A paper by A. D. WALSH SPARKS, B.Sc.(Eng.)(Natal), M.Sc.(Eng.

)(Rand), (Associate Member)*

(This paper was received by the Institution on May 9, 1960 and was accepted for publication on October 6,1960)

A THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION FOR

PARTIALLY SATURATED SOILS
SYNOPSIS

P ART I of this paper describes a IDethod for predicting the initial cOIDpression of a soil. This
prediction does not depend upon the assuIDption of a linear e-p curve. A theory is also
developed for the prediction of the aerodynaIDic and hydrodynaIDic tiIDe-settleIDent curve. The
solution of the corresponding differential equations by nUIDerical, IDatheIDatical and analog
IDethods is discussed in Part II. The theories are applied to particular exaIDples, and certain
experiIDental evidence is also given.
Part II of the paper deals with the IDethods for the solution of the differential equations for
the consolidation of partially saturated and saturated soils.
Several analog and nUIDerical IDethods have been developed for the solution of these equations.
These IDethods IDay also be used to find the time-settlement curves in the case of the norIDal Terzaghi
consolidation theory for a saturated soil as this is only a special case of the general theory for
partially saturated soils, developed by the Author in Part I of this paper.
A few practical probleIDs are analysed.

PART ONE

Introduction !:J.
f = 6
ie + 6 ic + 6 c + 6 sc + 6 d (1 )
BECAUSE Southern Africa has a relatively dry
climate, all theories relating to the behaviour of = 6£1 + 6 ie + 6 sc + 6 d .. (2)
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

partially saturated soils are of particular interest to local

engineers. Similar soil conditions can be found in
where 6r=total final settlement
Australia, the United States of America and elsewhere. 6ie=an initial settlement due to the elastic deformation of
Practical applications of the theories in this paper will be the soil strata. This is similar to the type of initial
discussed in Part II. settlement which would take place if a heavy weight
were to be placed on a non-plastic strata of elastic
The time-settlement consolidation curve of a steel, rubber, etc. .
partially saturated soil is shown diagramatically in Fig. 1. 6ic=an initial compression due to compression of the air
voids and due to the associated deformation of the soil.
The .'·curve ABD represents the expected time-settlement 6c=a settlement which can be referred to as the hydrodynamic
curve. and aerodynamic settlement, or for the sake of brevity, the
hydrodynamic settlement. This settlement is caused by the
Tim e t application of load ~ redistribution of soil stresses due to the relief of water
A .--_ _,--_ _ _ _ _ _ _--.-_ _--';:-1_ _ _ _ __

·f -r- - - r- Ai. - - - - -.
and air pressures within the sample and it requires
considerable time for its full development.
6sc=a settlement known as secondary consolidation. This
is caused by plastic time effects within the soil

·r -- 1--
11,1
i-
ill r'
6d =This is a settlement caused by subsequent desiccation
of an expansive soil, or wetting of a collapsing soil,
and is not shown in Fig. I. Depending on the climate
.
-\-
c:
I I
and other conditions 6d may be positive or negative
in value. (If the soil expands 6d is negative.)
.E I 1

and 6f' = 61c+ 6c .................. ; ......... (3)

I c
'"
Vl
.. J In most consolidation predictions it is usual to
disregard the effects of 61e and 6sc as being negligible
in comparison with the other settlements. Hence for most
Fig. 1 cases equation (2) can be modified to read:
6f= 6f+ 6d······ .. ·.······ (4)
With reference to Fig. 1, the most general formula Excellent work has been done by] ennings and others
for the final settlement 6f of a soil layer under a building with regard to the prediction of 6d. The Author has
is given by equations (1) or (2). therefore confined this paper merely to the prediction of
*Senior Lecturer, University of Cape Town. 6f', and the time-settlement curve. .

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in Sciuth Africa - July 1967 163

 Theories relating to the minor settlements .6.ie and In all diagrams and equations the total pressure p
.6.sc have been studied by other engineers (e.g. Terzag:hi and the pore pressure u will be expressed in absolute
and Taylor). Should it. be necessary, ~ne of these. the ones units. The inter-granular pressure Pv will be expressed
could be combined wIth the Author s method In order in the usual manner.
that the full curve ABD may be predicted. For ordinary
consolidation calculations, this degree of accuracy is
however not necessary. General assumptions regarding stresses
Nomenclature In a paper of this nature it is impossible to deal
TABLE I fully with the subject of stresses within partially saturated
The nomenclature shown in Table I will be used:- soils. For this reason, only a brief illustration will be
given of the fact that only a portion of the intergranular
pressure p is transmitted through the soil mass. The
At point At At Author has termed this portion the effective consolidating
A point point
(before C any pressure pc.
loading)
~~-----
--.-......
~

Consider the effective soil grains shown in Fig. 2a. An

Void ratio .. eo Cr e
effective soil grain can be defined as the mineral grain
Pore pressure (abs.) Uo u'o UI u together with portion of the double layer water which
surrounds it. Assume that the effective soil grains are
Total vertical pressure (abs.) pov p'Oy Plv pv partly enclosed by capillary water at a pressure Uw
Intergranular vertical pres- (absolute) and that the surrounding air pressure is UA
sure .... POY p'ov PIV Pv
(absolute). The intergranular force has been denoted by
Vertical effective consolidat- -,
ing pressure povc p ove Prvc Pvc Pi where i is the ith point of contact. Furthermore, in
.. Sro S'ro SrI S,. order that vector addition and subtraction may be used,
Degree of satura:iol,l
the force PI is the vector of the quantity Pi. Let P xi he the
Thickness. of cla:y layer Do D'o Dr D component of Pi in the x direction. The surface tension
at the air water interface is denoted by T ..
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Fig. 2a Fig.2b Fig.2c

rones ading
on
grain A
are shown.

Fig. 2d

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967

164

Now consider a surface A-A which cuts through the
soil mass at the points of intersection of the grains as
shown in Fig. 2f. Consider also a portion of this surface
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
such that the projected area of this portion on the plane
yz is unity. Let there be n points of grain contact in this
portion of the surface A-A.
The intergranular pressure Px is defined by the
equation
i=n
= E
i=l
The stress system in Fig. 2a can be considered to be
equivalent to the sum of the two imaginary stress systems
of Fig. 2b and 2c.
The intergranular forces 6Pu in Fig. 2c can be
considered to be caused by a force 6P'ti which is the
resultant of all the mutual forces of attraction which exist
between particles A and B and which are caused by the
surface tension the pore stress conditions of Fig. 2c
and the electrical attractions between the effective
particles. The intergranular force Gi can be caused by
the external loadings on. the soil, the selfweight of the
overburden soil mass and the air pressure UA which is
assumed to act as shown in Fig. 2b.
In the case of spherical grains and symmetrical
capillary water geometry, the resultant of the forces
6P u and 6P'ti will be zero. Consider for example the
THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967·
Fig. 2£
spherical grain A shown in 2d. The resultant of the
forces 6i\1 and 6P'tl is zero, hence the values of these
forces will not affect the values of any of the forces acting
at the points of contact 2 and 3.
It can be shown that the above remarks are approxi-
mately true in the case of irregularly shaped particles.
Similarly the forces 6Pta, , , , are cancelled
by forces· 6P'h and 6P'ta> ... respectively.
Furthermore the stress system of Fig. 2b may be
further subdivided as shown in Fig. 2e. It can be noticed
(5)
from this sketch that a certain portion uA.A 1 of the
force 0.1 is used for the cubical compression of the
effective soil grain. .
From the above discussion the vector relationship
given by equation (6) can be stated when the soil grains
are symmetrical spheres.
= + 6P .. (6)
ti
This equation can be considered to hold approxi-
matelyin the case of irregularly shaped particles.
In order to represent the same equation in terms of
stresses in the x direction, it can be rewritten as shown in
equation (7), where the subscript x denotes the x com-
ponent of the corresponding term, i.e, the intergranular
pressure is:-
165
 i:::n Pv (abs) :: Pv + (a,u + S,u - y.T) 19)*
A w
:: L
i::: :: is vc + a. uA + 13. U . , (10)
i:::n w
:: L (G Xl. - uA·A Xl.)
i:::l where v=subscript for vertical direction
i=n uw='average' pore water pressure (abs)
+ r. .A . uA='average' pore air pressure (abs) .
Xl
i=l pv=vertical intergranular stress (See equation 5)
i=n 'pvc=vertical effective consolidating stress
+ L LP txi. ................ , , , , , , ' (7) y. T = C v =constant residual stress (function of T etc,)
i=l (See equation 8)
fJ=proportion of the projected area of section
A·A occupied by water
Th first term on the right represents that portion of a=p.roportion of the projected area occupied by
' e ranular pressure p-x which can be transmitted all'
t h e mterg , f '
throu gh the soil mass from one pOInt 0 gram contact to For practical purposes it will be assumed that
This can cause both shear and normal forces a+fJ=1
anoth er. . h'l The
to act a t 'm' the points of contact 10b't e1 SOl mass.. f
and uw=uA=u(expressed in abs. units) ........ (II)
contributes to the cu Ica compressIon 0
seconIT d t eI . r • h • I f (A refinement would have been to assume that UA
t' e soil particle. [he thud term IS t e resu t 0 a
th e enec IV d" I Th' and U w are not equal, but that they can be expressed in
mutual attraction between two a lJacent partIc es,. IS
'11 ally appear as a normal force together with a terms of each other via the usual factors pF and Sr, or in
WI gener . f . terms of Sr as in ref. 5.)
very small shear f<?rce at the pomt 0 gram contact.
If the cont4ct~~eas between particl~s can be regarded as It follows from equations (10) and (U) that
. l';o;b!e and If D.Ptxi and D.P txi can be regarded
betng .neg Xi>"elatl'vely constant dUring
•
conso I'd .
1 atIOn, or t e
h
b pv(abs)=pvc+u(abs) .............. (12)
as . emg r d b ' I' 'bi
varia t'IOn I'n u. A Pt . can be considere
Xl ,.'
as emg• negh 19tfi e
. rl8' on with the variatIOn m stress 10 t erst This equation will be used instead of the conven-
10 compa d . conso I'd .
'It can be assumed that urmg 1 atIOn tional equation (13).
term, th et1
p\'=pv+ u ...................... (I 3)
Px=pxc+ Cx ........ , ......... (8)
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Equation (12) shows that when pv(abs) is constant

