EE2092 2 2011 Coupled Circuits Dependant Sources

Coupled Circuits
J. R. Lucas
Resonance
Resonance in sound.
At resonance
 maximum vibration (string) and hear the
 greatest sound (water column)
Same idea is present in electrical engineering.
Resonance basically occurs when a quantity,
such as voltage or current, becomes a maximum.
Maximum one quantity  minimum with another
Coupled Circuits – Professor J R Lucas 1 November 2010
So that resonance could occur at a minimum value of a
quantity as well.
For example, for a given source voltage, V

current would be maximum when I
Z
impedance of the circuit is a minimum.
In an a.c. circuit, Z  R  jX  R  X
2 2
would have a minimum value when X is zero

(Possible because inductive and capacitive reactances
have opposite signs).
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits – Professor J R Lucas 2 May 2011
When X is zero, the circuit is purely resistive and the
power factor of the circuit becomes unity.
Thus resonance is also defined in terms of the power
factor of a circuit becoming unity.
Three main methods of defining resonance condition:
(a) current through a circuit for a given source voltage
becomes a maximum:
 voltage across a circuit for a given source current
becomes a minimum,
 admittance of the circuit becomes a maximum, or
 impedance of the circuit becomes a minimum.
(b) voltage across a circuit for a given source current
becomes a maximum:
 current through a circuit for a given source voltage
becomes a minimum,
 impedance of the circuit becomes a maximum, or
 admittance of the circuit becomes a minimum.
and
(c) power factor of the circuit becomes Unity:
 when the impedance of the circuit is purely real,
 when the admittance of the circuit is purely real, or
 when the voltage and the current are in phase.
Condition (a) occurs in series circuits, and is usually
referred to as Series Resonance.
Condition (b) occurs in parallel circuits, and is usually
referred to as Parallel Resonance.
While series resonance and parallel resonance are exclusive
conditions, unity power factor condition could correspond
to either series resonance or parallel resonance.
In complicated circuits, the unity power factor condition
could also give displaced answers from the other two
conditions.
When does oscillations occur ?
What determines natural frequency of oscillations ?
Consider the simple pendulum.
Why does it oscillate ?
Because of stored energy in the system –
potential and kinetic energy.
During oscillations, energy transfers
between potential energy and kinetic energy.
Natural frequency of oscillations, depends
on the value of gravity, length and so on.
Friction in the medium would reduce the energy and cause the
pendulum to slow down and finally stop.
In an electric circuit,
Energy is stored in the
 electrostatic field in the capacitance
 electromagnetic field in the inductance.
Oscillations occur when the energy gets transferred
between these two forms.
Resistance would cause energy losses
 results decreasing magnitude of oscillations.
Series Resonance
Occurs in a circuit where the energy storage elements
are connected in series.
1
R jL
j C
At angular frequency of ,
1 1
Z = R + j L + = R+j ( L 
C
)
j C
Consider value of when | I | becomes a maximum for a
given V  | Z | becoming a minimum, or | V| becoming
a minimum for a given I.
1 2
magnitude of impedance = | Z |, | Z | = R + 2 2
( L  )
C
 L  1 /  C 
1
phase angle of Z,  = tan  
 R
Condition for maximum or minimum | Z | can either be
obtained by
 differentiation of | Z | or
 differentiation of even | Z | or
2
 inspection from physical considerations.

2
Since | Z | consists of the sum of two square terms, the
minimum value for any of components would be zero.
Since only the second term is dependant on , the
minimum value could occur when second term is zero.
1
i.e. for minimum value of | Z | ( L 
2 ) ,= 0 or
C
1 1
L or o 
C LC
This would also correspond to the minimum value of Z.
If the current were considered,
E E

| I | = R  j ( L  1 ) R  ( L 
2 1 2
) ,
C C
phase angle of I =  
|I|
Q
R0
high Q
low R
low Q
high R
o 
phase /2
anglelead Q
low Q R0
high R

lag high Q
low R
/2
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits – Professor J R Lucas
o
11 May 2011
Inductive Reactance
XL
XL+XC

Capacitive Reactance
XC
Now consider the frequency at which the power factor

of the circuit becomes unity.
Occurs when imaginary-part(impedance)  0
or imaginary-part(current)  0.
1
i.e. j ( L  ) = 0, or at  = o. (same as before).
C
Shape of curve is dependant on value of r of the circuit.
As r  0, perfect resonance occurs, I   at o
As r  0, angle of current with respect to voltage tends
to either /2 or /2, changing at o.
Series resistance r defines quality of the resonance.
If r is low, Ploss is low and hence the quality is high.
At resonance, low r means r << Lo and r << 1/Co.
Quality of a Circuit
In simplest terms, we could defined quality of the
circuit in terms of either ratio of Lo to r or 1/Co to r.
Lo 1
Quality = r  C r at resonance, for a series circuit
o
[For a parallel circuit, quality would actually increase

