
 EquitableandI nclusiv
e

Democr
ati
zat
ion

Because concepts such as civi

l society,decent
rali
zation,peaceful confl
ict
managementandaccount abil
i
tyar
eof tenusedwhendef i
ningtheconceptofgood
gover
nance,thedefi
nit
ionofgoodgov ernancepr
omot esmanyi deasthatclosely
al
ignwitheffecti
vedemocr ati
cgovernance.Notsurprisi
ngly,emphasisongood
gover
nancecansomet i
mesbeequat edwithpromoti
ngdemocr at
icgover
nment .

Therearefi
veaspectstosust
ainabl
ehumandev
elopment-al
laf
fect
ingt
hel
i
vesof
thepoorandvul
nerabl
e:

 Empower
ment-Theexpansi
onofmenandwomen'
scapabi
l
iti
esandchoi
ces

52
 i
ncr easest heirabili
tyt oexer ciset hosechoi cesf reeofhunger ,wantand
depr ivation.Italsoincreasest heiropportunit
yt opar ti
cipat ein,orendor se,
deci si
on- makingaf f
ectingtheirlives.
 Co- oper ati
on-Wi thasenseofbel ongingimpor tantf orper sonalf ulfi
l
lment ,
wel l
-bei ng and a senseofpur poseand meani ng,human dev elopmenti s
concer nedwi t
ht heway sinwhi chpeopl ewor ktoget herandi nteract.
 Equi ty-Theexpansi onofcapabi l
iti
esandoppor tuniti
esmeansmor et han
i
ncome-i talso meansequi t y,such asan educat ionalsy stem t o which
ever ybodyshoul dhav eaccess.
 Sust ainabili
ty - The needs of t his generation must be met wi t
hout
compr omi sing t
he rightoff ut ure generat
ions t o be fr ee ofpov ert
yand
depr ivationandt oexercisetheirbasi ccapabil
it
ies.
 Secur ity-Par ti
cular
lythesecur it
yofl i
veli
hood.Peopl eneedt obef reedf r
om
threats, suchasdi seaseorr epr essionandf r
om suddenhar mf uldisruptionsin
theirlives.

UNDP f ocuses on f
ourcr i
ti
calelements ofsust ainabl
e human dev elopment
:
eli
minating povert
y,creati
ng jobs and sustai
ning l i
vel
ihoods,prot
ect i
ng and
regenerati
ng the envir
onment,and pr omoting the adv ancement of women.
Developingthecapaci
ti
esforgoodgovernanceunderpinsall
t heseobj
ect
ives.

CONCLUSI
ON

From t
heabov ediscussi
on,i
tshouldbeclearthatgoodgovernanceisanidealwhi
ch
i
sdiffi
cultt
oachieveinitst
otal
it
y.Veryfewcount r
iesandsociet
ieshavecomeclose
toachievi
nggoodgov er
nanceinit
stotali
ty.Howev er
,toensuresustai
nabl
ehuman
devel
opment ,acti
onsmustbet akentowor ktowardsthisidealwiththeaim of
makingitareali
ty.

DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE2

PEACE,
CONFLI
CTANDDEVELOPMENT

Throughthispart,Uni
versi
tystudent
swi l
l:
♦ Identi
fyimpor t
antconfl
ictsanddisputesthatarecausingsocial
discor
dinthe
part
ici
pants’areaoffocus,organi
zati
on(s),
wor kenvir
onment,orcommuni ti
es;
♦ Gai nf
ami l
iari
tywit
hav ariet
yofmet hodsofr esol
vingconf
li
cts;
♦ Gai nabasicunderstandingofsystemsingener alandconfl
ictmanagement
systemsin

53
 parti
cular
;
♦ Gai nanunderstandingoft
herol
eofconfl
i
ctmanagementsy stemsingov er
nance;
♦ Anal yzeatl
eastoneexisti
ngfor
malori
nformalconf
lictmanagementsystem i
n
thei
r
context;
♦ Dev elopini
ti
alproposal
sfori
mprov
ingexi
sti
ngconfl
ictmanagementsyst emsor
for
creati
ngnewsy stems;and
♦ Out li
nethestepsnecessaryf
ori
mplementat
ionofproposednew/i
mprov ed
systems.

Conf
li
ct

Confl
ictcanbesi mplydefi
nedast hepl
ural
it
yofincompatiblegoal
sbydiff
erent
i
ndiv
idual sorgroups.Confl
i
ctbetweengroupsisnormall
ycal l
edsoci
alconfl
ict
,
whenr elatedt
opol i
ti
cali
ssuesarecall
edpoli
ti
calconf
li
ct;iti
scall
edviol
entconfl
i
ct
wheni tposesat hr
eattosociet
y.

Confl
i
cti
sar elat
ionshipbetweentwoormorepart
ies(i
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oups)who
haveort
hinktheyhav eincompati
blegoal
s.(
EASSI
,2004)

Vi
olence

Violenceconsist
sofact i
ons,words,att
it
udes,st
ruct
ures,orsystemsthatcause
physical
,psychologi
cal
,socialorenvi
ronmentaldamageorpr eventpeopl
ef r
om
reachingthei
rful
lhumanpotenti
al.

Peace-
thev
iol
encet
ri
angl
e

Confli
ctsett
lement
Confl
ictsett
lementi
stheachiev
ementofanagreementbet
weent heconf
li
ctpar
ti
es
onpol i
ti
call
evelwhi
chenablesthem t
oendanar medconfli
ctbutwhichdoesnot
necessari
lyf
undamental
l
yalt
ertheunder
lyi
ngcausesoft
heconfl
ict

Conf
li
ctr
esol
uti
on

Normallytheter
mi susedinthemorenarr
owsenseofendingconfli
cti
namanner
sati
sfact
orytoallthepar
ti
esconcer
ned,asopposedtoendingtheconf
li
ctthr
ough
somesor tofimposedsoluti
onfr
om outsi
de.Confl
i
ctresol
uti
onalsoref
erstothe
resul
tsoftheprocess.

TheEur
opeanUnionusesthet
ermt
odescr
ibeact
ivi
ti
esunder
takenov
erashor
t
ter
mtoendviol
entconfl
i
ct.

NGOsof t
enst r
essthat“Confl
i
ctResolut
ion”shoul
dbelookedasaprocessi
nwhi
ch
thei
ntegrati
onoflocalpart
nersmightbemor eimpor
tantthant
heoutcomewant
ed
bypol
iti
cians.

Conf
li
ctr
esol
uti
oni
sal
sousedt
ocov
eral
lsor
tsofconf
li
cthandl
i
ngact
ivi
ti
es.

54
Confli
ctResoluti
onr ef
erstoacti
vit
iesundertakenoverashor tterm andmedi um
term deal
ingwi t
h,andaimingatov ercoming,thedeepr ootedcausesofconf lict
,
i
ncluding the st
ruct
ural
,behavi
oural,orat t
it
udinalaspects oft he conf
li
ct.The
processfocusesmor eontherel
ati
onshipsbetweentheparti
est hanthecontentofa
specif
icoutcome.

Conf
li
ctmanagement

I
tisasit
uat
ionwher
ebywet ryt
ocopebecause,
tryaswewoul
d;cer
tai
nconf
li
cts
j
ustr
efuset
ogoaway .Thesear
ethest
ubbornconfl
ict
s.

Refersto acti
vi
ties undert
aken toli
mit
,mi t
igat
e and contai
n open conf
li
ct.In
parti
cul
aritr
eferstoactionsthatai
mtocontr
olandhandleaconf l
i
cti
nordertoli
mit
i
tsnegativ
eeffectsandbr i
ngittoanendandtopreventescal
ati
onofexi
sti
ngviol
ent
confl
ict

Conf
li
ctt
ransf
ormat
ion

Conf l
icttr
ansf ormationref erstoal lt
hoseact ivi
ti
es,acti
ons,andi ni t
iat
ivescr eatedto
tapthei mmenseener gygener atedbyconf l
ictformakingbet t
err elati
onships.
Thet ermi susedi npr ef
erencet o‘conflictresoluti
on’inordertoemphasi zet hefact
thatconf l
ictsarerarel y‘
resol v
ed’ assuch, butmer ely‘
transf
ormed’ throughpeacef ul
poli
ticalprocesses.I tisanappr oacht oconf l
i
ctwor kthattakesal ongert ermv iew
andf ocusesonpr ocessesandr el
at i
onshi psr at
hert hanhal tingt hev iolenceor
reachingagr eement s.
Conf l
icttransformat ionr eferst oact ionsandpr ocesseswhi chseekt oal terthe
vari
ouschar acteri
sti
csandmani fest
ationsofconf li
ctbyaddr essingt herootcauses
ofapar ti
cularconflictovert hel ongt erm.I taimst otransform negat ivedest ructiv
e
conflicti
nt opositi
veconst ructiv
econf l
ictanddeal swithstructural,behav i
our aland
atti
tudinalaspect sofconf l
ict.Itincorpor atest heactivi
ti
esofpr ocessessuchas
conflictpr eventi
on and r esoluti
on and goes f ur
thert han conf li
ctset tl
ementor
conflictmanagement .

Peacekeepi
ng

Peacekeepingt radi
ti
onall
yinvol
v est heuseofmi l
it
aryfor
ceonl yinsel
f-
defenseor
forthelimitedobj ect
iveofdet err
ingf ur
therv
iol
ence.Butot hersusethet ermt o
descri
be the whol er ange ofmi l
itaryand ci
vil
i
an tools ai
med atpreventing or
curt
ail
ingviolentconfl
ictbehavi
our.

Peacemaki
ng

Peacemakingr ef
erstot hoseacti
vit
iesthatareemployedtor educeorresol
ve
confl
i
ct,dur
ingorafteraconfli
ctsi
tuati
on.Theseincl
udereconcil
i
ati
onini
ti
ati
ves,
peacetal
ks,
signi
ngofagreements,
trai
ningordi
aloguewor
kshops.

PeaceBui
ldi
ng

55
Peacebui l
dingr ef
erst oal
lthosebigandsmal lacti
vit
ies,acti
ons,thought
s,and
i
nit
iati
vestoensur etherei
speaceandharmonyinsociet
y.
Eachandev eryoneofus,eachatourowndi f
fer
entlevels,eachinourownway ,
bi
ti
ngof fwhatwecanchewandswal l
ow,pl
aytherol
eofpeacebui l
dingsotospeak.
Peacebui l
dingisat er
m andsensethatopensupspacef oreachoneofust oplaya
posit
iverol
e, nomatterwhatt
hatrol
eis.

Compar ethi
sact
ivi
tytotheworkofbeesandants,eachonebusyrunni
ngaround,
seeminglydoi
ngnot
hing,
butwit
hthesum t
otaldove-
tai
li
ngi
ntoavi
sibl
estruct
urei
n
theend.

Development
I
sapr ocessdirect
edatout comesencapsulati
ngi mpr
ov edstandardsofli
vi
ngand
gr
eatercapaci
tyforsel
f-
rel
i
ancei neconomiesthataretechni
call
ymor ecomplexand
moredependentonglobali
ntegrati
onthanbefore(Ki
ngsburyetal.
,2004).

TypesofConf l
ict
Byev al
uat
ingaconf li
ctaccordi
ngtothefi
vecat
egori
esbelow --rel
ati
onshi
p,data,
i
nterest
,str
ucturalandvalue--wecanbegintodet
erminet hecausesofaconf l
i
ct
anddesignresolut
ionstr
ategi
esthatwi
ll
haveahi
gherprobabil
i
tyofsuccess.

Rel
ati
onshi
pConf
li
cts

Relati
onshi
pconf li
ctsoccurbecauseoft hepr esenceofst rongnegat i
v eemot i
ons,
mispercept
ions orst ereotypes,poorcommuni cat i
on ormi scommuni cat
ion,or
repeti
ti
venegat i
vebehav i
ors.Relat
ionshi
ppr oblemsof t
enf ueldisput
esandl eadt o
anunnecessar yescalat
ingspi ralofdestructi
v econf l
ict.Suppor t
ingt hesafeand
balanced expressi
on ofper specti
ves and emot ions foracknowl edgment( not
agreement)isoneef f
ect
iveappr oachtomanagi ngr elat
ionalconfl
ict.

Dat
aConf
li
cts

Dataconf l
ictsoccurwhenpeopl elacki
nformati
onnecessarytomakewi sedecisi
ons,
aremi sinf
ormed, disagreeonwhichdataisrel
evant,
int
erpreti
nfor
mationdiff
erentl
y,
or hav e compet i
ng assessment pr ocedur
es. Some dat a confl
icts may be
unnecessar ysincet heyarecausedbypoorcommuni cati
onbetweent hepeoplein
confl
ict.Otherdat aconf l
i
ctsmaybegenui neincompati
bil
it
iesassoci
atedwithdata
coll
ection,interpr
etation orcommunicati
on.Mostdat a confl
ict
s willhave" dat
a
solut
ions."

I
nter
estConf
li
cts

Int
erestconfli
ctsarecausedbycompet it
ionov erperceiv
edi ncompat i
bleneeds.
Confli
ctsofinter
estresultwhenoneormor eoft hepar t
iesbeli
ev ethatinor
dert o
sati
sfyhisorherneeds,t heneedsandint
erestsofanopponentmustbesacr ifi
ced.
Int
erest-
basedconfli
ctwillcommonlybeexpr essedinposi t
ionalterms.Av ar
iet
yof
i
nterestsandintent
ionsunderli
eandmot i
vateposi ti
onsinnegot i
ationandmustbe
addressed formaxi mized resol
uti
on.Int
erest-based conf l
i
cts may occurov er

56
subst
ant
ivei
ssues(suchasmoney,
physi
calr
esources,t
ime,et
c.);procedur
ali
ssues
(t
hewaythedisput
eistober
esol
ved)andpsy
; chol
ogicali
ssues(percepti
onsoftr
ust
,
fair
ness,desir
ef orparti
cipati
on,respect,et
c.).Foraninterest-baseddisputetobe
resolv
ed,parti
esmustbeassi stedtodefineandexpr esstheirindivi
duali
nterestsso
thatallofthesei nt
erest
smaybej oint
lyaddressed.Inter
est-basedconf l
ictisbest
resolv
ed through themaxi mizing int
egrati
on oft heparti
es'r especti
vei nter
ests,
positi
veint
entionsanddesi r
edexper i
enti
aloutcomes.

St
ruct
uralConf
li
cts

Forcesext ernalcausest ructuralconflict

st ot hepeopl eindi
spute.Limitedphy si
cal
resourcesoraut hority,
geogr aphicconst rai
nts( distanceorproximity),t
ime(tool i
tt
le
ort oomuch) ,organizati
onal changes, andsof or
thcanmakest ructuralconfl
ictseem
l
ikeacr i
sis.Itcanbehel pfultoassi stpar t
iesi nconf li
cttoappreciatetheexternal
forces and const raint
s bear i
ng upon t hem.St ructuralconfl
i
cts wi l
lof t
en hav e
structur
alsol ut
ions.Parties'appreci
at ionthataconf l
icthasanext ernalsourcecan
hav etheeffectofthem comi ngtojointlyaddr esst heimposeddiffi
culti
es.

