Ajay Shriram Kushwaha ,

Associate Professor,
Jain (Deemed-to-be-University)
Web Server
www.jainuniversity.ac.in
An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are connected
using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or media.
Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in
the communication between two different devices; these are known
as Network devices and include things such as routers, switches, hubs, and
bridges.
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables
the computer to communicate with another computer and share their
resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of four types:
A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and peripheral devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link to a server within a distinct geographic area.
A local area network may serve as few as two or three users in a home office or thousands of
users in a corporation's central office.

➢ Advantages of LAN
➢ Inexpensive transmission media.
➢ It can simplify the physical association of a device to the media.
➢ It is used to high data transmission rates.
➢ Network data transmission is independent of the connected devices
rates, making it accessible for the one-speed device to send data to
another speed device.
A wireless LAN is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices
using wireless communication to form a local area network within a limited
area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building.

Advantages of WLAN :
➢ Mobility. Mobility enables users to physically move while using an
appliance, such as a hasndheld PC or data collector.
➢ Installation in Difficult-to-Wire Areas.
➢ Increased Reliability.
➢ Reduced Installation Time.
➢ Long-Term Cost Savings.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is smaller than a wide area network (WAN) but larger
than a local area network (LAN).
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area.

➢ Advantages of a MAN Network

➢ Less Expensive: It is less expensive to attach MAN with WAN Network. ...
➢ Sending Local Emails: You can send local emails fast and free on MAN.
➢ High Speed than WAN: ...
➢ Sharing of the Internet: ...
➢ Conversion of LAN to MAN is Easy: ...
➢ High Security:
A wide area network is a telecommunications network that extends over a
large geographic area. Wide area networks are often established with leased
telecommunication circuits.
Advantages of WAN :
➢ Increase efficiency.
➢ Easy of communication.
➢ Large network cover.
➢ Share information over the large area.
➢ Message can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network.
➢ It supports the global market and global business.
➢ Centralized IT infrastructure.
➢ Boost your privacy.
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for interconnecting
electronic devices within an individual person's workspace. A PAN provides
data transmission among devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets and
personal digital assistants.
Advantages of personal area network:
✓ In PAN no extra space requires.
✓ No need for extra cable and wire.
✓ It used in the TV remote, AC remotes, etc.
✓ It is reliable.
✓ It is secure.
✓ Connect to any devices at a time.
✓ It is easy to use.
✓ Data can be synchronized between different devices.
A campus network, campus area network, corporate area network or CAN is a computer
network made up of an interconnection of local area networks within a limited geographical
area.
Advantages of campus area network:
✓ In CAN network, to use some hardware devices of networking such as hub, routers,
switches, cable, bridge etc. so they are Affordable
✓ Multiple departments of campus are connected to each other in CAN networks. So
message is fired one time, and it transferred to all nodes easily accessible.
✓ Wireless medium of connections are used to link various offices and buildings with
single organization.
✓ It is capable to transfer huge files with higher speed over entire computer network
via internet.
✓ In CAN network, firewall or proxy server are used for security purpose from
unauthorized access and protection.
✓ CAN shares internet connection i.e. Single ISP (Internet Service Provider) is used by
different client machines.
A SAN (storage area network) is a network of storage devices that can be accessed by
multiple servers or computers, providing a shared pool of storage space. Each computer on
the network can access storage on the SAN as though they were local disks connected
directly to the computer.