when value of resistance R   rather R  0, and
hence inverse ratio would define the quality]
A means of measuring quality of a resonant circuit has
been defined,
but which would appear to cause confusing results if the
series and parallel circuits are considered.
Quality Factor Q
 Necessary to have a unique definition
 In terms of quantities which do not vary with circuit.
Quality of resonance is a relationship
between
maximum energy stored in energy storing elements (L or C)
and
energy dissipation in resistive elements in the circuit.
For consistency with original definitions, Q factor has a
multiplying constant 2, in addition to ratio of energies.
total stored energy
Q = 2 
energy dissipation 15per cycle
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits – Professor J R Lucas May 2011
Determination of total stored energy
Consider the simple pendulum.
 maximum kinetic energy occurs at the
lowest point
 maximum potential energy occurs at the
highest point
 total stored energy does not change if
friction were absent.
It is easier to calculate either the
 maximum kinetic energy only at the lowest point, or the
 maximum potential energy only at the highest point,
rather than calculate both at any other point.
Total stored energy in Electrical Circuit
 maximum energy stored in the electromagnetic field
occurs in the inductor when current is a maximum,
 maximum energy stored in the electrostatic field
occurs in the capacitor when voltage is a maximum.
Total energy does not change unless dissipated by the
resistive elements in the circuit.
For calculation purposes, energy stored at either the
peak current or the peak voltage is considered.
For a series circuit, it is easier to consider the current
through the inductance rather than the voltage across
the capacitor.
Verification of Energy based and Impedance based formulae
Necessary to verify whether energy based formula for Q
is compatible with the impedance based formula for Q.
For the series circuit, for a current of i(t) = Im sin t
2
Maximum energy stored in inductor = ½ L Im
2
Energy dissipated per cycle in series resistor = r Irms T,
where T = 2
 Q-factor for series circuit would be given by
1 2
2 LI m
1 2
2 LI m L
Q =  2 . 
r ( I m / 2 )  2 /
2 2
rI rmsT r
which is the expected result.
Similar verification can be done for parallel circuit.
Relationship between Q-factor and bandwidth
In a resonance curve, Pmax I
occurs at Imax (or Vmax) at Im
resonance frequency (o). I m
Since P  I (or V ), half
2 2
2
power occurs when I (or V)
magnitude decreases by a
factor of 2. 0 ½ o ½
Points (½ and ½) on the
resonance curve where half power occurs are known as
half power points.
Frequency range between the half power points is
defined as the bandwidth of the resonance curve.
  o
Fractional deviation of frequency from resonance  = 
o
For a series resonant circuit, we have the condition

E E
|I|=  ,
1 1 2
R  j ( L  ) R  ( L 
2
)
C C
L o 1 o 
1
Q 
and R C o R , LC
E 1
 .
Lo  R 2    2
     o 
 Lo    20 o 
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits – Professor J R Lucas May 2011
so that | I |
E 1
 .
L o 1
 1    2  2
 2    o  
 Q  o   
E
 1
 1        2  2
L o  2   o
 o  
 Q   o  
 
near resonance, if the Q factor is high (as usually is),

  o   o
 o and 2 , =
 o 
| I | = E

E
 
1 1
 1 2
2 R 1  4Q 2 2 2
Lo  2  4 
Q 
E
| I | is a maximum when = 0, giving |Imax| = ,
R
at the half power points,. P  12 Pmax , I  12 I max
I max 1 E E

i.e. i½ = = =
 
1
2 R
2 R 1  4Q 2 1 2 2
2
i.e. 1 + 4 Q ½ = 2, giving 2 2
4 Q ½ = 1
2 2

1 1
 ½ = + 2Q , ½ =  2Q

 Bandwidth = (½  ½) = (½  ½)
o
= ½  ½  =
Q
 R
resonance frequency
 Q-factor = bandwidth
[This same definition can be shown to be

jL
true for parallel resonance as well]
Parallel Resonance
1
Resonance, Mutual Inductance & coupled circuits – Professor J R Lucas 23 j C
May 2011
Parallel resonance occurs in a circuit where
the different energy storage elements are
connected in parallel.
At an angular frequency of ,
1 1 1 1
 j ( C  )
Y= R + j L + j C = R L
1 1 2
2  ( C  )
magnitude of admittance = | Y |, | Y | = R 2
L
parallel resonance is seen to occur when imaginary part is zero.
1
i.e.  L =  C
Also corresponds to unity power factor.
In practical circuits, series resonance and parallel
resonance can occur in different parts of same circuit.
The unity power factor resonance may correspond to
one of these.
Example 1
Find the types of resonance L2
and resonance frequencies R L1
of the circuit shown. C
Solution j L2 
1
j C j L2
Z = R + jL1 + 1 = R + jL1 + 1   2 L2C
j L2 
j C
Consider each type of resonance condition in turn
(a) when the power factor is unity
equivalent impedance is purely real.
 L2
Therefore L1 + =0
1   L2C
2
L1  L2 1
i.e. L1 + L2 -  L1L2C = 0, 2
or  
2

L1 L2C Leq C
,
L1 L2
where Leq = L  L
1 2
It is seen that the equivalent inductance is L1// L1.