(e.g. during initial compression or consolidation) that
where x=subseript for x direction,
d(Pvc)=-du. '" .... , ........... (14)
i=n
E G"I = that portion of the ' Iar stress wh'ICh
mtergranu
;::,lcaused consolidation in addition to the consolidation Total final setdetnent (D.f')
~Iready caused by the residual stress e".
This can be predicted in the usual manner from the
and
e =a stress which can be regarded as b~ing a residual
void ratio - vertical effective pressure curve of the soil as
" stress caused only by the mutuallY attracl!ve forces between
particles, e.g. electrical and surface tension effects, etc. determined by normal consolidometer tests. This curve
does not represent (as is popularly supposed) the void
The stress ex will have already caused a certain amo'!nt
of residual consolidation due to the fact that It as,,>!sts ratio against vertical intergranular pressure pv. It is
the compression of the double layer water at the actUally a curve of void ratio against vertical effective
particle points of contact. consolidation pressure pvc. [See equations (9) and (I 0)]
Th alue ofC x will depend to a large extent on the Assume for example that the curve in Fig. 3a is the
efVsaturation S . If Sr is very low then the degree of curve for the soil under consideration.
degree 0 r • . bl d
saturation will probably not chang~llappre~la y. urmg
.
consolidation as the wate~ phase WI nkot Ie conItmuouhs Let A' represent the condition which corresponds
and hence no water dramag~ can Ita e pace. n suc to the state A of Fig. I. Assume that the consolidation
instances it would be apprmnmate y lcolrrect tO assuhme pressure (the increment in total pressure, which causes
that C is constant. If Sr ha~ a relatzvery arge val ue t en consolidation) is D.pov.
~ tl'on ofC with Sr will probably not be large. In
the varia x I' I d . l' After an infinite period of loading (condition C, in
such cases even if Sr were to vary a Itt e urmg conso 1-
' le eould assume C x to be constant. Fig. I) it is assumed that the pore pressure u will even-
d atlOn, or
tually tend to uo. Hence it follows from equation (12)
For brevity, pxc will be called the 4fective consolidating that the final vertical effective consolidating pressure
stress in the x direction. Prve will be given by equation (15).
The total vertical pressure (i.e. resultant stress) on a
section through the soil can be expressed by ·First presented by the Author in 1957 (See Appendix I).

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South. Africa- July 1967

166
 4. A bedding down action of the filter p:tpcr a:lel porous plates
u on the soil sample.
0
5. A slight outward flow of soil through the gap between the
= Pov + .6Pov ..:. u loose porous plates and the ring which holds the s:tmple.
0
6. An elastic outward deflection of the sample confining ring.
= Pove + lIp 7. Other minor ehstic deflections of the testing apparatus .
ov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
Assumptions
The value of Pove is easily calculated from the
loading conditions which exist prior to the application When considering the initial compression, the
of the consolidating load /\Pov. . following assumptions will be made:-
(a) The individual soil grains and the water phase are incom-
. Hence the point C' and the value of ""eAe can be pressible.
found from the curve in Fig. 3a. It is usually assumed
that ""eAe corresponds to the settlement This
settlement can therefore be calculated from any of the
""f" (b) The instantaneous compression is caused only by the
compression of the air voids and bubbles in accordance
with Boyle's and Henry's Laws.
formulae numbered (16). (c) Immediately before (and after) the initial compression, the
water pressure is uniform in the elemental sample under
consideration.
= (d) The pressures in the air voids and air bubbles are equal to
the pressures in the adjoining water [See equation (II)J.
(e) The 'average' compression and solution characteristics of
the colony of air voids and bubbles within the sample is
the same as the compression and solution characteristics of
a single pocket of air whose volume is equal to the total
= volume of the colony of air bubbles and air voids and
whose pressure is equal to the pressure of the water.
(!) The solubility coefficient' for the air bubbles and
= ~::::.:::.-.D
e ..................... (16) voids is a constant and is equal to the solubility coefficient
of air at the same temperature.
(g) The pore water at condition A is already saturated with air.
(h) The stress quation (12) is applicable.
Initial compression (!:c ie)
Of the above assumptions, the assumptions (d), (e),
The initial compression AB can be attributed to the (1) and (h) arc: the most prone to criticism.
following factors.
Theory
I. The instantaneous compression of the air .voids and bubbles Assume that the following are known:.....:...
in accordance with Boyle's Law.
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2. A rapid solution by the water of part of the air in the bubbles
and air voids in accordance with Henry's Law.
3. An elastic volume change of the free water phase, the double
layer water and the actual mineral grains.
The value of the initial compression as found in
1abot:atory experiments will also be increased slightly
by the following factors.
1. The void ratio vs vertical f!fJective consolidating
pressure pvc curve of the soil as determined by
normal consolidometer tests. Assume, as above,
that the curve in Fig. 3a is the curve for the soil
under consideration.
2. The values of eo, Uo, pov, Pove and Sro which
correspond to the initial condition A in Fig. I.
The corresponding state in Fig. 3a is labeIled A'.

Po ve AI"
Void
Ratio
e .11
B

C' C·
I

Apo
! lhJ
o '
l-----J
Pove, A Po I Absolute Pressure

t ___ L Total consol.

'pressure CurY!! I : Vol of Air (V) v~ pore pre~s u labs)
~s-+~-----r--p-r-e-ss-u-r-e---- ror undrained sample.
Curve 2: V vs ver'"tical total pressure (abs)
for'" undrained ~ample.

