64

Power Transformers

64.1 Transformer Construction

The Transformer Core • Core and Shell Types • Transformer
Windings • Taps
64.2 Power Transformer Modeling
The Three-Winding Ideal Transformer Equivalent Circuit • A
Practical Three-Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit • The
Two-Winding Transformer
64.3 Transformer Performance
64.4 Transformers in Three-Phase Connections
Phase Shift in Y–D Connections • The Three-Phase Transformer •
Determining Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit Values for Power
Charles A. Gross Transformers: An Example
Auburn University 64.5 Autotransformers

64.1 Transformer Construction

The Transformer Core

The core of the power TRANSFORMER is usually made of laminated cold-rolled magnetic steel that is grain
oriented such that the rolling direction is the same as that of the flux lines. This type of core construction tends
to reduce the eddy current and hysteresis losses. The eddy current loss Pe is proportional to the square of the
product of the maximum flux density BM (T), the frequency f (Hz), and thickness t (m) of the individual steel
lamination.

Pe = Ke( B Mtf ) 2 (W) (64.1)

Ke is dependent upon the core dimensions, the specific resistance of a lamination sheet, and the mass of the
core. Also,

P h = Kh f B Mn (W) (64.2)

In Eq. (64.2), Ph is the hysteresis power loss, n is the Steinmetz constant (1.5 < n < 2.5) and Kh is a constant
dependent upon the nature of core material and varies from 3210–3m to 20210–3m, where m = core mass in
kilograms.
The core loss therefore is

Pe = Pe + P h (64.3)

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 FIGURE 64.1 230kVY:17.1kVD 1153-MVA 3f power transformer. (Photo courtesy of General Electric Company.)

Core and Shell Types

Transformers are constructed in either a shell or a core structure. The shell-type transformer is one where the
windings are completely surrounded by transformer steel in the plane of the coil. Core- type transformers are
those that are not shell type. A power transformer is shown in Fig. 64.1.
Multiwinding transformers, as well as polyphase transformers, can be made in either shell- or core-type
designs.

Transformer Windings
The windings of the power transformer may be either copper or aluminum. These conductors are usually made
of conductors having a circular cross section; however, larger cross-sectional area conductors may require a
rectangular cross section for efficient use of winding space.
The life of a transformer insulation system depends, to a large extent, upon its temperature. The total
temperature is the sum of the ambient and the temperature rise. The temperature rise in a transformer is
intrinsic to that transformer at a fixed load. The ambient temperature is controlled by the environment the
transformer is subjected to. The better the cooling system that is provided for the transformer, the higher the
“kVA” rating for the same ambient. For example, the kVA rating for a transformer can be increased with forced
air (fan) cooling. Forced oil and water cooling systems are also used. Also, the duration of operating time at
high temperature directly affects insulation life.

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 Other factors that affect transformer insulation life are vibration or mechanical stress, repetitive expansion
and contraction, exposure to moisture and other contaminants, and electrical and mechanical stress due to
overvoltage and short-circuit currents.
Paper insulation is laid between adjacent winding layers. The thickness of this insulation is dependent on
the expected electric field stress. In large transformers oil ducts are provided using paper insulation to allow a
path for cooling oil to flow between coil elements.
The short-circuit current in a transformer creates enormous forces on the turns of the windings. The short-
circuit currents in a large transformer are typically 8 to 10 times larger than rated and in a small transformer
are 20 to 25 times rated. The forces on the windings due to the short-circuit current vary as the square of the
current, so whereas the forces at rated current may be only a few newtons, under short-circuit conditions these
forces can be tens of thousands of newtons. These mechanical and thermal stresses on the windings must be
taken into consideration during the design of the transformer. The
current-carrying components must be clamped firmly to limit move-
ment. The solid insulation material should be precompressed and
formed to avoid its collapse due to the thermal expansion of the wind-
ings.

Taps
Power transformer windings typically have taps, as shown. The effect
on transformer models is to change the turns ratio.