Thus unity power factor resonance frequency
1
corresponds to  = Leq C
(b) when the impedance of the circuit is a minimum
Examination shows that this also corresponds to a
minimum value of impedance or series resonance.
This need not be the case for all examples.
(c) when the impedance of the circuit is a maximum

2
  L2 
| Z | = R +  L1 
2 2

 1   L2C 
2

Z will have a maximum value of  at (1 -  L2 C) = 0
1
resonant frequency for parallel resonance =
L2C
Example 2 L R
Find the unity power factor resonance
frequency of circuit. C
Also determine the parallel resonance frequency

if R = 20 , L = 10 mH, and C = 4 F.
Solution
1
( R  j L) 
j C R  j L
Z = =
1 (1   2 LC )  j CR
R  j L 
j C
for unity power factor resonance, impedance Z is purely real.
L R

 (1   LC)  CR , i.e. C R = L (1 -  L C)
2 2 2
L  CR 2
L  CR 2
 = 2
, or  = L2 C L2 C
Unity power factor resonance

= 10 103  4 106  400

6 6
 4582.6 rad / s  729.3 Hz
100 10  4 10
Now consider the magnitude of the impedance
2 R  L
2 2 2
|Z| =
(1   LC )   C R
2 2 2 2 2
2
for maximum value of | Z |, | Z | must be a maximum.
2
d|Z |
i.e. = [(1- LC) +  C R ].2L
2 2 2 2 2 2
d
– (R +  L )[2(1- LC).( 2LC) + 2C R ] = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
i.e. (1- LC) L +  C L R + 2R LC(1- LC)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ 2 L LC(1- LC) – (R +  L )C R =0

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 L C +  [-2L C + C L R - 2R L C +2 L C
4 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
– L C R ] +L + 2R LC - C R = 0
substituting values for the components
-0.1610  – 1.2810  + 1.294410 = 0
-18 4 -12 2 -4
  810  – 0.809010 = 0
4 6 2 15

This quadratic equation in  can be solved as follows
 = 410  (1610 + 0.809010 )
2 6 12 15
= 410  28.72310 = 26.72310

6 6 6
rad/s = 791.4 Hz
It can be seen that this resonance frequency is close but
not the same as the earlier result of 729.3 Hz.
Loci Diagrams for RL and RC circuits
(a) Series RL circuit I R L
For a constant voltage V at constant
frequency  applied, V, 
If resistance R of the circuit varies,
VR + VL = V = a constant.
V = (R + j L) .I = (R + j X) .I  VL
If V is taken as reference, the I
current I would lag the voltage by VR
P
a phase angle .
VR is in phase with I and VL would be quadrature
o
leading I (or current I lagging the voltage VL by 90 ).
Since VR and VL must be mutually perpendicular, when
R varies, point P must move along a semi-circle.
This semi-circle is the locus of point P as R is varied.
Consider the variation of I as R varies P
VL
and X is kept fixed.
VR
V = V L + VR .

VL is first drawn perpendicular to I
o I
(such that current lags voltage by 90 ).
The locus of the point P will again be
a semi-circle.
Since X is fixed, there will be a definite proportion
between length of phasor I and length of phase VL.
o
Also, I is always lagging the voltage VL by 90 .
Thus the locus of I must also be a semi-circle lagging
o
the semi-circle for voltage VL by 90 as shown.
(b) Series RL circuit with inductance L having a finite
resistance r
I R r L
In practical inductances winding
resistance r may not be negligible.
VX
VX would have two components V, 
corresponding to inductive and
resistive components respectively.
The locus of the node between
the resistor and the inductor is VX VL
no longer a semi-circle. I VR
However, for total resistance PV
r
R + r the locus of that point
with the pure inductance part remains a semi-circle.
If X is variable, then ratio of VR to Vr remains a
constant and value of the internal resistance of the coil
can be determined.
(c) Series RC circuit
Series RC circuit analysed in a similar
manner to series RL circuit.
However current would be leading I
instead of lagging the voltage. 
VR
Unlike in the practical inductor, the
practical capacitor does not have
significant losses. VC
P
Thus the practical locus diagram is

same as the theoretical diagram.
(d) Parallel RL and RC Circuits
Loci diagrams of parallel RL and RC circuits is obtained in
a manner similar to obtaining that for the series circuits.
Mutual Inductance
Mutual coupling between coils exist, when one coil is in
the magnetic field created by another coil.
Lp Ls
p m
ip
M is
ep es
When a varying current ip(t) flows in the primary