Val
ueConf
li
cts

Valueconf li
ctsar ecaused byper ceived oract ualincompat i
blebel i
efsy stems.
Valuesar ebeli
efsthatpeopleuset ogi v
emeani ngt otheirlives.Val uesexpl ainwhat
s"
i good"or"bad,""r
ight"or"wrong,""j
ust"or"unjust .
"Diff
eringv aluesneednotcause
confli
ct.Peoplecanl i
vetogetheri nhar monywi thdifferentv aluesy stems.Val ue
disputesari
seonl ywhenpeopl eattemptt oforceonesetofv aluesonot hersorl ay
cl
aimt oexclusi
vev al
uesy stemst hatdonotal low fordiv ergentbel iefs.Itisofno
uset ot r
ytochangev alueandbel i
efsy st
emsdur i
ngr el
at i
velyshor tandst rategic
medi ati
onintervent
ions.Itcan,howev er,behel pfultosuppor teachpar ticipant '
s
expressionoftheirval
uesandbel iefsforacknowl edgmentbyt heot herpar ty.

Causesofconf
li
ct

3.
1St
ruct
uralFact
ors(
Howt
heconf
li
cti
ssetup)

 Authori
tyRel ati
onshi ps(Thebossandempl oyeesbeneat
hhim/her)
 CommonResour ces( Shar
ingthesamesecretary
)
 GoalDi fferences (One per son wantsproducti
on tori
se and other
s want
communi cati
ont orise)
 Int
erdependence ( A company as a whol e can'toperat
e withoutother
department s)
 Juri
sdicti
onal Ambi guiti
es(Whocandi sci
pli
newhom)
 Special
ization(Theexper t
sinfiel
ds)
 Stat
usI nconsistencies

Per
sonalFact
ors

 Communicati
onbarri
ers,
Confli
ctmanagementst
yle,
Cul
tur
aldi
ff
erences
 Emoti
ons,Per
cepti
on,Personal
it
ies
 Ski
l
lsandabil
it
ies,
ValuesandEthics(
ref
ert
oJOHARIWI NDOW Approach)

57
TheConf
li
ctResol
uti
onPr
ocess

Confl
ictresol
utioni
sapr ocesst hatempowerspeopl
etobuil
dmut ual
l
ybenefi
cial
rel
ati
onships and t
or esolve confl
i
cteff
ecti
vel
y.The f
oll
owing ar
e eightst
eps
i
nvolvedinconfli
ctr
esol
ution:

1.Cr
eat
eanef
fect
iveAt
mospher
e 2.Cl
ari
fyper
cept
ions

3.Focusoni
ndiv
idualandshar
edneeds 4.Bui
l
dshar
ed
posi
ti
vepower

5.Lookt
othef
utur
e,t
henl
ear
nfr
om t
hepast 6.Gener
ateopt
ions

7.Devel
op"doabl
es" 8.Makemut
ual
benef
it
agreement
s

St
ep1-Cr
eat
eanef
fect
iveat
mospher
e

Cr
eati
nganef fect
iveatmospher
ei sav eryi
mportantstepi ntheconf
li
ctresol
uti
on
pr
ocess.Iti
smor el i
kel
yf ormutualagreement
sber eachedwhenat mosphereis
gi
vencaref
ulconsi
derati
on.Whenthinki
ngaboutatmospher e,r
emembertheseideas:

 Personalpr eparationdoi ngal lyoucant or eadyyourselfi

nposi t
iveway st o
approachi ssueshonest lyandopenel y.
 Timingchoosi ngat imet hatisbestf oral lparti
esinvolv
ed.At i
mei nwhi chno
onei sfeeli
ngpr essedt omov eonorpr essuredi notherways.
 Locat i
onwher ey oumeeti sasi mpor tantaswheny oumeet .Iti
sbestt opicka
placewher eal lpartiescanf eel comf ortableandatease.
 Op eningst atement st r ytostar toutonagoodnot e.Goodopeni ngsar eones
thatletother sknowy ouar ereadyandwi lli
ngt oapproachconfl
ictwithat eam
-l
ikeat t
it
udet hatfocusesonposi t
iveends.Theyshoul dalsoensuret hetrust
andconf ident i
alit
yoft hepar t
iesi nvolved.

St
ep2-Cl
ari
fyper
cept
ions

Clar
if
yindi
vi
dualpercept
ionsi
nvol
vedi
ntheconf
li
ct.Youcan'
tsol
veapr
obl
em i
fyou
don'
tknowwhatitisabout.

1.Sortthepar
tsoftheconfli
ctaskwhati ti
sabout
.
2.Avoidghostconfl
ict
sgettothehear toft
hematterandav
oidsi
deissues.
3.Clar
ifywhat
,ifany,v
aluesareinvol
ved.
4.Recognizet
hattheparti
esinvolv
edneedeachothertobemosteff
ective.

Addi
ti
onal
ly
,cl
ari
fyy
ourper
cept
ionsoft
heot
herpar
ty.

1.Avoidst
ereoty
ping.
2.Li
stencaref
ull
y.

58
 3.Recognizet
heother'
sneedsandval
ues.
4.Empat hi
ze-askwhytheyfeel
thewaytheydo.
5.Clearupmisconcept
ions,
youmayhaveofthem.

St
ep3-Focusoni
ndi
vi
dualandshar
edneeds

Expandonshar edneeds.Reali
zethaty
ouneedoneanot herinordertosuccessf
ull
y
resol
veconfli
cts.Beconcernedaboutmeet i
ngothersneedsaswel lasy ourown.
Wheny outaket het
imetolook,youwil
lrecogni
zethati
ndi
vidual
softenshareneeds
i
ncommon.

St
ep4-Bui
ldshar
edposi
ti
vepower

Poweri smadeupofpeopl e'soutl

ooks,i
deas,conv i
cti
ons,andactions.Apositi
ve
vi
ew ofpowerenabl espeopl etobemostef f
ecti
v e.Anegat i
veoutlookonpower
prov
esdi sempower i
ng.Insteadof"powerwith,
"itencourages"powerov er.
"Posi
ti
ve
powerpr omotesbuildi
ngt ogetherandstr
engtheningpar t
nershi
ps.Whenpar ti
esin
confl
icthavet hi
sout l
ook,t heycanencourageeachot hertouseshar edposi
ti
ve
power .Thisgivesanul t
imat eadvant
aget o al
linv ol
ved becauseeachper son'
s
posi
ti
v eenergyisbei
ngdr awnuponf oraworthwhil
esol uti
on.

St
ep5-Lookt
othef
utur
e,t
henl
ear
nfr
om t
hepast

Don'tdwellonnegat i
vepastconf l
ict
s,ory ouwon'tbeabl
et odealposit
ivelyi
nt he
presentort hef utur
e.Tr yto underst
andwhathappenedi nthepast,andav oid
repeati
ngthesamemi st
akesov er
.Don'tgetst
ucki narut
;lear
nfrom pastconfl
icts
andbef or
giving.Letother
sknow" I'
m notmadaty ou,I
'
m madatwhaty oudi d.
"

St
ep6-Gener
ateopt
ions

1.Bewareofpreconcei
vedanswers.
2.Lookforcommont hreads.
3.Makesureoptionsareworkabl
ef oral
lpart
iesinvolv
ed.
4.Setasi
dedisagreementsandfocusonopt i
onst hatseem mostworkable.
5.Avoi
dspin-of
fconfli
ctsbybypassingopt
ionsthatwon' twor
kforal
linvolv
ed.

I
ngener
ati
ngopt
ions:

1.Askfir
stf ortheconf li
ctpar tner'
sopt ionsli
stenandl
earn.
2.Tryfr
ee-flowingopt ions:
o ma kenewsuggest ions
o wr itethem down
o wa i
ttodi scussthem t i
ll
t hey'r
ealloutonthet
able
o g roupsi milaroptionst oget her
o n arrowdownt helist
o p redictpossibleout comes
o lookatal li
deas, nomat terhowsi ll
ytheymayseem

59
 o Imagi ne
3.Ident
if
yKeyOpt i
ons;thesear eonest hatwil
l:
o me etoneormor eoftheshar edneeds
o me etindivi
dual needsandar ecompat ibl
ewi thother
'sneeds
o u semut ualpositi
vepower
o impr ovetherelati
onship
o b eatleastaccept abl
ebutpr eferabl
ysatisf
yingtoalli
nv ol
ved
4.Whenl ookingatoptions,don'tletpastexperiencescloudpr esentper
cept
ions
anddecisions.

St
ep7Dev
elop"
doabl
es"st
eppi
ng-
stonest
oact
ion

Doabl
esar
especi
fi
cact
ionst
hathav
eagoodchanceatbei
ngsuccessf
ul.Doabl
es
ar
e:

 theideasthathavethebestchanceatsuccess
 stepsthatneverpromoteunfai
radvant
agesonanysides
 foundonshar edinputandi
nformati
onfrom al
lpar
ti
es
 trustbui
lder
st heyaddconf
idencei
nwor ki
ngtoget
her
 actionst
hatmeetshar edneeds

St
ep8-Makemut
ual
benef
itagr
eement
s

Mut
ual
-benef
itagr
eement
sshoul
dgi
vey
oul
ast
ingsol
uti
onst
ospeci
fi
cconf
li
cts.

1.Insteadofdemands,f ocusondev el
opingagreement sandf i
ndshar edgoal s
andneeds.
2.Buil
don" doabl e"thi
ngsbywor kingonthesmal l
erstepping-
stonesolut i
ons.
3.Payat tentiontot heneedsoftheot herper
soninaddi t
iontoyourowni nter
ests.
4.Recogni zet he"givens"basict
hingsthatcannotbealteredorcompromi sed.
5.Clarif
yexact lywhati sexpected ofy ou i
nt heagr eementy ouri ndivi
dual
responsibilit
ies.
6.Keept heconf l
ictresolut
ionprocessesgoingbyusingandshar ingtheseski l
ls
withot hers.

Pri
nci
plesofconfli
ctresol
uti
on
Theconfli
ctresol
uti
oni sbasedonthefol
l
owi
ngf
ivepr
inci
ples.Keept
hem i
nmi
nd
wheneveryouareinvol
vedinaconfl
i
ct:

1.Think"we,"ratherthan"Iversusy ou"-wor kingtogetherhel

pssol
veconf
li
cts.
2.Trytokeepi nmi ndthelongt ermr el
ationship.
3.Goodconf li
ctresoluti
onwi l
limprov etherelati
onship.
4.Goodconf li
ctresoluti
onbenef it
sbot hpar t
ies.
5.Confli
ctresolutionandr el
ationshipbuildi
nggohandi nhand.

CONFLICTRESOLUTI ONINAFRI CA
PEACE-MAKINGANDPEACE- AGREEMENT
Theconceptofconf
li
ctresol
uti
on
Theprocessofsolving theprobl
em ofconf
li
ctsi
n Af
ri
ca hascommonl
ybeen

60
referredasconf lictresolut i
on( St edman,1991)ci tedby( Mpangal a,2000) .Conf li
ct
resol utionsconst it
utesshor t-t
erm andl ongt erm measur es.Shor t-
term measur es
i
ncl udepr ocessofpeacemar kingandpeaceconsol i
dati
oni nsituat i
onsofv i
olet
conf li
ct s.Long- term measur esi ncl udepr ocessesofconf li
ctpr ev ention t hr ough
democr atizat i
on,equi tablesoci o-economi cdev elopmentandr egionali ntegr ation.
Shor t-ter m measur esar ecal l
edr eact iveconf li
ctpr evention,t hatist akingmeasur es
aftert heconf l
icthasal readybecomev iolet.Thel ong- term measur esar er egar dedas
proact i
v e,thati sst epst akenbef oret heconf li
cthasescal ated.
Theconcept ualisationofconf li
ctr esol utionont hebasi sont heshor t-term measur es
requi res cl earper ceptions ofconf li
ct s and st ate ofpeace,and t he di alectical
relationshi pbet weent het wo.Conv etional per cept ionofconf l
ictshasof tent endedt o
l
ookatt hem f rom negat i
vepoi ntofv i
ew.Musev eni( 1998)hasar guedt hatconf l
icts
canbej ust i
fiableornon- justif
iable.Li kewi se( Stedman,1991)ci tedby( Mpangal a,
2000)hasobser vedt hatincer t
ainsi tuat i
onsact or schoset ousef or ceast heonl y
means t o combatdomi nation and ot herf or ms ofi njust ice.Thi s means t hat
object ivesofusi ng v i
olencecanbeposi tiv
eornegat i
ve.I nAf ri
camostoft he
j
ust ifi
abl e conf l
icts hav et aken pl ace i nt he 1980s and 1990s when ar med
mov ement swer ef orced t ot ake up ar ms,geti ntot he bush and f ightagai nst
dictat orialr egimesunderonepar tyandmi lit
ar yst ates.Suchr egimescoul dnotbe
remov edt hr oughpeacef ulmeans.Wehav eal readyobser v edhow i nt heRegi onof
the Gr eatLakes ( RGLs)t he mi li
tary di ct atorshi ps ofI diAmi ni n Uganda and
Haby arimanai nRwandahadt obeoust edt hroughar medst r uggles.
Simi l
ar lyt he st at e ofpeace whi ch i st he i mmedi ate obj ective oft he conf li
ct
resol utionshoul dnotbesi mplyper cei vedast heabsenceofv iol
ence.I tshoul dbe
per ceivedast heabsenceofbot hv i
olenceandunj ustsocial ,economi candpol it
ical
condi tions.Thi sshoul dt hereforemeant hepr esenceofpol iti
calsecur ity,st abilit
y
andpr ospect sf orequi tabl edev elopment ,obser v anceofhumanr ight sandhuman
dignit y.Thi smeanst hatpeaceshoul densur et hepr esenceofsecur ityf rom danger
andf rom f ear .

Democr atizati
ons.
Ithasbeenar guedt hatoneoft heunder ly i
ngf act orsf orconf l
icti nt heRGLsand
Africaasawhol ei shasbeenl ow- l
eveldev elopmenti ndemocr acyandt her efore
needdemocr at i
zati
onpr ocess.Democr atizat i
onhasbeenachar act eri
sti
cf eaturei n
Africadur ingt helastt eny ears,thatisf rom t hel ate1980st ot he1990s.I tent ail
s
strugglesoft hepeopl eofAf ri
caf ordemocr acyandmeasur esbei ngt aken.Oneof
themostconspi cuousf eaturesoft hedemocr ati
zat i
onpr ocesshasbeent her apid
growt hofmul ti-
partypol iti
csandt hecivilsoci ety.Wi tht heexcept ionofUgandaand
Liby awhi chhasadopt edanon- partypoliticalsy stem,t her estofAf ri
cancount r i
es
hav egonei ntomul t
i-partism wi t
hpr oli
ferat i
onofmanypol iticalpar t
iesinsomeof
thecount r
ies.
Thecur rentdemocr atizationpr ocesshasgr eatlyinfluencedbyt hemodel sofl iber al
democr acyandwhatwemayr egardasdemocr acyoft hepopul armassesandsoci al
democr acy.Liberaldemocr acydev el
opedi nWest ernEur opeandNor thAmer icaf rom
the18tht ot he19thcent uri
esar i
singoutoft hedev elopmentcapi talism andt her iseof
thebour geoisecl ass.Li ber aldemocr acyi scent redar oundanumberofpr inciples
whi chincludebasi chumanf r
eedomssuchasf reedom ofassoci at i
on,ofspeech,of
mov ement ,oft hepr essandofpar t
ici
pationandt hepr inci
plesofhumanr ights,t he
ruleofl aw andt her elationshipbet weent heexecut i
ve,t hej udiciaryt helegi sl
at ure,

61
thepr incipleofpar t
yi nstit
utionsandt hecent r ali
tyoft hepol i
ticalandeconomi c
entrepreneur shipofmar ketf orces.Li ber aldemocr acypl acesgr eatemphasi son
i
ndi vi
dualism andi ndiv i
duall i
ber t
y.Themai npr oblem wi thl i
ber aldemocr acyisnot
somucht hepr inciplesbutt hemodei nwhi cht heyar eappl iedi nt hedemocr at i
c
practice.LikeAf ri
candemocr acyliber aldemocr acyi sast ate-cent redandi tt
herefore
usesat op-downappr oach.
Howev er,li
ber aldemocr acyhasgr eat l
yi nf l
uencedt hedemocr atizati
onpr ocessi n
Africapar ti
cularlygi v
ent hest r
ongi nf luenceofWest ernpower sandi nsti
tuti
ons,and
thepostcol dwarcondi ti
ons.I tisar isingoutofsuchpr edomi nantposi t
ionofl i
ber al
democr acythatt heintell
ect ualdebat eont hedemocr atizationpr ocessi nAf r
icahas
givenr i
set ot hedev elopmentoft heconcept sofdemocr acyoft hepopul armasses
orpeopl ecent red democr acyand soci aldemocr acy.Democr acyoft hepopul ar
massespl acesdueemphasi sont hepr inci plesofpar ti
cipation, empower mentoft he
people,emanci pation,soci almov ement sandt her oleofci vilsoci ety.Thismodel
constitutesst ruggleagai nstl i
beral democr acyasi tput semphasi sont hecommuni ty
rather t han t he i ndi v
idual , on peopl e-cent red r ather t han st ate cent red
democr ati
zation, andmassmov ementf rom bel owr athert hant op- downappr oachi n
democr ati
cpr act i
ce.

