3 – Basic Substructures

Substructures are structure below ground. Foundations and basements are the
most common type of substructures.

1 Shallow Foundation

A foundation is structure designed and constructed to be in direct contact with

and transmitting loads to the ground

Shallow foundations are found at a depth of less than 3 m below the finished
ground level.

1.1 Pad footing

A pad footing is an isolated

foundation to spread and transfer a
concentrated load to the earth. The
plan shape of a pad footing is usually
square.

Pad footing (Source: R. Chudley)

Blinding concrete layer Reinforcement of pad footing

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(Blinding concrete is a layer of non-structural concrete of about 50 mm thick
laid on the earth. It functions are to provide a flat and clean platform for steel
fixing, formwoking and to prevent contamination of the fresh concrete by the
earth.)

1.2 Strip Foundation

A strip foundation is a foundation

providing a continuous longitudinal
ground bearing.

Strip foundation (Source: R. Chudley)

Columns

FRONT
VIEW

Blinding
concrete

PLAN
Strip foundation

Strip foundation supporting closely spaced columns

 Strip foundations are used to transfer the load from a wall, or from a
succession of closely spaced piers or columns, to the ground.
 They consist of a continuous ribbon-shaped strip formed of reinforced
concrete. Main bars are placed transversely to resist bending while
longitudinal bars are used for the continuity of the strip foundation and to
bridge soft spots in the soil.

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1.3 Raft foundation

 A raft foundation is a foundation continuous in two directions, usually

covering an area equal to or greater than the base area of the structure.
 The structure moves together with the raft foundation when ground
movements occur such that cracking or damage can be prevented.
 A raft foundation is also called a floating foundation.

Raft foundations are useful in the following cases:

1. where buildings have to be erected on soils susceptible to excessive
shrinkage, swelling or frost heave;
2. where differential settlements are likely to be significant.
3. for structures where the column loads and/or soil conditions are such that
the resulting footings occupy most or the site.

1.3.1 Solid Slab Raft

Solid slab rafts are suitable for lightly loaded structures such as small houses.
A solid slab raft consists of a reinforced concrete slab, usually slightly larger
than the area of the building. Reinforcement in the form of a mesh fabric is
provided on both the top and bottom faces of the slab.

Solid slab Raft (Source: R. Chudley)

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1.3.2 Beam and Slab Raft

There may be variations in ground stiffness and cause differential settlement.

The solid slab raft may be further reinforced with ground beams. The columns
shall be positioned at the intersection of the ground beams.

Columns

Raft slab

Ground level
Blinding
Concrete

Ground beams
Beam and slab raft foundation

1.3.3 Cellular Raft

This type of foundation consists of two reinforced concrete slabs linked by

internal walls which divide the void into cells. The walls help to spread the
load over the raft. Openings can be formed in the cell walls allowing the voids
to be utilised for the housing of services, as storerooms or for general
accommodation.

The cellular raft foundation provides a great stiffness against the differential
settlement.

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 Cellular Raft foundation (Source: R. Chudley)

1.4 Combined foundation

 Rectangular footing is used supporting for two closely spaced columns.

 Balanced base footing is used for eccentrically load column. This often happen
in perimeter column where the footing is limited by site boundary.

Rectangular footing Balanced base footing (Source: R. Chudley)

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Shallow foundations

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2. Shallow basement

A basement can be defined as a storey with a floor which at some point is more
than 1.2 m below the highest level or ground adjacent to the outside walls.

The structural walls of a basement below ground level are in fact retaining
walls which have to offer resistance to the soil and ground water pressures as
well as assisting to transmit the superstructure loads to the foundations.

Considerations of basement construction

 Excavation methods.
 Surface and ground water control
 Lateral stability of basement excavation.
 Stability of adjoining building.

2.1 Surface and ground water control

For basement construction, water may come from the rain or the infiltration of
ground water when excavated below the ground water table. Problems caused by
ground water are:
 Water logging of the ground which may restrict the carrying out of works.
 Reduction in the shear strength of the soil which may lead to collapse of
excavation side.
 Overloading or collapse of the temporary support to the excavation caused by
hydrostatic pressure.
 Consolidation or loss of ground under adjacent structures due to dewatering
which would cause settlement.

2.1.1 Surface water control

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Adequate surface channels, usually in the form of U-channels, should be placed in
suitable locations on the site to drain away the rain water. If the channel is laid
around the perimeter of the site, it is termed as garland drain.

sealed with
soil cement
Where poling boards or sheet piling are
provided as support for excavation, they should
be extended 200-300 mm above existing ground
poling board
level and the edges sealed with soil cement. or excavation
sheet piling
This also effectively prevents the surface water
from entering the excavation.

Intercepting surface water

2.1.2 Dewatering

Suitable dewatering outside a cofferdam reduces the hydrostatic pressure acting on

the cofferdam, but significantly draw down of ground water table would cause
settlement in surroundings

2.1.2.1 Open Sump Pumping

An open sump should be excavated below the formation level of the excavation and
preferably be sited in a corner position. The water seeped into the excavation is led
into the sump, either by sloping the ground towards it or by using shallow garland
drains that feed the water into the sump. The water can then be pumped away by a
submersible pump.

A submersible pump Open sump pumping (Source: CIRCA)

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2.1.2.2 Wellpoint System

This method is suitable for lowering water in non-cohesive soils, e.g. sand or gravel
soils of average permeability

Before excavation, a series of small diameter wells are jetted (or drilled) into the
ground in suitable positions and at predetermined centres e.g. from 600 to 1800 c/c.
The wellpoints are connected in series to dewatering pumps with header pipes.

