ENVE305

Dispersion of Pollutants in the

Atmosphere
 Atmospheric Dispersion of Effluents
• Depends on many interrelated factors:
– The physical and chemical nature of effluents
– The meteorological characteristics of the
environment
– The location of the stack
– The nature of the terrain downwind of the stack
 Stack Effluents
• Gases and Particulate Matter:
For particulate materials smaller than 20 um,
settling velocity is very low. Therefore they can
be assumed as gases. The analytical procedure
developed for gases can be applied to these.
Larger particles, with significant settling velocity
may deposit near vicinity of the source resulting
higher ground-level particle concentration near
the source.
• For maximum dispersion
– Effluents should leave the stack with sufficient
momentum and buoyancy to be able to continue
to rise
– If there is strong wind, it causes diluting of the
pollutants so that lower ground-level
concentrations occur
– Under light or no wind, low-density plumes tend
to reach high elevations and ground concentration
are low
 Downwash
• To prevent downwash of the plume the gas
exit velocity Vs must be sufficiently larger than
wind speed (u) at the top of the stack:
𝑉𝑠
≥ 1.5
𝑢
Plume Dispersion

Centerline
 Eddy Diffusion Model
Fickian diffusion equation:
𝑑𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶
• = 𝐾𝑥𝑥 +𝐾𝑦𝑦 + 𝐾𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Where C is the concentration, t is the time, and the
Kii quantities are the eddy diffusion coefficents in
the three coordinate directions.
Unfortunately it is difficult to apply this equation to
the actual process in the atmosphere. Therefore
some assumptions are made:
 Eddy Diffusion Model
𝑑𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶
• = 𝐾𝑥𝑥 +𝐾𝑦𝑦 + 𝐾𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Assumptions:
1. Concentration of the pollutant emanates from a continous
point source
2. The process is steady state, dC/dt=0
3. The major transport direction due to the wind is
downwind direction lie along the x-axis
4. u is constant at any point in x,y,z coordinate system
5. The transpor of pollutant due the wind in the x-direction
is dominat over the downwind direction
As a result, the Fickian diffusion equation becomes:
𝜕𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶
𝑢 = 𝐾𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝐾𝑧𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Eddy Diffusion Model
𝜕𝐶 ∂2 𝐶 ∂2 𝐶
𝑢 = 𝐾𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝐾𝑧𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The solution to this equation must also fullfill the
following boundary conditions:
1.Cinfinity as x0 (large concentration at the
point source
2.C0 as x,y,z infinity (zero concentration at a
great distance from the source
∂ 𝐶
3.𝐾𝑧𝑧 0 as z0 (no diffusion into the
𝜕𝑧
surface)
4. 𝑢𝐶 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑄, 𝑥 > 0 (rate of
transport of pollutants down-wind is constant and equal
to the emission rate Q of the pollutants at the source)
 Solution to the Eddy Diffusion
Equation
• Lowry and Boubel’s approximate solution:
𝑄 −𝑢 𝑦 2 𝑧2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = exp +
4𝜋𝑟(𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝑧𝑧 )1/2 4𝑥 𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝑧𝑧

where r2= x2+ y2+ z2

Wbut this equation showed big discrepancy with the
experimental results for centerline concentrations. Along
the center line (y=0,z=0) C can be calculated by:
𝑄
𝐶(𝑥, 0,0) =
4𝜋𝑥(𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝑧𝑧 )1/2

Here, we see that C at ground level is independent of u and inversely proportinal to

x but in reality C at centerline is proportinal to ux1.76 fImproved solutions to Eddy
diffusion model is necessary.
 Seeking a better model
𝑄 −𝑢 𝑦 2 𝑧2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = exp +
4𝜋𝑟(𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝑧𝑧 )1/2 4𝑥 𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝑧𝑧

The format of this equation indicates that away

from the centerline, concentration in y and z
direction exponentially decays. Mathematically this
means the C in the cross-wind (y) and vertical (z)
directions may be normally distributed.
Plus, concentration decrease in x direction is largely
dependent on Kzz and Kyy. That is, the model
should show strong dependence on diffusion
coefficients
Therefore, the most widely accepted model is the
Gaussian plume model
 The Gaussian Distribution Equation
• The dispersion can be described a double Gaussian
distribution for y and z directions which is simply the product
of the single Gaussian distributions in each of the coordinate
directions:
1 −(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 −(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2
𝑓 (𝑦, 𝑧) = exp +
2𝜋 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2

• In a similar way, for three dimensions, we can use the

following form for movement of instantaneous puff:

1 −(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 −(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 −(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 )

𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = exp + +
(2𝜋)3/2 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑥 2 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2
 The Gaussian Dispersion Model
• For a point source with a stack, although the plume originates
at stack height hs, it rises by Dh due to hot gases and
momentum of the gases exiting from the stack by Vs velocity.
Therefore effective stack height becomes H= hs + Dh. We will
see how to calculate Dh.