64.2 Power Transformer Modeling

The electric power transformer is a major power system component which provides the capability of reliably
and efficiently changing (transforming) ac voltage and current at high power levels. Because electrical power
is proportional to the product of voltage and current, for a specified power level, low current levels can exist
only at high voltage, and vice versa.

The Three-Winding Ideal Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Consider the three coils wrapped on a common core as shown in Fig. 64.2(a). For an infinite core permeability
(m) and windings made of material of infinite conductivity (s):

df df df
v1 = N1 v2 = N2 v3 = N3 (64.4)
dt dt dt
where f is the core flux. This produces:

v1 N v2 N v3 N
= 1 = 2 = 3 (64.5)
v2 N2 v3 N3 v1 N1
For sinusoidal steady state performance:

N1 N2 N3
V1 = V2 V2 = V3 V3 = V1 (64.6)
N2 N3 N1
where V, etc. are complex phasors.
The circuit symbol is shown in Fig. 64.2(b). Ampere’s law requires that

ò Hˆ × dlˆ = i enclosed = 0 (64.7)

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FIGURE 64.2 Ideal three-winding transformer. (a) Ideal three-winding transformer; (b) schematic symbol; (c) per-unit
equivalent circuit.

0 = N 1i 1 + N 2i 2 + N 3 i 3 (64.8)

Transform Eq. (64.8) into phasor notation:

N 1I 1 + N 2 I 2 + N 3I 3 = 0 (64.9)

Equations (64.6) and (64.9) are basic to understanding transformer operation. Consider Eq. (64.6). Also
note that –V1, –V2, and –V3 must be in phase, with dotted terminals defined positive. Now consider the total
input complex power –S.

S = V1I 1* + V2 I 2* + V3I 3* = 0 (64.10)

Hence, ideal transformers can absorb neither real nor reactive power.
It is customary to scale system quantities (V, I, S, Z) into dimensionless quantities called per-unit values.
The basic per-unit scaling equation is

actual value
Per-unit value =
base value
The base value always carries the same units as the actual value, forcing the per-unit value to be dimensionless.
Base values normally selected arbitrarily are Vbase and Sbase. It follows that:

S base
I base =
V base
V base V2
Z base = = base
I base S base
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When per-unit scaling is applied to transformers Vbase is usually taken as Vrated as in each winding. Sbase is
common to all windings; for the two- winding case Sbase is Srated, since Srated is common to both windings.
Per-unit scaling simplifies transformer circuit models. Select two primary base values, V1base and S1base. Base
values for windings 2 and 3 are:

N2 N3
V2 base = V1 V3 base = V1 (64.11)
N 1 base N 1 base

and

S1base = S2 base = S3 base = S base (64.12)

By definition:

S base S base S base

I 1base = I 2 base = I 3 base = (64.13)
V1base V2 base V3 base

It follows that

N1 N1
I 2 base = I1 I 3 base = I1 (64.14)
N 2 base N 3 base

Thus, Eqs. (64.3) and (64.6) scaled into per-unit become:

V1pu = V2 pu = V3 pu (64.15)

I 1pu + I 2 pu + I 3 pu = 0 (64.16)

The basic per-unit equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 64.2(c). The extension to the n-winding case is clear.

A Practical Three-Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

The circuit of Fig. 64.2(c) is reasonable for some power system applications, since the core and windings of
actual transformers are constructed of materials of high m and s, respectively, though of course not infinite.
However, for other studies, discrepancies between the performance of actual and ideal transformers are too
great to be overlooked. The circuit of Fig. 64.2(c) may be modified into that of Fig. 64.3 to account for the
most important discrepancies. Note:
R1,R2,R3 Since the winding conductors cannot be made of material of infinite conductivity, the windings must
have some resistance.
X1,X2,X3 Since the core permeability is not infinite, not all of the flux created by a given winding current will
be confined to the core. The part that escapes the core and seeks out parallel paths in surrounding
structures and air is referred to as leakage flux.
Rc,Xm Also, since the core permeability is not infinite, the magnetic field intensity inside the core is not zero.
Therefore, some current flow is necessary to provide this small H. The path provided in the circuit
for this “magnetizing” current is through Xm. The core has internal power losses, referred to as core
loss, due to hystereses and eddy current phenomena. The effect is accounted for in the resistance Rc.
Sometimes Rc and Xm are neglected.
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 FIGURE 64.3 A practical equivalent circuit.