winding, then a varying flux p is produced in the same
coil and produces a back emf ep(t).
Part of the flux produced m can link with a second coil.
Since this flux will also be varying, an induced emf es
will be produced in the second coil.
dp d m
ep = Np dt , es = Ns d t , m = k . p
k – coefficient of coupling
mutual flux m  primary flux p
k < 1, k  1 (slightly less but very close to unity).
In the linear region of the magnetisation characteristic,
flux produced p  current ip producing the flux.
Also, mutual flux m  current ip.
Thus, induced emf es  rate of change of current ip.
The constant of proportionality is defined as the Mutual
inductance Msp.
d ip d ip N s m kN s p
es   M sp M sp  
i.e. dt d t , where ip ip
Thus the (coefficient of) Mutual inductance is defined
as the flux linkage produced in a secondary winding per
unit current in the primary winding.
The sign associated with the mutual inductance can be
positive or negative dependent on the relative directions
of the two windings.
Direction of voltage induced in second coil will depend
on the relative direction of winding of the two coils.
Flux p in a coil is related to the l
current ip producing the flux N
p
through the self inductance of coil Ns
A
Lp and may be expressed in terms
of the dimensions of the magnetic
path (length l and cross-section A) as follows.
N p p N p Bp A N p H p A
 
i.e. Lp = ip ip ip , but Np ip = Hp l
N p  N pi p A N A2

p
 Lp = ip  l l
The mutual inductance may be similarly derived in
terms of the dimensions.
k sp N s p k sp N s B p A k sp N p  H p A
 
Msp = ip ip ip
k sp N s  N p i p A k sp N p N s  A

= ip  l l
k ps N s N p  A
similarly, Mps = l
Coupling between the primary and the secondary, for all
practical purposes, will be identical to the coupling
between the secondary and the primary, so that kps = ksp.
Thus it can be seen that for all practical purposes, Mps is
identical to Msp, and would usually be denoted by a
single quantity M and a single coefficient k.
kNs N p  A
M = ,
l
N A 2
p N A
2
s
Lp = , Ls =
l l
2 2 L p Ls
giving M = k Lp Ls or M=k
Energy stored in a pair of mutually coupled coils
1 2
Inductor stores energy in electromagnetic field = 2 LI .
When mutual coupling is present, total energy stored by
two coils is different from addition of 12 LI 2 terms.
Difference is the effective energy ip M is
stored in the mutual inductance. V
p
Lp V
Ls s
Total energy stored
=  vp ip dt +  vs is dt
d ip d is d is d ip
 (Lp M ).i p dt   ( Ls M ).is dt
= dt dt dt dt
=  Lp ip dip   M ip dis +  Ls is dis   M is dip
This may be grouped to give
Total energy stored
=  Lp ip dip +  Ls is dis   M ip dis   M is dip
L p i p  Ls is  M i p is
1 2 1 2
= 2 2
Therefore the effective energy stored in the mutual

inductance corresponds to  M ip is .
Equivalent inductance of 2 mutually coupled coils in series
i i L2
L1 L2 L1
Coils can either be connected in series so that

fluxes aid each other, or fluxes oppose each other.
Since each current is i,
Total energy stored =

1
2 L1i  L2 i  M i.i or
2 1
2
2
=
1
2 L1i  L2 i  M i.i
2 1
2
2
If a single equivalent inductor Leq is considered,
1 2
total energy stored = 2 Leq i .
Thus equating the energies
2
= 2 L1i  2 L2 i  M i.i or 2 L1i  2 L2 i  M i.i
1
L
2 eq i 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
i.e. Leq = L1 + L2 + 2 M or L1 + L2  2 M
The effective inductance can either increase or decrease
due to mutual coupling dependant on whether the coils
are wound in the same direction or not.
Example 3
Consider a couple of coils connected in series as shown.
Let each coil have N turns, I1 I2
then total series connected
coil has 2N turns. L1 L2
If the dimensions of the common magnetic circuit on
which these are wound have area A and length l
N A 2
L1 = L2 = l ,
(2 N )  A 4 N  A 2 2

and total coil L = l l .
L1 + L2 is obviously not equal to this total.
What went wrong ?
If the two coils are wound on the same magnetic circuit,
very closely, then there would be mutual coupling with
the coefficient of coupling almost unity.
N 2 A N 2 A N 2 A
L L s  1 
 
Then, M = k p
l l l
Thus the total inductance would be
4N  A 2
L1 + L2 + 2 M = l as expected.
Magnetic circuit Analysis
When a coil is wound round a magnetic core,
the core becomes magnetised
 one side becomes a north pole, and
 other side becomes a south pole.
There are different methods of remembering which side
is which.
One of the simplest methods to remember is
When we look at a coil from one side,
 if current direction is anti-clockwise, nearer side is a
north pole (also seen from arrow direction of “N”);
 if current direction is clockwise, nearer side is a
south pole (also seen from arrow direction of “S”).
left hand side right hand side
A B
Consider coil A and coil B,
we can easily visualise that they are both wound in the
same direction.
i.e. if we examine the coil from the left hand side when
a current is entering the left hand side end of the coil,
each coil would produce a north pole at the left hand
side and a south pole at the right hand side.
left hand side right hand side A