Effective
stack height

Physical stack height

 A Point Source at Elevation H Above
the Ground, Without Reflection
• Resulting general equation used frequently as
the basis for modeling emissions from
contiuous point source of emission is:
𝑄 −(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 −(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = exp +
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2

• Q is the source strength in mass/time and C is the

concentration of the pollutant.
• Here, by takin z0 as the effective stack height H, and y0=0 as
the stack position, we get simpler form:
𝑄 1 𝑦2 𝑧−𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = exp − ( 2 + )
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2
 A Point Source at Elevation H Above
the Ground, With Reflection
• We need to modify the previous equation to
take into account of for reflection of gaseous
pollutantback in into the atmosphere once it
has reacheed the ground.
u
H
Region of
hs reflection

Imaginary -hs
Source
-H
 A Point Source at Elevation H Above
the Ground, With Reflection

𝑄 𝑦2 𝑧−𝐻 2 𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( 2) exp − 2 ) + exp − 2 )
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧

u
H
Region of
hs reflection

Imaginary -hs
Source
-H
Horizontal Dispersion Coefficients, sy
Vertical dispersion coefficent sz
 Equations to predict dispersion
coefficients
• Due to the difficulty in reading the values of sy
and sz from graphs equations were developed
for rural and urban sites in the form of
sy=axb
sz=cxd +f
Parameters for sy and sz
 Rural and Urban Area
Calculating sy and sz
• Depending on the 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 exponent
factors (p) are given to account for rural and
urban settings. To do this use power law for
wind velocity 𝑢 𝑧
𝑝
2 2
=
𝑢1 𝑧1
 Example 4-1
• SO2 emitted at a rate of 160 g/s from a stack with
an effective heith H of 60 m. The wind speed at
stack height is 6 m/s, and the amospheric stablitly
class is D for the overcast day. Determine the
ground-level concentration along the center line
at a distance of 500 m from the stack, in mg/m3?
• Given:
Q=160 g/s H= 60 m
uz=6 m/s Stability Class=D
Required
C(500,0,0)=?
 Example 4-1-Solution
𝑄 𝑦2 𝑧−𝐻 2
𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( 2) exp − 2 ) + exp − 2 )
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧

• Get sy and sz from the chart or equation for

x=500 m and stability class is D
Horizontal Dispersion Coefficients, sy

36
Figure 4-7.Vertical dispersion coefficent sz

sz=20 m
 Example 4-1-Solution
𝑄 𝑦2 𝑧−𝐻 2
𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( ) exp − ) + exp − )
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2 2𝜎𝑧 2

2
𝑄 𝐻
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − 2)
𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧
• sy =36 and sz =20
2
160 60
𝐶 (500,0,0) = exp − 2)
𝜋(6)(36)(20) 2(20)

• C=66 mg/m3 of SO2

 Example 4-2
• For the data given in Example 4-1 determine the
crosswind at 50 m from the center line for the
downwind distance of 500 m.
Solution:
𝑄 𝑦2 𝑧−𝐻 2
𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( ) exp − ) + exp − )
2𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2 2𝜎𝑧 2

𝑄 𝑦2 𝐻 2
𝐶 (500,50,0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( ) exp − )
𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑧 2

160 502 60 2
𝐶 (500,50,0) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ( ) exp − )
𝜋(6)(36)(20) 2(36)2 2(20)2

C=23 mg/m3 of SO2

 Example 4-3
• For the data in Example 4-1, find out the
downwind distance for ground level C to be
maximum in centerline.
 Solution
𝑄 𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − 2)
𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧

• Generate an Excel table to calculate C values

for different x values with corresponding sy
and sz values.
160𝑥106 60 2
𝐶 (0.5,0,0) = exp − 2 )
𝜋(6) 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧
 Solution
160𝑥106 60 2
𝐶 (0.5,0,0) = exp − 2 )
𝜋(6) 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧

Hm U m/s Q ug x (m) Sy m sz m Q/pisyszu -1/2(H/Sz)^2 exp C (ug/m3)

