H I GH E R A L GE B R A

A SE Q U E L TO

E L E ME N TA R Y A L GE B R A FOR SC H OOLS
.
 H I GH E R A L GE B R A

A SE Q U E L TO

E L E M E N TA R Y A L GE B R A FOR S CH O OL S

H . S . H A LL ,
MA . .
,

FO RMERLY S C O LAR H OF C R I ST S C O LL EGE CAM R I GE

H
’
, B D ,

MA T ER F T M I L ITARY
S O HE AN D E N G IN EER I G S I E C L I FT O N C O LL EGE ;
N D ,

AN D

S . R . KN I G HT ,
BA . .
,

F ORMER L Y S C O LAR F
H O T R I N I TY C O LL EGE CAM R I GE ,
B D ,

L T E A I TA T MA T ER
A SS S N -
S AT MAR L O R O U G H C O LLEGE
B .

FO U R T H ED T ON I I .

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fl o nh o u
MA CM I LLAN AN D 00 .

AN D NEW Y RKO .

1 891

[ Th e R igh t o f Tra n s la t io n i s re s e rve d . )

 PR E FA C E .

TH E p re e ns t wo rk is i n te n de d as a s que el to o ur E le mt en a ry

A lgeb ra fo r Sch o o ls Th e fi r t fe w c h ap t e r a re de vo t e d t o
. s s
a fu lle r d c u is ssi
on o f R at o i i
Pro port o n Var at o n an d t h e i i
P g ssi s wh i h i t h f m w k w
, , ,

ro re on c n te t d i or er or e re re a e n an

l m t y m i t du d th ms
,

e e en ar ; d w h
an n e r h an e ave e re n ro ce eo re

an d exampl s wh i h e u s u it b l f
c arefi st u s f n a e o r a r co r e o

rea di g n

F mth is p i t th w k s g u d f th ms t
.

ro o n e or c o ve r ro n or e o

p ar t w
n e t t h s tou d t e d t s u pen s u b j ant s f s p en i l er on ec o ec a

i mp t u d t t t mi u t ly
,

o r an c e : th s w h e e d e ave en ea vo re o re a n e

an d th u ghly dis ssi g b th b k w k

o ro ,
cu n d mpl s o oo or an exa e

wi th th t f l ss wh i h w h
a u n e lw ys f u d
c e ss y i av e a a o n n ec e ar n

o u r ex
p i t
e r e n ce a s h s e ac er

imt dis u ss
.

It h b as e en o ur ll t h
a s ti l p ts o c a
”
e e se n a ar

as compl t ly e e p ssi b l w i
as t h i t ho li m i t s e f si g l n e o a n e

vo lu m b t i e, u f w f th l tn a e h pt s it h O b e im a er c a er as een

p o ssi b l t e fi do m f n m ro ot h i t ord u t y s
o rek t h an an n ro c or e c

in ll s u h
a ss
c bj t h
ca e b
our O t mp ec t s u it b l as e en o a o u a a e

fi st
r u s f di g f i g th s tu d t t s p i l t tis
co r e o re a n re e rr n e en o ec a re a es

f f ll i f mt i
,

or u er n or a on

P m u t ti s d C m
.

I nth h pt
e c a er o n b i ti
er w a on an o na ons e

a re mu h i d b t d t th R W A W h i t w th f p
c n e e o e ev or or er

missi t mk f s m f th p
. . .

on o a e u se ofs gi o i hi
e o e ro o ve n n s

Ch i o ce a n d Ch F m y y an c e . s w h u s d th s
or an e ar e a ve e e e

p ro o fs i n w t
o ur o h i g d
n w e ac i n d t h ,
tant h is e a re c o n v n ce a
vi RE AC E P F .

p t
ar f A l g e b
O is m d f m rai t lli gib l t t h b gi
a e ar o re n e e o e e n n er

by sys t
a m f m m e s s o s icog f m fi s t onp i i p s
len e re a o n n ro r r nc e

th b y th p
an fs u s u lly f u d i
e ro o lg b i l t t b k s a o n n a e ra ca ex -
oo .

