HISTOLOGY (DR.

TSOTNE DADIANI)

RESEARCH PAPER

TITLE: CARTILAGES

AUTHOR-RAJA BASIL ADEEL (UG CODE:2103110)

INTRODUCTION

Cartilage is a strong connective tissue that is flexible and supports and protects the
bones and joints. It absorbs the shock throughout your body, at the end of the bone it
prevents the joints from rubbing against each other and thereby reduces friction. It is
made up of collagen and a proteoglycan-rich matrix and a single cell type, the
chondrocyte which produces large quantities of an extracellular matrix consisting of
collagen fibers, proteoglycan, and elastin fibers. Cartilage can withstand both tension
and compression because it contains tissue fluid, it consists primarily of water which
accounts for its resilience. It is Avascular which means it lacks both nerve cells and
blood vessels and cannot supply the chondrocytes and thereby receives its nutrients
through the diffusion of blood vessels in a nearby connective tissue membrane called
the perichondrium which is an irregular layer of dense connective tissue membrane
which overall surrounds the cartilage. The nutrients diffuse from capillaries that are
present in the perichondrium, it acts as a girdle to resist outward expansion. The
perichondrium is composed of chondroblasts, fibroblasts, and collagen type I fibers and
is especially important for the maintenance and growth of the cartilage as it contains the
vascular supply along with nerves and vessels.

There are three types of cartilage, and they all contain the same basic components,
chondrocytes enclosed in small cavities called lacunae within an extracellular matrix
they are:

 Hyaline Cartilage
 Elastic Cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
TYPES OF CARTILAGES

Hyaline Cartilage is the most abundant in all skeletal cartilage and it looks like frosted
glass in its fresh state when it is freshly exposed. It provides support with resilience and
flexibility and has spherical chondrocytes and only has fine collagen fibers in its matrix,
these collagens are arranged in a way so that they resist tensional forces. In the center
of the mass of the hyaline cartilage, it has large chondrocytes which are usually present
in groups of two or more and are formed by the cell division of one parent cell. It has a
dense matrix that functions to prevent the separation of the cells, so they are usually
found together. Groups of these cartilaginous cells collectively together are called an
isogenous cell group. Towards the edges of the cartilage, the cells are small and
elongated and lie parallel to the perichondrium and cannot be differentiated from
fibroblasts. Most of the Collagen present in Hyaline Cartilage is type II collagen

Hyaline Cartilage is present in:

 Articular Cartilage, which covers the ends of most bones at moving joints like the
articular surfaces of synovial joints is lined and covered by the hyaline cartilage.
This provides the bones with a smooth surface so there is less friction, and it
absorbs the shock that might occur. Articular cartilage is not covered by
perichondrium and the surface of it is always moist due to the presence of
synovial fluid which also provides nutrients to it.
 Costal Cartilage, which connects the ribs to the sternum
 Respiratory or Thyroid Cartilage, which forms the skeletal framework of the larynx
and reinforces other respiratory passageways
 Nasal Cartilage, Which Provides support to the external nose

Elastic Cartilage is very similar to hyaline cartilage but contains more stretchy elastic
fibers an abundant network of them and a meshwork of Type II collagen Fibrils in its
matrix making it more flexible than hyaline cartilage. It Is yellowish in color due to this. It
is the most flexible cartilage and supports the parts of the body that need to move or
bend to function as it can get deformed and bounce back into shape due to its elasticity
and the number of elastic fibers present. Chondrocytes of Elastic Cartilage are much
more abundant than in hyaline cartilage and are also larger. The chondrocytes are more
closely packed in elastic cartilage and appear more single as fewer isogenous groups
exist. Elastic Cartilage is also covered by the perichondrium, blood vessels and other
vessels of the perichondrium do not enter the interior of the cartilage, unlike other
cartilages elastic cartilage does not calcify with age. The elastic fibers can also be seen
when they are stained and they can be stained by hematoxylin and eosin, also by
aldehyde fuchsin stains, Wiegert’s stains, and orcein stains.