Fig.3n Fig.3b

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967 167

 Henry's Law states that at a given temperatur.e t~e
mass of gas that will dissolve in a given volume of hqUId
is directly proportional to the gas pressu~e. Hence by
Boyle's Law the volume of a given gas dIssolved by a
given volume ofliquid is independent ofthe pressure.
Let Henry's coefficient of solubili:y for air be H ..
Consider a unit volume of the SOlI sample at the
condition A: . pv=uo+povc+ QPov .............. (21)
Then the total volume of voids at condition A
eo ................ (17)
+eo············ .
and the volume of undissolved air at the condition A
(1-Sro) I ~i;;" .................... (18)
Therefore the total volume offree and dissolved air
in th(sample at the pressure Uo is
(l _ S )'~O + S eo . H ...... (19)
!lo.i· + eo I'o'l + eo
Hence the volume of the undissolved air at the new
pore pressure u (absolute) is given by equation (20)
;, '. "
.H~ ~
e0
v S ) + S .
[ (1 - I'Q I'o 1 + eo
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S -;--:-___ H .................... (20)
I'o
It is intended to plot a curve of volume of a~r V vs
absolute pore pressure u (curve 1 in Fig. 3b) alongSIde the
e-pvc curve of Fig. 3a. It can be shown that the ,:,olume
of air V is zero when e=eo' Sro. Hence the honzontal
zero axis for Fig. 3b can be drawn as shown.
The point Aft on curve I (Fig. 3~) is known and ~an
be plotted opposite the point A' of FIg. ~a. The verh.cal
volume qf air scale (Fig. 3b) can be determmed by workmg
backwards from the known value for the ordinate of the
point A". The horizontal pressure scale in Fig. 3b should
be the same as that used for Fig. 3a.
The curve I (V vs u) is then plotted through "':" by
means of equation (20). (For more ~efined .analysIs, the
Author has derived a different equatIOn w.hlCh a~lows H
to vary with u, because the gas proportlons wlll vary
with u.)
Having determined the curve 1, it is now ne~essary
to plot the curve 2, which represents volume .of azr y vs
absolute vertical total pressure pv. The curve 2. IS ob~alI~ed
from the curve 1 by adding the correspondmg e~ectlVe
consolidating pressure pvc in Fig. 3a to the apsClss~~ <?f
the curve I in Fig. 3b. For example the pomt A IS
found by adding Pove to the abscissa Uo of the point A f'.
168
Assume that the initial compression Qic corresponds
to the change in the void ratio QeAB of Fig. 3a. In order
to predict QIC it is therefore necessary to find the position
of the point B' and hence the value of QeAB.
The position ofB' is found in the following manner.
The total vertical pressure at all times after the load
is applied is
The abscissa ofB'" (curve 2, Fig. 3b) is equal to this
value, hence B'" can be determined. A horizontal line
ft
from B will give the point B" and B'. The point B' in
'
Fig. 3a corresponds to the point B in Fig. I.
Having found the value of QeAB, the initial com-
pression is given by any of the following formulae:-
=
=
:=
.,,---==- D (22)
Note that the curves in Fig. 3b represent the
'average' condition of the air phase of the soil if the
u soil is consolidated without drainage being allowed (or
u before time is allowed for drainage to take place).
Hence those portions of the curves I and 2 which are
located respectively below the points B" and B''', are
merely hypothetical, because the soil is allowed to
drain between the states Band C in l.
The above method permits the prediction of the
initial cOI?pression during .an undrained volume change
of ~he SOlI from data denved from easily performed
dral7led tests. The Author has extended this method to
other branches of Soil Mechanics. (See ref. 1).
Furthermore, the above theory does not rely on the
assumption of a linear e-pvc relationship.
Hydrodynalllic (and Aerodynalllic)
Settlelllent (6 c )
Having found Qf' and QiC by the above (or any
other) methods, the final value of Qc may be given by
Qc= Qf'- Qic.. ...... . ..... (23)
Should the 'time-settlement' curve BC be required
(Fig. J), tlien certain differential equations must be
derived. Among other factors, these equations will
include the permeability of the soil and the viscosity of
the pore fluids.
The permeability of a soil to water
The Darcy equation which is applicable to the
flow of water through porous media is
THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South, Africa - July 1967
 K du
v= -P:' ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
where v=superficial velocity (i.e. Flow Qdivided by total cross-
sectional soil area A)
p.=viscosity (p.=p' v where p=mass density of fluid and
v=kinematic viscosity).
du
-=the pressure gradient
ds
u =the pore pressure (expressed in absolute units for the
purpose of this paper, i.e. with respect to vacuo).
K = the permeability and is independent of the fluid properties
and depends only on the nature of the soil. (This
permeability should not be confused with the coifficient of
y
permeability k=K·-, where y is the weight density of
p.
the fluid. The coefficient of permeability depends on the
nature of the soil and the fluid properties, and is used in
the modified Darcy equation v = k· i. The above
terminology is in accordance with that used by Terzaghi.
Taylor unfortunately uses the same expression to
describe both K and k.)
If one considers a uniform linear sample of soil
which is subjected to water seepage only, then the
superficial velocity v is the same at all sections. Hence
it follows from Darcy's equation that the pressure gradient
du
cis must have the same value along the length of the
flow column.
In the case of gases, the velocity v will no longer be
constant along the length of the sample. It will increase
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
For a particular soil and gas po, K and f.L are
(24) constant and independent of pressure (Ref. 2, p. 197).
Hence equation (26) yields the expression
dCu 2 ) .................. (27)
p .V = C
2 ds
K. p
where C = 0
2 ~ = constant
The permeability of a soil to mixture of air and
water
When two or more fluids flow through a porous
medium, the effective permeability of the medium to
anyone of these fluids is a function of the degrees of
saturation of the fluids in the sample. ,
The relative permeability (or specific permeability) may
be defined as follows:-
Consider a soil which contains a liquid W (e.g.
water) and a gas A (e.g. air), then the relative permeability
KA of the soil to gas A, at the degree of saturation Sr is
KA
KA=--r' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (28)
where KA=the effective permeability of the soil to gas A, when the
pore fluids are at the condition Sr.
K=the soil permeability when only one fluid is present.
Similarly the relative permeability Kw of the soil to the
liquid W at the degree of saturation Sr is

Kw
towards the outflow end due to expansion of the gas. KW=--r' ............................. (29)
However, the mass velocity p' v will be constant along
the soil column. where Kw=the effective permeability of the soil to the
liquid W (at saturation Sr).
The permeability of a soil to gases
It has been proved experimentally that equation (24) ........ 100
can also be applied to the viscous flow of gases through
porous media.
...
~
~ I
Hence equation (24) can be written:
..,
...
\
\ V 9 a5 liqujd~
J 80

Superficial mass velocity per unit cross-sectional area E ,\ KA "w-II

... .....
L

\\
.-.-.., L
... -.....
u
60
p ~ K. ~~
= p. V· = ...................... (25)
E
.
u
1\ JIe A II
..... ... ~
Author's Ie
L

~mpirical I\W /
... .......
This in turn can be written c: 40

'\K, 1 ~
L
,,\,~q:t~ns
K. p ..... ...
p .v = -
o
---.U
).l
..
II:
L
0
20
'-'
K. p
= o ..............• (26) ./ "'-
2.f1 V '-....
where po=mass density of the fluid when fluid pressure u o 0·2 - ~

Liquid
0'4 0'6
Sat •• ration
0'8
(SI") ---- 1·0
o

is unity (units of po are mass density per unit

pressure). Fig. 4

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967 169

 In Fig. 4, experimental results for KA, /(w obtained Assutnptions
by Wyckoff and Botset (Ref. 3) for various soils, have
been plotted against the degree of saturation Sr. ~he (a) For practical purposes the pressures in the air
forms of these curves will of course alter slightly dependmg voids and air bubbles are assumed equal to the
on whether the grains are flaky, angular, or smooth pressure in the adjoining water.
spheres, etc. Where the relative permeability curves for
a particular soil are unknown, the Author suggests that (b) The pore water and soil grains are incompres-
for practical purposes the curves in Fig. 4 should be sible.
considered as being accurate enough for consolidation
analysis. (c) The degree of saturation Sr does not change
during the consolidation process B to C in
Alternatively the empirical formulae 30, 31 a and Fig. 1. This assumption is not used to develop
31 b suggested by the Author may be used:~ the general differential equation, but is used to
derive the simplified equation.

KW (% ) 100.8 3 . 4 ...... (30)

In nature, most of the process B to C takes
l'
many years. Hence any variations in Sr due to
KA (%) = 125.(1 - 8 )2.1 ..... (3Ia) consolidation will probably be nullified by the
l'
evaporation and condensation of moisture
(for 0.1 < 8 -< 1. 0) which will tend to satisfy the equilibrium
l'
conditions of the pF soil suction characteristics.
KA () = 100 ..... (31b)
(for 0 ~ 8 ~ 0.1) It is assumed that the latter may
l' only slightly during the process B to C. Hence
for practical purposes Sr has been assumed to
where 'of saturation expressed as a ratio. be constant.

The dotted lines in Fig. 4 represent these empirical (d) The gas phase can be compressed according to
approximations. Boyle's Law.

The'velocity of flow Vw of water through a partially (e) The Henry's Law effect on the time-settlement
saturated soil (at a degree of saturation Sr) may therefore eurve is regarded as being negligible. As the
be expressed in a' similar manner to equa tion (24), pore-pressure decreases during the consolida-
namely; tion process B to C (Fig. I) a certain amount of
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

gas will come out of solution.

