Electromagnetic Theory

PHYS 31512
 Magnetic field in Matter
Magnetic Material
we have studied only those magnetic fields that are due to the motion of free
charges. Now, on the atomic scale, all bodies contains spinning electrons that
move around the orbit, and those electrons also produce magnetic fields. In here
onward we study the magnetic fields produced by these atomic currents.

Magnetic materials are similar to dielectrics in that individual charges can possess
magnetic moments and these moments, when properly oriented, produce a
resultant magnetic moment in a macroscopic body. Such a body is then said to be
magnetized.

In most atoms the magnetic moments due to the orbital and spinning motion of the
electrons cancel. If the cancellation is not complete, the material is said to be
paramagnetic. When paramagnetic material placed in a magnetic field, its atoms
are subjected to a torque that tends to align them with the field.

some material acquire a magnetization parallel to B (the material said to be

Paramagnetic), and some opposite to B ( the material said to be Diamagnetic).
Most magnetic devices use Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, in which
magnetization can be orders of magnitude larger that of either paramagnetic or
diamagnetic substances.
In ferromagnets, retain their magnetization even after the external field has been
removed. The magnetization of the Ferro magnets not determine by the present
field but by the whole magnetic history of the object. This large magnetization is
attributed to electron spin and is associated with group phenomena in which all the
elementary moments in a small region, known as the domain, are aligned.

The magnetization M
In the presence of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized and in microscopic
view it will be found to contain many tiny dipoles aligned some direction. There are
two mechanisms that account for this magnetic polarization.

1) Paramagnetism, which the dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired

electrons experience a torque tending to line them up parallel to the field.

2) Diamagnetism, which the orbital speed of the electrons is altered in such a way
as to change the orbital dipole moment in a direction opposite to the field.

If m is the average dipole moment per atom, and if N is the number of atoms per
unit volume, the magnetization is defined as
M = Nm, magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.

It corresponds to the polarization P in dielectrics.

 Magnetic Induction B of a magnetized body

Let us calculate the magnetic induction at a point P(x,y,z) outside a magnetized

body, as in figure.

r P(x,y,z) The vector potential of a dipole m is
M r  
0 m  r

r

A
4 r 3
m
d 
In magnetized object, each volume element d  carries a dipole
moment Md  , so the total vector potential is


 0 M (r )  r 0    1   1 r
A(r )  
4 v r 3
d  A(r )   
4 v 
M ( r )     d
 r 
  3
r r
Integral by parts using product rule, gives

0 1 0  M (r ) 
A(r )     M (r )d    
     d 
4 v r 4 v  r 
Using divergence theorem to the second term, we have
0 1 0 1
A(r )     M (r )d   M (r )  ds 
  
4 v r 4 s r
The first term is the vector potential of a volume current density, Jm   M
while the second term is the vector potential of a surface current density,

K m  M  nˆ Where n is the normal unit vector. With these definitions,

0 J m (r ) 0 K m (r )
A(r ) 
4 v r d   4 s r ds
What this means is that the potential and the field of a magnetized object
is the same as would be produced by a volume current J m    M ,
throughout the material, plus a surface current K m  M  nˆ , on the
boundary. These current component do not produce any heating, since
they do not involve electron drift and scattering processes like those
associated with conduction current. Notice the similarity with the
electrical polarization, which we get similar components for surface and
volume bound charges  b  P.nˆ, b    P .
Since A can be ascribed to the current distribution J m , and K m , we can
immediately write down the value of B using the Biot-Savart law:

0 J m (r )  rˆ 0 K m (r )  rˆ
B(r ) 
4 v r 2 d  4  s r 2 ds .
Thus, if we know the magnetization M, we can find the equivalent current
densities, and then magnetic induction B as they were in a vacuum.
We have demonstrate the validity of this procedure only for points
outside the material, but we can prove that the results is equally valid
inside as well.
 The magnetic field intensity H, Ampere’s circuital law

For steady currents and nonmagnetic materials,   B   0 J f .

magnetized material can always be replaced by its equivalent currents for

calculating B. Correspondingly if we have magnetized material as well as steady
currents,

  B   0 J f  J m  where Jm is the magnetized volume current density

and J f is the free current density.

substituting J m    M   B   0 J f    M 

 B   B 

  M   J f where   M  , whose curl is equal to the free current
 0   0 
 B 
density at the point, is the magnetic field intensity H, H  
   M 
 0 
Now, we have for steady current either inside or outside of magnetic material

 H  J f .
Integrating over a surface S,

   H  ds   J
s s
f  ds.

Using Stoke’s theorem


c
H  dl  I f

where c is the curve bounding the surface S, and I f is the free current
This is a more general form of Ampere’s circuital law and it can be use
to calculate H even in the presence of magnetic materials.
Example: A cylindrical wire of permeability  carries a steady current I. If the
radius of the wire is R, find B and H inside and the out side of the wire.