ECONOMI CTRANSFORMATI ON, LEADERSHI PANDREGI ONALI NTEGRATI ON

Economi cTransf ormat ion
Thei ssueofeconomi ct r ansf or mat iondemandsser i
ousconsi der ati
onsi nor dert o
ensur el ong-term andsust ainabl esol uti
onst ot hepr obl em ofet hni cconf li
ctsi nt he
RGLs.I ti sarguedt hatoneoft her ootandunder l
yingcausesofet hnicconf li
cti nthe
regioni st henat ureandchar act erofunder dev elopedeconomi esandt hest ateof
pov er t
yamongt hepeopl ee. g.Bur undi andRwanda.
Dur ingt hef ir
stdecadeandahal fofi ndependence, economi cgrowt hinmostAf ri
can
count ri
eswasatanav er ageof5percent ,whi chwasr ealizedi nsoci alservi
cese. g.
educat ion,heal thandi nf rast ruct ure.Howev er, theeconomi ccr i
sisi nAf ri
cast artedi n
halfoft he1970st ot he1980s.
Economi cfail
uresi nAf ricahav ebeenmadeev enwor sebyt henat ureandchar acter
ofst ates.E. g.t heest abl ishmentofanaut hor itarianone- par tyandmi li
taryst ates,
wi t
ht he j ustifi
cation t hatt heywoul df acil
itat e nat ionaluni tyand f astersoci o-
economi cdev el
opment .Butact ual l
yt hesest atepoor lymanagedt heeconomi eswi th
tendenci esofcor ruption,r epat riationofweal thabr oad,andhi ghl evelofmi li
tary
spendi ng.Forexampl e( Bal l1991)ci tedby( Mpangal a, 200)poi ntedoutt hatby1987,
per cent agesofmi l
itaryspendi ngi nt heannual budget sofcount ri
esoft heRGLSwer e
asf ol l
ows: Keny aandRwanda12, Uganda15. 6, Burundi 12.7andTanzani a14. 3.
Whatshoul dbedonet oaddr esssuchpr oblems?Wangwe( 1997)i dentifi
edt wo
aspect s whi ch wer e cr uci alf oref fecti
ve economi c dev elopmentt hese incl ude:
Capaci ty bui l
ding i nt er ms ofi ndividuals and i nst i
tut i
ons t hrough t r
aining and
transf ormat ionorr efor msasshor t-
term measur eswhi let hel ong- term measur es
i
nv ol ve under taking agr icul turaland i ndust r i
alr ev olutions,r egionaleconomi c
i
nt egr ations,and est abl ishmentofdemocr at i
c dev elopment alst ates in Af ri
ca.
Mkandawi l
e( 1995)hasdef i
nedademocr ati
cdev elopment alstateasast atewhose
i
deol ogicalunder pinni ngs ar e dev elopment aland whi ch seek t o depl oy i ts
admi nistrati
veandpol itical resour cest othet asksofeconomi cdev el
opment .
A democr ati
cdev elopment alst ate,i st herefor e,expect ed tof ulfi
la numberof

62
f
unct
ions
 Ensur et
hedev elopmentofrealdemocr acy
 Facili
tat
ef astdev el
opmentoft heeconomyandsoci alservices
 Shouldmakesur ethatthestandardoflivi
ngandthewel far
eoft hemaj
ori
tyof
peopl
earel i
ftedt hr
oughpolici
esofequi t
yandsoci alj
ustice.
 Shouldfightfort hedevelopmentofhumancent r
edsel freli
anteconomywhich
i
ssubjectedtoSAPs.
 Shouldensur et hereducti
onandpossi bletheremov alofallf or
msofconf
li
cts
andthusbuildsust ai
nablepeace,securi
tyandnationalhar mony .

Leader shi p
Leader shipqual i
tiesshouldincludecommi tmentt othebui ldingofdemocr acyand
effecting socio-economi cdev el
opment ,account abi
li
ty,honest ,and t r
anspar ency.
Thr oughsuchcommi tmentsiti sexpected to providecol lecti
veleadership wi t
h
strongl i
nkbetweent heleadersandt hepeopl e.Itisalsoexpect edt ocarryoutt he
dev elopmentoft heresourcesoftheregionf orthebenefitofther egi
on’spopul ati
ons
andi nt hepr ocessf i
ghtagainstallf ormsofneo- coloniali
sm andcompr adorial
tendenci esi nor dertodev el
opsel f-
reli
antandhumancent redeconomi es.I nthe
whol ei tisexpectedtopr ovi
det r
ansit
ionalmechani sm whichwi l
lensurethesuccess
ofpol it
icalandsoci o-economictransi
tionsintheregion( Goanzalez,1997).

Regi onali ntegration

Regi onali ntegrationist akenasanot herv eryimpor tantphenomenoni nt hepr ocess
ofput ti
nget hni cconf l
ictst ot heendi nt heRGLsandAf ricaasawhol e.Ithasbeen
point edoutt hatmuchoft heSub- SaharanAf ricaf all
swi thint heper ipheryregi onsof
the wor l
d char acter
ized byeconomi cst agnat ion,t husr esulti
ng i nto a st at
e of
politi
calt ur
bul ence,war s,andunr est
.Regi onal ism ist her eforet hebestsol ution
becauset hehighert hel evelofr egionnesst hel owert hedegr eeofconf li
cts.Regi onal
i
nt egr at
ioni snecessar ybecausei tcaneaseet hnictensionsexi sti
ngwi thi
nt hest ate
becauset hr
eat sofdomi nat i
onbysomesmal lgroupsov ersomest i
llsmal l
ergr oups
woul ddi sappear .Further mor e,condi t
ionsf ort hesur vi
valofwar lordsandt yrants
woul ddi sappearast he“ et hnicbaseofsuchpowermonopol i
eswoul dnol ongerbe
tenabl e”.Inaddi tiontosol v ingthepr oblem ofet hnicconf licts,regionalintegr ati
oni s
alsov erycr ucialinor dert osolvet hepr oblem ofmar ginal i
zationwi t
hinthegl obal
cont ext.

PeaceandDev elopment
One conceptori dea thatoften complements peace st
udies is dev el
opment.
Economic,cult
ural
,andpol i
ti
caldevelopmentcansupposedl
ytake" underdevel
oped"
nati
onsandpeopl esoutofpov ert
y,thushelpi
ngbri
ngaboutamor epeacef ulworl
d.
Assuch,manyi nternat
ionaldevel
opmentagenciescarryoutprojectsfundedbyt he
governmentsofindustr
ial
izedcountri
es,mostl
ythewester
n,designedto" moderni
ze"
poorcountr
ies.

Theconceptofpeacehasbeenl inkedtot hewideideaofdev el

opment ,assuming
thatdevel
opmentisnott hecl
assicalpur
suitofwealth.Peacefuldevelopmentcanbe
asetofmanydi ffer
entelementssuchasgoodgov ernance,healthcare,educat
ion,
genderequali
ty,
disasterpr
eparedness,i
nfrast
ruct
ure,economi cs,
ruleofl aw,human
ri
ghts,envi
ronmentandot herpolit
icali
ssues.Themeasur ingofdev el
opmentuses

63
notonl
yGDPbutal
sonumer
ousmeasur
essuchas:

●Li
ter
acyrat
es ●Li
feexpect
ancy ●Gi
nicoef
fi
cient ●Percapi
tai
ncome
●Mater
nal
survi
val
rate

●HI
Vinf
ect
ionr
ates ●Numberofdoct
or’
spercapi
ta ●HumanDev
elopment
I
ndex ●andot
hers

I
nt hisf rame,thepr obl
em ofpeacef ul
l
yi nv olv
est hecomplexmat terofhuman
development,whatexpl ai
ns t he complexi ty ofany peace-buil
ding processes.
Therefore,whenthereispeacei nacountryitpr ovi
desagoodenv i
ronmentf orpeople
topar t
ici
pateinv ar
iousdev el
opmentact i
vitiessuchasf ar
ming,busi ness,touri
sm,
mining,andcommuni tydevelopmentactivi
tiessuchasconst r
uctionofcl assrooms,
healthcenter
s,roadswaterdev elopmentprogr ammes.

DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE3

RELI
GIONANDDEVELOPMENT

ANewPer
spect
iveonAf
ri
ca

Thegol denageofAf ri
candevel
opmenti sover.I
ndependence–whi chcamet omost
ofAf rica i nt he 1960s – broughthigh hopes ofpr ogress and prosperit
y.The
developmentpl ans ofa half-
centur
y ago wer e designed and implement ed by
technocr ats,andt ooof t
enabusedbygov er
nmentsf orfact
ionalgain.Ifitistodo
betterint hef uture,devel
opmentmustt akeaccountofthewor l
dviewoft heintended
beneficiaries.Ef fect
ivedevel
opmentcant akeplaceonlyifpoli
ciestaket heway sin
whichpeopl et hinkabouttheworld,
andaboutt hei
rplaceinit
,asastar t
ingpoint.

I
nt hi
sregar
d, i
tisstri
kingt
hatthev astmajori
tyofAfri
cansar ereli
gious.Thatis,t
hey
bel
ieveintheexi st
enceofani nvisibl
ewor l
dcontainingspi r
it
ualfor cesthataff
ect
people’
smat erialli
ves.Opi
nionpoll
sconsistentl
yshowt hatAfr
icanshav emor etr
ust
i
nr el
i
giousleader sthaninpoli
ti
cians,oft
encausingreligiousnetwor kstofil
lthegap
l
eftbyinef
fi
ci entstates.

64
Ati t
s best ,dev elopmentbr oughtt o Af rican countries hi gherl iving standar ds,
widespr eadli
teracy ,andi mpr ovedheal t
hcar e.Tooof ten,t hough,dev elopmenthas
entailedsoci alinst abil
it
yandpol iti
calconf usion.Thisdoesnotmeant hatAf ri
ca’s
dev el
opmenthasr unoutofst eam, butt hati tisl
ikelyt
ot akesomer adi call
ydifferent
formsi nt hefutureasmanyAf ri
cansconcei veofdev el opmenti nunf ami l
iarway s,
groundedi nrel
igi
ouswor ldviews.Dev elopmentpr act
it
ioner st herefor eneedt opay
attentiont or el
igion,t heemer gingl anguageofcommuni t
yi nAf r
ica.Ther oleof
rel
igioni npubli
clifeshoul dbeconsi der ednotonl ybyrel i
giousbel iev ers,butal soby
any one who i st hinking har d aboutdev elopment .So f ar,dev elopmentexper t
s,
themsel vessteepedi nsecul art heoriesofdev elopment ,hav eav oidedt hesubj ect
alt
oget her.Whetheroner egardsr el
igiousbel i
efas“ tr
ue”or“ untrue”i snott hepoi nt
here, reli
gionwhat ev erformi ttakes,const itutesasocial andpol i
ti
cal reality.

Whatwentwr
ong?

Thei dea thatsub- Sahar an Af r

ica could bet urned i nto a moder n,economi cal l
y
dev elopedzonedat esessent ial
lyf r
om t hepost -
WWI Iera,whent heconv entional
wisdom wast hatcol onialr ulewassett ol astf orsev eraldecadesmor e.Onl yi nt he
1950sdi dnat ionalsov ereigntyf inditswayont ot hedev el
opmentagenda,assumi ng
apat terninwhi chnat i
onali ndependenceandeconomi cpr ogresswer eseenasan
i
nt egratedwhol e.Af ew sub- Sahar anAf ricancount r
ieshav ei ndeeddev elopedi nto
stableandpr osper ousnat i
ons( Botswanaspr ingst omi nd).Manymor ehav enot
l
ivedupt oexpect ations.Ther easonsf ort hisdi sappoi ntmentar ecompl ex,but
suf fi
cei ttosayt hatf ort hel ast60y ear s,toomuchat t
ent i
onhasbeenpai dt ot he
har dwar eofdev elopment ,andt ool i
ttl
et ot hesof t
war e.Roads,dams,pl ans,and
project sont heirowndonotmakepeopl ehappi erorev enr icher.Vitalcomponent sof
dev elopment ar ei ntangi bles l ike trust and sel f-conf i
dence. The cl oser t he
conv ent i
onaldev elopmentdi scour seget st ot hesei st hev agueconceptof“ good
gov ernance.”Butt hisi st oo of ten reduced t ot echnocr aticf ormul ae such as
privatizati
onandmul ti
-partyel ect i
ons.Mor eov er,whet heranyf orm ofgov ernancei s
“good”or“ bad”dependson mor aljudgment s,whi ch t hemsel vesar ebased on
peopl e’sideasaboutt henat ur eofsoci aljusticeandcohesi on.

Foracoupl eofgener ations,especi al

lyint hegoldendecadesoft hemi d-twenti
eth
cent ury,dev elopmentr eall
ydi dof fert hepr omiseofabet terlif
et o mi l
li
onsof
Africanst hrought heclassicinstrument sofst ate-
buil
dingandeconomi cgr owth.But
thatv isi
onl osti t
ssheenf ormostAf ri
cansint he1970sand1980s.Changesi nwor l
d
economi cpat ter
ns– i nflati
on,r i
singoi lprices,easyl oanscoupl edwi t
hmassi ve
debt s,andt hebegi nni
ngsoft heknowl edgeeconomy–gener al
l
yact edt oAfri
ca’s
disadv antage i nt hose y ear
s.The Wor ld Bankand I MF’s suggested remedyof
structuraladj ustmentwasadi saster.Thus,manyAf ri
cansar enow t hi
nkingabout
progr essf armor eintermsr oot edint hecont i
nent’slongerhistory
,inwhi chreli
gion
hasal wayspl ayedapubl icrole.Thechal l
enge,t hen,istocr eateanew phaseof
dev elopment ,
thist i
mebasednotonexper ts’plansbutonsoci alreali
ti
es–onl if
eas
i
ti sact ual
lyl i
ved.