There are so many advantages to using Storage Area Networks, but here
are our top five associated benefits.
➢ Reduces LAN bandwidth problems. A key benefit of SANs is bandwidth
improvement.
➢ Improved data security.
➢ Responsive backup.
➢ Increased scalability.
➢ Reliable disaster recovery.
Below are the major terminologies used in computer networking −
1. WAN: It stands for Wide Area Network and covers a wide area such as a city.
2. LAN: It stands for Local Area Network and covers a small area such as a small office or
home. It physically connects all the computers located in the premises.
3. Internet: It is a computer network system that connects the computers of the world. It is
normally connecting through WAN and LAN.
4. Intranet: It is a close room computer network system, as it covers a small area and only
authorized people can access it.
5. Extranet: It is also a sort of Internet the access to which is granted only to a few.
6. World Wide Web (WWW): It is the service that is used on Internet to view and search
contents (in the form of web-pages).
7. Instant messaging (IM): It is an online facility that facilitates us to chat or talk. Such
service is provided by Skype, Google Talk, Windows Live Messenger, Yahoo Messenger,
etc.
8. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): It is a Protocol, which is used especially for voice
transfer over IP network. Likewise, it facilitates users to make phone-calls by using
internet.
9. Really Simple Syndication (RSS): It is a technique, which is used for the dissemination
of information, articles, etc. Users normally subscribe to the RSS channel in order to
receive news. After subscription, users do not need to visit the respective website rather
they receive emails regarding the same.
10.Web Log: It is a sort of online inventory (normally on a specialized topics) that consists
of a series of entries. These entries are arranged in opposite chronological order. The
person who maintains the weblog regularly update it with a new information.
11.Podcast: It is a digital file that normally contains audio or video record and is available
on the Internet as well.
12.Social Networking Websites: It refers to the websites that facilitate users with a
common platform where they can share their message (in text, audio, or even video
form), images, videos, etc. For example, Facebook, Google+, Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace,
etc.
13.Chat Rooms: It is a dedicated area on the Internet that facilitates users to communicate.
14.Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): It is a technical expression for public
telephone system.
15.Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): It is a set of communication standards
that transmits voice, video, data, and other network services simultaneously.
16.Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL): It is a sort of digital subscriber line (DSL)
technology that facilitates faster data transmission.
17.Download: It is a process that saves data from Internet onto a personal computer.
18.Upload: It is a process that transfers the saved data from a personal computer to
Internet server.
19.Dial-up: It is a technique in which a phone line is used in order to connect to the
Internet.
20.Broadband: It is a wide bandwidth data transmission that transports multiple signals
and traffic types swiftly.
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:
•Peer-To-Peer network
•Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer Network
➢ Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
➢ Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
➢ Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
➢ Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
•It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
•If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working. The BitTorrent protocol: In this animation, the colored bars
beneath all of the 7 clients in the upper region above represent

•It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
the file being shared, with each color representing an individual
piece of the file. After the initial pieces transfer from
the seed (large system at the bottom), the pieces are
individually transferred from client to client. The original seeder
only needs to send out one copy of the file for all the clients to
receive a copy.

•In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system
. Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations.
•It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network
➢ Client/Server network is a network model designed for
the end users called clients, to access the resources such
as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as
Server.
➢ The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
➢ A server performs all the major operations such as
security and network management.
➢ A server is responsible for managing all the resources such
as files, directories, printer, etc.
➢ All the clients communicate with each other through a
server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1
to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data easily.
A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

➢ Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
➢ A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
➢ It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Topology defines the structure of the
network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical
and logical topology.
Physical topology is the geometric
representation of all the nodes in a
network.
Logical topology is a concept in
networking that defines the architecture
of the communication mechanism for all
nodes in a network.
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single
direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection
and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In
Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
 Figure: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are
connected to the channel via drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology:

➢ If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to connect
them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
➢ The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.

Limitation of Bus Topology:

➢ If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
➢ If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols are
used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
➢ Security is very low.
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a
single continuous pathway for signals through each node – a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each
node along the way handling every packet.

Figure : A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :
One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform
the operations.
1. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
2. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
3. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
➢ The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
➢ Cheap to install and expand.
Limitation of Ring Topology:
➢ Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
➢ The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
➢ Less secure.
A tree topology is a special type of structure in which many connected elements are
arranged like the branches of a tree. For example, tree topologies are frequently used to
organize the computers in a corporate network, or the information in a database.

In a tree topology, there can be only one connection between any two connected nodes.
Because any two nodes can have only one mutual connection, tree topologies form a
natural parent and child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree Topology :

➢ It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it

decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.
➢ It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
Limitation of Tree Topology:

➢ If the central hub gets fails, the entire system fails.

➢ The cost is high because of cabling.
Star topology is a network topology in which each network component is physically
connected to a central node such as a router, hub or switch. In a star topology, the
central hub acts like a server and the connecting nodes act like clients.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection),
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of this topology:
•If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
•Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of
ports required is N.
•It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
•Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

Limitation with Star topology:

•If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
•The cost of installation is high.
•Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A mesh network is a local area network topology in which the infrastructure nodes connect directly,
dynamically and non-hierarchically to as many other nodes as possible and cooperate with one another to
efficiently route data to and from clients.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links.
➢ Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with
each other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports
that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the
total number of ports required by each device is 4. Total
number of ports required=N*(N-1).
➢ Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each
other in a mesh topology, then the total number of
dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-
1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology:
1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Limitation of Mesh Topology:

1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.
A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a combination of two or more network topologies,
such as mesh topology, bus topology, and ring topology. Its usage and choice are dependent on its
deployments and requirements like the performance of the desired network, and the number of computers,
their location. The below figure is describing the structure of hybrid topology that contains more than one
topology.