Th dis u ssi e fC c g y d
on D i Og y f S i s
o n ve r e n c an ve r e n c O er e

a lw y s p s t s g
a t di ffi u lt y t t h
re e n s t d t h i fi st
re a c o e u en on s r

re a di g Th n i h t diffi u lti s f th s u bj t
. e n e re n c e o e ec a re n o

d ub t
o sid b l d th s
co n e ra i s d b y th pl it
e , an e e a re n c rea e e ac e

h as di ori ly u pi d d b y th s mwh t i d q t
n ar o cc e an e o e a na e ua e

tm t it h
,

t re a en h i th t i d A di gly w h
as er o rec e v e c co r n e av e

m m
.

p l d
ac et h is s t i s w h t l t
ec th on is s u o l ; u e h a a er an u a c

t h u gh t h
o b b st w das it ge en l g
e m ot e d on s e n e ra arran e en an

mpl s t illu s t t th t t ;
,

on th s l ti e f s i bl
e ec on o u ta e ex a e o ra e e ex

an dw h e d u d t mk it m i t s ti g d
av e en e a vo re o a e o re n e re n an

i t lli gi b l b y p
n e i u sly i t du i g s h t h pt
e re v o n ro c n a or c a er on

Li m iti g V lu s d V ish i g F ti s
n a e an an n rac on

mti f S i s w h
.

I th n h pt e Su m c a er o n l id a on o er e e av e a

mu h s t ss th M th d f D i ff
c re on s d it wi d d
e e o o e re n c e
”
an s e an

i mp t t ppli ti s Th b sis f th is mth d is w ll

o r an a ca on e a o e o a e

k w f ml i th C l u lu s f Fi i t D i ff
.

no n or u a n e s wh i h i
a c o n e e ren c e ,
c n

th ebs n a f p u
e ly l
ce og b i l pa f h red ly b a e ra c a ro o c an ar e co n

s id d dm
e re issib l i t tis A lg b Th p f f t h
a e n a re a e on e ra . e ro o o e

Fi i t D iff
n e f m u l wh i h w h
e re n c e gi or i A t s a8 9 5 c e av e ve n n r

l pm t
.
,

39 6 w b li e t b ew d i gi l
e ve o d th d e n e an or na an e e ve o en

M th d f mth is f ml h
, ,

o f t h D i ff e e re n c e e bl d
o t ro or u a as e n a e u s o

i t du m y i t s ti g typ s f s i s wh i h h h ith t
n ro ce an n e re n e O er e c av e er o

b ee n l g t dt re e m h l t s t g i th s t d t s di g
a e o a uc a er a e n e u en
’
re a n

i d b l d mt i l ssist
.

W h e ave re c e v e i th
a e an a er a a an c e n e

c h pt a P b b i li ty f m t h
er on ro R T C Si m
a ms f ro e ev on o

w ms t t h k s
. . .

C h is t s C ll g B d d
’
r o e e, re c o n an our ar e an are ue

h im b th f h i iti isi g d i mp i g th
,

t o ,
id i
o or s a n cr c n an ro v n e

t t
ex d f pl i g t
an or dis p s l s ac n li t as ti g d our o a ev e ra n e re n an

igi l p b l ms
,

or n a ro e

m
.

I t is h dly p ssi b l t ar d y d o t t is e o re a an o e rn re a e on

A ly ti l C ms
n a ca S li d G mt y with u t s m k w
o e or o eo e r o o e n o
 RE A C E P F ii .
v

l dg
e f D t m
e o i ts d th i ppli ti s W h
e er n an an e r a ca on e ave

m
.

th f
e re o re g i b i f l
ve n t ay d is u
r e ssi f D t m
e e eni ar c on o e er

n an t s i Ch p t n XXXIII i th h p th t it my p i d
a er n e O e a a ro v e

th st u d t wi th u s fu l i t du t y u s d p p
e en a e n ro c or co r e , an re are

h imf m mpl t s tu dy f th s u b j t
or a o re c o e e o e ec

t i s ll th ms t s fu l p
.

Th l s t h p t e a c a er c o n a n si t i a s e o u e ro
p o on

i th Th
n e y f E q u ti s s u i t b l f fi s t di g Th
eo r o a on a e or a r rea n . e

Th yeo r f E q u t io s f l l w s a t uon l ly o t h o s t u d y f
so na ra on e o

A lg b e th t ra
p l g y a is n od d f
a h o o i t d u i gp n ee e or e re n ro c n ro

p si
o t i s w h i
on h s u ll y fi d c
p l i
u s
a
p t tn t is I
ac e n a e ara e re a e n

si d b l p t f C h pt XXX V my b
.

f t
ac a co n era e ar o d a er a e re a

mu h li s t g d my
, .

wi th d t g
a t
van a e a a c e ar i tly er a e , an a c o n ve n en

b s t di d b f
e u e s m f t h h d s ti s f p i u s
e o re o e o e ar e r ec on o re v o

c h pt sa er .