Ther
oleofr
eli
gion

What
everel
sei
tmaybe,r
eli
gioni
sawayoft
hinki
ngaboutt
hewor
ldandabout

65
realit
yi nthebroadestsense.I
tisfort hatreasont hatreli
gionhasar oletopl ayin
dev el
opment ,apr ocessthatmustbeassi milatedintopeopl e’
si deasaboutt hei
r
relati
ont othepastandt hefutureoftheirsociet i
es.I
nsub- SaharanAf ri
ca,reli
gion
arguabl ynowf ormsthemostimpor t
antconnect ionwithther estofthewor ld,aswe
hav ear guedi nourbookWor l
dsofPower .Notonl ydoesr eli
gionremai nakey
elementi nthet hi
nki
ngofmostAf ri
cans,iti
sincr easi
nglyevidentinthepublicrealm,
i
ncl uding in poli
ti
cs wit
h some gov ernments expl i
cit
ly proclai
ming themsel ves
Isl
ami st,andsomeheadsofst atepubli
clycl
aimi ngtobebor n-againChrist
ians.

Developmentpl annersandt heori

stsarefi
nal l
ygivi
ngthoughtt other ol
eofr el
igi
on
asapot enti
alagentofdev elopment.TheWor l
dBankunderJamesWol f
ensohndul y
recognizedt her ol
eofr eligionasapot ent
ialagentofdev elopment,andt hisv i
ewis
currentlyreceivi
ngat t
entionf r
om somel eadingEuropeandonori nsti
tut i
ons.But
therear ealsowr ongway soft hinki
ngaboutt heroleofr el
i
gionindev elopment.
Christi
anact i
vi
stgr oupsi nt heUni t
edStat es,forexample,hav eoftent akentoo
narrow av i
ew oft her eli
giousf actor,i
ncreasingthepol i
ti
caldangersofsect ari
an
poli
ciesi nacont i
nentt hati sthescenenotonl yofdy nami cChri
sti
anmov ements,
butofI slamistandot herreligiousgroupsaswel l
.

Itseemsmostusef ult
oconsi dert hef utur eofdev elopmenti nAf ricawi thint hescope
ofawi dershi ftawayf rom anar rowlyeconomi cpar adigm ofdev elopment ,andi n
favorofabr oaderconceptt hati ncludesar eligiousorspi ri
tualdi mensi on,ast hi si
s
thewayi nwhi cht hegr eatmaj orityofAf ricans–j udgi ngf r
om al lav ai
lablemeasur es,
i
ncludingopi nionpol l
sandpar ti
cipat i
oni nr eligiousr i
tuals–t hinkaboutt hei rplacein
thelargerschemeofl i
fe.Thi sisbestseenaspar toft heUN’ shumandev elopment
approach.Accor dingtot heUNDev elopmentPr ogr am, humandev elopmenti s“about
creati
nganenv ironmenti nwhi chpeopl ecandev el
opt heirf ullpot entialandl ead
productive,cr eativelivesi naccor dwi tht heirneedsandi nterests.”Thi sr ef
er sto
people’sr esour cesbey ondanypur elymat erialandt echnocr aticaspect .Logi call
y,
people’sasset sshoul dbeconsi deredi ncl usiveofnotonl yi ntell
ect ualandsoci al
resources,butal sospi ritualones,i fandwhent hesear eav ail
abl e.Manymi l
li
onsof
Afri
cans bel ievet hatt heirsoci alr elations ex tend notj ustt ot heirf riends and
neighbors,butal soi ncludet hespi rit
soft heirancest orsandot herspi ri
tualbei ngs.
Theyi nvestt imeandener gyinmai ntainingt heser elati
onshi ps,justast heydoi n
keepingupt hei rconnect i
onswi thot herpeopl e.Thesear e“ spiri
tualr esour ces,”
whicht husf orm apar toft hesoci al networ ksv italfort r
ustandcooper ation.

Seriously,embr acing human dev el

opmenti mpli
es t aking people’s wor l
dvi
ews
seriouslyandf oll
owingani ntegralapproachinthedev elopmentpr ocess.Rel i
gion
prov i
desapower fulmotivationf ormanypeopl etoactt heway st heydo.I tequips
manyoft hewor l
d’speoplenotonl ywithmor alguidance,butalsowi t
hthewi llto
i
mpr ovethei rl
iv
es.Talkoft her ol
eofr el
i
gionindevelopmentisnotpr imaril
yamat t
er
ofident i
fyingwhoshoul drecei veaidhandouts,whethertheyar eof f
ici
alsinsecular
bureaucraci esormember sofr el
igi
ousnet wor
ks.Whati smor eimpor tantforpoli
cy-
maker si s maki ng contactwi t
hr el
igi
ous networks,and l ear
ning t othink with
(StephenEl lisandGer r
ieterHaar2007)

Whattypi
calexampl
esofef
for
tst
akensof
arbyr
eli
giousi
nst
it
uti
onst
ofost
ert
he
dev
elopment?

66
 i
. Establishmentofl earni
ngi nsti
tutionse. g.School s,coll
egesand
uni
v ersit
ies
i
i
. Establishmentofheal th ser v
ice pr ov
ision cent ers e.
g.Cl ini
cs,
hospitals,tr
aditionalmedi cines
i
i
i. Suppor ti
ngpeopl esfacinghazar dsl i
kefami ne,floods,hunger,war,
bombs, orphans, etc
i
v. Running di fferenti ncome gener ati
ng pl ans/acti
v i
ti
es e.g.Free
contri
but i
ons, shops, businesset c
v
. Establishmentofnoni nterestbanki ngsy stemse. g.PBZ,NBC,KKT,
ROMANCATHORI Cetc
v
i. Establishmentofdi ff
erentor ganizationforguidanceandcounsel i
ng
i
ndi fferentdev el
opmenti ssuesf rom localt onat ionall
evels.E.g.
DCT, CCTBAKWATA, JUMAZA, CCDT, et
c.

Whatt
ypi
calexampl
esofunderdev
elopmentcausedbyr
eli
giousi
nst
it
uti
ons?

i
. Frequentintraandint erreli
giousconfli
ctse.
g.……………………………
i
i
. Some r eligious fundament ali
sts engage in terrori
sm act i
vit
ies e.g.
………………………
i
i
i. Usingmostt imeinlear ni
ng/teachreli
giousi
ssuesandnegl ecti
ngengaging
i
ni ncomegener ating act i
viti
eswhi ch arealso r
eligi
onsdemandsand
rewardedmov ement s.
i
v. Corrupti
oni ssuesarer eport
edt ori
sei ndif
fer
entreli
gionsandi ndif
fer
ent
cornersoft heworlde. g.……..
v
. Prosti
tut
ionandr appi ngi salsoamongt hecommonact i
vi
tiesappearedto
decli
nedev elopmenti ndi f
ferentrel
i
giouscentersetc……………………

DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE4

FOREI
GNAI
D,DEBTANDDEVELOPMENT

Dev elopmentai d ordev elopmentcooper at

ion (al
so dev elopmentassi st
ance,
technical assistance, internati
onal aid, ov er
seas ai d, Offi
cial Devel
opment
Assi stance(ODA)orf oreignai d)i
saidgiv enbygov er
nment sandot heragenci
est o
suppor ttheeconomi c,environmental
,socialandpoliti
caldevelopmentofdev el
oping
count ri
es.Iti
sdisti
nguishedf r
om humanitari
anaidbyf ocusi
ngonal l
evi
ati
ngpov ert
y

67
 i
nt he long term,r atherthan a shor tt erm response.The t er
m dev elopment
cooperat
ion,whichi sused,forexampl e,bytheWor ldHealthOrganizat
ion(WHO)i s
usedtoex pr
esst heideathatapar tner
shipshouldexistbetweendonorandr ecipient
,
rat
herthant hetradit
ionalsi
tuationinwhi chtherelati
onshipwasdomi natedbyt he
wealt
handspeci al
izedknowl edgeofonesi de.Mostdev el
opmentai dcomesf rom
theWesternindustri
ali
zedcount r
iesbutsomepoor ercountr
iesal
socont ri
but
eai d.

Ai
d maybebi lat
eral:given f
rom onecountrydir
ectl
yt o another;oritmaybe
mult
ilat
eral
:gi
venbyt hedonorcount
rytoaninter
nati
onalorganizati
onsuchasthe
Worl
dBankort heUni tedNati
onsAgenci
es(UNDP,UNICEF, UNAIDS,etc.
)whicht
hen
di
str
ibutesi
tamongt hedevel
opingcount
ri
es.Theproport
ioniscur r
entl
yabout70%
bi
l
ateral30%mul t
il
ateral.

About80- 85% ofdevelopment alaidcomesf rom gov ernmentsourcesasof f

ici
al
development assist
ance ( ODA) . The remaining 15- 20% comes f r
om pr i
vat
e
organizati
onssuchas" Non-governmentalorganizati
ons"( NGOs),f
oundati
onsand
otherdev elopmentcharit
ies(e.g.Oxf am).Inaddi t
ion,remitt
ancesrecei
vedfrom
migrantswor ki
ngorli
vi
ngi ndi asporasform asi gnif
icantamountofinter
nat
ional
tr
ansf er
.

Some gover
nment
s also i
ncl
ude mil
i
tar
yassist
ance i
nthe not
ion "
for
eign ai
d",
al
thoughmanyNGOstendtodi
sapprov
eofthi
s.

Pri
vate consul
ting f
irms,such as Pri
ce waterhouse Coopers and Del
oitt
e,are
i
ncreasi
nglybeingcontractedbydonoragenci
estomanageandi mplementelements
ofthei
raidprogr am,duetot hei
rper
cei
vedabili
tyt
operf
orm higherquali
typrogr
am
managementanddel i
very.

Offi
ci
alDev el
opmentAssi st
ance is a measure ofgover
nment-
contri
but
ed aid,
compil
ed by the DevelopmentAssistance Committ
ee ofthe Organi
zat
ion for
EconomicCo-oper
ati
onandDev el
opment( OECD)si
nce1969.TheDACconsi st
sof
22ofthelar
gestai
d-donati
ngcountri
es.

Backgr
ound

Whiletheconceptofdevelopmentaidgoesbackt othecolonialera,theor i
ginofmoder n
developmentaidr oot
sinthecontextofPost -Wor l
dWarI Iandt heCol dWar :Launched
asal arge-
scal
eai dprogram byt heUni t
edSt at
esi n1948,t heEur opeanRecov er
y
Program,orMar shal
lPlanwasconcer nedwi thstrengt
heningt het iest ot heWest
Europeanst at
est ocontai
nt heinfl
uenceoft heUSSR.Thi spol it
icalr at
ionaleiswel l
summar i
zedint heTrumanDoct ri
ne,inwhi chUni tedStatespr esidentHar ryTruman
stat
edt heanti-
communistrati
onaleforU.S.dev el
opmentaidi nhisinaugur aladdressof
1949, whichal
soannouncedthefoundingofNATO:

"I
nadditi
on,wewi l
lprovi
demi l
i
taryadv iceandequi
pmenttofreenationswhich
wil
lcooperatewi
thusi nthemai ntenanceofpeaceandsecuri
ty.Fourt
h,wemust
embarkonabol dnewpr ogram formaki ngthebenef
it
sofourscient
ifi
cadvances
and industr
ial pr
ogress av ai
lable for t he i
mprovement and gr owth of
under
developed ar
eas.Mor et han halft hepeopleoft heworld areli
vi
ng in

68
 conditi
onsapproachi
ngmi ser
y.Thei
rfoodi sinadequate.Theyar ev i
cti
msof
disease.Thei
reconomicl
if
eispri
miti
veandstagnant.Theirpover
tyisahandicap
andat hr
eatbothtothem andtomor eprosperousareas.Forthef i
rstti
mei n
histor
y,humanit
ypossessestheknowledgeandski l
ltor el
iev
et hesuffer
ingof
thesepeople.
"

Devel
opmentaid was aimed atof f
eri
ng t
echnicalsolut
ions t
o socialprobl
ems
wit
houtalter
ing basi
c soci
alstruct
ures.The United St
ates was of t
en fi
ercel
y
opposedtoevenmoderatechangesinsoci
alst
ructur
es,forexamplethelandreform
i
nGuat emal
aintheearl
y1950s.

Ty
pesofai
d

Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofdev
elopmentai
d.Thesei
ncl
ude:

i
.Projectai
d i
i
.Pr
ogr
am ai
d i
i
i.Budgetsuppor
t i
v.Sect
orwi
de
Approach

v
.Foodai
d v
i.Techni
cal
assi
stance v
ii
.Emer
gencyai
d

Quanti
ty
Off
ici
alDev
elopmentAssi
stance

MostOf fi
cialDev
elopmentAssi
stance(ODA)camef rom the23membersofthe
DevelopmentAssist
anceCommi t
tee(DAC),oraboutUSD103.49bi
l
li
oni
n2007.A
fur
therUSD 11.8bill
ioncamefrom theEuropeanCommi ssi
onwhil
eal
lnon-
DAC
countri
esgaveUSD5. 56bi
l
li
on.

Thel ar
gestDACdonor swer etheUnitedSt ates(USD21.8bi l
li
on),Germany( $12.
29
bi
ll
ion),France( $9.88 bil
li
on)
,Uni t
ed Ki ngdom ( $9.
85 bill
ion)and Japan ( $7.
68
bi
ll
ion),whilethel argestnon-DAC donor swer eSaudiAr abia(USD 2bi ll
i
on)and
Turkey($0.6bi
lli
on).Howev er,
noneoft hosemett heUNt argetofgivingatl
east0.7
percentoftheGrossNat i
onalI
ncome( GNI )asaid.UnitedStates(0.16%ofGNI )and
Japan( 0.
17%ofGNI )wereinfactgivi
ngl eastamongt hemember sofDAC.Theonl y
countri
esmeetingt hetargetsi
n2007wer eNor way(0.
96%ofGNI ),Sweden(0.93%of
GNI),Luxembourg( 0.91%ofGNI )
,theNet her l
andsandDenmar k(both0.81%ofGNI )
.

Qual
it
y

Dev el
opmentaidisof tenpr ovi
dedbymeansofsuppor t
inglocaldevelopmentaid
project
s.Int
hesepr oj
ect s,i
tsomet i
mesoccur sthatnostri
ctcodeofconducti sin
force.I
nsomeprojects, t
hedev el
opmentaidwor ker
sdonotrespectthelocalcodeof
conduct.Forexampl e,t he l
ocaldress code as wellas soci ali
nteract
ion.In
dev el
opi
ngcountr
ies,thesemat ter
sareregardedhighl
yimportantandnotrespecti
ng
i
tmaycausesev ereoff ense,andthussi
gnif
icantprobl
emsanddel ayoftheproject
s.