A B B
With a slightly differently drawn diagram it would be

less obvious.
Further if the magnetic circuit was not a straight line,
confusion could tend to enter the decision.
A method would be to open out the bent path to make it
a straight line and then compare directions.
Each time we analyse a magnetic circuit, we would
need to look at the relative directions of the two coils.
However, once wound, the relative directions of the
coils would not change, independent of how we look at
the coils.
Thus we can use a simpler method to know the relative
directions of the coils. For this purpose we use dots to
denote similar ends of different coils.
Dot Notation
Relative directions of coils is important in determining
direction of induced voltage with mutual coupling.
Consider the following magnetic circuits, and the
corresponding electrical circuit with polarities defined
by the dotted ends.
A B
A B A B
Note that there are two possible ways of drawing the
dotted ends, but both give the same relationship to each
other.
The dots do not indicate that one end is a north pole or a
south pole, as this would depend on which direction the
current passes in the coil.
Dots indicate similar ends, in that if a changing flux
passes in magnetic core, then induced voltages would
either all correspond to direction of dot or all to
opposite direction.
Thus they indicate similar ends of windings only.
Consider the same core as before, but with the coil B
wound in the opposite direction.
P Q R S
A B
P Q R S
A B
A B
The position of the dots again indicate the different
winding directions.
Once the dots are drawn to indicate similar ends, unlike
in the magnetic circuit, there is no real necessity to
physically place the winding diagram in the same
physical position. Thus the following diagrams would
be identical. R
P Q R S P Q
S
Thus it is seen that once the dots have been marked to
identify similar ends, the physical positions have no
meaning and we can draw them where it is convenient.
Let us now see how, once the dots have been marked, in
an electrical circuit the correct directions of the induced
voltage scan be obtained.
V1 V2 V1 V2
I1 A I2 B
I1 A I2 B
If a single coil is considered, the induced voltage would

always be opposite to the direction of current flow in
that winding.
The voltages V1 and V2 have been drawn as such in the
above diagrams.
Let us now see what would happen due to each
individual current.
Since each winding is wound in the same direction, the
current I1 would induce voltages in A and B in the same
sense.
Also if the current I2 is marked as shown, then it too
would induce voltages in A and B in the same sense,
and also in the same sense as due to the current I1.
The fluxes and the corresponding induced emfs are thus
additive as the coils are wound in the same direction.
This is also shown by the non magnetic equivalent
circuit.
In other words, the voltage drop due to the self
inductance term and the voltage drop due to the mutual
inductance term have the same sign.
Consider what would happen if direction of current I2 is
changed without changing any physical considerations.
V1 V2 V1 V2
I1 I2
A B
A B
I1 I2
Obviously, the direction of the voltage V2 due to this

current I2 on its own winding will change in direction.
However, the induced voltage due to the current I1 will
have the same direction for both coils, as the physical
directions of the two coils are still the same as before.
Thus it is seen that the voltage drop due to the self
inductance term and the voltage drop due to the mutual
inductance term have opposite signs.
Let us see what would happen if the direction of one of
the coils were changed but with the currents entering
each winding at the left hand end of the winding.
V1 I2 V2 V1 V2
I1 A I2 B
I1 A B
If the direction of one of the windings is changed, the
mutual induced voltage will change in direction relative
to the self inductance term.
Thus again the voltage drop due to the self inductance
term and the voltage drop due to the mutual inductance
term have opposite signs.
The final possibility is if both the direction of the
winding and the current direction are changed.
V1 I2 V2 V1 V2
I1 I2
I1 A B
A B
It will easily be seen that the voltage drop due to the self
inductance terms and that due to the mutual inductance
term must have the same sign.
The above derivations were done primarily based on the
magnetic circuits appearing in the above 4 cases.
Let us now see what has happens with the electrical
circuits.
The summary of the 4 cases are shown.
V1 V2
mutual term has
I1 I2 same sign self inductance term
A B
V1 V2 mutual term has
opposite sign to self inductance
I1 I2 term
A B
V1 V2
mutual term has
I1 I2
opposite sign to self inductance
A B term
V1 V2
mutual term has
I1 I2 same sign self inductance term
A B
It is seen that in cases 1 and 4, the mutual inductance
term has the same sign, while in cases 2 and 3 the
mutual inductance term has opposite sign to the self
inductance term.
Let us see what properties actually cause the above
situation.
It is seen that in both cases 1 and 4, the currents marked
enter the coil at the dotted end, while in both cases 2
and 3, one current enters at a dotted end, while the other
current leaves at the dotted end.
The above results can be stated in the following manner.
 If both currents either enter at dotted end, or both
currents leave at dotted end, the sign associated with
mutual inductance is positive, and mutual inductance
term in voltage drop would have the same sign as the
self inductance term.
 If one current enters at a dotted end and the other
current leaves at dotted end, sign associated with
mutual inductance is negative, and the mutual
inductance term in the voltage drop would have the
opposite sign to the self inductance term.
Example 4
For circuit shown, write down voltage drop across AB.
e(t)
R L1
A i1 B
M
L2 i2
VAB = R. i1 – e(t) + (L p i1 + M p i2)