I t will b f u d th t e h h pt
o n is a ly
e ac
p ssi bc l a er as n e ar as o e

co mpl t i i ts lf th t th d f th i s u ssi
e e n e ,
so a e o r er o e r cce on c an

b e var e i d t th dis ti f th t h ; b t it is m
a e c re on o e e ac er u re c o

m d d th t ll s ti s m k d wi th
en e a a ec on st isk sh u ld b ar e an a er o e

rs e e rve df s d di g or a e co n re a n

m ti g th s u s f mwh i h w h d i d
.

I n en u e ra n e o rc e ro c e ave e r ve

a ssi t i th p p ti f th is w k th is
s an c e n e re ara on b k
O or , e re on e oo

t owh i h it is di ffi u lt t
c y h w f c w oi d bsat d o ar e are n e e .

T dh u t s A lg b f S h l d C l
’
o n er e ra l g or h b c t h
oo s an o e es as e en e

re c o
g is d E
n
g lis he t t b nk f l g ext h t
-
it is
oo h d l y o r so on a ar

p ssi
o b l t h t y
e w a i t i g an t t bon e k Ar lg b n t t h a ex -
oo on e ra a e

p s
re en t d y s h u ld a t b l og l y i fl u n o d b y ite A t
ar e t h n en c e e

s m ti m th u gh f m y y s T dh u t s A lg b h
.

’
a e e, o or an e ar o n er e ra as

b e en i st t
n co n mg an p puu sei ls w
a h on l y our e ave ra re

m
,

a d p t d th
o e d d e o r er
g t t h
an l i d d
arran w ; i e en e re a o n n

m y h pt s w h f u d it p di t t mk f q u t
an c a er e av e o n ex e en o a e re en

u se o f lt ti a p fs
ern a ; d wve h ro olw ys l g anly p e av e a a ar e su

p l m e t den t h t e t b y m e u s i p
ext t s T h s ant s cr n o e . e e n o e ,

wh i h c w pp n o s tt d th u gh u t th p s t w k
a ear ca e re ro o e re e n or

t t i ms d i g th l s t t w ty
,

h av e b ll t d t diff
een co ec e a e re n e ur n e a en

H H . . A .
b
vfii P RE ACE F .

y ear s is
soi m p ssi b l t m
th at it k d fi i t k w l dg o e o a e e n e ac n o e e

mti bt i d f m
,

en y s wh ssist
n e ve r h b ca e e re a an c e as ee n O a n e ro

o th w it s
er B t p ki g g r er lly k wl dg
u S ea n e n e ra o ur ac n o e e

m ts tis s f S h l m
.
,

en h i fly d are ct th t e il h S t
ue o e rea e o c o c e rre

d m g E glish w i t s b si d s T dh u t s
, ,

dL u
’

an t; a re n an a on n r er , e e o n er

A lg b w h
e ra , i lly s u lt d th w ks f D
e ave o c cas o n a co n e e or o e

M g C l s G ss
o r an d C h y st l
o en o ro an r a

h lm D S
.
, , ,

T th R o J W ls e ev P f ss f M th o t en o e, c ro e or o a e

mti s t th R y l I di E gi i g C ll g
. .
. .
,

a e a e o a th ks n an n n e er n o e e, o u r an

are d f h i k i d ss i
ue or ll wi g u s t s l t q s t i s
s n ne n a o n o e ec ue on

f mh i u iq u
ro ll t i
s fp bl m
n s ; d the co s qu t ec on o ro e an e co n e en

g ia n t l t o h p t
our s w g t f lly
a er c k wl d g a er e ra e u ac no e e

mi s f u s t p ss
.

It re a n th ks t or ll g s o ex re our an o o u r co ea ue

an d f i ds wh h r en l g ly ssis t d u s i o di gav e d so ar e a e n re a n an

c o rre ct i g th p f s h ts ; i p t i u l w
n e i d bt d t
ro o ee n ar c ar e are n e e o

th R e H C W tsev f Cli ft C ll g f h i k i d ss a on o on o e e or s n ne

isi g th wh l w k d f m y lu b l s ugg sti

. . .

re v n e o e or ,
an or an va a e e on

i n y p t f it
e ve r ar o .

M a y , 1 88 7
H S H A LL
.

S R . . KN I GH T .