Therei
salsomuchdebateaboutevaluat
ingthequali
tyofdev el
opmentaid,r
ather
thansi
mplythequant
it
y.Forinst
ance,ti
edaidisoftencrit
ici
zedast heaidgiven
mustbespenti
nthedonorcountr
yorinagr oupofselect
edcountri
es.Ti
edaidcan

69
i
ncreasedev el
opmentai dpr oj
ectcostsbyupt o20or30per cent.Ther
ei salso
cri
ti
cism because donor s may giv
e wi t
h one hand,t hrough l
arge amount s of
devel
opmentai d,yett akeawaywi tht heother,thr
oughst ri
cttradeormi grati
on
poli
cies.TheCommi t
mentt oDevel
opmentI ndexmeasur est heoveral
lpoli
ciesof
donorsandev al
uatesthequal i
tyofthei
rdevelopmentaid,i
nsteadofjustcompar i
ng
thequantit
yofOffi
cialDevelopmentAssist
ancegiven.

Ef
fect
iveness

Ai
def fect
ivenessisthedegr
eet owhichdevel
opmentai
dwor
ks,andi
sasubj
ectof
si
gnif
icantdi sagr
eement.Di
ssidenteconomist
ssuchasPeterBauerandMil
ton
Fr
iedmanar guedinthe1960sthatai
di si
nef
fect
ive:

.
..anexcell
entmethodfort
ransferri
ngmoneyf
rom poorpeopl
einr
ichcount
ri
est
o
r
ichpeopleinpoorcount
ri
es.(PeterBauer
)

Manyeconomet ri
cstudiesinrecentyear shav
esuppor t
edt heviewthatdev el
opment
ai
dhasnoef f
ectonthespeedwi thwhi chcountr
iesdevelop.Negati
vesi deeffect
sof
ai
dcani ncludeanunbal ancedappr eciati
onoft her
ecipient'
scurrency( knownas
Dutch Di sease)
,increasing corrupti
on,and adv erse polit
icaleffects such as
postponement sofnecessaryeconomi canddemocr at
icreforms.

I
thasbeenar guedthatmuchgovernment-
to-gov
ernmentaidwasineffect
ivebecause
i
twasmer elyawayt osupportst
rategi
call
yimportantl
eader
s.Agoodexampl eof
thi
si sthef ormerdict
atorofZair
e,Mobut oSeseSeko,whol ostsuppor tf
rom t he
Westaf t
ert heColdWarhadended.Mobut o,att
hetimeofhisdeath,hadasuf fi
cient
personalfortune(part
icul
arl
yinSwissbanks)topayof ft
heent i
reexternaldebtof
Zaire.

Anothercr
it
ici
sm hasbeent hatWest er
ncount ri
esof t
enprojectthei
rownneedsand
solut
ionsontoothersoci et
iesandcul t
ures.I
nr esponse,westernhel
pinsomecases
hasbecomemor e' endogenous',whichmeanst hatneedsaswel lassolut
ionsare
beingdevi
sedinaccor dancewi thlocalcult
ures.Forexampl e,someti
mespr oject
s
areset-
upwhichwi sht omakesev eralethni
cgroupscooper atetoget
her.Whi
lethisi
s
anoblegoal,mostoft heseprojectsfai
lbecauseoft hi
sintent.

Ithasalsobeenarguedthat,helpbasedondirectdonat
ioncreat
esdependencyand
corrupt
ion,andhasanadv erseeff
ectonlocalproducti
on.Asar esul
t,ashif
thas
taken place t
owards aid based on act
ivat
ion oflocalassets and st
imul
ati
on
measuressuchasmi crocredi
t.

Ai
dhasalsobeeninef
fect
ivei
nyoungrecipi
entcount
ri
esinwhichethni
ctensi
ons
ar
est
rong:somet
imesethni
cconf
li
ctshaveprevent
edeff
ici
entdel
iv
eryofai
d.

I
nsomecases,west er
nsur
plusest
hatresul
tedfr
om faul
tyagr
icul
ture-orot
her
pol
i
cieshavebeendumpedinpoorcount
ri
es,thuswi
pingoutl
ocalproducti
onand
i
ncreasi
ngdependency.

I
nmanycases,West
erngov
ernment
spl
acedor
der
swi
thWest
erncompani
esasa

70
for
m ofsubsi
dizi
ngthem,andl at
ershi
ppedthesegoodstopoorcountr
iesthat
oft
enhadnousef ort
hem.Theseproj
ect
saresomet
imescal
l
ed'
whit
eelephant
s'.

Accordi
ngt oMar ti
j
nNi t
zsche,anot
herpr obl
em i sthewayonhow dev elopment
proj
ectsar esometimesconstruct
ed and how t heyaremaintai
ned byt helocal
populat
ion.Oft
en,proj
ect
saremadewi thtechnologythati
shardtounderstandand
toodiff
icul
ttorepai
r,r
esul
ti
nginunavoidablefai
lureovert
ime.

A common cr i
ti
cism inr ecentyear
si st hatrich count r
ies have putso many
condi
tionsonai dt hatithasreducedaidef f
ecti
v eness.Intheexampl eoft i
edaid,
donorcount r
iesoftenrequir
ethereci
pienttopurchasegoodsandser vicesfrom t
he
donor,evenifthesearecheaperelsewhere.Othercondi t
ionsincludeopeningupthe
count
r yt
of orei
gninvestment,ev
enifi
tmi ghtnotber eadytodoso.

Alloft hesepr obl

emshav emadet hatav erylar
gepar toft hespendmoneyon
developmentai dissimplywastedusel essl
y.Accordi
ngt oGer bertvander,forthe
Netherlands,only33%ofthedevelopmentai dissuccessful
,another33%f ail
sandof
the remaining 33% theeffecti
suncl ear.Thismeanst hatf orexampl ef orthe
Netherlands,1.33to2.66bi
lli
onislostasi tspends4bi l
l
ionint otalofdevelopment
aid(or0,8%oft hegrossnat
ional
pr oduct).

TheMassachuset t
sInst
itut
eofTechnol ogy'sAbhij
itBanerj
eeandRui mi
nHehav e
undert
akenar igor
ousstudyoft herelat
ivel
yf ew i
ndependenteval
uati
onsofaid
progr
am successesandfail
ures.Theysuggestthefol
lowi
nginter
venti
onsareusual
l
y
hi
ghlyeff
ecti
veformsofaidinnor malci
rcumstances:

 subsidiesgi vendirect
lytofami l
i
est obespentonchi l
dren'
seducat
ionand
health
 educat i
onv ouchersforschoolunif
orms&t ext
books
 teachingselectedill
it
erat
eadultstoreadandwr i
te
 dewor mingdr ugsandv it
amin/nutr
it
ional
supplement
s
 vaccinati
onandHI V/AIDSpreventi
onprograms
 i
ndoorspr aysagainstmalari
a,anti
-mosquit
obednett
ing
 suitabl
ef ert
il
izer
s
 cleanwat ersuppli
es

Aninquiryint
oai deff
ectivenessbyt heUKAl lPar
tyParl
iamentar
yGroup(APPG)for
Debt,AidandTr adefeaturedevidencefrom Rosal
indEyben,aFell
owattheInst
it
ute
ofDevelopmentSt udi
es.Herev i
dencet otheinqui
ryst
atedthateff
ect
iveai
drequi
res
asmuchi nvesti
ngi nrelati
onshipsasi nmanagingmoney .DrEybenoutl
inedthe
fol
l
owi ngpoints:

Achi
evi
ngi
mpactr
equi
resi
nvest
ingi
nrel
ati
onshi
ps,dev
elopmentor
gani
zat
ions
needt
osuppor
tthei
rst
afft
odot
his.Att
hemoment
,theopposi
tei
shappeni
ng.
I
nmul
ti
pleset
sofr
elat
ionshi
ps,
ther
ewi
l
lbedi
ff
erenti
deasaboutwhatsuccessi
s
andhow toachi eveitandthisshoul
dber efl
ect
edi
nmethodologi
esf
ordef
ini
ng
andassessingtheimpactofaid.
Hel
pfulproceduralharmoni
zati
onshouldnotmeanassumi
ngtherei
sonl
yasingl
e
di
agnosisandsol ut
iontoanycomplexprobl
em.

71
I
naddi
ti
ont
omeasur
ingr
esul
ts,donor
sneedt
oassesst
hequal
i
tyofr
elat
ionsat
project/pr
ogram,count ryandi nternat
ionallevelsagainstindicat
orsagr eedwith
partners.
De cisi
onsonai dneedt obemadeonacasebycasebasi sont headv i
ceofwel l
-
i
nfor medcountryof fi
ces.
Account abl
estatesdependonempower edcit
izens
De velopmentor ganizat
ionsalso need t o be mor e accountableto UK citi
zens
throughencouragi ngconversat
ionsast ot herealchal
lengesandl imit
ati
onsofaid.
(Pointmadei nrelati
ontoUKasev idenceforUKpar li
ament ar
yinquiry
)

Pr
ivat
eai
d

Developmentchar i
tiesmakeup a v astweb ofnon- governmentalorganizati
ons,
rel
i
gious mi ni
str
ies,foundat i
ons,busi ness donations and coll
ege scholarshi
ps
devotedtodev el
opmentai d.Estimatesv ar
y,butpr i
vat
eai disatleastasl argeas
ODAwi t
hintheUnitedStates,at$16bi l
lionin2003.Wor l
df i
guresforpri
vateaidar e
notwel ltr
acked,socr oss-countr
ycompar isonsar enoteasil
ypossible,thoughi t
doesseem t hatperper son,someot hercount r
iesmaygi vemor e,orhav esi mi
lar
i
ncentivesthatt
heUShasf oritsci
ti
zenst oencouragegiv
ing.

Remi
tt
ances

Iti
sdoubt f
ulwhet herremitt
ances,moneysenthomebyf orei
gnwor kers,oughttobe
consideredaf orm ofdev el
opmentaid.Howev er
,t heyappeart oconst i
tuteal arge
proporti
onoft hef l
owsofmoneybet weendev elopedanddev el
opingcount ri
es,
alt
hought heexactamount sareuncertai
nbecauser emitt
ancesar epoor l
yt r
acked.
Wor l
dBankest imat esforremit
tancefl
owst odev elopingcountr
iesi n2004t otaled
$122bi l
lion;howev er,thi
snumberi sexpectedtochangeupwar dsi nthenextf ew
yearsast heformul asusedt ocalcul
ateremit
tancef l
owsar emodi fi
ed.Theex act
natureandef fectsofr emitt
ancemoneyr emaincont ested,howeverinatl east36of
the 153 count r
ies t r
acked remitt
ance sums wer e second onl yt o FDIand
outnumber edbot hpublicandprivat
eaiddonati
ons.

TheI nt
ernat
ionalMonetar
yFundhasr eport
edthatpri
vat
eremittancesmayhav ea
negativ
eimpactoneconomi cgrowt
h,astheyar
eoftenusedforpriv
ateconsumpti
on
ofindiv
idual
sandfamili
es,notf
oreconomicdev
elopmentoft
her egionorcount
ry.

72
 DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE5

DECENTRALI
ZATI
ONANDPARTI
CIPATI
ONI
NDEVELOPMENT

Whati
sDecent
ral
izat
ion?

Thet erm" decentralization"embr acesav ar

iet yofconcept swhi chmustbecar eful
ly
analyzedinanypar ti
cularcount rybef oredet ermi ni
ngi fproj
ectsorprogr amsshoul d
suppor treorganizat ion off inancial,admi ni strati
ve,orser vice del
ivery sy st
ems.
Decent r
ali
zation—t het ransferofaut horit
yandr esponsibi
li
tyforpubli
cf unctionsfrom
the cent ral gov er nment t o subor dinate or quasi -i
ndependent gov er
nment
organizati
onsand/ ort heprivatesect or—isacompl exmul ti
facetedconcept .Diff
erent
types ofdecent ralization should be di st
ingui shed because t hey hav e diff
erent
characteri
sti
cs, policyimpl i
cations,andcondi tionsf orsuccess.

Ty
pesofDecent
ral
izat
ion

Ty pes of decent ral

ization i
ncl ude pol i
ti
cal,admi nist
rati
ve,fiscal
,and mar ket
decent ralizat
ion.Drawi ngdisti
nct i
onsbet weent hesev ari
ousconceptsisusef ulfor
highlightingt hemanydi mensi onst osuccessf uldecent r
ali
zati
onandt heneedf or
coor dinationamongt hem.Nev ert
hel ess,thereiscl earl
yoverl
api ndefini
nganyof
theset ermsandt hepr ecisedef initi
onsar enotasi mportantast heneedf ora
compr ehensiv eapproach.Politi
cal, admi ni
strat
ive,fi
scalandmar ketdecentral
i
zati
on
can al so appeari n di f
fer
entf orms and combi nati
ons across countri
es,within
count riesandev enwi thinsectors.

73
Pol
it
icalDecent
ral
izat
ion

Poli
ticaldecent ralizati
onai mst ogi veciti
zensort heirelectedr epresentativ
esmor e
poweri npubl i
cdeci sion-maki ng.I tisof t
enassoci atedwi thpl ural
isti
cpol iti
csand
representativegov ernment ,buti tcanal sosuppor tdemocr atizat
ionbygi v i
ngcitizens,
ortheirr epresent atives,mor ei nfluenceint hef ormulationandi mpl ement ati
onof
poli
cies.Adv ocatesofpol it
icaldecent ral
izationassumet hatdeci sionsmadewi t
h
greaterparticipationwi l
lbebet terinformedandmor erelevantt odiverseinterestsin
societythant hosemadeonl ybynat ionalpol it
icalauthor i
ti
es.Theconcepti mpl i
es
thatthesel ectionofr epresent ativesf r
om localel ectoraljuri
sdicti
onsal l
owsci t
izens
toknow bet tert heirpol i
ticalr epresent at
ivesandal l
owsel ectedof fi
cialstoknow
bettertheneedsanddesi resoft heirconstituents.

Pol
it
icaldecent
ral
izat
ion oft
en requires const
it
uti
onalorst atut
oryr efor
ms,t he
dev
elopmentofplural
ist
icpol
it
icalparti
es,thest
rengtheni
ngoflegi
slatures,
creat
ion
ofl
ocalpol
it
ical
units,
andtheencour agementofeffecti
vepubl
i
ci nt
erestgroups.

Admi
nist
rat
iveDecent
ral
izat
ion

Administr
ati
ve decentral
izati
on seekst oredistr
ibute aut
hority
,r esponsibil
ityand
fi
nancialresources for pr oviding publi
c ser vi
ces among di fferent l
ev el
s of
government.Itist he transferofr esponsi
bili
tyf orthe planning,f i
nancing and
managementofcer t
ai n publi
cf unct
ions f
rom t he centralgov ernmentand i ts
agencies t
of i
eld uni
ts ofgov ernmentagencies,subor di
nate uni t
s orl evels of
government,semi -
autonomous publ ic aut
horit
ies orcor porati
ons,orar ea-wide,
regi
onalorfunct
ionalauthorit
ies.

The thr
ee maj
or for
ms of administ
rati
ve decentr
ali
zat
ion --deconcent
rat
ion,
del
egati
on,
anddev
olut
ion-
-eachhavediff
erentchar
acter
ist
ics.

Deconcent ration.Deconcentrat
ion--
whichisof tenconsideredtobet heweakestf orm
ofdecent r
alizati
on and isused mostf r
equent l
yi n unit
aryst at
es--redistri
but es
decisionmaki ngaut hori
tyandf inancialandmanagementr esponsi
bili
ti
esamong
dif
ferentlev elsofthecent ralgovernment .I
tcanmer elyshi f
tresponsibi
li
tiesf rom
centralgov ernmentof f
ici
alsinthecapi t
alcit
yt othosewor kinginregions,provinces
ordi stri
cts,ori tcan cr eate str
ong f i
eld administ
rati
on orl ocaladmi ni st
rative
capaci t
yundert hesuper v
isi
onofcent ralgovernmentmi nistr
ies.