KH (f) Assume that during the portion of consolida-

du tion under eonsideration, the following holds
.................... (32)
IJ
W
K. du
.................... (33)
IJ 1>1 Non-linear e vs pvc characteristics are dis-
cussed later.
where KW is as expressed by equation (30), or is obtained
from curves (similar to Fig. 4) which have been deter- The differential equations of consolidation
mined for the particular soil in question. Consider a small element of soil of dimensions dx,
dy and dz. Let u be the pore pressure at the midpoint of
Similarly, by using equation (27), the superficial this element. The value of the pressure at the face I
mass velocity of flow (per unit cross-sectional area) nearest to the x-origin is:
PA 'VA of air through a partial(y saturated soil (at degree of
saturation Sr) may be given by:- ou dx
(35)

= ........... (34a) The value of (pressure) 2 at this face is

2
u -
ouox2 ·2······
dx
'" ................... (36)
= ........... (34b)
The subscripts x, y and z will be used to denote
various terms which are used to discuss properties relating
where KA is expressed by the equation 31 a (or 31 b) or to the x, y and z directions respectively. Similarly the
is obtained from experimental curves similar to those of subscripts 1, 2, 3, etc. will be used respectively in
Fig. 4. connection with the element sides 1, 2, 3, etc.

170 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South. Africa July 1967

 The component of the water mass flow in the x-direction through the face I is obtained from expressions (32) and
(35) and is .

=
aU -
(1X 02u dx)
---2 • ; r .dy.dz (37)
ax
And the component of gas mass flow in the x-direction is obtained from expressions (34a) and (36) and is

PA1,vxAl·dy.dz = .dy.dz .................................. (38)

Hence the x-component of the total mass flow through the face I is given by

(39)

Similarly the expression for flow in the x-direction across the face 2 farthest from the x-origin is given by:

a2 u 2 dx
+ -2-';r)dy.dz .......................... (40)
ox
Hence the tirre rate qf increase qf mass within the element, as caused by the x-component of flow, is given by:

.dz ............................................... (41)

Similar expressions exist for the increase oj mas.> within the element, as caused by the y and z-components of flow.
The mass of gas within the element at any time t is given by (I-Sr ) . n' pO'u ·dx ·dy· dz (for a gas obeying Boyle'S
law).
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

where n=porosity (at time t) = I :e

The mass of water within the element is equal to Sr·n· pw·dx·dy·dz.

Hence the time rate of change of mass in the element is given by

..::::;;:...:....:;:-L.:..=. S yo • p"
\',
. eJ .................................... (42)

which is equal to

oS
+
yo
• oe ] ................................ , .... (43)
,e '6"i: + Pit]'

This relationship follows from the fact that (l is always proportional to dx· dy' dz and this constant of pro-
portionality is independent of t.
In order to~simplifY the expression (43), it is necessary to express the void ratio e in terms of the pore pressure u.
Because of assumption f and equation (14), it follows that during consolidation

ee = a.
v
eu ......................................................................... (44)

oe ......................................................................... (45)
Now
ot =

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1957 171

 and o (e.u) o (e.u) ~ -t- 0 (e.u) ou
:::
ot oe . ot e u ' ot

[u ~oe + e ou] ~ [eu 0 eJ ou

oe 'ot + e,ou + ~ ou '6t

but e ::: eT _ a (u T - u)
o v 0

Therefore IS (eu) ::: 4.a 'u ~~ + 2 (e~ - av'u;) ~~ .................................... (46)

ot v

where av is the average value of av during the consolidation process BC.

Equating the ,expressions (41) and (43) and substituting (45) and (46) into equation (43) gives the following
general equation,for vertical loading, and drainage in all three directions:-
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

::: ~ rCa v .u- a • u!

V 0
+ I)(p
o
.u
1 + e L

+ {2p
o (1- S)(
r I - l) a v .u0 + PW· S . a }
r v ~UtJ
v
..............•............... (47)

In order to simplify the solution of this equation, it is assumed that the degree of saturation Sr remains constant
during the consolidation BC (F'ig. I).

Hence the derivatives of Sr and (l-Sr) with respect to t are zero.

If one dimensional flow takes place then the differentials with respect to y and z fall away, and the following
simplified equation is obtained:~

av·u~)(l - Sr)'P o + PW·Sr·a v eu

...... , ..... , . (48)
1 + e '1ft
A refinement in the above method would have been the inclusion of the Henry's Law effect.

172 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in SoutlJ Africa - July 1967

 Note that if the soil is saturated, KxA and (l-Srl are zero and the above (':quation transforms into the usual
Terzaghi equation: .
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... .......... .. ... ... . . .. . .... .. ... . .... . .. . .. " ........... (49)
where cv=coefficient of consolidation
K
X\~ k
= = = •.................•...••......................•...... (50)
mv' f1VJ 'IV), mv
If the soil is dry, the corresponding differential equation may be found from equation (48) by making Kxw and Sr
equal to zero.
Conclusion
Part 2 of this paper deals with the application of the
above theories to practical time versus settlement problems,·
and the methods for the solution of the above differential
equations.
Several analog and numerical methods have been
developed for the solution of these equations. The
methods are also applicable to the normal Terzaghi
consolidation theory for a saturated soil [equation (49)]
PART TWO
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
Introduction
THE same notation will be used as was adopted in
Part I of the paper, and occasional reference will be
made to Figs. I to 4 which appear in Part I and Fig. 10
in Appendix 1. In particular, it should be noted that con-
dition A refers to the initial starting point on the time-
settlement curve before any loading is applied (Fig. I or
F'ig. 13) whereas B is the point on t;his curve after all initial
compressions have taken place. Point C is generally the
final condition after lengthy settlement. The points A',
B' and C' are the corresponding points on the void ratio-
pressure curve.
This second part of the paper describes the predic-
tion of the time-settlement curve between the states B
and C, but a worked problem is also provided to show
the full time-settlement curve (See Fig. 13).
It was first considered necessary to solve the
differential equation for the consolidation of a partially
saturated soil (equation .48) by fairly exact methods such
as the method I which follows. Various approximate
methods which are more suited for use by a practising
engineer were then attempted. Method 2 is probably the
simplest method, and comparisons between these methods
(Fig. 16) indicate that for most practical purposes the
method 2 will suffice. . the state B to the state C.
THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967
as this is only a special case of the equation (48).
In earth dam design theory, it is often necessary to
consider a diagram which shows the relationship between
an increase in the major principle total stress and the
corresponding increase in the pore water pressure for
undrained samples. Theoretical methods for determining
such curves and the influence of the initial degrees of
saturation of the soil are discussed in Part 2.
One of the practical tests which illustrates portion
of the above theory is described in Appendix 1.
In the method 2, the engineer is required to first
calculate an average effective value of the coefficient qf consoli-
dation Cv for the partially saturated soil by using equation
(60). Thereafter his calculations are identical to the
simple calculations performed by students when finding
the time-settlement curve of a saturated soil. The same
Terzaghi time factors Tv are used for each degree of
consolidation U t . The factor Ut now indicates the degree
to which the soil has settled from. the state B to the
state C.
The method 3 is more effective than method 2 as it
permits one to consider cases where the building load
varies with time. It also makes allowance for pore fluid
pressures which vary non-uniformly through the depth
of the soil layer after the initial compressions have taken
place. The method 4 is a refinement of the method 3.
The various analog methods which are described are
simple substitutions for the method 3 and all have been
used to determine time-settlement curves for building loads
which vary with time. In the case of partially saturated
soils, these analogs can be used in conjunction with the
value of C v calculated in method 2. At each time interval
the pore pressures within the soil are plotted on squared
graph paper. By using Simpson's area rule, or by counting
squares, the integrals in equation (66) are evaluated to
obtain the degree of consolidation Ut. This factor
indicates the degree to which the soil has settled from
173
 Solution and use of the differential Although other methods are more suited to the
cases when the soil is saturated, the following method was
equation one of two which the Author found to be applicable to
the general solution of equation (48).
Care must be taken in this theory to express the
average pore pressure.u with respect to vacuo and not with
Equation (48) can be rewritten in the form shown
respect to atmosphenc pressure.
by equation (54).
Method 1
2
The average consolida.tion ratio.U t .over the dept~ D =
OU + C OU (54)
of the soil stratum at any lOstant t IS gIven by equatIOn ot 7
(51 )
D where
Jo (u' - u) dx
0
= ............... (51)
JD (u'0 - uf )' d x
o
where u is the pore pressure at time t, u'0 is the pore
pressure at state B, Uf is the final pore pressnre, and x is
the vertical direction.
,. a
It will usually'be assumed that Uf=Uo· = 2{1 - S ).p __v_
I' 0 1 + e
Note iilat U t is zero at the point B in Fig. I and has
a value of 100 per cent at the point C. 2 (e I - a •UI ) (1 - S ). P + P ' S •a
= 0 vo r 0 W rv
Withreference.to Fig. 1, the soil settlement L'lt at 1 + e
any time't after the load application, will be given by