FIGURE 64.4 Transformer polarity terminology: (a) subtractive; (b) additive.

The circuit of Fig. 64.3 is a refinement on that of Fig. 64.2(c). The values R1, R2, R3, X1, X2, X3 are all small
(less than 0.05 per-unit) and Rc, Xm, large (greater than 10 per-unit). The circuit of Fig. 64.3 requires that all
values be in per-unit. Circuit data are available from the manufacturer or obtained from conventional tests. It
must be noted that although the circuit of Fig. 64.3 is commonly used, it is not rigorously correct because it
does not properly account for the mutual couplings between windings.
The terms primary and secondary refer to source and load sides, respectively (i.e., energy flows from primary
to secondary). However, in many applications energy can flow either way, in which case the distinction is
meaningless. Also, the presence of a third winding (tertiary) confuses the issue. The terms step up and step
down refer to what the transformer does to the voltage from source to load. ANSI standards require that for a
two-winding transformer the high-voltage and low-voltage terminals be marked as H1-H2 and X1-X2, respec-
tively, with H1 and X1 markings having the same significance as dots for polarity markings. [Refer to ANSI
C57 for comprehensive information.] Additive and subtractive transformer polarity refer to the physical posi-
tioning of high-voltage, low-voltage dotted terminals as shown in Fig. 64.4. If the dotted terminals are adjacent,
then the transformer is said to be subtractive, because if these adjacent terminals (H1-X1) are connected together,
the voltage between H2 and X2 is the difference between primary and secondary. Similarly, if adjacent terminals
X1 and H2 are connected, the voltage (H1-X2) is the sum of primary and secondary values.

The Two-Winding Transformer

The device can be simplified to two windings. Common two-winding transformer circuit models are shown
in Fig. 64.5.

Z e = Z1 + Z 2 (64.17)

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FIGURE 64.5 Two-winding transformer-equivalent circuits. All values in per-unit. (a) Ideal case; (b) no load current
negligible; (c) precise model.

Rc ( jXm )
Zm = (64.18)
Rc + jXm

Circuits (a) and (b) are appropriate when –Zm is large enough that magnetizing current and core loss is
negligible.

64.3 Transformer Performance

There is a need to assess the quality of a particular transformer design. The most important measure for
performance is the concept of efficiency, defined as follows:

Pout
h= (64.19)
Pin

where Pout is output power in watts (kW, MW) and Pin is input power in watts (kW, MW).
The situation is clearest for the two-winding case where the output is clearly defined (i.e., the secondary
winding), as is the input (i.e., the primary). Unless otherwise specified, the output is understood to be rated
power at rated voltage at a user-specified power factor. Note that

SL = P in – Pout = sum of losses

The transformer is frequently modeled with the circuit shown in Fig. 64.6. Transformer losses are made up of
the following components:

Electrical losses: I ¢ 12 Req = I 12R 1 + I 22R 2 (64.20a)

Primary winding loss = I 12R 1 (64.20b)
Secondary winding loss = I 22R 2 (64.20c)
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 FIGURE 64.6 Transformer circuit model.

FIGURE 64.7 Sequence equivalent transformer circuits.

Magnetic (core) loss: P c = Pe + P h = V 12/R c (64.21)

Core eddy current loss = Pe
Core hysterisis loss = P h
Hence:
SL = I ¢ 12 Req + V 12/R c (64.22)

A second concern is fluctuation of secondary voltage with load. A measure of this situation is called voltage
regulation, which is defined as follows:

V2 NL - V2 FL
Voltage Regulation (VR) = (64.23)
V2 FL

where V2FL = rated secondary voltage, with the transformer supplying rated load at a user-specified power
factor, and V2NL = secondary voltage with the load removed (set to zero), holding the primary voltage at the
full load value.
A complete performance analysis of a 100 kVA 2400/240 V single-phase transformer is shown in Table 64.1.