Delegat ion.Del egation is a mor e extensivef or

m ofdecent ralization.Thr ough
del
egat i
on cent ralgov ernment st r
ansferr esponsi bi
li
tyf ordeci sion-maki ng and
admi nistrati
onofpubl icf unct
ionst o semi -autonomousor gani zationsnotwhol l
y
controlledbyt hecent r
algov er
nment ,butultimat el
yaccount ablet oi t.Gov ernment s
del
egat er esponsi bi
li
ti
es when t hey create publ i
c ent erprises orcor porat
ions,
housing aut hori
ties,t r
ansportati
on aut horiti
es,speci alser vice di str
icts,semi -
autonomousschooldi str
icts,r
egionaldev elopmentcor porations,orspeci alproject
i
mpl ement ati
onuni ts.Usuallytheseorganizat i
onshav eagr eatdealofdi screti
oni n
decision- making.Theymaybeexemptf rom const r
aintson r egul arci vilservice
personnel andmaybeabl et ochargeuser sdirectlyforservices.

74
Dev oluti
on.A t hir
dt ype ofadmi nistrati
ve decent r
ali
zati
on i s devoluti
on.When
government sdev ol
vef uncti
ons,theyt ransferaut horityfordecisi
on-maki ng,finance,
andmanagementt oquasi -
autonomousuni t
sofl ocalgov ernmentwi thcor porate
status.Dev olut
ionusual l
ytransfersr esponsi bil
it
iesf orservi
cest omuni cipali
tiesthat
el
ectt heirownmay orsandcounci ls, rai
set heirownr evenues,andhav ei ndependent
author i
tytomakei nvestmentdeci si ons.Inadev olvedsy stem,localgov ernment s
havecl earandl egallyrecognizedgeogr aphicalboundar iesov erwhicht heyexer cise
author i
ty and wi thin which they per form publ i
cf uncti
ons.I ti st hist y pe of
admi nist
rativedecentrali
zati
ont hatunder li
esmostpol i
ti
caldecentrali
zation.

Fi
scalDecent
ral
izat
ion

Financi alr esponsi bili

tyisacor ecomponentofdecent rali
zat i
on.I fl
ocalgov ernment s
andpr i
v ateor ganizati
onsar et ocar ryoutdecent ralizedf unctionsef f
ect ively,they
musthav eanadequat elevelofr evenues–ei therr ai sedl ocallyort r
ansf er r
edf r
om
the cent ralgov ernment – as wel las t he aut hor ityt o make deci sions about
expendi tur es.Fiscaldecent r
al i
zationcant akemanyf orms, includinga)sel f-financing
or cost r ecovery t hrough user char ges, b) co- fi
nanci ng or co- pr oduction
arrangement st hr
ough whi ch t he user s par ti
cipat ei n pr ovidi
ng ser v i
ces and
i
nf rastruct ur et hrough monet ar
y orl aborcont ribut i
ons;c)expansi on ofl ocal
revenuest hroughpr opertyorsal est axes,ori ndirectchar ges;d)i ntergov ernment al
transf erst hatshi f
tgener alrevenuesf r
om t axescol lect edbyt hecent r
algov ernment
tol ocalgov ernment sforgener alorspeci ficuses;ande)aut horizationofmuni ci
pal
bor rowi ngandt hemobi li
zationofei thernat ionalorl ocalgov ernmentr esour ces
through l oan guar antees.I n many dev eloping count ri
es l ocalgov er
nment s or
admi nistrat i
veuni tspossesst hel egalauthor i
tytoi mposet axes,butt het axbasei s
soweakandt hedependenceoncent r
algov ernmentsubsi diessoi ngrainedt hatno
attempti smadet oexer ci
set hataut hori
ty.

Economi
corMar
ketDecent
ral
izat
ion

Themostcompl et
ef ormsofdecent rali
zati
onf r
om agov ernment '
sperspectiv
ear e
pri
vati
zationandder egulat
ionbecauset heyshif
tresponsibil
ityforfuncti
onsfrom the
publi
ctot heprivat
esect or
.Pri
v at
izationandder egul
ationareusual ly,
butnotalway s,
accompani ed byeconomi cli
beralizati
onand mar ketdev elopmentpol ici
es.They
al
low f uncti
ons t hat had been pr imari
ly or exclusi
velyt he r esponsi
bili
ty of
governmentt o be car ri
ed outbybusi nesses,communi t
ygr oups,cooperativ
es,
pri
vatevoluntaryassociati
ons,andot hernon-gov er
nmentor gani zat
ions.

Privatizati
on.Priv
at izati
oncanr angeinscopef rom leavi
ngtheprovisionofgoods
and ser vi
ces entirelyt ot he free oper
at i
on of t he marketto" publi
c-pri
vat e
partner shi
ps"in whi ch gov ernmentand t hepr i
vatesectorcooperatet o provide
servicesori nf
rastructure.Privat
izati
oncani nclude:1)all
owingpri
vat
eent erpri
sest o
perform f uncti
ons t hathad pr evi
ously been monopol i
zed by gov er
nment ;2)
contract i
ng outthepr ovisi
on ormanagementofpubl icservi
cesorf acil
i
tiest o
commer ci
alenterprisesi ndeed,thereisawi derangeofpossi bl
eway sinwhi ch
functioncanbeor gani zedandmanyexampl esofwi thi
npublicsectorandpubl ic-

75
priv
at einsti
tutionalf orms,par t
icul
arlyi
ninf r
astruct
ure;3)f i
nanci
ngpubl i
csect or
programst hrough t hecapi talmar ket(wi
t hadequater egulat
ionormeasur est o
preventsituationswher et hecent r
algover
nmentbear sther i
skforthisborrowing)
andal lowi
ngpr i
v ateorganizati
onstoparti
cipate;
and4)t r
ansferri
ngresponsi
bili
tyfor
providingserv i
cesf r
om t hepubl i
ct othepr i
vat
esect orthroughthedi v
esti
tureof
state-ownedent erpri
ses.

Deregulati
on.Deregul
ationr educesthelegalconstr
aint
sonpr iv
atepartici
pati
oni n
servi
cepr ovi
sionorall
owscompet i
ti
onamongpr iv
atesuppli
ersforservi
cest hatin
thepasthadbeenpr ovidedbyt hegov er
nmentorbyr egul
atedmonopol i
es.Inrecent
yearspr i
vati
zati
onandder egulat
ionhavebecomemor eattr
acti
veal t
ernati
vest o
governmentsi ndevelopingcount ri
es.Localgovernmentsareal so pri
vati
zi
ngby
contr
actingoutservi
cepr ov
isionoradminist
rat
ion.

Choosi
ngt
heMostAppr
opr
iat
eFor
m ofDecent
ral
izat
ion

Underappr opriate condi tions,al loft hese f orms ofdecent rali

zati
on can pl ay
i
mpor tantrolesi nbr oadeni ngpar ti
cipationi npol i
tical,economi candsoci alactivi
ties
i
ndev elopingcount ri
es.Wher eitwor ksef fecti
vely,decent rali
zat i
onhel psal l
eviate
thebot t
lenecksi ndeci sionmaki ngt hatar eof tencausedbycent ralgov ernment
planningandcont rolofi mpor tanteconomi candsoci alact ivi
ties.Decent rali
zation
can hel p cutcompl exbur eaucr ati
cpr ocedur esand i tcan i ncreasegov ernment
offi
cials'sensi ti
v i
tyt ol ocalcondi t
ionsandneeds.Mor eov er,decent r
alizati
oncan
help nat i
onalgov ernmentmi nistri
es r each l argernumber s ofl ocalar eas wi th
services;allow gr eat erpol iticalrepr esent ationfordi versepol iti
cal,ethnic,reli
gious,
andcul t
uralgroupsi ndeci si on-maki ng;andr el
ievet opmanager sincentral minist
ries
of" r
out i
ne"t askst oconcent rateonpol i
cy .Insomecount r
ies,decent rali
zationmay
create a geogr aphi calf ocus att he locall evelf orcoor dinating national,stat e,
provincial,district,and l ocalpr ogr ams mor e ef fectivelyand can pr ov i
de better
oppor tunit
iesf orpar ticipationbyl ocalr esi dentsindeci sionmaki ng.Decent rali
zation
mayl eadt omor ecr eati
v e,i nnov ativeandr esponsi vepr ogr amsbyal lowingl ocal
"experiment ati
on. "Itcanal soi ncr easepol i
t i
calstabilit
yandnat i
onal unitybyal l
owi ng
citi
zenst obet tercont rolpubl i
cpr ogr amsatt helocal l
ev el.

Howev er,decent r
alizati
on i s not a panacea,and i t does hav e pot ential
disadvant ages. Decent r
ali
zation may not al way s be ef fi
cient,especi allyf or
standar dized,rout
ine,net work-
basedser vices.I
tcanr esul
tinthel ossofeconomi es
ofscaleandcont r
olov erscarcef inanci
alresour
cesbyt hecentralgov ernment .Weak
admi ni
st rativ
eort echnicalcapaci tyatl ocallevelsmayr esulti nser vicesbei ng
deli
veredl esseffi
cientl
yandef fecti
velyi
nsomear easofthecount ry.Admi nistrati
ve
responsi bili
ti
es may be t ransferred tol ocallev els wi
thoutadequat ef inanci al
resourcesandmakeequi t
abledi str
ibut
ionorpr ovisi
onofser v i
cesmor edi ffi
cult.
Decent ralizati
on can somet imes make coor dination ofnat ionalpol icies mor e
compl exand mayal low funct i
onst o becapt ur ed bylocalel i
tes.Al so,di str
ust
betweenpubl i
candpr ivatesectorsmayunder minecooper ati
onatt hel ocal l
ev el.

Proj
ectandpr
ogram plannersmustbeabletoassessthestr
engt
hsandweaknesses
ofpubli
candpriv
atesectororgani
zat
ionsinper
f or
mingdif
fer
entty
pesoffuncti
ons.
Befor
edevel
opingelaborat
eplansfordecent
ral
izati
on,t
heymustassesst
hel owest

76
organizationallev
elofgov er
nmentatwhi chfuncti
onscanbecar r
iedoutef f
ici
entl
y
andef fectivel
yand- -forfuncti
onsthatdonothav etobepr ovidedbygov er
nment- -
themostappr opr
iateformsofpr i
vati
zati
on.Evenprogram plannerswhodonotsee
‘
decent rali
zati
on’as t heirprimary moti
v e mustcareful
ly anal y
ze t he t
ypes of
decentralizati
onalreadypresentinacountryinordert
ot ai
l
orpol icyplanstoexisti
ng
struct
ur es.

Cent r
ali
zationanddecent ralizationar enot" either-or"conditions.I nmostcount r i
es
anappr opriatebal anceofcent ral
i
zat i
onanddecent rali
zationi sessent ialtot he
effecti
veandef fi
cientf unct ioningofgov ernment .Notal lfunctionscanorshoul dbe
fi
nancedandmanagedi nadecent r
al izedf ashion.Ev enwhennat ionalgov ernment s
decentrali
zer esponsi bili
ties, theyoftenr et ainimpor tantpol i
cyandsuper visoryrol es.
Theymustcr eateormai ntaint he" enabl i
ngcondi ti
ons"t hatal low localuni tsof
admi ni
strati
onornon- gov ernmentor gani zati
onst ot akeonmor er esponsibil
ities.
Cent r
al mi nistri
es of ten hav e cr ucial r oles i n pr omot i
ng and sust aining
decentrali
zat i
on by dev elopi ng appr opr i
at e and ef fecti
v e nat i
onalpol icies and
regulati
ons f ordecent ralization and st r engtheni ng locali nstit
utionalcapaci t
yt o
assumer esponsi bil
it
yf ornewf unctions.Thesuccessofdecent rali
zati
onf requent ly
dependsheav il
yont r
ai ningf orbot hnat ionalandl ocalof fi
cial
si ndecent r
alized
admi ni
strati
on.Techni calassi stancei sof tenr equi r
edf orlocalgov er
nment s,private
enterpri
ses and l ocalnon- gov ernment algr oups i nt he pl anning,f i
nancing,and
managementofdecent ralizedf unctions.

Par
ti
cipat
ion&Decent
ral
izat
ion

Parti
cipationanddecent ral
i
zationhav easy mbi oti
cr el
ationship.Ont heonehand,
successf uldecentral
izationrequiressomedegr eeofl ocalpar t
icipation.Subnat i
onal
government s’pr
oximi t
yt otheirconstituentswillonlyenabl ethem t or espondbet t
er
tolocalneedsandef fi
cientl
ymat chpubl i
cspendi ngtopr i
v at
eneedsi fsomesor tof
i
nformat i
onf low betweenci ti
zensandt hel ocalgov ernment sexi st.Ont heot her
hand,t he process ofdecent ral
izati
on can i tselfenhance t he oppor tunit
ies for
parti
cipationbypl acingmor epowerandr esourcesatacl oser,mor ef amili
ar,mor e
easil
yi nfl
uencedl evelofgov ernment .Inenv i
ronment swi t
hpoort raditi
onsofci t
izen
parti
cipation,decent r
ali
zat i
oncanbeani mpor tantf i
rststepi ncr eati
ngr egular
,
predi
ct ableopportuniti
esf orci
tizen-stateint
eraction.

The sy mbiot
icr elati
onshi
p bet ween decent rali
zat ion and parti
cipati
on l eads t o
somewhatcont radict
orypolicygui del
ines.Ononehand,mechani smsf orci tizen
parti
cipati
on could be consi dered a hel pf
ulpr e- conditi
on when ev aluat i
ng t he
prospectsforsuccessfuldecent r
ali
zati
on.Accor dingl y,thedesi
gnofdecent ral
ization
shouldt akeinto accountt heoppor t
uni t
iesand l i
mi tat
ionsimposed byexi sting
channelsoflocalpar t
ici
pati
on.Ont heot herhand,l ackofpar ti
cipat
or ymechani sms
couldbeconsi deredamot ivati
onf ordecent rali
zat ionandcanhel pcr eatel ocal
demand f ormor e part
ici
patorychannel stov oice l ocalpref
erences.Thi s not e
discusseseach oft hesedi mensions- -par ti
cipation asa meanst o successf ul
decentral
izat
ionandasagoal ofdecentrali
zati
on.

Thefi
rstsect
ionconcentr
atesont
hebroadmechani
smsf orci
ti
zeni
nputthatar
e
bestseenasparamet er
sofdecentr
ali
zat
ionpol
i
cy.Thesetypesofinst
it
uti
onal

77
structur
es,embeddedinthenationalpolit
icalenvi
ronmentanddev el
opedoveralong
periodoft i
me,cannotbeal ter
edqui cklybyasi mpleregulat
ion.Thesecondpart
shiftstothesmal ler
,mor especifi
cav enuesf orciti
zenpar t
ici
pati
onthatcanbe
createdinthepr
ocessofdecentr al
i
zation.Theseincrementalchangescanevent
uall
y
evolvet oward broader oppor
tuniti
es f or ci
ti
zen parti
cipat
ion and democrati
c
gov er
nance.