Elastic Cartilage is present in:

  External Ear, elastic cartilage provides strength and elasticity to the external ear
and allows it to come back into shape if deformed
 Epiglottis
 The walls of the auditory canal are also composed of elastic cartilage as it allows
structures to maintain their shape and lets them easily go back to their original
shape if deformed.

Fibrocartilage is a highly compressible cartilage with great tensile strength. It consists of

roughly parallel rows of chondrocytes that alternate with thick collagen fibers. It’s the
strongest and least flexible of the three cartilages as it's strong enough to hold your
body in place and absorb impacts or shocks. It is known also as white fibrocartilage
because of its appearance. It contains both fibroblasts and fibrocytes along with
chondrocytes. It appears like a dense fibrous tissue. It contains large quantities of type I
collagen, and this makes the matrix mainly acidophilic also because there are very less
proteoglycans present, the ground substance present between the fibers is basophilic in
nature and contains chondrocytes which are enclosed in lacunae. It does not contain
perichondrium and unlike hyaline cartilage does not undergo calcification with age. It
contains spherical chondrocytes and elongated fibrocytes

Fibrocartilage is present in:

 Pad-like Cartilages: Menisci of the knee

 Intervertebral Discs between the vertebrae which are very important for the
overall structure of the vertebral column because they stop the vertebra from
rubbing against each other and fibrocartilage helps to maintain and absorb any
shock that may occur providing great strength to it.

CHONDROCYTES

Chondrocytes are found in all three types of cartilage and the number of chondrocytes
present in each cartilage is the determining factor on how flexible or bendy the cartilage
is. They are enclosed in small cavities called lacunae and are very important cells as
they are the bone matrix maintaining cells and act as stress or strain sensors and
respond to mechanical stimuli. They communicate this information to cells that are
responsible for bone remodeling such as osteoblasts and osteoclasts on whether the
matrix should be made or degraded.
GROWTH OF CARTILAGE

Cartilage has a very flexible matrix that can accommodate mitosis and it can grow in two
ways:

 Appositional Growth, which means growth from the outside in which cartilage-
forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matric against the
already existing external face of cartilage tissue. This causes the cartilage to
expand and widen.
 Interstitial Growth, which means growth from the inside where lacunae bound
chondrocytes to divide and secrete new matrix which thereby expands the
cartilage from within.

Both these types of growth can be seen in the growing bones of both children and
teenagers before they become adults although the repair of cartilage is easier in
younger people it is slow because cartilage is avascular so it can’t repair itself easily.

CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

OSTEOARTHRITIS:

Osteoarthritis is a common type of arthritis and may only affect a single joint. It can be
triggered or activated by localized wearing and tearing that can result in painful
inflammation. Joint degeneration can be sped up by obesity, injury or infection, and
congenital defects. Cartilage normally degrades or wears as the body ages, so it is
possible to have some form of osteoarthritis after the age of 60 years. The common
symptoms of osteoarthritis are pain and swelling in the affected joint that can get worse
if you are active and a little better if you are resting and joint stiffness you can
experience pain after resting and if there is restricted movement of the joint.

In a Healthy Joint, the articular cartilage that coats the ends of the bone is compressible
and smooth. They are covered and lubricated by synovial fluid that allows them to move
past each other with little to no friction.

In Early Osteoarthritis, the articular cartilage becomes very rough and thin and has
fissures on its surface. Osteophytes or bone outgrowths form and the synovial lining
becomes swelled and inflamed thereby producing fluid in excess.

In Late Osteoarthritis, the articular cartilage and the underlying bone erode and crack.
The bones rub against each other, overgrow and thicken causing extreme pain lastly,
the joint capsule also becomes larger and thickens.
REFERENCES

 JUNQUEIRA'S BASIC HISTOLOGY TEXT AND ATLAS 15TH EDITION

 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 9TH EDITION
 THE CONCISE HUMAN BODY BOOK AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO ITS
STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND DISORDERS
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23173-cartilage
 https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Cartilage.aspx
 http://facultymembers.sbu.ac.ir/rajabi/ppt%20toPDF/Cartilage
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 https://www.news-medical.net/health/Cartilage-Diseases.aspx
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/elastic-
cartilage