PR E FA C E TO TH E T H I R D E D I T ION .

is diti th t t d mpl s
I N th e s u b s t ti l]
on e ex an e xa e are an a

th s m i p e i u s di ti s b t f w ti l s
e a e as n r v o e on u a e ar c e

mpl s h b ifi d g m
,

b e en s t d ll th
re c a ,
an a e exa e ave e e n v er e a a r

W h e ls dd d
ave ll ti a f th o h u d d Mi
a el a co ec on O re e n re sc e

l s E m
an e o u
p l s wh i h wi ll b
xa f u d s f l f e d d c e o n u e u or a van c e

s tu d ts Th sen mpl s h b s l t d mi ly b t
e e exa e ave ee n e ec e a n u

lu si ly f mS h l s h i p
.

n o t ex c ve S t H us p p s ro c o ar or en a e o e a er

mu h c h bc are t k t i llu s t t as y p t f the en a en o ra e e ve r ar o e

s u bj t d t f i ly p s t th p i ip l U i si ty d
ec an o a r re re e n e r nc a n ve r an

i E mi ti s
,

C i il Sv e rv c e xa na on .

M a rc h , 1 88 9 .
 C O N TE N T S .

C HAPT E R I . RAT I O .

Co mm en s u rab le an d in co mm en s u rab le q u an titie s

R atio o f greater an d les s in eq u ality

n n n
a + qc + 7e +
a g e
b d f

b1 + b2 + b3
C ro multipli ti
ss ca on

E limi t f thn an O ree lin ear eq u atio n s

E mpl I
xa es .

C H A PT E R II . PR OPO RT I O N .

D efi n itio n s an d Pro p o s itio n s

Co mp aris o n w
b e t een algeb rai cal an d geo mt i e r c al d efi n itio n s
C as e o f in co mm en s u rab le q u an titie s
E xa mpl es II .

C HAPT E R III . V A RI AT I O N .

H A (I B, t h en A= m
B
In v ers e v ariatio n

Jo in t v ariatio n

If A c: B wh en 0 is c o n s tan t, an d A at: 0 wh en B is
fi s 0
I ll u s tratio n s E xa mp l es o n j o in t v a ria t io n

mpl
.

E xa es II I .
 CO N TE NT S .

C H APT E R IV . A RI T H ME T I C AL P R O G RE SS I O N .

Sumf t m f o ith mti

n er s o an ar e c al s erie s

Fu d m t l f m
n a ul en a or a
e

I ti f ith mti m
n s er on O ar e c e an s

E mpl I V
xa es a.

D u
.

isc s s io n o f ro o ts o f an ?
(2a d) n 2s 0
E xa mpl es IV b . .

i/ C H APT E R V . G E O ME T RI C AL P R O G RE SS I O N .

In s ertio n o mt i m
f geo e r c e an s

Su mf o n t m f g mt i l
er s o a eo e r ca s erie s

Su mf o an i fi it g mt i l
n n e eo e r ca s erie s

E xa mpl V es a

ml
. .

u
Pro o f o f r le fo r th e re du c tio n o fa re c u rrin g d ec i a

Su mf o n ter m s o f an arith mti

e co -
ge o mt i e r c s erie s

m
E xa p les V b .

C H APT E R V I . HA R M O NI C AL P R O GRE SS I O N T H E O REM S C O NN E C T E D .

W I T H TH E P R O G RE SS I O N S .

R ecip ro c als o fq u an titie s in H P are in A P

m m
. . . .

H ar o n ic e an

Fo r mul e c o n n ec tin
a gA M , C M , H M
. . . . .

u u
.

H in t s fo r so l tio n o f q es tio n s in Pro gres s io n s

Su mf O sq u are s o f th e n at u ral n um b ers

Su mf o c u b es o f th e n at u ral n um b ers
2 n o tatio n

mpl VI
E xa es a

N um f h t i py m
. .

b er o id s o n ra o n a sq u are b as e
Py m id
ra t i gul b
on a r an ar as e

Py m id
ra t gu l b
o n a rec an ar as e

I mpl t py mid
n co e e ra

E mpl VI b
xa es . .

C HAPTE R V II . S CAL E S OF N OT AT I O N .

E x p lan atio n o f s y s te m s o f n o tatio n

E xa mp l V II
es a

um
. .

E x p re s s io n o f an in tegral n b er in a p ro po se d s c ale
E x p re s s io n o fa ra d ix frac tio n in a p ro po se d s c ale
 C O NT E NT S .
xi

AGE
um
P
Th e d iffe ren c e b e t w e en a n b er an d th e su m f it o s d igits is dv
i is ib le
by r— l .

Pro o f O f r le fo r u “
ca s tin g o u t th e n in e s

Te s t o dv
f i is ib ility b y r 1
E xa m V II ple s b . .

CH A PT E R V III . S U RDS AND IM AG N A RYI QU ANT I T I E S .