64.4 Transformers in Three-Phase Connections

Transformers are frequently used in three-phase connections. For three identical three-winding transformers,
nine windings must be accounted for. The three sets of windings may be individually connected in wye or delta
in any combination. The symmetrical component transformation can be used to produce the sequence equiv-
alent circuits shown in Fig. 64.7 which are essentially the circuits of Fig. 64.3 with Rc and Xm neglected.
The positive and negative sequence circuits are valid for both wye and delta connections. However, Y–D
connections will produce a phase shift which is not accounted for in these circuits.

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 TABLE 64.1 Analysis of a Single-Phase 2400:240V 100-kVA Transformer

Voltage and Power Ratings

HV (Line-V) LV (Line-V) S (Total-kVA)

2400 240 100

Test Data

Short Circuit (HV) Values Open Circuit (LV) Values

Voltage = 211.01 240.0 volts

Current = 41.67 22.120 amperes
Power = 1400.0 787.5 watts

Equivalent Circuit Values (in ohms)

Values referred to HV Side LV Side Per-Unit

Series Resistance = 0.8064 0.008064 0.01400

Series Reactance = 4.9997 0.049997 0.08680
Shunt Magnetizing Reactance = 1097.10 10.9714 19.05
Shunt Core Loss Resistance = 7314.30 73.1429 126.98

Power Factor Efficiency Voltage Power Factor Efficiency Voltage

(—) (%) Regulation (%) (—) (%) Regulation (%)

0.0000 lead 0.00 –8.67 0.9000 lag 97.54 5.29

0.1000 lead 82.92 –8.47 0.8000 lag 97.21 6.50
0.2000 lead 90.65 –8.17 0.7000 lag 96.81 7.30
0.3000 lead 93.55 –7.78 0.6000 lag 96.28 7.86
0.4000 lead 95.06 –7.27 0.5000 lag 95.56 8.26
0.5000 lead 95.99 –6.65 0.4000 lag 94.50 8.54
0.6000 lead 96.62 –5.89 0.3000 lag 92.79 8.71
0.7000 lead 97.07 –4.96 0.2000 lag 89.56 8.79
0.8000 lead 97.41 –3.77 0.1000 lag 81.09 8.78
0.9000 lead 97.66 –2.16 0.0000 lag 0.00 8.69
1.0000 — 97.83 1.77

Rated load performance at power factor = 0.866 lagging.

Secondary Quantities; LOW Voltage Side Primary Quantities; HIGH Voltage Side

SI Units Per-Unit SI Units Per-Unit

Voltage 240 volts 1.0000 Voltage 2539 volts 1.0577

Current 416.7 amperes 1.0000 Current 43.3 amperes 1.0386
Apparent power 100.0 kVA 1.0000 Apparent power 109.9 kVA 1.0985
Real power 86.6 kW 0.8660 Real power 88.9 kW 0.8888
Reactive power 50.0 kvar 0.5000 Reactive power 64.6 kvar 0.6456
Power factor 0.8660 lag 0.8660 Power factor 0.8091 lag 0.8091

Efficiency = 97.43%; voltage regulation = 5.77%.

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 The zero sequence circuit requires special modification to account for wye, delta connections. Consider
winding 1:
1. Solid grounded wye — short 1¢ to 1¢¢.
2. Ground wye through –Zn — connect 1¢ to 1¢¢ through 3–Zn.
3. Ungrounded wye — leave 1¢ to 1¢¢ open.
4. Delta — short 1¢¢ to reference.
Winding sets 2 and 3 interconnections produce similar connection constraints at terminals 2¢–2¢¢ and 3¢–3¢¢,
respectively.
Example. Three identical transformers are to be used in a three-phase system. They are connected at their
terminals as follows:
Winding set 1 wye, grounded through –Zn
Winding set 2 wye, solid ground
Winding set 3 delta
The zero sequence network is as shown.