Suppose current is flowing the Z direction along the axis of the wire as shown in
figure
Z

I R
The current density is J  zˆ
R 2
r
Consider a point at distance r from the axis of the wire.
J
Ampere’s circuital law  H  dl  I
c
f .

Ir 2
For r  R , I (r )   r J  2
2

R
Ir ˆ Ir ˆ
From the circuital law H (r )   , and B ( r )   
2 R 2
2 R 2

I ˆ I ˆ
For r  R , the circuital law gives, H (r )   , B(r )  0 
2 r 2 r
Example: A toroid having an iron core of square cross section and
permeability  is wound with N closely spaced turns of wire carrying a
current I. Find the magnitude of magnetization M everywhere inside the
iron.

N turns


From ampere’s circuital law H  dl  I f
c

NI
H (r )  , where r is the distance from the axis of the toroid.
2 r

Then, the magnetization M inside the iron is

B H  1 N I
M H  H  .
0 0 0 2 r
Example: Two infinite sheets of surface currents K a  a i and
K b  b i flow in the planes Z = 0 and Z = d respectively as shown in the
figure. Assume the space between two sheets filed with magnetic
material of permeability  . Find the magnetic induction and magnetic
field everywhere in space.

ai
bi

i Z

HL ii iii
l
HR
d
Y
From ampere’s circuital law  H  dl  I
c
f

Magnetic field due to the left sheet (according to the figure) HLl  HR l  K l  a

From the boundary condition, Ht is continues cross the interface,  HL  HR

Then, HL  HR  a/2
Thus, magnetic fields produce by the left sheet for different regions are

Region i) H1  a / 2 j Region ii) H 2  a / 2 j Region iii) H 3  a / 2 j

Similarly magnetic fields produce by the right sheet for different regions are

Region i) H 1  b / 2 j Region ii) H 2  b / 2 j Region iii) H 3  b / 2 j

Then the total fields in each region are

a b ab a b
Region i) H 1    j Region ii) H 2    j Region iii) H 3    j
 2   2   2 

The magnetic induction in each region can be obtained using B   H,

ab ab a b
B1   0   j B2      j B3    0   j
 2   2   2 
Example: A long cylinder of radius R carries a current density
J (r )  b r zˆ , R  r  0 , where r is the distance from the cylinder axis
and b is a constant. Evaluate magnetic induction and vector potential
inside and outside the cylinder.
Z
Ampere’s law  B.dl   0 I enc.  0  J (r )  ds
s
r
r

Then, B 2 r   0 br 2 rdr for region r  R
0
R
J(r)

r2 ˆ
We have Bin   0 b 
3
R


Also, B 2 r   0 br 2 rdr for region r  R
0

R3 ˆ
Then, Bout   0 b 
3r
From the expression above we expect that one choice of A is along Z.

  A  B , in cylindrical coordinates is
  1 Az A   A Az  ˆ 1   A 
 A     ˆ       ( A )   zˆ
    z   z        
 Az r2 ˆ
Then use, B    0 b 
r 3
r3
 Az   0 b zˆ , Inside the cylinder.
9
Az R3 ˆ
B     0 b  , Outside the cylinder
r 3r
R3
A(r ) z    0 b ln( r )  constat
3
In order to make A(r ) continues across the boundary (r = R), we take the
constant as
R3 R3
 0 b ln( R )  constat   0 b
3 9
R3
constat    0 b 1  3 ln R 
9
R3  R  R3
Thus, A(r ) out   0 b ln     0 b .
3 r 9
 Magnetic Susceptibility  m and Relative Permeability  r

As for dielectrics, it is convenient to define a magnetic susceptibility  m

and a relative permeability  r such that
M  m H .
Now, since B   0 H  M  ,
Then, B   0 1   m H   0  r H   H
where  r  1   m 
The quantity  is called the permeability.

For paramagnetic material (Example: Na, Al, Pt, O2 )  > 1

For diamagnetic material (Example: Au, Ag, Cu, N 2 )  < 1
The boundary conditions for B and H at an interface between two media

1 l 2
H2
H1

Bn1 Bn 2

The normal components of B and the tangential components of H on either side

of the boundary related according to:

Bn 2  Bn1 , [Because,  B  ds  0 for any closed surface, then flux through the
s

left of the cylinder surface must be equal to the flux through the right surface.]

From the circuital law  H  dl   J

c s
f  ds.  I f

H1  H 2  l  I f
where I f is the free current through the Ampere loop. In fact, if n̂ is
a unit vector normal to the interface, so that

H t1 t 1 
 H t 2 ,  K f where K f is the surface current density.
If the surface current is, then,
If the
If the surface
surface current
current is, then,
is zero,
H H
then,t 2H t 2 t1H t1


Normal component of Bn and tangential component of H t are
Normal component of Bn and tangential component of H t are
continues across the interface.
continues across the interface.
If we set B   H and use continuity of Bn , then
If we set B   H and use continuity of Bn , then

1 H1 H
 n  2 H 2  n
1 1  n  2 H 2  n

If 1   2 , the normal component of H 2 is much larger than the

If 1   2 , the normal component of H 2 is much larger than the
normal component of H 1 .
normal component of H 1 .