R ati o n ah s mg th e d en o m i n ato r o f
a

N /b /
N C l
''
fl
R atio n alis in g fac to r o f ( fit A g/b
Sq u are ro o t o fa + Jd
C beu ro o t o fa + Jb
mpl V I I I
E xa es a

I mgi
. .

y qu
a n ar an tities

If a + i b = 0, t h en Cl r - 0, b z o
If t h en a z e, b=d
Mo du u l s o f p ro du ct is eq u al to p ro du ct o f mdulio

S u q are ro o t o f a + ib
Pw o e rs o fi
Cub e ro o ts O f u n i ty ; 1 + w+ w
2 : 0
P w o ers o fw
E xa mpl V I I I es . b .

C HAPT E R IX . TH E T H E O RY OF Q U AD R A T I C E Q U AT I O N S .

ud u
A q a ratic eq at io n c an n o t hv m h w
a e o re t an t o ro o ts
C o n ditio n s fo r real, eq al, i u mgi a n ary ro o ts

Su mf o ro o ts
g du p ro c t o f ro o ts z -

;
Fo r mti a on o f eq u wh at io n s en th e ro o ts are v gi en

d
C o n i tio n s t h at th e ro o ts o f a q ud a ratic s h ud
o l b e ( 1) eq u al in mg a n i
t ud e an d Opp o s ite in Sign ( 2) re c ip ro c als

mpl
,

E xa es IX a

m
. .

Fo r real v u al es o f r th e e x p re s s io n a x
2
+ b x + c h as in gen eral th e sa e

s ign as a ; e x ce p tio n s

E xa mpl s IX e . b .

D efi n i tio n s o ffn n c tio n va ria b le , ra ti o n a l i n tegra l fu n c ti o n

my b
,

C o n ditio n t h at acc
2 2
+ hx y + b y
2
29 50 + 2fy + c a vd
e re s o l e in to t wo
lin ear fac to rs
d
C o n itio n t h at a m ” bx an d
'2
a r .
+b
'
x c
’
0 mhv
ay a e a co mm on

ro o t
E xa mpl es IX . 0 .
 C O NTENT S .

CHAPT E R X . M I SC E LLA N E O U S E Q U AT I O N S .

u vv
E q atio n s in uk ol in g o n e n no w n q u an tity
u
R ecip ro c al eq atio n s

E xa m X p le s a

u v vi w u k w u
. .

E q atio n s in o l n gt o n n o n q an titie s

m u u
H o o gen eo s e q atio n s

E xa m X ples b
u v v v u k w u
. .

Eq atio n s in ol in g se eral n no n q an titie s

E xa m X
p les c

d m u um mpl
. .

In ete r in ate e q atio n s ; e asy n eric al ex a es

E xa mpl es X (I . .

CHAPT E R XI . P ERM U TA T I O N S AND C OM B IN A T I O N S .

m
Preli in ary p ro p o s itio n
N umb fp mut ti
er o er a on s o h
f n t in gs r at a ti m e

N umb f mb i ti
er o co na on s h
o f n t in gs r at a ti m e

Th umb f mb i
e n er o co n atio n s o f 71. t in gs h r at a mi
ti u e s eq al t o th e
umb f mb i
n er o co n atio n s o h
f 11 t in gs n r at a ti m e

um m+
.

N b er o f w ay s in wh h ic a +p h
t in gs c an dvd d be i i e in t o
clas s e s c o n tain in g m n p h
t in gs v
s e erally

mpl
, , ,

E xa es XI a

m lik
. .

Sign ifi eatio n o f th e ter s

‘
e
’
an d ‘
u k n li e
’

N um m h
b er o f arran ge m wh h en ts of n t in gs ta en all at a ti k e, en p t in gs
lik
are a k d h e o dk d
fo n e in q t in gs are ali e o f a s ec o n k in &c
um mu m wh hm
, ,

N b er o h
f p er tatio n s o f 71. t in gs r at a ti e, en e ac ay be
d
rep eate

Th e t o talum m n h b er o f c o
f n t in gs b in atio n s o

d
TO fi n fo r wh v u at al e o f r th e e xp res s io n ”
C T is gre ate st
mu um
A b i n i ti o pro o f o f th e fo r m
la fo r th e n b er o f c o b in atio n s o f n

h t in gsm r at a ti e

To tal um n h wh
b er o f selectio n s k o f 17 + q + r + t in gs , ere o fp are ali e

k d k
Of o n e dk din q ali e o fa s ec o n in &c
mpl
, ,
.

E xa es XI b . .

CHAPT E R X II MAT H E M AT I CA L IN D U C T I O N . .

u
I ll stra ti f th mth d f p
ons o f e e o o ro o

P du
ro c t f bi m
o i lf t
n f th f m +
no a ac o rs o e or a: a

m
E xa p le s XII .
 C O NT E NT S x fii

CH A PT E R X III . B IN O MI A L T H E O RE M . PO I T IS V E I N T E G RA L I N D EX .