Sect
ion1:
Par
ti
ci
pat
ionasaPr
e-condi
ti
on:
BroadDeci
sion-
Maki
ngI
nfl
uence

Sect
ion2:
Par
ti
ci
pat
ionasaGoal
:TheMor
eAt
tai
nabl
eBegi
nni
ngRef
orms

Concl
usi
on

Citizenpar t
ici
pat i
oninsomef ormi sanessentialpartofsuccessfuldecentr
ali
zati
on.
Itisbecomi ngamor ecommonel ementi ndevelopingcountrypoli
ti
calenvir
onment s
-13, 000uni tsofl ocalgov ernmenti nLatinAmer i
caar enow elected,comparedt o
3,000i n1973-butt heflow ofi nf
ormationisbynomeansundi stort
ed.Planning
decent r
alizati
onpol i
ciesshoul dt aketheseinformat i
onali
mper f
ectionsint
oaccount
and at t
emptt oi mprovet he depth and degr ee ofciti
zen parti
cipati
on inlocal
gov ernmentact ion.Localgov ernmentr esponsiveness,oneofthemai nrati
onalesfor
decent r
alizi
ngcannotber eali
zedwhent herear enomechani smsf ortr
ansfer
ring
i
nf ormationbet weent helocal governmentandi tsconstit
uents.

78
 DEVELOPMENTI
SSUE6

GENDERANDDEVELOPMENT

Genderequali
tyisconsider
edacr it
icalelementi nachievi
ngDecentWor kf orAl
l
WomenandMen,i nordertoeffectsocialandi nsti
tut
ionalchangethatl
eadst o
sust
ainabl
edev el
opmentwi t
hequityandgr owt
h.Genderequal it
yreferst
oequal
ri
ght
s,responsi
bil
i
tiesandopport
unit
iesthatallpersonsshouldenjoy,r
egar
dlessof
whetheroneisbornmaleorfemal
e.

I
nthecont
extofthewor
ldofwor
k,equal
i
tybet
weenwomenandmeni
ncl
udest
he
f
oll
owi
ngelement
s:
1.Equal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
tyandt
reat
menti
nempl
oyment
2.Equal
remuner
ati
onf
orwor
kofequal
val
ue
3.Equal
accesst
osaf
eandheal
thywor
kingenv
ironment
sandt
osoci
alsecur
it
y
4.Equal
i
tyi
nassoci
ati
onandcol
l
ect
ivebar
gai
ning
5.Equal
i
tyi
nobt
aini
ngmeani
ngf
ulcar
eerdev
elopment
6.Abal
ancebet
weenwor
kandhomel
i
fet
hati
sfai
rtobot
hwomenandmen
7.Equal
par
ti
cipat
ioni
ndeci
sion-
maki
ngatal
ll
evel
s

Giventhatwomenar eusual l
yinadisadv
ant agedposi ti
oninthewor kplacecompar ed
tomen, pr omoti
onofgenderequal it
yimpli
esexpl i
citattent
iontowomen’ sneedsand
perspectives.Att
hesamet ime,ther
earealsosi gni
ficantnegati
veef fectsofunequal
powerr elati
onsandexpect ati
onsonmenandboy sduet oster
eotypingaboutwhati t
meanst obeamal e.Instead,bothwomenandmen,andboy sandgi r
ls,shoul
dbe
fr
eet odev el
optheirabil
iti
esandmakechoi ces–wi t
houtli
mitationssetbyr i
gid
genderr olesandprej
udices–basedonper sonal i
nterestsandcapaci t
ies.

TheILO hasadopt
edanintegr
atedapproachtogenderequal
it
yanddecentwork.
Thi
smeanswor ki
ngtoenhanceequalemploymentoppor
tuni
ti
esthr
oughmeasur
es

79
thatalsoai mt oimprov ewomen’saccesst oeducati
on, skil
l
st rainingandhealt
hcare
–whi l
et akingwomen’ srol
ei nt
hecar eeconomyadequat el
yintoaccount .Examples
ofthesei ncl
udei mplement i
ngmeasur estohelpwor ker sbalancewor kandfami ly
responsibili
ti
es,andpr ovi
dingworkplacei
ncentiv
esfort heprov i
si onofchil
dcar
eand
parentalleave.
Gender -
roledev el
opmenti soneoft hemosti mport
antar easofhumandev el
opment .
Infact,thesexofanewbor nsetst heagendaf orawhol earr ayofdev el
opment al
experi
encest hatwil
li
nf l
uencethepersonthroughouthisorherl ife.

The of ten cont rov ersialst udyoft he dev elopmentofgenderi sa t opict hati s
i
nher ent lyinterest i
ngt o parent s,student s,r esearchers,andschol arsf orsev er al
reasons.Fi rstandf oremost ,one' ssexi soneoft hemostsal ientchar acteristics
present edt oot herpeopl e.Second,whoonei sasamal eoraf emal ebecomesa
significantpar tofone' sov erallident i
ty;itisoneoft hefirstdescr i
ptorspeopl euse
aboutt hemsel ves.Label ingonesel fasa" boy "or" gir
l"canbegi nasear l
yasage
eighteenmont hs.Thi rd,genderi sani mpor tantmedi atorofhumanexper iencesand
thewayi nwhi chi ndividualsi nteractwi theachot herandt hephysicalenv i
ronment .
Individuals'choicesoff r
iends,t oys,classest akeninmi ddleschool ,andv ocational l
arei nf l
uenced bysex.Fi nally,the st udyofsex,genderdev elopment ,and sex
differencesbecomest hef ocalpoi ntofanage- ol
dcont r
ov ersythathasi nfluenced
thef ieldofdev elopment alpsy chology:t henat ur
e-nurturecont r
ov ersy.Ar egender
rolesandsexdi ff
er encesbi ologicall
ydet ermined?Whatar etheef fectsofsoci et y
andcul tureongenderandsex?How dobi ology(nat ur
e)andenv ironment( nur ture)
i
nt eractandmut ual l
yi nfluenceeachot heri nt hi
ssi gnif
icantdimensi onofhuman
dev elopment ?

Whendi scussi nggender -r

ol edev elopment ,t hedef init
ionsoft het erms" sex"and
"gender "needt obeunder stood.Ref erri
ngt othenat ur e-
nurturecont r
ov ersy,schol ars
hav ef oundi timpor t
anttodi stingui shthoseaspect sofmal esandf emal est hatcan
beat tri
but edt obi ol
ogyandt hoset hatcanbeat tri
but edt osoci ali nfl
uences.The
term" sex"denot est heact ualphy sicalmakeupofi ndivi
dual sthatdef inet hem as
mal eorf emal e.Sexi sdeter mi nedbygenet icmakeup,i nternalrepr oduct i
veor gans,
theor ganizat i
onoft hebrai n( suchasi nt hecont rolofhor monepr oduct i
on) ,and
externalgeni talia.Bycont rast ,thebehav iorofi ndividualsasmal esorf emal es,t he
typesofr ol est heyassume,andt heirpersonal it
ychar acterist
ics,maybeasmucha
funct i
onofsoci alexpectat i
onsandi nteractionsast heirbi ologicalmakeup.For
exampl e,i nAmer icancultur e,f emal esar eex pectedt o benur turing,andmal es
aggr essive.Thesebehav i
or sand char acteristi
csar edependentupon t hesoci al
cont ext.Inor dert odi f
fer
ent i
at esoci alrolesandbehav iorsf r
om bi ologicalf eatures,
schol arsr efert ot heseas" gender "and" genderr ol
es."Obv iously,sexandgenderar e
i
nt ertwined.Soci alexpectat i
onsusual lyar eenact ed oncebodypar tsr ev ealt he
biological makeupoft hei
ndi vidual .

Bot hsexandgenderhav eadev elopmentalstor

yt otel
lthatbeginsbef or
ebi r
th
(prenatal
)andcontinuest hr
oughoutt heli
fespan.Import
antdevelopmentalchanges
occurf rom concepti
ont hrought headol escenceyears,and thereareimpor t
ant
theoreti
calper
spectivesandr esearchstudiesthathavetri
edtoshedl i
ghtont hese
dev el
opmentalaccomplishments.

80
TheGenderandDevelopment( GAD)appr
oachi
sawayofdet ermini
nghowbestt
o
str
uctur
edevel
opmentpr oject
sandpr ogr
amsbasedonanal
y sisofgender
rel
ati
onshi
ps.I
twasdev elopedinthe1980sasanal
ter
nat
ivet otheWomeni n
Devel
opment(WID)approacht hatwasincommonuseunti
lthen.

Unli
keWI D( WomeninDev elopment),
andWAD( WomenandDev elopment
),t
heGAD
approachi snotconcernedspecifi
callywit
hwomen,butwi t
hthewayi nwhicha
societyassignsrol
es,responsi
bil
it
iesandexpectati
onstobot hwomenandmen.
GADappl iesgenderanalysi
st ouncov ert
heway sinwhichmenandwomenwor k
together
,present
ingresul
tsinneut
raltermsofeconomicsandeff
ici
ency

CarolineMoserdev elopedt heMoserGenderPl anningFramewor kf orGAD- or i

ented
dev el
opmentpl anningi nthe1980swhi lewor kingatt heDev elopmentPl anningUni t
oft he Univ ersit
yofLondon.Wor king wit h Car en Levy,she expanded i ti ntoa
[
2]
met hodologyf orgenderpol i
cyandpl anning. TheMoserf ramewor kf ol
lowst he
Genderand Dev elopmentappr oach i n emphasi zi
ng the i mportance ofgender
rel
at i
ons.Aswi ththeWI D-basedHar vardAnal yticalFramewor k,i
tincludescol lect
ion
ofquant itative empi ri
calf acts.Goi ng further,i tinvesti
gat es the r easons and
processest hatleadt oconv enti
onsofaccessandcont rol.TheMoserFr amewor k
i
ncludes genderr oles ident i
fi
cat ion,genderneeds assessment ,di saggr egating
cont r
olofr esources and deci sion maki ng wi thint he househol d,pl anni ng for
balancingt het ri
plerole,distinguishingbet weendi ff
erentaimsi ninterventionsand
i
nv olvi
ngwomenandgender -awar eor ganizationsi nplanning.

TheWor l
dBankwasoneofthefi
rstinternat
ional organizati
onstorecognizetheneed
forWomeni nDevel
opment,appoi
nt i
ngaWI D Adv iserin1977.I n1984,t hebank
mandat edthati
tsprogr
amsconsiderwomen' sissues.I n1994,t hebanki ssueda
policypaperonGenderandDevel
opment ,r
eflectingcur r
entthinki
ngont hesubj ect.
This poli
cy ai
ms to addr
ess pol
icy and i nsti
tut i
onalconst rai
ntsthatmai ntai
n
dispari
ti
esbetweenthegendersandt husl i
mi tt heef f
ecti
venessofdev el
opment
programs

Genderequali
tyis,fi
rstandforemost
,ahumanr i
ght.Womenareenti
tl
edtol
ivei
n
di
gnityandinf r
eedom f r
om wantandf r
om fear
.Empower i
ngwomeni sal
soan
i
ndispensabl
etoolforadvanci
ngdevel
opmentandreduci
ngpover
ty.

I
mpor
tanceofGenderEqual
it
y

Empower edwomencont r
ibut
et othehealthandpr oduct
ivi
tyofwholefamil
iesand
communi ti
esandt oimprovedprospectsforthenextgenerati
on.Theimport
anceof
genderequalit
yi sunderscored byitsinclusi
on asoneoft heeightMill
ennium
DevelopmentGoals.Genderequali
tyisacknowledgedasbeingakeyt oachi
evingthe
othersevengoals.

Yetdi scr
iminati
on agai
nstwomen and gi rls -incl
uding gender-
based v i
olence,
economi c di
scri
minati
on,reproductive healthinequiti
es,and harmfult radit
ional
pract
ices-remainsthemostper vasiv
eandper si
stentform ofi
nequali
ty.Womenand
gir
lsbearenor moushardshi
pdur ingandaf terhumanitari
anemer genci
es,especi al
ly
armedconf l
i
cts.Formor ethan30y ears,theFundhasbeeni nt heforefrontof

81
advocati
ngforwomen,pr
omoti
nglegalandpol
icyref
ormsandgender
-sensi
ti
vedata
col
lecti
on,andsuppor
ti
ngproj
ect
st hatimpr
ov ewomen'
shealt
handexpandt hei
r
choicesi
nlif
e.

Genderequal i
tyisessentialforgr owth and pover
tyreducti
on,and iti skeyto
reachingt heMi l
l
ennium DevelopmentGoal s.However,genderinequal
it
iesaresti
ll
entrenched in many cul t
ural
,soci aland pol i
ti
calsystems.I nt he devel
opi
ng
world, 
womensuf ferdispr
oportionat
elyfr
om pov ert
yandi tsrelatedil
ls,suchas
malnut r
it
ion,poorhealt
handi l
l
iteracy.

Genderr ol
esr efertot hesetofsoci alandbehav ioral nor
mst hatareconsider edtobe
sociallyappr opriatef ori ndi
vi
dualsofaspeci fi
csexi nt hecont extofaspeci fi
c
cult
ur e,whichdi fferwi delybetweencul t
ur esandov erti
me.Ther ear edif
ferencesof
opinion ast o whet herobser ved genderdi ff
erencesi n behaviorand per sonal
it
y
charact eri
sti
csar e,atl eastinpart
,duet ocul t
uralorsoci alf
actor
s, andtheref or
e,t
he
productofsoci ali
zationexper i
ences, ortowhatext entgenderdifferencesareduet o
[
1]
biol
ogi calandphy si
ologi caldi
ff
erences.

Views on gender -based dif

ferentiati
on int he workplace and ini nterper
sonal
rel
ati
onshipshav eoftenundergonepr ofoundchangesasar esul
toffeministand/or
economici nf
luences,buttherear est il
lconsi
derabl
edifferencesingenderr olesin
almostallsociet
ies.Iti
salsotruet hatint i
mesofnecessity,suchasdur i
ngawaror
otheremergency ,womenar epermi ttedtoperfor
mf unct
ionswhi chi
n" normal"times
wouldbeconsi deredamaler ol
e, orv i
ceversa.

Genderhassev eraldef ini

ti
ons.Itusuallyr eferstoasetofchar acteristicst hatar e
consider edtodi sti
ngui shbetweenmal eandf emal e,r efl
ectone' sbi ologi calsex,or
ref
lectone' sgenderi denti
ty.Genderi dent it
yi st hegender (s) ,orl ackt hereof ,a
personsel f-i
dentifi
esas;i tisnotnecessar il
ybasedonbi ol
ogi calsex,ei therr ealor
perceived,andi tisdistinctf
rom sexualor i
ent at
ion.Iti sone'sinter nal,per sonal sense
[2]
ofbei ngamanorawoman( oraboyorgi r
l)
. Therear et wo mai ngender s:
mascul ine(mal e),orf eminine(f
emale) ,althoughsomecul turesacknowl edgemor e
[
3]
gender s.Andr ogyny,f orexampl e,hasbeenpr oposedasat hirdgender . Some
[4]
societi
eshav emor et hanf i
vegenders, andsomenon- Westernsoci et i
eshav ethree
[
5]
gender s–man,womanandt hi
rdgender . Genderexpr essionr ef erst ot heext er
nal
mani f
est at
ionofone' sgenderi dent
ity,thr ough" mascul i
ne,"" femi nineorgender -
vari
antorgenderneut ralbehavi
or,cl
othing, hair
styles, orbodychar acteristics.