In the limit 1   , the magnetic field H 2 is normal to the boundary

In the limit 1
 , the magnetic field H 2 is normal to the boundary
2 2
surface, and independent of the direction of H 1 .
surface, and independent of the direction of H 1 .
The boundary condition on H at the surface of a very high-permeability
The boundary condition on H at the surface of a very high-permeability
material is thus the same as for the electric field at the surface of the
material is thus the same as for the electric field at the surface of the
conductor. The surfaces of the high-permeability material are
conductor. The surfaces of the high-permeability material are
approximately “equipotentials” and the lines of H are normal to these
approximately “equipotentials” and the lines of H are normal to these
equipotentials.
 Methods of solving boundary value problems in Magnetostatics

The basic equations of magnetostatics are   B  0,   H  J f .

There are several techniques which we can use to solve verity of situations of the
boundary value problems.

1) Use vector potential

Since   B   J f . and B    A
We have     A    A   2 A   J f
Here, we can make a convenient choice of gauge as   A  0 ,
Then   2 A    J f ,
vector potential satisfies the Poisson’s equation. This choice is called
Coulomb gauge.
 
2) Use magnetic Scalar potential with J f  0 
 
If the current density vanishes J f  0 in some finite region of space the
second equation become
  H  0 . This implies that we can introduce a magnetic scalar
potential  m such that
H   m
With the relation   B     H  0, we can writ
 2 m  0  magnetic scalar potential satisfies the Laplace equation.
3) Use magnetic Scalar potential for hard ferromagnets with
magnetization M and J f  0

a) Scalar potential
Since J f  0 , the magnetic scalar potential  m can be employed.
Then,   B     0 H  M   0
with H   m ,
It becomes a magnetostatic Poisson equation,  2  m  4  m

with the effective magnetic charge density,  m    M .

The solution for the potential  m if there are no boundary surfaces

is
 0   M (r )
 m (r )  
4  r  r
d 
Then, integration by parts may be performed to yield
0  1 
 m (r )    M (r )     d 

4  r  r 
 1   1 
Then,        
 r  r   r  r 
   
0 M (r )
may be used to give  m ( r )    d 
4 r  r
In passing we observe that far from the region of nonvanishing
magnetization the potential may be approximated by
0  1   0 m  rˆ
 m (r )       M (r ) d 
 
4  r  4 r 2
where m is the total magnetic moment.
If there is a an effective magnetic surface charge density  m in
addition to the volume charge density,
 m  n  M , Then the potential is given by,

 0   M (r )  0 n  M (r )
 m (r )   
4 v r  r 
d   
4 s r  r 
ds 
b) Vector potential

 B 
Since J f  0 ,    H      M   0.
 0 
This leads to the Poisson equation for A in the Coulomb gauge,
 2 A   J m where J m is effective current density.
Then the solution for the vector potential, with the effective surface
current n M as well, is given by

 0   M (r )  0 M (r )  n
A(r )  
4 v r  r 
d   
4 s r  r 
ds 
Example: Find the magnetic field of a uniformly magnetized sphere of
radius a.
Choose M is along the Z direction as shown in the figure
z
P

r
M
 
r

r
y


x
If r  a the potential produce by the magnetic moment m at distance r
is approximately given by
 0 m  rˆ
 m (r )  , where m is the magnetic moment and it is
4 r 2

4 3
m a M zˆ
3
Then, scalar potential of outside the sphere is

 0 m  rˆ  0 1 4 3 0 a3
 m (r )   a M cos  M cos
4 r 2
4 r 3
2
3 r 2

To evaluate H, we use H   m

1  m 8 3
 H out    3a M,
 0 r 3r
8 3
B
and out   0 3
a M
3r
Now we use different method to evaluate inside components.

Since M is constant  m    M  0 ,
and  m  M  nˆ  M cos

 0   M (r )  0 n  M (r )
 m (r )   
4 v r  r 

d  
4 s r  r 
ds 

Since first term of the above expression is zero, we get

 0 n  M (r )  0 M a 2 cos  d (cos ) d 
 m (r )  
4 s r  r 
ds  
4 s r  r

 l
1 r
Now we use the expansion   l 1 Pl (cos )
r  r  l 0 r
where r ( r ) is the smaller(larger) of r and r  and   is the angle
between r and r 
Substitute
0 
r
l

 m (r ) 
4

l  0 r
l 1
M a 2
 d (cos ) Pl (cos ) P1 (cos )d 
s
Only l=1 term survives,

 0 r l 2 4  0 r
 m (r )  M a cos  M a 2
cos
4 rl 1
3 3 r 2

Inside the sphere r  r ( r  a )

0
Then  m (r )  r M cos
3
1 2 0
Thus, H in (r )   M cos , and Bin (r )  M cos
3 3
Outside the sphere r  a ( r  r )
0 a3
 m (r )  2
M cos
3 r