L'lt= L'lic+Oct ............. (52). The value of e 'in the last expression will usually be
taken to b~ th~ average .value of e over the compression
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

where
Oct=Ut' Lc ............... ', (53) range BC 1U FIg. 1. ThIS can be read off Fig. 3a. The
val ue S ro is used for Sr.
I

Hence in order to find the time settlement curve BC,

the following method can be used Consider the soil layer to be split up as shown in
Fig. 5a by a number of nodes, each separated by an
(a) The distribution ofu through the sample is found at various elemental height h.
time', This is done by using the differential equation (48)
and applying finite difference equations, The initial values
u'o which exist at various depths through the soil layer and
the subsequent drainage boundary values of u are assumed ~ ~: -r--r:--
,','" , ',' \ ,j ,
known. The values of u'" are read off from Fig. 3b and
correspond to the condition B. [~ote that an extra refine- :.':': ' p ~,m ubi ~
ment can be included here in that at various elemental " <. y,,;.:,~,:,:;, ",.'
depths in the soil layer the points A', B' and C' (Fig, 3a)
will be in different positions on the void ratio curve. Hence
L;,ic could be calculated by summation of the initial
compressions in each elemental soil layer. In such instances
I
consolidatjin g B _Lh
c
0
the values of u'o may vary non-linearly with depth.]
layer
(b) Having found the distribution of u at a particular time t, A
the value ofUt can be evaluated by Simpson's area rule or by
counting squares on graph paper.
(e) Upon finding Ut, use is made of equations (53) and (52). 1
Cp~ ~;~~~ i~'('~~~~'l'~' ~';ainag~
This gives the value of L;, t and hence one of the points on
the settlement curve BC (Fig. I or Fig. 13).
& 0=2 H) 0, Impermeable
The finite difference equations for method 1 (singl~ dr'ainage & D=H)
The Author considered approximately twelve wher-t' H"'lenc;Jth of dr-ainage
methods of expressing the finite differences by combina- path
tions of backward and forward difference equations.
Many of these methods were found to be of little use as
they did not resu1t in converging solutions. . Fig. Sa

174 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967

 The three typical nodes, A, B, and C, have been h
I, h
shown horizontally in Fig. 5b. The notation for the pore
~I
a mO

pressure at times To and To+ T are shown in this figure.

The subscripts Land R correspond to the nodes which
el ·cl"
--@- (il ~
are immediately to the left and right of the node 0
which is under consideration.
SUbSCiipts:- L e1eH) 0 R(=iighO
POie pressure
By finite difference equations the relationship (55)
can then be derived: at time To :- u LT U U
,0 o,To R,To
Po re pre 55 at

(U T + ) = ±
2
time To + 'Z :-
UL Tt1
I .
Uo T+1 UR I T+1
0, 0 T
Key to Notation .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (55)
where Fig. 5b

• T
C = + T -2.u T)
T0 ~
6. 11 , 0 0, 0

C • T

C",.
t)
~ ) ........ (56)

Providing all the pore pressures at time To are and

known, and providing suitable values of T and h have
been chosen, it is possible to calculate the new pore T C7
h2~ 2'C ........................... (58b)
pressures at time To+T by means of equations (55) 4
and (56).
However the latter limits are less desirable, because T
will be very small and hence the calculations will be too
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

It can be shown that providing C 4, C 5 , C 6 and C 7

are positive, a converging solution will result if lengthy.
In accordance with finite difference methods used
for saturated conditions, the use of a reduced initial
value u at time t=O is recommended at the free draining
(57a) node (e.g. Y in Fig. 5a). The value used by the Author
5 was the average between the values of U/o and Uf for
the node Y. At subsequent intervals the value of u at the
and drainage nodes was decreased to the Uf value. (This
method can obviously be e.xtended to instances where
the pressure of the external drainage water varies with
time) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . (57b)
Note that if symmetrical pore conditions exist, and
the layer is drained at both the top and bottom, then
much labour can be saved by considering only one half
The maximum and minimum values of UTo are of the layer.
known from the maximum or minimum values of U/o
(Condition B in 1) or Uf (Condition C in Fig. 1), Method 2 (Approximate method)

hence suitable values T can be chosen by substitution This is a quick and easy method, and although
approximate in nature it has given excellent agreement
of these values into the equations (57). with the curves found by method 1. Assume that the
equation (54) is equivalent to the Terzaghi equation (49)
provided one uses
Alternatively, if the limits (57) cannot be satisfied,
the following limits may be used (both to be satisfied).
(59)
(58a)
(Other approximations also appear possible).

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967 175

 This value of Cv varies with the pore pressure u, h2
and varies throughout the consolidation BC (Fig. 1 or --=4 ................................. (64)
T'CV
Fig. 13), and at a particular instant has a different value
at each of the nodal points.
Method for case (a):
It will be assumed that the average value of u
(absolute pressure) which occurs during the consolida- I. Calculate the value of L1lc and hence L1c for the whole layer
tion process BC (Fig. 1) can be substituted into equation by considering the soil to consist of elemental layers.
(59) to get the average effective value of Cv during the 2. Choosc an average value for ii [equation (61)] and calculate
cv by means of equation (60). (If the soil is saturated C s and
consolidation. C s are zero,. and equation (50) may be used). Now choose
suitable values of hand T to satisfy the relationship (64).
Hence 3. Start at t=O with the known values of U'o at the nodes. Bear
in mind the above recommendation with respect to the
original value of u at the drainage nodes .
cv = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (60) 4. Calculate the values of u at t= T by means of equation (63),
and let the value of u at the drainage node drop to the Ue
value for this node (Usually it is assumed that Ue is equal to
where the Uo value for the node).
5. Proceed as before to calculate the values of u at t=2T;
3T, etc.
U ::: ~ (u~ + u )· (abs pressure) .... (61) 6. Apply Simpson's area rule or other methods to evaluate the
f expression (51) for each value of t. Hence apply equations
(53) and (52) to obtain the settlements L1t.
and u' 0 and Ut are average values of u' 0 and Ut
Method for case (b):
respectively.
Where the values of u at the drainage nodes are
After any particular time t the time factor Tv is made to decrease at various time intervals subsequent to
given in the n?rmal manner by t=O (such that u eventually reaches a steady value Ut
at each drainage node), the necessary corrections are
TV~~it. ............................. (62) made at the various time intervals t=T; 2T; 3T, etc.

Using -this vaJue of Tv, the value of U t is found
from tables or from the Terzaghi curves, and the
settlement can be. determined from equations (52) and
(53).
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
The value of U t is still as given in equation (51).
Where the external value of u increases subsequent to
t=O then a certain portion of the soil near the drainage
node will swell. Because the value of C v is different in
the swelling case from that for compression, the analysis

Method 3 (Finite differences applied to method 2)

would be most complicated. A capillary analog (method
The Terzaghi U t vs curves have been derived 9) has been constructed to deal with the change in the
only for certain limited cases. The Author has extended C v value.
the above methods for use in the following conditions : -
Method for case (c) :
(a) Where U'o varies non-uniformly through the
depth of the soil layer. Assume that:
(b) Where the drainage boundary pressures vary LPo=Consolidating st(ess applied at time t=O
with time. LiP' o= Extra consolidating stress applied between
(c) Where the consolidation load varies with time. t=O and
(d) Various combinations of (a), (b) and (c). stress applied between

If the soil is saturated, partially saturated or dry,

then all the above conditions can be analysed by the LiP 0 '" =All extra consolidating pressures applied
lengthy method 1. However, they can also be analysed after
very quickly by applying finite difference equations to
method 2.
+
SPo = flPo flP o '+
flP o "+ flPo"'=T 0 t a I
consolidating stress
With reference to Fig. 5b, it can be shown that the The method is:
ordinary Terzaghi equation (49) can be solved by the
difference equation (63): 1. The values of flle and u' 0 corresponding to flPo
are calculated. The load increment 8Po is used
to determine flr'. Hence is found from
equation (23).
1 + u ) .•.•..•...•••..•.. (63)
= "2 (u L T
, 0 R,To
2. An average value u is decided upon (equation
[61]). The analysis is started as above but instead
of using expressions (63), (51), (52) and (53),
providing T and h are chosen such that the following equations must be used:-

176 THE CIVIL ENGINEE R in South Africa July 1967

 u 1
o,T o + "[
= + U ) + [\ Po' , (65)
,To R,To c
B o
A E
+ p') dx
o
(66) '" AB £\.0
+ oP - liP ) dx
o 0 AA Ll.E
AC

.n
c (67)

and the total settlement at the time t = To is

6 To 8C,To' ............... (68)

For combinations of the cases (a), (b) and (c), the

equations of method c must be used.

