 Radial groundwater flow in - Occur when excessive precipitation and the

confined aquifers ground is saturated

HYDROLOGY  Radial groundwater flow in
COURSE OUTLINE unconfined aquifers
 Travel time of groundwater in INFILTRATION
1. DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY confined aquifer
2. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 7. RAINFALL RUNOFF RELATION - Water stock to the first layer of soil
3. PRECIPITATION  Definition of hydrograph
 Formation of precipitation  Hydrograph separation PERCOLATION
 Different types of precipitation  Unit hydrograph SUBLIMATION - transform from solid to gas
 Rainfall characteristics (DEPTH,  Estimation of discharge using
DURATION, INTENSITY, unit hydrograph TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
HETOGRAPH)  Rational formula
 Point rainfall measurement 1. CONVECTIVE
 SCS curve formula
 Different types of rain gauge - Occurs when warm moist air is rises in the
 Estimation of missing rainfall atmosphere. Pressure decrease as elevation
data increases, which cause the temperature to
HYDROLOGY fall.
 Conversion of point rainfall to
2. CYCLONIC
area rainfall HYDRO – water - Occurs when warm moist air is drain into a
 Double mass analysis
LOGY – study low pressure, cold front. The warm air rises
4. INFILTRATION
as it is drawn into the low pressure zone and
 Definition of infiltration WATER CYCLE – Hydrologic Cycle subjected to adiabatic cooling.
 Factors affecting infiltration and 3. OROGRAPHIC
infiltration measurement EVAPORATION - Result when air mass is lifted as it
 Horton model and Phillip’s encounters topographic obstacles (mountain)
equation - Transformation of liquid to gas due to heat
 Green AMPT model - Change of state in the substance from liquid FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
 Ponding time to gas
 Filling infiltration model to  RAIN
CONDENSATION - water droplets are larger than 0.5mm
infiltration data using excel
5. EVAPORATION - Formation of water vapor RAIN INTENSITY IS CLASSIFIED AS:
 Physics of evaporation - Clouds
 Factors affecting evaporation - Process whereby water vapor in the 1-2.5 mm/hr. LIGHT RAIN
 Measurement of different factors atmosphere is change to liquid state 2.5-7.5 mm/hr. MEDIUM RAIN
of evaporation 7.5 mm/hr.< HIGH RAIN
 Available method/ procedure for PRECIPITATION
estimating evaporation from - Result when tiny condensation grows too
open water  DRIZZLE
large falls to earth
6. BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW - Consists of water droplets less than 0.5mm
- Water that falls from the atmosphere to
 Law of Daray, confined and and has intensity less than 1.0 mm/hr.
earth’s surface.
unconfined aquifers  SNOW
 Groundwater flow in confined RUN OFF - Most branched and in form of six pointed
aquifers stars
 Groundwater flow in unconfined - Flow of water - Has a density of 1gm/cc
aquifers  SLEET
 - Round or irregular hard grains of ice
consisting of frozen raindrops

DATA
 HAIL
DATA DEPTH (mm) AREA (M^2) D1(A1/AT)
- Forms of balls or other pieces of ice falling
separately of frozen together in irregular 0.18 5.2 0.04
TIME DEPTH (mm) INTENSITY 0.12 7.2 0.04
lumps having a size of greater than 8mm. 0-1 0.15 0.15 0.1 1.5 0.006
CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL 1-2 0.3 0.3 0.2 9.8 0.08
2-3 0.5 0.5 23.7 0.17mm
1. DEPTH 3-4 0.1 0.1
Dave = 0.17mm
- Indicate to what depth liquid precipitation 4-5 0.25 0.25
would cover a horizontal surface in an 5-6 0.05 0.05
observation period.
- 1mm = 1L to 1m^2 AERIAL RAINFALL BY ISOHYETAL
2. DURATION POLYGON
- Refers to the length of time rainfall occurs
V=Dave (AREA)
3. INTENSITY
- Define as the ratio of the total amount of ARE DEPTH(Km^ DEPTHav MEAN=
rain (rain depth) falling during a given A 2) e V
period to the duration of the point. 5.6 0.2 0.19mm 1.064
- DEPTH/HOUR 3.1 0.18 0.15mm 0.465
4. HYETOGRAPH 9.8 0.12 0.11mm 1.078
- Plot of the average intensity of rainfall 5.1 0.1 0.05mm 0.255
against the time interval. =0.5mm =2.862
MEASURING PRECIPITATION
RAIN GAUGE
WATERSHED
- Used to measure rainfall over an area in a
predefined period of time. - Area of land that drains rainfall or snowmelt
- Point rainfall measurement into specific body of water.

TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES AERIAL RAINFALL BY ARITHMETIC MEAN

MEASURING PRECIPITATION
 STANDARD OR FUNNEL RAIN
GAUGE SOURCES OR ERRORS
- Non-recording
 TIPPING BUCKET RAIN GAUGE  Dents in the collector
- Recording  Moistening of inside-surface of the funnel
and the tube
 Raindrops splashing from the collector
 For very intense rain, some water is still
AERIAL RAINFALL BY THEISSEN POLYGON pouring into the already filled bucket
  Incunation of the gauge may result in Pc= 125mm/cos(20) STATION USE ARITHMETIC METHOD
catching less or more rain than the actual OTHERWISE THE NORMAL RATIO IS USED.
amount =133.02mm
 Error in measuring due to wind

REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR ERROR IN

MEASURING PRECIPITATION

 For dents, repair the instrument

 Error such as moistened inside-surface of ESTIMATION OF MISSING PRECIPITATION
the gauge, splashing of rainwater from DATA
the collector and pouring of water into
ARITHMETIC METHOD
the already filled bucket during intense
rain can only be corrected by some
correction factor.

WHERE:
NORMAL RATIO METHOD
Pc=CPm
Pc= corrected precipitation
C= correction factor
PM= measured precipitation

 Inclined instrument needs to be

reinstalled the correction factor,
however can be calculated from the
EXAMPLE:
angle of indication.
Pc=Pm/cos0 STATION A B C D E
STORM 9.7 8.3 ----- 11.7 8.0
Pc= Correction Precipitation PRECI.
Pm= Measured precipitation NORMAL 100. 109.5 93.5 127.7 117.5
ANNUAL 3
0= Angle of inclination PRECI.
EXAMPLE:
A rain gauge recorded 125mm of precipitation. It NOTE:
was found later that the gauge was inclined at an IF THE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION OF THE
angle of 20 degrees with the vertical. Find the INDEXT STATION LIES WITHIN + AND –
actual precipitation. 10% OF THE ANNUAL NORMAL
Pc=Pm/cos0 PRECIPITATION OF INTERPOLATION

Zone 3. TRANSMISSION ZONE
INFILTRATION
 When portion of the water that reaches the
ground enters the earth's surface
 is the flow of water through the soil surface into a
porous medium under gravity action and pressure
effects.
Zone 4. WETTING ZONE
 A dry soil has a certain capacity for infiltrating
water. The capacity can be expressed as a depth
of water that can be infiltrated per unit time
(in/hr).
Wetting Front  
FIVE ZONES FOR INFILTRATION PROCESS
INFILTRATION CHARACTERISTICS
Zone 1. SATURATION ZONE
- At the top, a thin layer of saturated zone is
created. The pore space in this zone is filled with
water or saturated. Depending on the length of
time elapsed from the initial application of the
water, this zone will generally extend only to a
depth of a few millimeters.
Zone 2. TRANSITION ZONE
- This zone is characterized by a rapid decrease in
water content with depth and will extend
approximately a few centimeters.
- is where the downward motion takes place. The
moisture content in this zone is above filed
capacity but below saturation. This zone is
characterized by a small change in water content
with depth. In general, the transmission zone is a
lengthening unsaturated zone with uniform water
content. The hydraulic gradient in this zone is
primarily driven by gravitational forces.
- The soil moisture in this zone will be at or near
field capacity and the moisture content decreases
with the depth.
- In this zone, the water content sharply decreases
with depth from the water content of the
transmission zone to near the initial water content
of the soil.
- This zone is characterized by a steep hydraulic
gradient and forms a sharp boundary between the
wet and dry soil. The hydraulic gradient is
characterized primarily by metric potentials
- 
 INFILTRATION CAPACITY
- the maximum rate at which the ground can
absorb water.
 FIELD CAPACITY
- the volume of water that the ground can hold.
 INFILTRATION REGIME  consequences on the surface layer of soil.
- depends on the supply regime (irrigation, rain),
but also on soil properties.
 CUMULATIVE INFILTRATION 
- is the total amount of water infiltrated during a
given period.
 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
- is an essential parameter of infiltration. It
represents the limiting value of infiltration if the
soil is saturated and homogenous.
 PERCOLATION
- is the vertical water flow in soils (porous
unsaturated environment) on the groundwater
layer under the influence of gravity. This process
follows infiltration and has a major influence on
the underground layer water supply.
 NET RAIN
- is the amount of rain that falls to the ground
surface during a shower.
 CLEAR RAIN
- is deduced from the total rain, diminished by the
intercepted fraction of vegetation and that which
is stored in ground depressions.
- The difference between the infiltrated rain and
the drained rain on the ground surface is called
PRODUCTION FUNCTION.
FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION
 SOIL TYPE
- (texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics).
The soil characteristics influence capillary forces
and adsorption
SOIL COVERAGE
- Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration
by increasing the time of water penetration in soil
 TOPOGRAPHY
- and morphology of slopes
FLOW SUPPLY
- (rain intensity, irrigation flow)
 INITIAL CONDITION OF SOIL HUMIDITY
- Soil humidity is an important factor of infiltration
regime. The infiltration regime evolves
differently in time for dry or wet soils.
 SOIL COMPACTION
- due to rain drop impact and other effects. The use
of hard agricultural equipment can have
HORTON’S INFILTRATION-CAPACITY CURVE
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + (𝒇𝒐- 𝒇𝒄)𝒆−𝑲𝒕
𝒇 = infiltration capacity at a time
𝒇𝒄 = infiltration capacity after a long period of continued
wetting
𝒇𝒐 = initial capacity 2 0.5 3.5 0.3 0.249 0.061 0.051 1.285
t = is the time from beginning of rainfall
3.75 0.3 0.242 0.06 0.058 1.346
K = decay of the capacity with time and reflects the soil-
cover complex
4 0.3 0.236 - 0.064 1.406