Genderst
ereot
ypes

Stereotypes cr
eate expectat
ions r
egardi
ng emot ionalexpr
essi
on and emoti
onal
reaction.Manystudiesfindthatemoti
onalstereotypesandthedispl
ayofemotions
"correspondtoactualgenderdif
fer
encesinexperiencingemot
ionandexpr
essi
on."

Ster
eotypesgeneral
l
ydictatehowandbywhom andwheni tissocial
l
yaccept abl
eto
di
splayanemot i
on.Reactinginast ereot
ype-consistentmannermayr esul
tinsocial
approvalwhilereacti
ng i n a stereotype-
inconsistent manner coul dresultin
di
sapproval
.Itshouldbenot edthatwhati ssoci all
yacceptabl
ev ari
essubstanti
ally
overti
meandbet weenlocalcult
uresandsubcul tures.

82
 Accor
dingt
oNi
edent
hal
etal
.

 Womenar emoreemot i
onall
yexpressive.
 Womenar emoreemot i
onall
yresponsi v
e.
 Womenar emoreempat heti
c.
 Womenar emoresensi ti
vetoothers'feeli
ngs.
 Womenar emoreobsessedwi t
hhav ingchildr
en.
 Womenexpr esstheirfeeli
ngswi thoutconstrai
nt,exceptf
ort
heemoti
onof
anger
.
 Wo menpaymor eattenti
ontobodyl anguage.
 Wo menj
udgeemot ionsf r
om nonv er
bal communicati
onbett
ert
hanmendo.
 Wo menexpr
essmor elove,f
ear,andsadness.

 Womenlaugh,gaze,
andsmi
l
emore.Menaremoreobsessedwi
thsex.
 Menareoverwhel
medbywomen'
sexpr
essi
onsofemotion.
 Menexpressmoreanger
.
 Menarestoi
c.

 Menshowemot i
ontocommunicatedomi nance.
 Women antici
pate negat
ive consequences for expr
essi
ng anger and
aggr
essi
on.

Virgini
aWool f ,inthe1920s,madet hepoi nt:"I
tisobvi
oust hatthev al
uesofwomen
differveryof tenf r
om t hev al
ueswhi chhavebeenmadebyt heothersex.Yeti tisthe
mascul inev aluest hatpr evail
"( ARoom ofOne' sOwn,N. Y.1929,p.76) .Sixtyyears
l
ater ,psy chologistCar olGi l
l
iganwast ot akeupt hepoi nt
,andusei ttoshow t hat
psy chologicalt est
sofmat ur
ityhav egenerallybeenbasedonmascul i
neparamet ers,
andsot endedt oshow t hatwomenwer eless'mature'
.Shecount eredthisinher
ground- breakingwor k,InaDi fferentVoice,(Harvar
dUni ver
sityPress,1982),holding
thatmat urit
yi nwomeni sshowni nt er
msofdi f
fer
ent,butequallyimportant,human
values.

Cr
it
ici
sm

TheWor l
dBankwasoneoft hef i
rstinternational organi zat
ionstor ecognizetheneed
forWomeni nDev el
opment ,appoi nt i
ngaWI D Adv iseri n1977.I n1984,t hebank
mandat edt hatitsprogramsconsi derwomen' sissues.I n1994,t hebanki ssueda
poli
cypaperonGenderandDev el
opment ,reflectingcur r
entthinki
ngont hesubj ect.
gender sandt huslimitt heeffectivenessofdev el opmentpr ogramsGADhasbeen
cri
ti
cizedf oremphasi zingthesoci aldi ff
er encesbet weenmenandwomenwhi l
e
neglect i
ngt hebondsThi spol
icyai mst oaddr esspol icyandi nstit
utionalconst r
aints
thatmai ntain di
sparit
iesbet ween t hebet ween t hem and al so thepot enti
alf or
changesi nroles.Anothercrit
icism ist hatGADdoesnotdi gdeepenoughi ntosoci al
rel
ationsandso maynotexpl ai
nhow t heser elationscanunder mi nepr ograms
dir
ect edatwomen.I talsodoesnotuncov ert het ypesoft r
ade-offt hatwomenar e
prepar edtomakef orthesakeofachi ev i
ngt heirideal sofmar r
iageormot herhood.

83
 The Wor ld Bank is an internati
onalf i
nanci
alinsti
tut
ion thatpr ovi
des loans to
developi
ng count ri
es forcapi talprogrammes.Accor ding tot heirwebsite:"Our
missionistofightpovertywithpassionandpr of
essional
ism f
orl asti
ngresultsandto
helppeoplehel pthemsel v
esandt heirenvi
ronmentbypr ovi
di ngresources,shari
ng
knowledge,bui l
ding capacityand for gi
ng par
tner
shipsi nt hepubl i
cand pr iv
ate
sectors.

FURTHERREADI
NGS

1.Her
ttne,
B.Dev
elopment
nTheor
yandt
heThi
rdWor
ld,
(1982)SARECRepor
t.

2.Chambua,S.E.(1994)
.‘’
TheDevel
opmentDebatesandthecri
sisofDev
elopment
Theor
ies’
’inHimmelst
rand,U.etal.
(1994)Af
ri
canPerspect
iveonDevelopment
,
MkukiandNyot
a:DarEsSalaam.

3.Msambichaka,L.Moshi,H.P.B.andMt
ati
fi
kol
o,F.P.(
eds.)Dev
elopmentChal
lenges
st
andStr
ategiesforTanzania:AnAgendafor21 Cent ur
y,DarEsSal aam:DarEs
Sal
aam Univer
sit
yPress.1994.

4.Himmelst
rand,U.Ki
nyanj
ui,
K.andE.Mbugur
u(Eds)(
1994)
.Af
ri
canPer
spect
iveson
Devel
opment.MkukiandNyota:
DarEsSal
aam.

5.Seers,D.Themeani
ngofDev
elopment
’’I
nter
nat
ionalDev
elopmentRev
iew Vol
.19
No.21972,,
pp2-
7

6.Ki
ngsbur
y,D.
,Remeny
i,J.
,Mckay
,J.andHunt
,J.( .Keyi
2004) ssuesi
ndevel
opment
.
PALGRAVEMACMILLAN,NewYork.

7.Conzal
ez,D.(
1997).WhoLeadst oWher
e?Afri
canleadershi
pint
otheXXICent
ury
”,
Confer
encePaperonthe‘
Ref
lect
ionsonl
eader
shipi
nAf r
ica”,
DaresSal
aam.

8.St
ewart,E.(
2003)
.Conf
li
ctPrev
ent
ion:ConsensusorConf on?Jour
usi nalofPeace,
Conf
li
ctandDevel
opment3:2–17.

9.Mpangala,G.P.( .Et
2000) hni
cConfli
ctsi
ntheRegi
onsoftheGreatLakes:Or
igi
ns
andProspect
sforChange.Uni
ver
sit
yofDaresSal
aam,DaresSal
aam.158pp.

10.
Museveni,
Y.(1998)
.“OpeningAddr
essbyH.EYower
iKagut
aMusev eni
,Pr
esi
dentof
theRepubl
icofUgandaattheConfl
i
ctResol
uti
oni
nAfri
caWorkshop.
”

11.
Mpungwe,A.(1998)
.”
RulesoftheGame”inResol
vingDeepRootedConf
li
cts:The
CaseoftheAr
ushaPeaceProcessf
orRwanda”DaresSal
aam:ArushaWor
kshopon
Confl
i
ctResol
uti
oninAfr
ica.

12.
Mkandawi
re,T.(
1995)
.“Bey
ondCr
isi
s:Towar
dDemocr
ati
cDev
elopment
alSt
atesi
n

84
 Af
ri
ca,
”Dakar
:CODESRI
AEi
ghtGener
alAssembl
y.

13.
Mpangal
a,G.
P.(1997).Pol
it
icalandSoci
alDevel
opmenti
nAf
rca.1st Edi
i ti
on.The
OpenUni
ver
sit
yofTanzani
a.DarEsSal
aam.102pp.

14.
Hope,K.
R.,(2003).
Gover
nanceandDev el
opmentinaDy nami
cGlobalEnvir
onment.I
n:
APaperPr esentedattheHarvardInt
ernat
ionalDevel
opmentConference.Apr
il4-
5
2003,
BostonMassachusetts.20pp.

15.EconomicCommi ssi
onf orAfr
ica(2003).Publi
cSect orManagementRefor
msi n
Afri
ca: LessonLarnedIn:APaperPresentedattheDevelopmentPoli
cyManagement
Divi
sionConfer
enceDecember2003,AddisAbabaEthiopi
a.24pp

16.
Augie,A.A.(2004)
.HumanRi ght
sandGoodGov er
nanceinAfri
ca:ACrit
icalNexus
ExpandingHumanRi ghtsIn:APaperPr
esent
edattheGovernanceforaProgressi
ng
Afr
icaconf enceOct
er ober11-
15,2004,
AddisAbabaEthi
opi
a.54pp.

17.
Mpangal
a,G.
P.(1997).Pol
it
icalandSoci
alDevel
opmenti
nAf
rca.1st Edi
i ti
on.The
OpenUni
ver
sit
yofTanzani
a.DarEsSal
aam.102pp.

Ki
ngsbur
y,D.
,Remeny
i,J.
,Mckay
,J.andHunt
,J.( .Keyi
2004) ssuesi
ndevel
opment
.
PALGRAVEMACMILLAN,NewYork.

Conzalez,D.(1997)
.WhoLeadst oWhere?Afri
canleadershi
pi nt
otheXXICentur
y”,
ConferencePaperonthe‘Ref
lecti
onsonleader
shipi
nAf r
ica”,DaresSal
aam.
St
ewar t,E.(
2003).Conf
li
ctPr ev
enti
on:ConsensusorConf usion?Jour
nalofPeace,
Confl
ictandDevelopment3:2–17.

Mpangala,G.P.( 2000).Et
hnicConfli
ctsi
ntheRegi
onsoftheGr eatLakes:Ori
gins
andProspectsforChange.Univer
sit
yofDaresSal
aam,DaresSalaam.158pp.
Museveni,Y.(
1998) .“
OpeningAddressbyH.EYower
iKagutaMusev eni
,Presi
dentof
theRepubli
cofUgandaatt heConfli
ctResol
uti
oni
nAfri
caWorkshop.”

WHO.glossar
yofter
ms,
"Dev
elopmentCooper
ati
on"Accessed25Januar
y2008(
and
st
il
lther
ein2009)

STUDYI
NGQUESTI
ONSFORDS102

Q.Whatisat heor
yandwhyisatheor
eti
calunderst
andi
ngofsocialdev
elopment
,
par
ti
cular
lydevel
opmenti
nThi
rdWorldcountr
iessoimpor
tant
?

Q.Pr
ovi
dereasonswhysomecount r
iesar
ebecomi
ng r
icherand r
icherwhi
le
ot
her
sar
ebecomingpoor
erandpoorer
?

85
Q.Criti
callydiscussW.Rodney ’
scontentionthatEur
opeunderdev
elopedAfr
ica.
Whatistodayunder
developingAfrica?
Q. Discusst heconceptofhuman dev elopment. Whataresomeoft hekey
i
ndi
catorsthatshowt hatasociety
isdeveloping?Ar etheseelements?Pr esenti
nAfri
cancount
ri
es?
Q.Howbestcanonedescr i
bet hedevelopmentprocessi
nmostAf r
icancount
ries
beforeandaf terindependence?

Q.Analyze Marxistt heory ofsoci aldevelopmentindicat

ing i
ts st
rength and
weaknessesinunder standingtheprocessofsocialdevel
opmentpar ti
cul
arlyin
Tanzaniaandot herthirdwor ldcount
ri
es.
Q. I
stheMar xi
stt heoryofsoci aldevel
opmentstil
lval
idinthe21stcentury?Ifso
i
ndi
catewhy .
Q.Highl
ightthemai nel ement sofMar xi
sttheor
y. WhatdoesMar xisttheory
contr
ibutetoourunder standingoftheprocessofsocialdevel
opmenti nAf r
ica
andot hert
hir
dwor l
dcount ries?

Q.Afr
icanSocial
ism advocat
edbyAfr
icanl
eader
ssuchasJ.K.Ny
erer
ewaspar
t
andparcelofMarxism.Discuss

Q.To whatext entdoesRost ow'sTheoryofGr owthprov

ideanswer sto
Afr
ica’sacutedevelopmentproblems?
Q.Thegoalofmoder nizati
oni
st ocreat
eeconomicandsocialcondit
ionsto
approximate those of cur rent
ly devel
oped nati
ons to pr eci
pitat
e
developmentindev elopi
ngcountri
es.Cri
ti
cal
lyappr
aiset
hest r
ategy.

Q.Cri
ti
cal
lydi
scussR.Nurkse’
scontent
iont
hatAfri
caispoorbecausei
tispoor
.Can
Nur
kse’s prescri
pti
onshelpover
comepovert
yincount
ri
essuchasTanzani
a?

Q.“
St r
uctur
alAdjustmentPr ogrammes from the 1980’
s,is a syst
em of
inter
nati
onalcapital
istpenetr
ati
on ofdevelopi
ng countr
ies,t
o ensure
maxi mum exploi
tati
onoft hesecountri
esbyt hecapital
istcountr
ies”
.
Discussthi
sstatementhighl
ighti
ngyourvi
ewsonSAPs’ .

Q. Usi
ngconcreteev
idencepoi
ntoutsomeofthemai
nargument
sforandagai
nst
amarketbasedstr
ategyofdev
elopmentasi
sbei
ngimposedbytheI
MF/World
Bank.

86
 Q.Compar eandcont
rastMar xi
standBourgeoistheor
iesonsocialdev
elopment
.
Indi
cat esomeoftheposit
ive
contr
ibut
ionsoftheset heor
iesto underst
anding ofAfr
ica’
sdev el
opment
problems.

Q.Di
scusst
hecont
ent
iont
hatdependencyt
heor
ist
spr
ovi
deamor
eadequat
e
explanati
onofunder devel
opmenti nthet hi
rdworld.
Q.The t heory of underdevelopment pr opounded by A.G.Fr ank and other
dependencyt heori
sts provides a mor e cri
ti
caltheor
eti
calunderstandi
ng of
developmentinthethirdwor l
dcountries.Discuss.
Q.Analyzethediff
erentperspecti
veswithinthedependencyschool
ofthought.

Q.Cri
ti
cal
lyexami nethecontenti
ont hatprobl
emsofi nef
fici
entall
ocati
onand
ut
il
izat
ionofresour
cesaswel laslackofi
nvestmentsaretheprimarycausesof
l
ackofdevelopmentinTanzaniaandotherAfr
icancountri
es.

Q.Towhatextentar
etheon-goi
ngconcer
nofglobal
izati
onandtheinter
nat
ional
economyabl
etoprov
ideanswerst
oAfri
ca’
sacut
edev el
opmentpr
oblems?

Q.Whatar
edev
elopmentet
hics?Whatar
eit
ssour
ces?

Q.Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weendev
elopmentet
hicsandet
hicaldev
elopment
.

Q.Whatar
ethechar
act
eri
sti
csofanEt
hical
ly–BasedDev
elopment
?

Q.I
nwhi
char
easar
ethecont
rov
ersi
esofdev
elopmentet
hicsdebat
es?

Q.Becauseofdif
ferencesinethi
calconsi
der
ati
on,
Dev
elopmentcanbeusedei
ther
descr
ipt
ivel
yornormativel
y,Expl
ainbri
efl
y

87