Method 4
This is more lengthy but more accurate than method
3 and is as follows
J. At each time interval t=T" the average value of u is cal-
culated. .
2. This value is suhstituted into the relationship (60) in order
to fmd Cv. Hence Cv has a different value at each time
t=To.
3. This value of c .. is substituted into equation (64) in order to
calculate the value of the next time increment T, and the
-I~. J.t(AA+4AB
... 2AC+4Ao"'AE;)
values of u at t=To+T are found by using formula (63).
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

~ F"
",.
This method can be speeded up in the following manner:- u

1. The whole analysis is made in the usual manner (as in II) UWeight
Method 3) by using formula (63) [or (65)1- -l1...J..
2. The values of UTo are calculated for each time t=To.
3. The average value ofu at any time t=To can be expressed
as a simple relationship in terms of UTa. SIMPLIfiED SCHEMATIC
-4. Hence the value of c .. can be found [equation (60)1 for each ARRANGEMENT Of STRING
.... value oft.
AND PULLEY ANALOG
S. The time increment T will have a different value for each
value oft=To. These values of T c,!n be found by meanS 0
equation (64). . Fig. 6
6. Hence a time.,eulem.ent cmve can be drawn where t=ET.

Analog methods applied to above methods
Six analog methods will be discussed. The one
electrical analog has been used by Liebmann (ref. 4) for
the analysis of problems in heat flow and has been
applied successfully by the Author to the analysis of
consolidation problems. The other analogs have been
derived by the Author. The analogs can briefly be
described as follows:-
Method 5 (String and pulley model)
The schematic arrangement of a model built by the
Author is illustrated by Fig. 6.
The values of u at the five nodes A, B, C, D and E
at time To are represented hy the vertical heights of the
. points A, B, C, D and E. Calibrated vertical scales are
used for reading these values of u. The values of u at
t=T o +1' are read off a lower set of scales which give
the vertical deflections of the pulleys B', C' and D'.
Cali bra ted vertical scales are used for reading values of u.
These are recorded.
The vertical deflection of the pulley F is also read
from a scale which gives the Simpson's rule valuation
at time .t=To of the numerator in equation (51). If
equation (66) is being used, a value equal to 6P' o' 2H
(or 6p t o' H) must be added. Similarly the denominators
in these equations can be evaluated by recording the
final values of u at the points A, B, C, D and E and
reading off the corresponding value on the scale at
pulley F. Hence U t can be calculated by simple division.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967 177

 This method can be used where the nod~s A and E
are the upper and lower surfaces of the sOlI layer, ~r
alternativelv where either A or E correspond to the aXIs
of symmetr'y of a doubly drained layer. In the latter
case it must be remembered that the value of u at a
node on the axis of symmetry at time . is equal
to the value of u' which existed at the adjacent node at
time t=To.
The Author has appli~d thi~ analog to a cas~ where
the consolidating load vaned with time. (See Fig. 15).
Method 6 (The mechanical gear train analog)
This is equivalent to the above analog except that
angular measurements are used inste~d of. ve~tical
deflections. The analog is shown schematIcally In Fig. 7.
Ori vinQ crank 5
~ t ---
Method 7 (The electrical analog)
The circuit in Fig. 8 is similar to that used by
Liebmann (ref. 4) for analysing the diffusion of heat. An
apparatus built by the Author (1960) has been success-
fully used for consolidation problems. (See Fig. 15).
Voltage values which are proportional to the values
of u at time t= To are fed into the circuit at the points
B, G and D. The voltage readings at the points A, B', G ' ,
D and E will correspond to the values of u for t = To...L T.
I
The relationship between the values of the resistances
and the soil mechanics constants are given by:
Rc h2 .
, .... ' .. , , ......... , , ........ (69)
Cv'T
In this method the right-hand term of equation (69)
may be as small as desired since no computational
instability occurs. This method may be adapted to
three-dimensional problems.

A B' c' D' E

~ ~
o rlinal) t Orl inl9t
Bou n da ry Boundlry

B C

Fig. 8
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

Method 8 (The Author's electrical analogy)

This method is a modification of Liebmann's method
and will yield a most accurate solution of equation (48).
The circuit is shown in Fig. 9.

KEY :-
---'Y'--t Rep re sen t·s distance h

c:> Graduated di~c A s' C' O' E

¢w Worm gear
8 /'
Mechanical av e ra9c:'r Drainage
Boundary
'" Drainage
Boundary
. SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC
ARRANGEMDlT OF GEAR TRAIN
ANALOG a c o
The Autho ... ·' electrical analogy
Fig. 9

Assume that the values of u at t=To are known at

MEC H ANI CAL AVERAGER the nodes B, G and D; and that the values of u at
(i.e. Oi (fer-en t i al are known at the drainage nodes A and E.
. Mechanism)
The method is as follows:-
L The value ofh will be known, hence decide upon eonvenient
values of 7' and Re. The factors h, T and Rc will be kept con-
stant throughout the consolidation process.
Fig. '1

178 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - July 1967

 2. Substitute the known values OfUll,To, uC,Toand UD,T o into
equation (60) to obtain in turn the values of Cvll,T o, CvC,T o
and CvD,To respectively..
3. Substitute these values of Cv into equation (69) to find the
values ofRtB, Rtc and Rm which correspond to t=To.
4. Adjust the variable resistance Rm, Rtc and Rm to these
values.
5. Feed in voltages proportional to the values ofu at t=To into
the points B, C and D as in method 7.
6. The new values ofu at t=To+T can be found by measuring
the voltages at the points B', C' and D'.
7. Using these values of u, the steps 2 to 6 are repeated to find
the values of u at t=T o+2' T.
8. The degree of consolidation Ut can be found by Simpson's
area rules.
The ratio {2 may take any value. However the
smaller the time increments T, the more accurate will
be the analysis.
It is a simple matter to apply all the above analog
methods to the various cases mentioned in method 3.
If one wishes to take into account non-linearity
between e and pvc then equations (46), (47) and (48)
must be rewritten such that a v (and e) can vary at each
node as the values of pvc and u vary. This could be
considered as a variation of C v at each node at various
time intervals. Such an analysis would be most compli-
cated, but could be solved in the above manner.
Method 9 (Capillary analog)
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
The Author has successfully built and used an
analog which consists of reservoirs of water which are
interconnected by capillary tubes. The levels of the water
in the reservoirs at any particular time are proportional
to the excess pore pressures in the consolidating soil.
This has also been adapted for loads which vary with
time.
Method 10 (Funicular analog)
This is a most promising metli.~d and consists of a
funicular cord in which a constant horizontal force
component exists. At nodal points along the cord there
are attached similar elastic bands. The shape of the
funicular cord is identical to that of the isochrone at
t=To+T, whereas the positions of the far ends of the
elastic bands correspond to the isochrone at time t=To.
Apparatus for two-dimensional problems has been
constructed.
Graphical ITlethods, relaxation ITlethods and other
analogs
Various graphical methods exist for solving the
above problems. A method for solving non-steady flow
conditions with the aid of flow nets has been derived.
The Author has also used relaxation methods.
Other analogs based on combinations of capacitance
resistance and inductance exist for heat flow problems,
but they generally require e;xpensive apparatus.
THE CIVIL ENGIt-.'EER in South Africa - July 1967
Conclusion
Two further refinements can be included m the
numerical methods. These are:-
(a) Taking into account the non-linear e vs pvc
characteristics.
(b) Solution of the more accurate equation (47),
in which allowance is made for Sr to vary
during the hydrodynamic settlement.
However, these refinements can be disregarded for
practical purposes.
In general it will be found that the method 2, or
any of the above analog methods will yield a quick
solution for the hydro-dynamic time-settlement curve.
I t is obvious that the above numerical and electrical
analog methods can be extended to cover problems in
which drainage is two- or three-dimensional, and the
soil is partially saturated or saturated. Such problems
occur in the dissipation of pore pressures during the
construction of earth dams, and in the transitionary
stage between the steady flow net and the draw-down
flow net in earth dams. These problems are being studied
m relation to the above theories and analogs.
A method does exist for the solution of two dimen-
sional heat dissipation problems by means of electronic
digital computers. It is obvious that this method can be
adapted to consolidation problems as the differential
equations are similar. However, the above numerical
methods are probably more flexible in application.
Although the above theories have been based upon
the stress equations (8) and (12), they will also hold
for the Terzaghi equation (13) for saturated soils,
because the Terzaghi equation is merely a particular
case of the equations (8) and (12) in which C x (or C v if
dealing with the vertical direction) is made equal to
zero.
It can be expected that the shape and position of the
e-pvc curve fOl' a particular soil will vary slightly with
the degree of saturation Sr of the soil at the time of
testing. This variation can be due to the expansive nature
of the soil and the effect of the water content on the
capacity of the sample to deform plastically. In the
problems it was assumed for illustrative purposes that
the e - pvc curve was identical for all degrees of saturation.
Practical problems are discussed in Appendix III.
Acknowledgm.ent
The Author wishes to thank the University of Natal
for laboratory experimental facilities, and wishes to
thank Professor Daymond for his encouragement of this
work which forms portion of the material for a proposed
post-graduate degree.
179
 REFERENCES