E xp an s io n o f wh en n is a p o s iti v e in te ge r
G en eral ter m f th p io e ex an s o n

Th e exp an s o n i my b md a e a e to d e p en du po n th e c as e in wh h ic th e fi rs t

ter mi s u n ity
Seco n d p ro o f o f th e b in o mi l tha e o re m
E xa m p les XIII a

m mth
. .

Th e c o ef
fi c en i ts Of t er s eq u dii s tan t fro e b egin n in g an d en d
are e q u al .

D ete r mi n atio n f th e greate s t ter

o m
Su m f th o e c o ef
fi cien t s
Su mf o fi cien
c o ef ts o f o dd ter mi s s eq u al to su mf O fi c ien
c o ef ts o fe v en

t m er s

E xp an s io n o f multi mi l no a s

E xa mpl XIII es . b .

CHAPT E R X I V . B IN O M I A L T H E O REM . ANY IN D E x .

E ul er s p ro o f o f th e b in o ial t eo re
’
or m h mf y i d an n ex

m
Gen eral ter o f th e exp an s io n o f ( 1 + x ) “

m XIV
E xa ple s a

hm i
. .

E xp an s io n o f (1 is on ly arit e t c ally in telligib le wh en x <1

Th e e xpre s s io n ( 33 + y )
”
c an al w b ay s e e xp an dde b y th e b in o mi l a

h m t e o re

G m
en eral ter O f th e e xp an s io n o f (1
P i u
art c lar c as es o f th e ex p an s io n s o f (1
A m
pp ro xi atio n s Ob tain e d b y th e b in o mi l th a e o re m
m XI V
E xa ples b
um m
. .

"
N eric ally gre ate s t ter in th e ex p an s io n o f ( + x )
1
N um hmb er o f o o gen eo s p ro c ts o f r i en s io n s fo r u du dm md e o u t Of n

letters
N um mi
b er O f ter s n th e ex p an s io n o fa mu mi ltin o al

N um m
b er o f co b in atio n s o h
f 71 t in gs r at a ti m e , rep etitio n s b ein g allo wd e

E m
.

xa XIV ples . c .

C H APT E R XV . M U LT IN O M I A L T H E O REM .

G en eral ter mi n th e ex p an s io n o f ( a wh en p is a

p o s iti e v in teger
G en e ral ter mi n th e ex p an s io n o f ( a + bx + 0 33
2
+ Lr +(
3 wh en n

is a ra tio n al q u an tity
E xa mpl es XV .
 C O NT E NT S .

CH APT E R X V I . L O GARI T H M S .

D efi n itio n N = a10 ga N

m t y p p iti
.

E le en ar ro os ons

E mpl XVI
xa es a

C m m L g ithm
. .

o on o ar s

D t mi ti f th h
e er na on o e c arac te ris tic b y in sp e c tio n
A dv t g anf l g ith mt
a es o o ar s o b as e 1 0
Adv an tage s o f al w k ay s e ep in g th e m an tis s a p o s iti e v
Gv i en th e lo garit hm s o f all n umb ers to b ase a , to fi n d th e lo garit hm
s

to b as e b
lo ga b x lo gb a 1
E xa plesm XV I . b .

CH A PT E R X V II . E X PON E N I I A L
'‘
AND L O GA RI T H MI C SERIE S .

E xp an s io n o fa
”
. Series fo r e

mit 1
i)
wh n

e is th e li o f —
,
en n is in fi n ite

E xp an s io n o f lo g, ( 1 a
t )
C o n s tr u ctio n o f Tab les o f L o garit hm s

d v
R api ly co n ergin g s erie s fo r lo g, (n 1) lo g, n

u
Th e q an tity 3 is in c o en s rab le mm u
E xa m XV I I
ples .

C HAPTE R X V III INTERE T . S AND A N N U ITI E s .

mu
I n teres t v m m
an dA o n t f a gi
o en su at Si p le in teres t
P V u
res e n D u
t v m m
al e an d is c o n t o f a gi en su at si p le in teres t
mu
I n teres t v m mu d
an dA o n t o f a gi en su at c o po n in te re s t
Nom u u
in al an d tr e an n al rate s o f in tere s t

C asemu d o f co v mm po in teres t p ay ab le e ery

n o en t
P V u
re sen D u
t v m mu d
al e an d is c o n t o f a gi en s u at c o po n in teres t
m XV I I I
.

E xa ples . a .

u
An n D itie s efi n itio n s

mu
.