Phase Shift in Y–D Connections

The positive and negative sequence networks presented in Fig. 64.7 are misleading in one important detail. For
Y–Y or D–D connections, it is always possible to label the phases in such a way that there is no phase shift
between corresponding primary and secondary quantities. However, for Y–D or D–Y connections, it is impos-
sible to label the phases in such a way that no phase shift between corresponding quantities is introduced. ANSI
standard C57.12.10.17.3.2 is as follows:
For either wye-delta or delta-wye connections, phases shall be labeled in such a way that positive sequence
quantities on the high voltage side lead their corresponding positive sequence quantities on the low voltage
side by 30o. The effect on negative sequence quantities may be the reverse, i.e., HV values lag LV values by 30o.
This 30o phase shift is not accounted for in the sequence networks of Fig. 64.7. The effect only appears in the
positive and negative sequence networks; the zero sequence network quantities are unaffected.

The Three-Phase Transformer

It is possible to construct a device (called a three-phase trans-
former) which allows the phase fluxes to share common magnetic
return paths. Such designs allow considerable savings in core
material, and corresponding economies in cost, size, and weight.
Positive and negative sequence impedances are equal; however,
the zero sequence impedance may be different. Otherwise the
circuits of Fig. 64.7 apply as discussed previously.

Determining Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit

Values for Power Transformers
One method of obtaining such data is through testing. Consider the problem of obtaining transformer equiv-
alent circuit data from short-circuit tests. A numerical example will clarify per-unit scaling considerations.

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FIGURE 64.8 Transformer circuit data from short-circuit tests. (a) Setup for transformer short-circuit tests;
(b) transformer data; (c) short-circuit test data; (d) short-circuit impedance values in per-unit.

The short-circuit test circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 64.8. The objective is to derive equivalent circuit
data from the test data provided in Fig. 64.8. Note that measurements are made in winding “i”, with winding
“j” shorted, and winding “k” left open. The short circuit impedance, looking into winding “i” with the
transformer so terminated is designated as Zij. The indices i, j, and k, can be 1, 2, or 3.
The impedance calculations are done in per-unit; base values are provided in Fig. 64.8(c). The transformer
ratings of the transformer of Fig. 64.2(a) would conventionally be provided as follows:
3f 3W Transformer
15kVY/115kVY/4.157kVD
100/100/20 MVA
where 3f means that the transformer is a three-phase piece of equipment (as opposed to an interconnection
of three single-phase devices). 3W means three three-phase windings (actually nine windings). Usually the
schematic is supplied also. The 15 kV rating is the line (phase-to-phase) value; three-phase apparatus is always
rated in line values. “Y” means winding No. 1 is internally wye connected. 115kVY means that 115 kV is the
line voltage rating, and winding No. 2 is wye connected. In 4.157kVD, again, “4.157kV” is the line voltage rating,
and winding No. 3 is delta connected. 100/100/20 MVA are the total (3f) power ratings for the primary,
secondary, and tertiary winding, respectively; three-phase apparatus is always rated in three-phase terms.
The per-unit bases for S3fbase = 100 MVA are presented in Fig. 64.8(b). Calculating the short-circuit imped-
ances from the test data in Fig. 64.8(c):

Vi line / 3
Z ij =
I i line
R3 f /3
Rij =
I 12
line

X ij = Z ij2 - Rij2
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FIGURE 64.9 Autotransformer connection. (a) Conventional step-up connection; (b) autotransformer connection; (c)
part (b) redrawn.