Part I
1. SPARKS, A. D. W. A semigraphi~al r;teth.od for d~termining the
initial compression during consohdatlOn 111 a partIally saturated
soil' 2tld N·r. Reg. Carif. Soil Met}, & Ftldtl. Engtlg. (Lourenco
Ma~quesJ 1959). '.
2. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITTANICA, Vol. 23.
3. MUSKAT, M. Physical principles of oil production. l.1cGraw-Hill
( 1949).
4. TERZAGHI, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. Wiley. (1951).
5. SPARKS, A. D. W. Partially saturated soils .'~ classification;
compressibility of the fluid phase; stress equatIOns. M.Sc.(Eng.}
thesis, Univ. of the WItwatersrand.
6. BISHOP, A. W. and EL!)IN, A. K. G., Geotechrtique, 2(l950).
Part II
1. SPARKS, A. D. W. A semigraphi~al r;teth.od for d~termining the
initial compression during consolIdatIOn III
soil. 2nd Afr. Reg. Co,!! Soil Meek and Fndn, Etl{fJig. (Lourenco
Marques, 1959).
2. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITTANICA, Vol. 23.
3. MUSKAT, M. Physical principles of oil production. 1l'fcGraw-Hill
(1949).
4. KARPLUS, W. J. Analog Simulations. McGraw-Hill (1958).
5. TER'lAGHI, K. Theoretical Soil Mechanics.]. Wiley (1951).
6. SPARKS, A. D. W. Partially saturated soils ~- classification;
compressibility of the fluid phase; stress equations, M.Sc.(Eng.)
thesis, Univ. of the Witwatersrand.
7. GIBSON, R. E. and Lmlll, P. Numerical solution of some problems
in the consolidation of clay; Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs.; Part I,
(March, 1953).
8. BISHOP, A. W. and ELDIN, A. K. G., Geotechnique, Vol. 2 (1950).
9. SPARKS, A. D. W. Research work written 1956, \957 for an
intended post-graduate degree dealing with consolidation of
a partIally saturated partially saturated soils, but not included in ref. 6.

Appendix 1
An experitnental illustration The curve 1 in Fig. lOb is the curve oftotal volume V if
undissolved gas in the sample. vs pore pressure u, while the
A powdered Kaolinitic clay was n:ixed dry with a curve 2 is the plot of V vs total vertical pressure.
mixture of sodium bicarbonate and aCId tartrate. The
dry mixture waS then moistened so t?at the clay b~ca~e The estimated initial compression was 0·054 in. for
an aerated spongy mass which con tamed carbon dIOXIde the sample, whereas the observed value was O· 056 in.
(used to magnify the initial corn pression. ) .. Tests using less-soluble air have also been made.

; , "
"
.1 I
1·2 ,51"'0= 0·865 A' t/.." I \
~ e .. 1172.5 6'33 I

Incr4!ment is
,

5utri It
<II
III
..;
<.I
.-I---i+-' CT~I
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

go
to tause all the gas
,,1
to vani o"ii."
> E
iI
I
e " '1575
1
-;;.. .E'"
III
I
1·0 \ .... I
, • "!"015 o

O·g
'f I
S pie h4!i ght " O' 'n.
o 5,000 Ib;ft2
Pressure (abs)
•

•
iI ! I
IAct
The. gas phase
is carbon dioxide
0·8
~ lie 1+ e
x 0·75 in,. 0'0544
I ! ! ~ 0·054'
:\1 !
I
Key: Cur-ve 1
against po!"e
pressure u.
is plotted

0'1

AP;;-
\
1335 /~
Cur-u 2 is platte d
against tota I
pressure Py.

r--:-r: Ib r-.....
! I Fig. lOb
0·6
I ~ r-.....

--
.. ~--

~
I
(
0·5
o 5,000 ,
10000 -
Pyc; Ib/ft 2.
Fig. lOa

180 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967

 The stress equation (9) for partially saturated partfy saturated soils by A. D. W. Sparks, 3rd Afr. Reg.
soils . Conf. Soil Mech. Fndn. Engng. (Salisbury, 1963).
This equation was derived by the Author in 1956 In this equation T is the surface tension of the air
and first presented in 1957 (See, Ref. 5, and paper water interface, and a, {3, yare parameters which depend
entitled Theoretical considerations of stress equations for on the degree of saturation.

Appendix II
UNITS

With respect to the previous equations the Author mass

suggests the use of the following units;- Po gmS wt.cm
wt cm 2
Total pressures p, pv, etc. gmS wt.
wt e, K, n, Sro -dimensionless
Pore pressures u, etc.
(Express as absolute pressure, i.e. with respect to vacuo.) The factors in equation (54) will have the following
units
Intergranular and effective
Factor Units
wt
pressures p, Pve, etc. Cm' gm (mass)
sec. gm (wt)
Sro -as a ratio, less than or
cm 3 . gm (mass)
equal to unity
[gm (wt)]2·sec-
K -cm 2
gm(mass) 'cm
[gm (wt)J2
gm(mass)
C.,
pw gm (wt) 'cm
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

Appendix III
EXAMPLE 1 The hydrodynamic settleInent (6c):-

(Use of Method 2 - example showing effect of Assume that the layer is free to drain top and bottom.
Sro values). (Drainage path H=30 in.=76·2 cm). Assume that the
permeability K has been found by measuring Cv in a
.Although the shape of the e vs pvc curve will depend saturated consolidation test. .
on the value of Sro it will be assumed that this curve is as
shown in Fig. II. Assume that . 68, Do=60 in.,
For purposes of this problem, assume the following
-' 1,200 gIn (wt) _1,000 grn (wt) d th t convenient numbers:-
Pove. cm 2 Uo- cm 2 an a
Pove and Uo are uniform throughout the sample depth.
Assume that it is required to find the time-settlement
curves for different values of Sro if the consolidating load 'wt-sec
. 8,800 gm (wt)
6Po IS cm 2 ' wt'sec

Total settleInent (6d:-

From l"ig. 11 and equations (16) it is found that
·2 inches.
pw
cm 3
The initial cOInpression (6iC):- 1,000 gm wt
Ut
Consider Sro=O, 0'25, 0'5, 0·75 and 1·0. Assume cm 2 (abs.)
that H=0'018 volumes of air per volume of water per
unit atmosphere. Expressions derived from these values Calculations for the time-settlement curves in Fig. l3
are given in Table II. are provided in Table III.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967 181

 1,2
o
III III 110
... III '"
66b lll
I. V01"1
I ...
I~I:'I!,~ ot
L. L. L_
V) V') fJ'1 air
\ \ \ ~
u
V
<II
Curv~s 01 V vs vertical
·2 '3 '4} CUrHs 01 V
toral pr~ssur~
0'8 i--\-_ _-+-~... ____+.-----:-----L------J- vs por~
laid
ratio
~ ,~ ·2 .;; '4j
0·6

011
O· 4 ......L___+-___-+_ .----,-
i-_~_

0' 2 I---__ J-.~-~.---___+.-.~---~..:..~-----+-----J.

o
1200:
o • 2,000 4,000 G,OOO &POO 10,000 o 2,000 4,000 6,000 a,ooo 10.000
gill (wtycm 2 Pressurt ~m (wl)/em 2
Fig. 11. Fig. 12

TABLE II
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

(For Example 1)

.- . 0·0 0·25 0,5 0·75 1· 0

Sro ' . -- -
.. I
eoSro -- .. _. ·. .. i
0·0 0·\7 0·34 O' 51 0·68
-
Values of V (volume of air per unit volume of soil sample) as found by equation 20 for
various values of pore pressure u (al:js).
I
1,000 gm/cm 2 ·. ·. ·. 0·405 0·304 0-202 0·101 0-0

u=3,000 gm/cmz ·- ·. ·. 0·135 0·100 0·065 0·030

u=5,000 gm/cm" -. ·. ·. 0-081 0·059 0-037 0-016 -

u=7,000 gm/cm> _. -- -- 0-058 0-042 0-025 0·010

u= 10,000 mg/cmz -- -. 0·0405 0-029 0·017 0-005

(Fig"_ 11, 12) i:,CAH - . ' , 0·226 0-223 0·218 0-156 0·0
i
(From equation 22) i:, ic in. -- 8·07 7·95 7-77 5·56 0·0