where p = d/dt
VBA =  R. i1 + e(t)  (L p i1 + M p i2)
Since both currents enter at respective dotted ends, mutual
inductance term and self inductance term have same sign.
True even if voltage is measured in opposite direction.
Usually advisable to treat the self inductance terms and
the mutual inductance terms together within parenthesis
to avoid wrong negation.
With steady state a.c. analysis, the input quantities are
sinusoidal with frequency , so the differential would
give a multiplication of  and a phase shift of 
Thus p = j would give the required equations.
The impedance due to mutual inductance for a.c. would
in general be  j
Non-coupled Equivalent circuit of simple coupled circuits
When mutual coupling is present,
voltage drops in a particular branch depends on
 currents in that branch
 currents in other branch with which coupling exists
Series and parallel equivalents of branch circuits containing
mutual coupling cannot be easily implemented.
 can sometimes be avoided by obtaining a non-
coupled equivalent circuit.
(a) coupled coils being on two arms of a T-junction
Consider pair of mutually i1 L1 M L2 i2
coupled coils on two arms
i1 i2
of a T-junction. P Q
R
By marking currents i1 and i2
flowing in them, and a current (i1 – i2) flowing in the
common branch, Kirchoff‟s current law has been applied.
Applying Kirchoff‟s voltage law between PR, and RQ,
d i1 d i2
L1 M
VPR = dt dt = L1 p i1 – M p i2
or VPR = jL1 i1 – jM i2 with sinusoidal current
Current i1 leaves dotted end of L1, while the current i2
enters dotted end of L2,
 sign associated with the mutual inductance is negative,
 voltage drop term due to mutual inductance has opposite
sign to that due to self inductance term
and VRQ = L2 p i2 – M p i1
If a non-coupled equivalent i1 LA LB i2
circuit is to be obtained,
P i1 i2 Q
voltage drops in a branch
should only correspond to Lm
currents in it own branch.
R
Re-write the 2 equations as follows to achieve this.
VPR = L1 p i1 - M p i2 – M p i1 + M p i1,
i.e. VPR = (L1 – M) p i1 + M p (i1 – i2)
similarly
VRQ = (L2 – M) p i2 + M p (i1 – i2)
These two equations would be satisfied with
LA = L1 – M, LB = L2 – M, and Lm = M
This transformation will be valid, independent of what
directions marked for currents in the diagrams.
[Compare with: Expression for parallel equivalent of two
resistors is independent of original markings of the current
directions when proving.]
L1 M L2 L1- M L2 - M
 M
Note that L – M appears when the two coils are

opposing each other.
In this case the common branch has an added +M
appearing on it.
In like manner, if the two dots were at the further ends,
the equations would be unchanged and the equivalent
circuit would also be unchanged.
M L1- M L2 - M
L1 L2

M
If position of one of the dots is changed, then the two

coils would be aiding each other, and the terms can be
shown to correspond to L+M with a common term of –M.
M L1+ M L2 + M
L1 L2

M
Example 5
Write down the non-coupled equivalent circuit for the
coupled circuit shown.
R1 L1 R
P 2
M
E C L2
Solution R1 L1 P R2
To get correct sign in non- M
coupled equivalent circuit, E C L2
consider imaginary current
to flow through coil 1 and coil 2, forgetting other elements.
It is seen that they are opposing.
[You will notice that the two coils do not exactly meet at a
common node, but that the node P would have that property if
the positions of R2 and L2 were interchanged.]
Since they are series elements, the voltage drop equation
would not change even if the order were changed.
[However, intermediate point of connection between these
elements would have a different voltage from earlier, as the
drops are occurring in a different order.]
The non-coupled equivalent circuit may thus be drawn
R1 L1-M R2
M
E L2-M
C
This circuit no longer has mutual coupled elements, but
the elements have taken into account the affects of
mutual inductance.
Thus the problem may be solved as for any alternating
current problems.
Transformer as a pair of mutually coupled coils
Transformer is a pair of mutually coupled coils.
From Kirchoff‟s voltage law ip M is
Vp = Lp p ip – M p is Vp Vs
Lp Ls
and Vs = – (Ls p is – M p ip)
For near ideal transformers
|Vp| : |Vs|  a a:1
|ip| : |is|  1/a