60 6 1.60E+08 500 36 18 13099.2 -5.56 0.003866 50.64
800 60 27 5239.7 -2.47 0.084658 443.58
1000 76 32 3490.2 -1.76 0.172422 601.79
1500 110 45 1714.8 -0.89 0.411112 704.98
1700 140 50 1212.6 -0.72 0.486752 590.24
2000 160 55 964.6 -0.60 0.55154 532.00
3000 220 71 543.4 -0.36 0.699722 380.24
5000 350 100 242.5 -0.18 0.83527 202.57
10000 620 150 91.3 -0.08 0.923116 84.25

At 1.5 km(1500m) ground C concentration in centerline reaches

maximum value fo 704 ug/m3
Notice that Cground builds up rapdliy as x increases but the falloff in
concentration is rather slow after the maxlumum point. This is fairly
typical of the Gaussian type solution for the atmospheric dispersion.
 The Maxiumum Ground Level In-Line
Concentration
• The effect of ground reflection causes very
high concentration as x increases, to a point
well above the level expected without
reflection.
• But this increase does not continue
indefinitely due to dispersion in y and z
directions.
Method I-Turner’s Maximum Groundlevel Concentrations
Method II : determining The Maxiumum
Ground Level Concentration
• Ranchoux developed a general equation
which can be solved algebraically:
𝐶𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑥=exp[a+b(lnH)+c(lnH)2+d(lnH)3]
𝑄

Stability a b c d
Class
A -1.0563 -2.7153 0.1261 0
B -1.8060 -2.1912 0.0389 0
C -1.9748 -1.9980 0 0
D -2.5302 -1.5610 -0.0934 0
E -1.4496 -2.5910 0.2181 -0.0343
F -1.0488 -3.2252 0.4977 -0.0765
 Method 3: Determining maximum
concentration and its position
• For unstable and neutral conditions, sy / sz
values are independent of downwind distance
x, if we assume this ratio as 1, then Eq. 4-9
becomes as a function of sz which is solely
function of x: 𝑄 𝐻 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − )
𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧 2

2
𝑄 𝐻
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − )
𝜋𝑢 𝜎𝑧2 2𝜎𝑧 2

𝐻
𝜎𝑧 = 1/2 = 0.707𝐻
2
From here get x
 Method 3: Determining maximum
concentration and its position
• For unstable and neutral conditions Cmax can
be calcualated by:
0.1171𝑄
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

Remember that method 3 is valid only for

neutral and slightly unstable atmospheric
conditions. Turner’s plot on the other hand is
valid for all stability classes.
 Example 4-4
• For the data example 4-1, determine the
position downwind on the center line at
gorund level where the maximum
concentration will occur and determine the
maximum value in mircor grams per cubic
meter:
 Solution by Method-1
• From Turner’s plot, H=60 and stability class of
D, we read
• xmax=1.5 km
• (Cu/Q)max=2.7x10-5 m2
• Cmax=720 ug/m3
 Solution by Method-2
(Cu/Q)max=exp[a+b(lnH)+c(lnH)2+d(lnH)3]

Stability a b c d
Class
A -1.0563 -2.7153 0.1261 0
B -1.8060 -2.1912 0.0389 0
C -1.9748 -1.9980 0 0
D -2.5302 -1.5610 -0.0934 0
E -1.4496 -2.5910 0.2181 -0.0343
F -1.0488 -3.2252 0.4977 -0.0765
𝐶𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑥=exp[-2.5302-1.561(ln60)-0.0934(ln60)2]
𝑄
=2.8x10-5m-2

• From here, Cmax=740ug/m3

 Solution by Method-3
First get sz value
𝐻
𝜎𝑧 = 1/2
= 0.707𝐻 = 42.4 𝑚
2

From Figure 4.7 get x-value

as 1.55 km.
Cmax can be calculated from
0.1171𝑄
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

0.1171(160)106
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 700
6𝑥105𝑥42.4

• From here, Cmax=700mg/m3

 Calculation of the Effective Stack Height
First check downwash condition as stated earlier: If the stack velocity is greater or equal to
1.5 times the windspeed, downwash is negligible.
If not, calculate reduced stack height:
𝑉𝑠
ℎ𝑠′ = ℎ𝑠 + 2𝑑𝑠 − 1.5
𝑢𝑠
u
Vs Dh
Dh
ds
′ = ℎ + 2𝑑
𝑉𝑠
H ℎ𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 − 1.5 H
𝑢𝑠 ′
ℎ𝑠
hs ′
ℎ𝑠 < ℎ𝑠
 Calculation of Effective Stack Height
• Plume rise equation contains 2 terms:
• 1. Momentum term due to stack gas’s velocity Vs.
It can be expressed as the momentum flux
parameter, Fm in units of m4/s2