Figure: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen, it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
•Very reliable and easy to detect the Faulty system.
•Troubleshooting is easy.
•It includes both wired and wireless network.
•It is an expandable network.

Limitations of Hybrid Topology

•Its design is difficult to understand.
•The cost of this network design is high, because of the requirement of a lot of cables,
cooling systems, etc.
•MAU ( Multi-station Access Unit) is required.
➢ Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
➢ The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
➢ It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
➢ In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
➢ In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
➢ In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is
considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
➢ The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
➢ The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium
and signal.
➢ Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
➢ Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
➢ The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical layer.
Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

➢ Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
➢ Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to
the transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of
the signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
➢ Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a
signal when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of
some unwanted signal.
Causes Of Transmission Impairment are

❑Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of
energy.
❑Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the
signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals having
different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
❑Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted
signal is added to it which creates the noise.
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place
to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:
Twisted Pair:
➢ Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
➢ A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
➢ Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
➢ The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
➢ A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.
➢ The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

➢ It is cheap.
➢ Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
➢ It can be used for high-speed LAN.
➢ Disadvantage:
➢ This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

➢ The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and
not very low.
➢ An installation of STP is easy.
➢ It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
➢ It has a higher attenuation.
➢ It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages:
➢ It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
➢ It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
➢ Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually
a coaxial cable.
➢ The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
➢ It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
➢ The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor
is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
➢ The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1.Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a
single signal at high speed.
2.Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

•The data can be transmitted at high speed.
•It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
•It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

•It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
•If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
 Fiber Optic
➢ Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
➢ Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
➢ The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
➢ Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:
Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:
➢ Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.
A core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the more
light will be transmitted into the fiber.

➢ Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause
the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.

➢ Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber
protection.
Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

➢ Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper. Therefore, the fiber optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
➢ Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fiber optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
➢ Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
➢ Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
➢ Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
➢ An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic
waves without using any physical medium. Therefore, it is
also known as wireless transmission.
➢ In unguided media, air is the media through which the
electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
➢ Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three
categories:
Radio Waves

➢ Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
➢ Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
➢ The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
➢ In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by
the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
➢ An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications of Radio Waves:
➢ A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
➢ An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages of Radio Transmission:

➢ Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
➢ Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
➢ Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves
Microwave is a form of electromagnetic
radiation with wavelengths ranging from
about one meter to one millimeter
corresponding to frequencies between 300
MHz and 300 GHz respectively.
Microwaves are of two types:
▪ Terrestrial microwave
▪ Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
✓ Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from
one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
✓ Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
✓ Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by
the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
✓ In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
✓ It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of
each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
▪ Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
▪ Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
▪ Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
▪ Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
▪ Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
▪ Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
▪ It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
▪ Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable
in terrain is quite a difficult task.
▪ Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission:
▪ Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch
the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
▪ Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
▪ Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition.
This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
▪ Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
▪ A satellite is a physical object that
revolves around the earth at a
known height.
▪ Satellite communication is more
reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fiber optic
systems.
▪ We can communicate with any point
on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal.
The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
▪ The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
▪ The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the
coverage area.
▪ Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
▪ It is easy to install.
▪ It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

▪ Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
▪ The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in
orbit.
▪ The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite
has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
Infrared
▪ An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
▪ The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
▪ It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV
remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed
area.
Characteristics of Infrared:

▪ It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
▪ Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room
cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
▪ An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
▪ Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6Uoku-M6oY
➢ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
➢ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
➢ OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
➢ OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
➢ Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Source: https://www.lifewire.com/layers-of-the-osi-model-illustrated-818017
The OSI model is divided into seven different layers, each of which fulfills a
very specific function. When combined, each function contributes to enables full
computer to computer data communication.
OSI Layer 1 – Physical
Layer 1 is anything that carries 1’s and 0’s between two nodes.
Actual format of the data on the “wire” can vary with each medium. In the case of
Ethernet, bits are transferred in the form of electric pulses. In the case of Wifi, bits are
transferred in the form of radio waves. In the case of Fiber, bits are transferred in the
form of pulses of light.
Aside from the physical cable, Repeaters and Hubs also operate at this layer.
OSI Layer 2 – Data Link
Layer 2 will then group together those 1’s and 0’s into chunks known as Frames.
➢ Data Link layer of the OSI model is responsible for interfacing with the Physical layer. Effectively, Layer 2 is
responsible for putting 1’s and 0’s on the wire and pulling 1’s and 0’s from the wire.