( f o -  f c )
F= 𝒇𝒄 t + (1 -e−kt )
K Time P f ΔF PE F
F = cumulative infiltration capacity at some time PHILLIP’S EQUATION
−1
f p = 1 s t 2 +K
𝒇𝒄= infiltration capacity after a long period of continued 0 0.7 0.6 0.143 0.1 0
wetting
2
𝒇𝒐= initial capacity 0.25 0.7 0.544 0.13 0.156 0.143
Where:
t = time from beginning of rainfall
0.5 0.7 0.496 0.119 0.204 0.273 s = Sorptivity (function of soil suction
K = decay of the capacity with time and reflects the soil- potential)
cover complex 0.75 0.7 0.455 0.109 0.245 0.392 K= Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity
Assume that field studies suggest the following values for
the infiltration characteristics of a small watershed: 𝒇𝟎 = t = time from beginning of rainfall
1 0.5 0.410 0.101 0.28 0.501
0.6 in./hr , 𝒇𝒄= 0.2 in./hr , K = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒉𝒓−𝟏 example:
1.25 0.5 0.389 0.094 0.111 0.602
Time Precipitation Time Precipitation Determine the Philip’s equation for the given set of data

1.5 0.5 0.363 0.087 0.137 0.696

0 0.7 2.25 0.6

1.75 0.5 0.340 0.083 0.16 0.783

0.25 0.7 2.5 0.6
s= 6.4574 , K= 1.23
2 0.5 0.320 0.078 0.18 0.866
0.5 0.7 2.75 0.6 −1
f p = 1 s t 2 +K
2.25 0.6 0.304 0.074 0.296 0.944 2
0.75 0.7 3 0.6

2.5 0.6 0.289 0.071 0.311 1.0118

1
= (6.4574)𝑡−1/2 + 1.23
1 0.5 3.25 0.3 2
2.75 0.6 0.277 0.067 0.323 1.089 = 3.2287 𝑡−1/2 + 1.23
1.25 0.5 3.5 0.3

3 0.6 0.266 0.066 0.334 1.156

1.5 0.5 3.75 0.3
Green-amp Equation
3.25 0.3 0.257 0.063 0.043 1.222
1.75 0.5 4 0.3 n
f p=k ¿ ) or f p=m+
Fp
Where: n= porosity of the soil
𝑆𝑐= capillary suction at the wetting front
K= Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity
m , n = Green-Ampt parameters of infiltration model
Determine the Philip’s equation for the given set of data
The coefficient of the Green-Ampt equations are m=
3.0256 and n= 10.042
EVAPORATION
- process in which a liquid changes to gaseous state
at free surface, below the boiling point through
the transfer of heat energy.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
 TEMPERATURE
- Rate of evaporation increases with an increase in
the temperature
 WIND
- Rate of evaporation increases with the wind
speed up to a critical speed beyond which any
further increase in the wind speed has no
influence on the evaporation rate. This critical
wind speed value is at function of the size of the
water surface.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE / AIR
PRESSURE
- The air around has weight and it presses against
everything it touches.
- A high decrease in the pressure, as in high
altitudes, increases evaporation.
 SOLUBLE SALTS
- when a solute is dissolve in water, the vapor
pressure of the solution is less than that of pure
water and hence cause reduction in the rate of
evaporation. The percent reduction in evaporation
approximately corresponds to the percentage
increase in the specific gravity.
 HEAT STORAGE IN WATER BODIES
- Deep water bodies have more heat storage than
shallow ones. A deep lake may store radiation
energy received in summer and more evaporation
in water compared to a shallow lake exposed to a
similar situation.
TEMPERATURE
The rate of evaporation is dependent on:
 Air and water temperature
 Wind speed
 Atmospheric pressure
 Quality of water
 Size of the water body
VAPOR PRESSURE
- Measure of the tendency of a material chance into
gaseous state of vapor state, and it increases with
temperature at which the vapor pressure at the
surface of a liquid becomes equal to the pressure
exerted by the surrounding is called boiling point
of the liquid.
THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
- Proportional to the difference between the
saturation vapor pressure at the water temperature
¿ ¿) and actual vapor pressure in the air (¿ ¿).
DALTON’S N LAW OF EVAPORATION
E L= C (e w −ea )
WHERE:
E L= evaporation rate
C = constant
e w = saturation vapor pressure
e a= actual vapor pressure