Thus
Vp and aVs are comparable quantities
ip and is/a are comparable quantities.
is ip is/a
Using these comparable variables
ip-is/a
Vp = Lp p ip – aM p is/a Vp aVs Vs
2
and aVs = – (a Ls p is/a – aM p ip)
If ip and is/a are unequal, a:1
Leakage current = ip – is/a
re-formulated in terms of this leakage current as
Vp = Lp p ip – aM p is/a + aM p ip – aM p ip
= (Lp – aM) p ip + aM p .(ip – is/a)
2
and aVs = – (a Ls p is/a – aM p ip) + aM p is/a – aM p is/a
M
2
= – a (Ls – a ) p is/a + aM p.(ip – is/a)
Note that the equations are expressed either in terms of
ip and ip – is/a or in terms of is/a and ip – is/a.
Allows a non-coupled equivalent circuit to be formed
Lp- aM 2
a (Ls – M/a) ip lp a2ls is/a is
Vp is/a aVs Vp
ip
aM  Lm
aVs Vs
ip-is/a ip-is/a
a:1
May also be drawn with ideal transformer added so that
secondary quantities would remain unmodified on that side.
L p Ls 2
Also, M = k , Lp/Ls = a
Lp
Lp
so that M = k a2
giving aM = k Lp, Lp–aM = (1–k) Lp,
2 2
a (Ls – M/a) = a (1–k) Ls
Since k is the coefficient of coupling,
(1–k) corresponds to the leakage.
(1–k)Lp and (1–k)Ls correspond to leakage inductances
lp and ls of primary and secondary windings.
Shunt inductance aM corresponds to the magnetisation
inductance Lm of the transformer.
The transformer equivalent circuit is normally drawn
with these variables rather than the self and mutual
inductances.
Practical Transformer
In addition has
 resistances rp and rs in primary and secondary windings
 has losses (eddy current loss and hysteresis) in the transformer core
based on magnetic flux in core (or on corresponding voltage across
windings).
rp , rs are included in primary and secondary sides (rs drawn as a2 rs).
Core loss is represented by a shunt resistance Rc across the
magnetisation inductance.
2
ip lp rp a ls2
a rs is/a is
Vp
aVs Vs
Lm Rc
ip-is/a
a:1
Dependent Sources
Passive Circuit Elements
Most basic elements – R, L and C.
Do not generate any electricity.
Either consume energy
 in Resistive elements
 convert from electrical form to non-electrical form
 produce heat, light etc
or store energy
 in Capacitive or Inductive elements
 in electrostatic and electromagnetic fields.
Active Circuit Elements (Sources)
 Circuit component capable of producing energy.
Categorised into
 voltage sources and current sources.
 independent sources (generated voltage or current does
not depend on any other circuit voltage or current)
 dependent sources (generated voltage or current
depends on another circuit voltage or current).
Independent source
Terminal voltage (or current)
depends only on the loading
and
internal source quantity,
but not on any other circuit variable.
Symbol for Independent source
Independent Voltage and Current Sources
e(t) e(t)
Z(p)
i(t) i(t)
v(t) v(t)
Figure 5(a) – Ideal voltage source Figure 5(b) – Practical voltage source
v(t) = e(t) for all i(t) v(t) = e(t) – Z(p).i(t)
I(t)
I(t)
i(t)
i(t)
v(t) Y(p)
v(t)
Figure 6(a) – Ideal current source Figure 6(b) – Practical current source
i(t) = I(t) for all v(t) i(t) = I(t) – Y(p).v(t)
Dependent Source
Symbol for Dependent source

A dependent voltage source (or current source)
would have its terminal voltage (or current)
depend on
another circuit quantity
such as a voltage or current.
Four possibilities exist.
Vo Io
+ – + –
Vo Io
Figure 7 – Dependent sources

o Voltage dependent (controlled) voltage source
o Current dependent (controlled) voltage source
o Voltage dependent (controlled) current source
o Current dependent (controlled) current source
Example 1
Determine the current I and Vo.
Answer
+ –
Kirchoff‟s voltage law, gives I
7.5 = 4 I + 4 Vo + 5 – Vo 4 4V
o +
From Ohm‟s law 5V
+ –
1.I = – Vo –
7.5V
1
By substitution,
+ –
I = 2.5 A Vo
Vo = – 2.5 V Figure 8 – Circuit for example 1
Example 2
Determine I and Vo.
Answer 5
Kirchoff‟s voltage law, gives
6 = 5 (I – 0.8 Vo) – 4 – Vo
I 0.8Vo
From Ohm‟s law –
+
6V 4V
1.I = – Vo – 1 +
By substitution, + –
Vo
I = 1.0 A
Figure 9 – Circuit for example 2
Vo = – 1 V
Example 3
Determine the current I.
Answer
Kirchoff‟s voltage law, gives I
I R1
E = R1 I + R2 (1+) I
+
From Ohm‟s law
+
Ro I = – Vo E R2 Ro Vo
–
By solution of equations –
E
I Figure 10 – Circuit for example 3
R1  R2 (1   )
 Ro E
Vo  
R1  R2 (1   )
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
 an active circuit element
 behaves as a voltage-controlled voltage source,
 very versatile
 can be used to add, subtract, multiply, divide,
amplify, integrate and differentiate signals.
A practical Op Amp,
available in Integrated circuit (IC) packages
would have inputs and outputs as shown in figure 11.
+
V
Inverting Input –
Output
Non-inverting Input +