➢ There is an addressing system that exists at Layer 2 known as the Media Access Control address, or MAC
address.
➢ The MAC address uniquely identifies each individual NIC. Each NIC is pre-configured with a
MAC address by the manufacturer; in fact, it is sometimes referred to as the Burned In Address (BIA).
➢ Aside from your NIC, a Switch also operates at this layer. A Switch’s primary responsibility is to facilitate
communication within Networks.
➢ The overarching function of the Data Link layer is to deliver packets from one NIC to another osr to put it
another way, the role of Layer 2 is to deliver packets from hop to hop.
OSI Layer 3 – Network
Network Layer 3 of the OSI model is responsible for packet delivery from end to end.
➢ Routers are Network Devices that operate at Layer 3 of the OSI model.
➢ A Router’s primary responsibility is to facilitate communication between Networks.
➢ A Router creates a boundary between two networks. In order to communicate with any device not directly
in your network, a router must be used.

OSI Model – Layer 2 vs. Layer 3

➢ The interaction and distinction between Layer 2 and Layer 3 is crucial to understanding how data flows
between two computers. For example, if we already have a unique L2 addressing scheme on every NIC (like
MAC addresses), why do we need yet another addressing scheme at L3 (like IP addresses)? Or vice versa?
➢ The answer is that both addressing schemes accomplish different functions:
➢ Layer 2 uses MAC addresses and is responsible for packet delivery from hop to hop.
➢ Layer 3 uses IP addresses and is responsible for packet delivery from end to end.
 OSI Model – Layer 2 vs. Layer 3
➢ When a computer has data to send, it encapsulates it in a IP header which will include information like the
Source and Destination IP addresses of the two “ends” of the communication.
➢ The IP Header and Data are then further encapsulated in a MAC address header, which will include information
like the Source and Destination MAC address of the current “hop” in the path towards the destination.

➢ Notice between each Router, the MAC address header is stripped and regenerated to get it to the next hop.
➢ The IP header generated by the first computer is only stripped off by the final computer, hence the IP header
handled the “end to end” delivery, and each of the four different MAC headers involved in this animation handled
the “hop to hop” delivery.
OSI Layer 4 – Transport
Layer 4 accomplishes this by using an addressing scheme known as Port Numbers.
Layer 4 is responsible for service-to-service delivery.
➢ Transport layer of the OSI model is responsible for distinguishing network streams.
➢ At any given time on a user’s computer there might be an Internet browser open, while music is being streamed,
while a messenger or chat app is running.
➢ Each of these applications are sending and receiving data from the Internet, and all that data is arriving in the
form of 1’s and 0’s on to that computer’s NIC.
➢ Something must exist in order to distinguish which 1’s and 0’s belong to the messenger or the browser or the
streaming music. That “something” is Layer 4:
➢ Specifically, two methods of distinguishing network streams exist.
They are known as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or the
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
➢ Both TCP and UDP have 65,536 port numbers (each), and a unique
application stream is identified by both a Source and Destination port
(in combination with their Source and Destination IP address).
➢ TCP and UDP employ different strategies in how data streams are transferred, and their distinction and inner
workings are both fascinating and significant, but unfortunately, they are outside the scope of this article series.
They will be the topic of a future article or series.
➢ To summarize, if Layer 2 is responsible for hop-to-hop delivery, and Layer 3 is responsible for end-to-end delivery, it
can be said that Layer 4 is responsible for service-to-service delivery.
OSI Layer 5, 6, and 7- Session, Presentation, and Application layers
The Session, Presentation, and Application layers of the OSI model handle the final steps before the data
transferred through the network (layers 1-4) is displayed to the end user.
➢ From network engineering perspectives, the distinction between Layers 5, 6, and 7 is not particularly significant.
In fact, there is another popular Internet communication model known as the TCP/IP model, which groups these
three layers into one single encompassing layer.
➢ Many network engineers simply refer to these layers as L5-7 or L5+ or L7. For the remainder of this series, we
will do the same.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
➢ OSI Model is that of Encapsulation and Decapsulation. These terms refer to how data is moved through the
layers from top to bottom when sending and from bottom to top when receiving.
➢ As the data is handed from layer to layer, each layer adds the information it requires to accomplish its goal before
the complete datagram is converted to 1s and 0s and sent across the wire. For example:
➢ Layer 4 will add a TCP header which would include a Source and Destination port
➢ Layer 3 will add an IP header which would include a Source and Destination IP address
➢ Layer 2 would add an Ethernet header which would include a Source and Destination MAC address
OSI Layer 5, 6, and 7- Session, Presentation, and Application layers

➢ Note that this is only an example. The header that will be added will be dependent on the underlying
communication protocol. For instance, a UDP header might be added at Layer 4 instead, or an IPv6 header
might be added at Layer 3.
➢ Either way, it is important to understand that as data is sent across the wire, it gets passed down the stack
and each layer adds its own header to help it accomplish its goal. On the receiving end, the headers get
stripped off one at a time, layer by layer, as the data is sent back up to the Application layer.
Interaction between layers in OSI Model
TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific
computer should be connected to the internet and how
data should be transmitted between them. It helps you to
create a virtual network when multiple computer
networks are connected. The purpose of TCP/IP model is
to allow communication over large distances.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
TCP/IP Stack is specifically
designed as a model to offer highly
reliable and end-to-end byte stream
over an unreliable internetwork.
The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It
contains four layers, unlike seven
layers in the OSI model.