A u d u m
o n t o f n p ai an n ity , si p le in te re s t
Amu u d u mu d
o n t o f n p ai an n ity , co p o n in tere s t
P v u
re s e n t u mu d
al e o f an an n ity , co po n in tere s t
Num u h
b er o f y ears p ’
rc as e

P v u d d u mu d
res en t al e o f a eferre an n ity , co po n in tere s t
w
.

F in e fo r th e ren e al o f a leas e
E m xaXVII I ples . b .
 C O NT E NT S XV

C HAPT E R X IX . I N E Q U AL I T IE S .

m t y P p iti
E le en ar ro os on s

A ith mti m
r f tw p e c ean o o o s iti e v u q an titie s is gre ate r t h an th e ge o mt ie r c

m ean

Th m f tw qu titi
e su o o an es b ein g gi v hen du t e ir p ro is greate s t
ct wh en

m
,

t h ey are e q u al : p ro du c t b ein g gi v en , th e su is leas t wh h

e n t ey are

eq ul a

Th e arit hm m etic ean o fa n um b er o f p o s iti v u e q an tities is greater t h an

th e geo mt i m e r c ean

Gi ven su mf b o a, c, t o fi n d th e greate s t v u al e o f
f m im mi im
,

E a sy c as es o ax a an d n a

E xa mpl X IX m
es a

hm m mpw um v
. .

Th e arit etic e an o f th e o e rs o f a n b er of p o s iti e

q u i an tit es is greater th mpwan

th
o er o f t h eir arit hm m e tic ean ,

wh mi
ex cep t en l e s b et w e en 0 an d 1

If a an dbv are p o s iti e in tegers , an d a > b,

( 1

a
a
bb

E xa mpl es XIX . b .

C H APT E R XX . L I M I T IN G V ALU E S AND V ANI H I N G RACT I O N

S F S .

D efi n itio n o fL i it m
Li mit o f I S ao wh en xi s z e ro

k m
By ta in g a: uh m g , ys te r o f th
all e n o
e Se rie s a + a x + a 2x an

m
0 1

m md
ay b e w m dw h
a e a s large a s e p le as e co p a re it th e s u o f all
h w d k
t at fo llo uh
it ; an mm
b y ta in g a: large en o g , an y ter ay b e

md w m d wi h
a e a s large as m h
e p leas e c o p are t th e su o f all t at

d p re c e e it
M h d
et d m o m v h o f e ter in in g th e li it s o f an is in g frac tio n s
D u is c m uli
s s io n u mu ou f so e p ec aritie s in th e s o l tio n o f Si ltan e o s

u eq atio n s

P u ec u ud u
liaritie s in th e so l tio n o fq a ratic e q atio n s

E xa mpl es XX .

CHAPT E R XX I . C ON V ER G E N C Y AND D I V ER G EN C Y OF S ERIE S .

C as e o f ter m s alte rn ate ly p o s iti v e an d n egati e v 23 0

Seri es
0 O

18 co n v ergen
o
t If L t
g

m u1
3
I

13 le s s t h an 1 2 32
6 11
-
1
X VI C O NT E NT S .

Co mp ari s o n o f 2 a” wh it an a ui x liary se rie s E v”

1 1 1
— — +
Th e au xi h ary s eri e s +
T E 2 19 3p
A pplic atio n to B in o m
i l a ,
E xp o n en tial, L o garit hm S
ic erie s

m lo g n
L i i ts o f —
n
an d na
n
wh en n is in fi n ite

Pro d u ct o f an in fi n ite n um b er Of fac to rs

E xa mpl es XXI . a .

n -
s eries is v
co n ergen t wh en v s eries
-
is co n v ergen t,

v mi
Series is co n ergen t if L i n 1
)2 1

v m
( )
E
Series is co n ergen t if L i n lo g L 1
u n +1

Serie s 2 ¢ ( n ) co mp are dw h it s eri es Z a cp (n )

n

Th e a u xili ary s eries 2

71. l
1

( g )
o n ”

Serie s is co n v ergen t if L i m[ % n
u

uw
”
1
) l ] l lo g n 1
t1
-

Pro du c t o f two in fi n ite s eries

E xa mpl es XXI . b .

CHAPT E R XX II . U N D ET ERMINE D C O E FF I C IE N T S .

I f th e eq u atio n f( ) x = 0 h as m o re th an n ro o ts , it is an id en tity
Pro o f o f p rin cip le o f ud n eter mi n e d c o e ffic ie n ts fo r fi n ite s erie s

E xa mp l
XX I es I . a .