Header pipe of well point system Wellpoint (Source: R. Chudley)

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The wellpoints may be arranged as a ring system enclosing the area to be excavated,
or as a progressive system alongside a long trench or similar excavation (to one or
both sides according to the width of the excavation).

Ring wellpoint system (Source: CIRCA)

Progressive wellpoint system (Source:CIRCA)

The standard equipment will lower the water level up to a depth of between 5 and 6
m under average conditions. Where the depth of excavation exceeds 6 m then a
multi-stage wellpoint system is required.
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 Multi-stages wellpoint system (Source: R. Chudley)

2.1.2.3 Deep-Bored Well System

This system can be used as an alternative to

a multi-stage wellpoint dewatering
installation where the ground water needs to
be lowered to a depth greater than 9 m or
where a suction pump cannot be used.
Large diameter boreholes or wells are
formed by sinking a 300 to 600 mm
diameter steel lining tube into the ground to
the required depth and at spacings to suit the
subsoil being dewatered. A submersible
pump is set at a suitable depth to extract the
water. The annular space is filled with a
suitable media such as sand and gravel to act
as a waterway as the outer steel lining tube
is removed. Deep bored well (Source: R. Chudley)
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3 Lateral stability for basement excavation

There are various kinds of methods for basement construction and maintaining
the stability of the ground. The choice depends on the nature of ground
condition and the depth of basement.

3.1 Open Excavations

Open excavation (Source: R. Chudley)

Temporary support is often needed to the sides of the excavation for stability. These
temporary members can be intrusive when the actual construction works of the
basement is carried out. One method is to use battered excavation sides that cut back
to a safe angle of repose thus eliminating the need for temporary support.

This method is suitable for shallow basement only because the extra volume of
soil needed to be excavated increases rapidly with depth increased. Another
limitation is that large amount of free space around the site must be available.

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3.2 Sheet piling cofferdam

The term ‘cofferdam’ can be defined as a structure, usually temporary, built for the
purpose of excluding water or soil sufficiently to permit construction to proceed
without excessive pumping, and to support the surrounding ground.

There are a lot of methods and materials for forming cofferdams. Among which steel
sheet piling cofferdam is the most common one in Hong Kong. It has the following
advantages:
a. Steel sheet piles have high structural strength
b. They can be driven deep into most types of ground.
c. Cofferdams can be constructed to a depth of about 15 m below existing ground
level.
d. The sheet pile interlocks provide an almost completely watertight enclosure.
e. The sheet piles can be withdrawn and reused.

Sheet piles are normally driven into the ground by drop hammers or vibration
hammers to form an enclosure prior to excavation. To ensure that the sheet
piles are pitched and installed vertically a driving trestle or guide frame is used.

Driving of sheet piles

When excavation is taken place inside the cofferdam, adequate support must be
provided for the lateral stability.
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3.2.1 Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts

This method is suitable for a depth up to 5 m. After the sheet piles has been driven
around the perimeter of the site to form an enclosure, the centre of the basement is
excavated down to the formation level but leaving a wedge of soil at the perimeter to
support the cofferdam. Raking struts are installed to support the cofferdam. Finally
the wedge of soil is trimmed away.

battered slope

base slab

waling

wedge
of soil

sheet pile wall base slab raking struts

Stage I Stage II Stage III

Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts

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3.2.2 Cofferdam supported with strut and waling

In deeper excavation, the sheet pile

cofferdam can be supported with
king post
layers of bracing frame. Each bracing
frame is formed with struts and
walings. For wide cofferdams, king
posts (vertical supports) are installed
to support the bracing frames. This
method is suitable for excavations up
Cofferdam supported with struts and walings
to about 10 m deep. (Source: R. Chudley)

Cofferdam supported with struts and walings

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Work sequence of basement construction (Bottom-up method):
1. Sheet piles are driven into the ground in predetermined location to enclose the
area to be excavated. Meanwhile, piles are installed at suitable positions.
2. The earth inside the cofferdam is excavated to about 1 m below the first bracing
level.
3. The first bracing frame (struts and walings) is installed by welding to support
the cofferdam.
4. The processes of excavation and bracing frame installation are repeated until
the desired depth is reached
5. The pile caps and the base slab of the basement are constructed.
6. The construction of the basement is continued upward until the lowest bracing
frame is encountered.
7. The cofferdam is shored to the basement wall by short struts, and the original
struts are then removed.
8. The above process is repeated until the basement is constructed to the ground
level.
9. The space between the basement and the cofferdam is backfilled with soil and
compacted in layers. The short struts are removed progressively and finally the
sheet piles are withdrawn.
Ground Level

Sheet piles

To be backfilled
and compacted
in layers

Bottom-up basement construction

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3.2.3 Cofferdam support with ground anchors

 After the sheet piles have been driven around the perimeter to form an
enclosure, the centre of the cofferdam is excavated to about 1m below the first
bracing level.
 Holes at suitable spacings and in the same level are drilled into the ground at an
inclination of 30-45° below the horizontal penetrating through the sheet piles.
 Prestressing wires are inserted in to the holes and the ends are grouted with
cement grout.
 Walings and anchorage heads are installed and the wires are prestressed to hold
the cofferdam.
 The process is repeated for the subsequent bracing levels until down to the final
formation level.

This method is suitable for wide and deep basement. It also provides a clear working
area within the cofferdam. However its use is often limited by the site boundary.

Cofferdam support with ground anchors 17 of 17