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
➢ Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture
➢ Adding more system to a network is easy.
➢ In TCP IP protocols suite, the network remains intact until the source, and destination machines were
functioning properly.
➢ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI Model.
➢ TCP is a reliable and connection-oriented protocol.
➢ TCP offers:
➢ Stream Data Transfer.
➢ Reliability.
➢ Efficient Flow Control
➢ Full-duplex operation.
➢ Multiplexing.
➢ TCP offers connection oriented end-to-end packet delivery.
➢ TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgement number that indicates to
the destination the next byte the source expect to receive.
➢ It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in specified time period.

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
TCP offers following services to the processes at the application layer:
➢ Stream Delivery Service
➢ Sending and Receiving Buffers
➢ Bytes and Segments
➢ Full Duplex Service
➢ Connection Oriented Service
➢ Reliable Service

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
➢ Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee of successfully
transmission of data.
➢ In order to make it reliable, it must be paired with reliable protocol such as TCP at the transport layer.
➢ Internet protocol transmits the data in form of a datagram as shown in the following diagram:

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html; https://gfycat.com/discover/internet-protocol-gifs

Fig. Four Conceptual Layers of TCP/IP
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327483011_A_Survey_of_Protocol-Level_Challenges_and_Solutions_for_Distributed_Energy_Resource_Cyber-
Physical_Security/figures?lo=1&utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic
Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
 OSI Model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization)
OSI model provides a clear distinction between interfaces,
services, and protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards and
protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach.
OSI layers have seven layers.
In the OSI model, the transport layer is only connection-oriented.
In the OSI model, the data link layer and physical are separate
layers.
Session and presentation layers are a part of the OSI model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes.
Source: https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html
TCP/IP Model
It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network).
TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing points between
services, interfaces, and protocols.
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
TCP/IP has four layers.
A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-oriented and
connectionless.
In TCP, physical and data link are both combined as a single host-
to-network layer.
There is no session and presentation layer in the TCP model.
It is defined before the advent of the internet.
The minimum header size is 20 bytes.
Some widely used most common TCP/IP protocol are:
1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol is an internet protocol suite which breaks up the message into TCP
Segments and reassembling them at the receiving side.
2. IP: An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical label. It is assigned to each
device that is connected to a computer network which uses the IP for communication. Its routing function
allows internetworking and essentially establishes the Internet. Combination of IP with a TCP allows
developing a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
3. HTTP: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a foundation of the World Wide Web. It is used for transferring
webpages and other such resources from the HTTP server or web server to the web client or the HTTP client.
Whenever you use a web browser like Google Chrome or Firefox, you are using a web client. It helps HTTP to
transfer web pages that you request from the remote servers.
4. SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol supports the e-mail is known as a simple
mail transfer protocol. This protocol helps you to send the data to another e-mail address.
5. SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which is used for managing
the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.
6. DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the connection of a host to the
internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use names instead of addresses for that DNS.
7. TELNET: TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local and remote
computer. It established connection in such a manner that you can simulate your local system at the remote
system.
8. FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for transmitting the files from
one machine to another. Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:
➢ It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of computers.
➢ It operates independently of the operating system.
➢ It supports many routing-protocols.
➢ It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
➢ TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
➢ It can be operated independently.
➢ Supports a number of routing protocols.
➢ It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:

➢ TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

➢ The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).
➢ In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
➢ Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
➢ It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html
1. The full form of TCP/IP model explained as Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
2. TCP supports flexible architecture
3. Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model.
4. Internet layer is a second layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a network layer.
5. Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on a source
system machine to a process on a destination system.
6. Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also called a network access
layer.
7. OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization) whereas TCP/IP model is developed by
ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
8. An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical label.
9. HTTP is a foundation of the World Wide Web.
10. SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol which supports the e-mail is known as a simple mail transfer
11. SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
12. DNS stands for Domain Name System.
13. TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local and remote computer
14. FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for transmitting the files from one
machine to another.
15. The biggest benefit of TCP/IP model is that it helps you to establish/set up a connection between different
types of computers.
16. TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage. Source: https://www.guru99.com/tcp-ip-model.html