(From equation 3) Dc in. -- -- 0·13 0-25 0·43 2·64 8·2

(From Fig. 12) u'o (gm 1cm2) · . 1,500 1,800 2,600 6,400 8,800

(From Fig. 12) e' 0 -. - . ·. 0·454 0·457 0-462 0-524 0·680

eoSro
Sro/=~-- -. ·- ·. ·. 0-0 0·372 o· 735 0-974 1·0
eo'
I
THE CIVIL ENGINEER in Scuth ,Africa - July 1967
182
 TABLE III
(Exam.ple 1, continued from. Table II) All units are as in Appendix II

Sro .. . . ·. ·. ·. ·. ·. 0·0 0·25 0·50 0·70 1·0

S/ro .. .. ·. ·. ·. _. .- 0-0 0·372 0·735 0-974 1-0
KW (equation 30) - . ·. -. -. ,0·0 5-2% 35'4% 91'4% 100%
KA (equations 31) .. .- ·. ·. ·- 100% - 47-0% 7·75% 0·06% 0·0
cm' _. · . ·. 0·0 5-2 10- 15 35-3 X 10- 2 91-4x 10-15 10-1'
KW=KW'K
·- X

10-1• 47-0x 10-15 10-15 O· 06 X 10-15

KA=KA'K em 2 - . · -
·- ·. · . 7·75 X 0·0
average a. range BC (Fig. 11) ·. 7·8 X 10-r, 8· 5 X 10- 6 9·2 X 10- 6 12·9 X 10- 6 26·1 X 10-ii

u=t(u'o+ur) · . · . .. · . · . 1,250 1,400 1,800 3,700

C. (equation 54) .. · . · . · . · . 0·0 5·2 X 10-10 35·4x 10-10 91.4x 10-10 10- 8

C. (equation 54) .. · . · . · . · . 2.93x 10-13 1· 375 X 10-13 ·227 X 10-13 ·175 X 10-1• 0
if e!= ·45 · . · . · . 0·452 0·454 0·456 0·487 0·565
C., using e and S'ro (equation 54) · . 12·56 X 10- 12 8·6x 10~12 3·85 X 10- 12 0'528x 10- 12 0·0
C" using e and S'ro (equation 54) .. 0·711 10- 5 2 ·62 X 10-· 4· 84 X 10-6 8'45 X 1O-G 16·7x1O-G
C v (equation 60) ·. ·. ..
.. 9·86xl0-4 3·42 X 10-4 7·47xlO- 4 1O·8xlO-4 5·99xlO- 4

H, drain path, state B .. · . .. .. 66 cm 66·2 cm 66·4 cm 69·2 cm 76·2 em

V, Tv VI·D.e t V,, D.e t VI' t VI·D.e t VI·D.c t
where -
20% ·0314 H" ·026 138 ·05 402 ·086 185 '53 139 1·64 304
40% ·126 t=-·T y ·052 558 ·10 1610 ·172 745 1·05 560 3·28 1220
60% ·287 cv ·078 1270 ·15 3670 ·258 1690 1·58 1280 4-92 2790
80% ·567 uni ts of t are 10"sec ·104 2500 ·20 7250 ·344 3350 2 ·1 2520 6·56 5500
90% ·848 ·117 3740 ·225 10820 ·388 5000 2·38 3750 7·37 8200

I
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

in. 10" sec. in. in. m. in.

The settlement at time

t=[D.lc (Table II plus VI' D.c (Table III)];
Ti m~ t See equation 52. The "time-settlement" curves
are plotted in Fig. 13.
o 5 10 15 wuks

o
o A

.
., 2 \
...c
\
.£:

dr'sA.Ie +A-
c
3

~
" 8'2 in.
..
c
4
lrc" I-
i
.~
E
., "ig. 13

5 I
~,
III
til a 5 1- 0 2 0-75
6 i

7 s~~ ~ I --4- ___

~Srri"2S______
8
-
+-.;- c
~S ro =0 '0

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967 183

 EXAMPLE 2

(A chart used for earth dam designs -
down and other stability problems.)
Normally this diagram is determined by experi-
mental measurement. An analytical method is describe9.
Assume that for a sample at the same original
conditions as in the above problem it is required to find
the variation between the pore pressure u and the total
pressure pv during undrained loading conditions in
which lateral strain is prevented.
for draw- The variation between u and pv is shown in Fig. 14a.
(All the details can be obtained from Figs. 11 and 12).
For an undrained consolidometer sample a factor C
can be defined by the equation
6.uo=C· 6.Pov (Sparks Ref. 1, 1959)
Note that contrary to expectations the factor C
(akin to Skempton's E) can decrease with increase in
6.Pov over certain loading ranges due to the non-linear
e-pvc curve (See Fig. 14b).

EXAMPLE 3

(Use of analog methods for consolidating loads which vary with time).
An example analysed by the Author is shown in Fig. 15. The variation of the building load with time is shown
at the top of this figure.
EXAMPLE 4
(J ustification for the use of method 2)
The curves in Fig. 16 have been derived for soils which are consolidated at different degrees of saturation.
These curves onlyr~present the consolidation settlement 6.c.
Note that very good agreement exists between the numerical method I and the approximate method 2.
Method 2 takes only a few minutes, whereas the application of method 1 to Sr=O took four days of calculation.

Curves for zero drainage

.& z'ero horizontal Itrain
8,000 t--~~+-~~~-+-~~~-+-~~~--+~~-,"--~1--

u
c • ---
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

L- • 5 lope of c ho r d XV e te.
o APOY
..
.-.. 6,000
.....
... (Set figu,..e 14 <I)
A
..
'-'
1'0
,-;-5 ro a;'O ,

.,
::>
co 4,000 0·3
+ Sro w 0'75
fl
"
:::J 0·6
~~
::J
2,000 -- - - Sro
I
u O· S
- -- L I
Uo 0·2
- ,.5 ro "0·25
(a bl) -5-;"0 %0·0 ,...-
O-+-____-L~~--__- L - - - - - - - L - - - -___L~_ _ _ __L_ o
o 2;000 4,000 G,OOO B,OOO 10,000 o 2,000 ·4,000 6,000 8,000
p y • POy + 4POY (abs) Vertical total Itrl" A POY

Fig.14a Fig. 14b

DISCUSSION
Written discussion on the above paper will be accepted until August 31, 1967. This, together with the Author's reply,
will be published in the January, 1968, issue of The Civil Engineer in South Africa, or later.
Such written discussion, which must be submitted in duplicate, should be in the third person present tense, and should
be typed in double spacing. It should be as short a,s possible and should not normally exceed 600 words in length. It
should also conform to the requirements laid down in the 'Notes for the Guidance of Authors and Contributors' as
published in t:,c August, 1966 issue of The Civil Engineer in South Africa.

184 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in Sout!l Africa - July 1967

 4p~"

4PO fDooo
0 hl06 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 17
o
l
\ ~,

I
~~
of I
"'"~ .
~
I
S-trin9 .. Pulley'" ,

conlOol. I-Electr-it Analog with <.. 1'2 xl0 6

_ Analog with
6
'-....

1 = 10 Sf t & 5 no du "i~~ ---- ,. 5 Nodu in soil depth

uc

0·6 - in soil depth. I ~ "-

,""'-
I I I
ThfOretital -Te .... zaghi,
I I I
dc.
CEqn 67.) Alter-natively 9nodu.1 ",-""" ~
c~uld have bun used "'\ ~
0·8 with 5
7= 2'5 x 10 H t ~ ~~
~ r--... ~ ~i

--
'"=-,.
--: t:;;:.._
~
r---.
1·0
~
-
Fi,~. 15
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

TIME
o 16M105 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160M10 5 Sft
o +---~--~--.---.---,---.---.---,-__,-__,-~~

H~=--....:r--_~·1-'2r":;
,(
," ,
I
'
Appr-o)(ima tion
( Met h 0 d
I I
ll-'
J
50 'I. satur-atf d

--=--~f'.,i:-'-+-->---+--L----+----r-­

(M.thod 2)
0'8

1 '0 I--".---.-~--i"""'" J----l--+--+-~+

Fig. 16

'HE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa July 1967 185