Now calculate the transformer impedances from the short-circuit impedances:

1
Z1 =
2
(
Z 12 - Z 23 + Z 31 )
1
Z2 =
2
(
Z 23 - Z 13 + Z 12 )
1
Z3 =
2
(
Z 31 - Z 12 + Z 23 )
Results are shown in Fig. 64.8(d). Observe that the Y–D winding connections had no impact on the calculations.
Another detail deserves mention. Although the real and reactive parts of the short-circuit impedances (–Z12,
–Z23, ––Z31) will always be positive, this is not true for the transformer impedances (––Z1, ––Z2, ––Z3). One or
more of these can be, and frequently is, negative for actual short-circuit data. Negative values underscore that
the circuit of Fig. 64.7 is a port equivalent circuit, producing correct values at the winding terminals.

64.5 Autotransformers
Transformer windings, though magnetically coupled, are electrically isolated from each other. It is possible to
enhance certain performance characteristics for transformers by electrically interconnecting primary and sec-
ondary windings. Such devices are called autotransformers. The benefits to be realized are lower cost, smaller
size and weight, higher efficiency, and better voltage regulation. The basic connection is illustrated in Fig. 64.9.
The issues will be demonstrated with an example.
Consider the conventional connection, shown in Fig. 64.9(a).

V2 = aV1
1
I2 = I
a 1
S rating = V1I 1 = V2 I 2 = S load
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Now for the autotransformer:

V2 = V1 + bV1 = (1 + b )V1
I 1 = I 2 + bI 2 = (1 + b )I 2

For the same effective ratio

1+b=a

Therefore each winding rating is:

æ b ö
S rated = S load ç ÷
è1+b ø

For example if b = 1 (a = 2)

Srating = 1/2 S load

meaning that the transformer rating is only 50% of the load.

The principal advantage of the autotransformer is the increased power rating. Also, since the losses remain
the same, expressed as a percentage of the new rating, they go down, and correspondingly, the efficiency goes
up. The machine impedances in per unit drop for similar reasons. A disadvantage is the loss of electrical isolation
between primary and secondary. Also, low impedance is not necessarily good, as we shall see when we study
faults on power systems. Autotransformers are used in three-phase connections and in voltage control appli-
cations.

Defining Terms
Autotransformer: A transformer whose primary and secondary windings are electrically interconnected.
Polarity: Consideration of in-phase or out-of-phase relations of primary and secondary ac currents and
voltages.
Primary: The source-side winding.
Secondary: The load-side winding.
Tap: An electrical terminal that permits access to a winding at a particular physical location.
Transformer: A device which converts ac voltage and current to different levels at essentially constant power
and frequency.

Related Topics
1.3 Transformers • 3.4 Power and Energy • 3.5 Three-Phase Circuits

References
ANSI Standard C57, New York: American National Standards Institute.
S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 2nd ed, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
V. Del Toro, Basic Electric Machines, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
M.E. El-Hawary, Electric Power Systems: Design and Analysis, Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing, 1983.
O.I. Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
R. Feinburg, Modern Power Transformer Practice, New York: Wiley, 1979.
A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans, Electric Machinery, 5th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

C. A. Gross, Power Systems Analysis, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 1986.
N.N. Hancock, Matrix Analysis of Electrical Machinery, 2nd ed., Oxford: Pergamon, 1974.
E. Lowden, Practical Transformer Design Handbook, 2nd ed, Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: TAB, 1989.
G. McPherson, An Introduction to Electrical Machines and Transformers, New York: Wiley, 1981.
A. J. Pansini, Electrical Transformers, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
G.R. Slemon, Magnetoelectric Devices, New York: Wiley, 1966.
R. Stein and W. T. Hunts, Jr., Electric Power System Components: Transformers and Rotating Machines, New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979.

Further Information
For a comprehensive coverage of general transformer theory, see Chapter 2 of Electric Machines by G.R. Slemon
and A. Straughen (Addison-Wesley, 1980). For transformer standards, see ANSI Standard C57. For a detailed
explanation of transformer per-unit scaling, see Chapter 5 of Power Systems Analysis by C.A. Gross (John Wiley,
1986). For design information see Practical Transformer Design Handbook by E. Lowden (TAB, 1989).

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