V Null
Figure 11 – Circuit connections of Op Amp
+ –
Output voltage is limited to the linear range V to V .
Ouside these limits, Op Amp is said to be saturated.
„Null‟ determines the offset.
–
Rout Vout
Vd Rin
+ AV
– d
+
Figure 12 – Equivalent Circuit of Op Amp
Vd – Voltage difference of input terminals + and –
A – Gain of Op Amp
Rin – Input resistance of Op Amp
Rout – Output resistance of Op Amp
Vout linearly proportional to Vd with open-loop gain A.
Op Amp has a dependent voltage source AVd.
Parameter Symbol Ideal Typical

Open-loop gain A  5
10 to 10 8
Input Resistance Rin  10 to 10 

6 13
Output Resistance Rout 0 10 to 100 

+ –
Supply Voltage V ,V 5 to 24 V
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier circuit is shown in figure 13.
R2
+
R1 V
–
Vin +
V  Vout
Figure 13 – Circuit of Inverting Amplifier

In an inverting amplifier output voltage decreases when
input voltage increases and vice versa.
Vin  Vd Vd Vd  Vout
i  
R1 Rin R2
R2
Vd  Vout Vout  AV d
 R1
R2 Rout i –
Rout
Figure 14 shows equivalent Vd Rin
+
circuit of inverting amplifier. + – – A Vd Vout
If Rout = 0, and Rin = ,

Vout = – A Vd Figure14 – Equivalent Circuit
AVin  AVd AVd  A Vd 2

R1 R2
AVin Vout  AVout Vout
  
giving R1 R2 R1
Vout AR2

Thus Vin (1  A) R1  R2
If A   as for an ideal Op Amp,
Vout
Vout

R2
Vd   0
Gain = Vin R1 , A
Thus Vd is taken as virtual earth, when analyzing.
Non-inverting Amplifier
Input voltage is applied
V+
directly to non-inverting (+) Vin
input and a small part of – Vout
output voltage is applied to +
the inverting (–) input from
V
the R1 R2 potential divider.
For an ideal Op Amp, R2
with Rout = 0, Rin = 
R
1
and A = 
Figure 15 – Non-inverting Amplifier
R1  R2
Gain = R1
Summing Amplifier
With 2 inputs, Summing
R2
amplifier is obtained.
R1A
With R1A = R1B VinA V
+
R2 R1B –
Vout   (VinA  VinB ) VinB
R1 +
Vout
If R1A  R1B V

VinA VinB
Vout   R2 (  ) Figure 16 – Summing Amplifier
R1 A R1B
Differential Amplifier
R2
 Inputs are connected to
both inverting or non- IA R1A V+
inverting terminals VinA –

R Vd
 Resultant output based VinB B I 1B
+
on difference between  Vout
R3 V
V1A and V1B
For ideal Op Amp, Figure 17 – Differential Amplifier
Rin = , Rout = 0, and A = .

Vout V
A  Vd  out  0
Vd giving 
VinA  V V  Vout VinB  V V
IA   IB  
R1 A R2 , R1B R3
R3
V VinB
This gives R1B  R3
Vout  1 1  VinA
 V    
Substitution gives R2  R1 A R2  R A
 R1 A  R2  R3  R2
Vout    VinB  VinA
 R1 A  R1B  R3  R1 A
When R1A = R1B = R1 and R3 = R2,
R2
Vout  VinB  VinA 
R1

EE2092 2 2011 Coupled Circuits Dependant Sources

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EE2092 2 2011 Coupled Circuits Dependant Sources

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Coupled Circuits

For example, for a given source voltage, V

would have a minimum value when X is zero

 inspection from physical considerations.

Now consider the frequency at which the power factor

[For a parallel circuit, quality would actually increase

For a series resonant circuit, we have the condition

[This same definition can be shown to be

It is seen that the equivalent inductance is L1// L1.

(c) when the impedance of the circuit is a maximum

Also determine the parallel resonance frequency

= 10 103  4 106  400

i.e. (1- LC) L +  C L R + 2R LC(1- LC)

+ 2 L LC(1- LC) – (R +  L )C R =0

= 410  28.72310 = 26.72310

Thus the practical locus diagram is

When a varying current ip(t) flows in the primary

Therefore the effective energy stored in the mutual

Coils can either be connected in series so that

Total energy stored =

left hand side right hand side A

With a slightly differently drawn diagram it would be

If a single coil is considered, the induced voltage would

Obviously, the direction of the voltage V2 due to this

VAB = R. i1 – e(t) + (L p i1 + M p i2)

Note that L – M appears when the two coils are

If position of one of the dots is changed, then the two

|ip| : |is|  1/a

Symbol for Independent source

Symbol for Dependent source

Figure 7 – Dependent sources

Parameter Symbol Ideal Typical

Input Resistance Rin  10 to 10 

Output Resistance Rout 0 10 to 100 

Figure 13 – Circuit of Inverting Amplifier

If Rout = 0, and Rin = ,

inverting terminals VinA –

Rin = , Rout = 0, and A = .

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