• 2. Thermal buoyoncy term, temperature

difference between stack gas temperature (Ts)
and environmental temperature (Ta). It can be
expressed as the buoyoncymomentum flux
parameter in units of m4/s3
 Effective Stack Height Calculationby
Briggs
• 1. Stability
– First determine stability class
• 2. If unstable or neutral conditions exist, first
calculate buoyoncy flux,Fb
• 3. Calculate crossover temperature difference
Dtc
• 4. Calculate distance to final plume rise,xf,
• 5. Calculate effective stack height, H
Distance to final plume rise, xf

H
xf
Effective Stack Height Calculationby
Briggs

Xf=49Fb5/8 Xf=119Fb2/5 Xf=2.0715

us/√s
 Example 4-6
• The wind speed at the top of a stack and the
stackgas velocity are 3 and 6 m/s, respectively,
and the stack diameter is 2 m with a 40 m
physical stack height. The atmospheric
stability condition is neutral with a
temperature of 300 K and the stack
temperature is 440 K. The MW of flue gas is
29kg/kg-mole. Estimate the distance
downwind to the point of maximum or final
plume rise and the final effective plume height
at that distance in meters by the appropriate
Briggs equation.
Solution
Solution, contd.
 Line Source
• In some situations, such as a series of
industries located along a river or harbor or
heavy traffic along a straight stretch of
highway, the pollution problem may be
modeled as a continuous emitting infinite line
source.
Line Source
• The ground level
concentration
downwind is given by

2
2𝑞 𝐻
𝐶 (𝑥, 0) = exp − )
(2𝜋)1/2 𝑢 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑧 2

• Where q is the source

strength in unit of
g/m.s
Example 4-9
12
 Instantenous Release of a Puff
• Instantenous release of a puff might occur as a
result of an explosion or accidental spill.
• In those cases time of release is much shorter
than time of transport. Therefore the
instantenous puff equation is used for these
conditions:
 Instantenous Release of a Puff
• General formula including reflection would be:

• Here Qp(the emission strength) is the mass that is

instantaneously released.
• The source here is not in a fixed place, but moves in the wind
direction such that the center of the puff corresponding to the
peak concentration in the x direction. The center of the puff
corresponding to the peak concentration in the x direction
(x0)becomes a function of time and windspeed.
 Instantenous Release of a Puff
• Value of x0 at any time t = ut
• So assuming ground level release and
z0=y0=z=y=0, then:

• It is generally assumed that dispersion in x

direction is similart to the dispersion in y
direction therefore use sy value for sx in the
formula
 Instantenous Release of a Puff

• Peak concentration of puff moves in x direction by

decreasing in concentration but increasing in the width
• The person at x2 will see a gradual increase in
concentration until the center line of the puff passed
by, then gradual decrease.
Maximum Concentration from Puff
• The maximum concentration
𝑄 𝐻 2
observed by
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − 2 ) can be
the receptor at 𝜋𝑢 𝜎a𝑦 𝜎distance
𝑧 2𝜎𝑧 x,
predicted by realizing that it occurs at
the point at which x=ut
• Then maximum concentration Cmax:
2𝑄𝑝 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 2
𝐶 (𝑥, 0,0) = exp − )
(2𝜋)3/2 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2𝜎𝑥 2

Cmax=2Qp/(2p)3/2 sy sz sx
 Instantenous Release of a Puff
• The instantenous nature of the release of a puff requires use
sy sz and sx values that are representative of shorter
averaging times.
• Therefore dispersion coefficients given in Table 4.7 are used
 Example 4-11
• A bottle of lqiuid SO2 is burst at ground level and
instantaneosly releases 36,240 g of SO2. What is
the apporximate maximum concentration that will
be observed by a person who is 1000 m directly
downwind under worst-case meteorological
conditions
SOLUTION:
Under the worst case conditions we can assume:
Stability class: F
Wind velocity, u: 1 m/s
From Table 4.7 for x=1000 m
sy = sx =9.4
sz=3.4
 Example 4-11
• Cmax=2Qp/(2p)3/2 sy sz sx
Cmax=2x36,240/(2p)3/2 (9.4)(9.4)(3.4)
Cmax=15.3g/m3

• This concentration is much more than primary air

quality standard for of 1300 mg/m3 for 3 hr
average SO2
• However receptor will be exposed to this
concentration only for a short time since sx is 9.4
meters which means 68% of the mass of plume
will pass by the receptor within a time equal to a
distance of 2sx/u = 19 seconds