Pro o f o f p rin c iple o f ud n e te r mi n e d c o e ffi c ie n t s fo r in fi n ite s e rie s

E xa m XXII
ples . b .

CH A PTE R XX III . P A RT I AL FRACT I O N S .

D ec o mp o s itio n
in to p artial frac tio n s
U se o f p art ial frac tio n s in e xp an sio n s

E xa mpl es XXI II .

C H A PT E R XX I V RE CU RRIN G SERIE S .

Scale o f relatio n
Su mf ou a rec rrin g series
G en eratinu gf n c tio n

E xa m XX IV
ples .
 C O NT E NT S .

u
So l tio n o f x
2
Ny 2
1
G en eral s o u
l tio n Of x
2
Ny ?
1

u
So l tio n o f x
2
n
2
y
2
a

C HAPT E R XX I X . S U M MAT I O N OF S ERIE S .

Su mm v u mh d
ary o f p re io s et o s

an duth e p ro P ct o f n fac to rs in A . .

an th e du
re c ipro c al f th e p ro o ct o f n fac to rs in A P . .

M h detSu o of b trac tio n

E x p res s io n o f an as s u m ff t o ac o rials

Po ly go n al an d Figu ra t N m
e b u ers

Pasc al s Trian gle

’

E xa mpl XXIX es . a .

Me t hd D
o o f ifferen ce s
Met h d u d wh
o s ccee s en a n is a ratio n al in tegral f u n c tio n o fn

I f an is a ratio n al in tegral f u n c tio n o fn ,

"
th e s erie s Z an e is a re c u rrin g

s erie s

F rtuh u er c ases o f rec rrin g s erie s

m XXIX
E xa p le s b
u mh d umm
. .

M is c ellan e o s et o s o fs atio n

S m
”
u o f s erie s + n

B u um
e rn o lli
’
s N b ers
m XXIX
E xa p le s . 0 .

C HAPT E R XXX . T E O RY
H OF N U M B ER S .

m t f p i ipl
State en o rn c es

N umb f p im i i
er o r es s n fi n ite
No ra tio n al algeb raic al fo r mul a c a n re p re s en t p ri m es o n ly
A n um b er c an b e re s o lvd e in to p ri e fac to rs in m on ly on e way
Num b er o f i is o rs dv v o fa gi en in teger
Num b er o f w ay s an in teger c an b e re s o l e vd in to two facto rs
S m u o f th e dv f v i is o rs o a gi en in teger
h
H ig es t po w m er o f a p ri e co n tain e d in
|n
P duro ct o fr uv ti in tegers is dv i i sib le b y
c o n sec e
E
Fer mt a
’
s T h m eo re N p —l 1 = M (p ) wh ere p is p ri m e an d N p ri mt e o 1)
E xa mpl es XXX . a .

D efi n itio n o f c o n gru en t
 C O NT E NTS .
x x i

AGE
P

If a m
is p ri e to b , t h en a, 2a , 3 a , (b 1) a wh d v d d
en i i e b le a v
e
d iffe ren t re ain m d ers

(a ) «A ( b ) «n o
1
(N ) 1
5 )
Wils o n h m ’
s T e o re : 1
l
p 1: l (p ) wh ere i
p s a p ri me

u
A p ro p erty pe c liar t o p ri e n b ers m um
’
h m(
W ils o n s T e o re s ec o n p ro o f) d
Pro o fs b y in du c tio n

E xa m XXX
p le s . b .

CH A PT E R XXX I . TH E ENE RA L
G T H E O RY OF C ONT I N U ED
F RA C T I O NS .

L aw o f fo r mti a on o fs u c c es s i e c o nv v e rgen ts

“1
b1
+ ( 12
b2
+
h as a d efi n i te v u al e I f L t mb a n an
+1
>0
n+ 1

Th e v ? b 2 0

d
ts t o p o s i t1 ve p ro p er frac tI o n s
0

co n ergen are as ce n
a a2

d
in g o r er o f mg a udn it e, if 1 bn
G en eral v u al e o f co n v wh
ergen t en an an d bn are c o n s tan t
C as es wh ere gen eral v u v
al e o f co n ergen t c an b e fo ud n

a
bl
+ a
b2
+
I s In co mm u en s rab le , if
§
fl
a
<1

mpl
1 2

Exa XXXI es . a.

{Series d expre s se as c o n tin ud e frac tio n s

Co n vers io n Of o n e c o n tin ud e frac tio n in to an o t h er

E xa m XXX I
ples . b .

C H APT E R XXX II . PR O A B B ILITY .

efi n itio n s an d ill u s tratio n s Si mpl e E v en ts

mpl
.

XXXI I
xa es a

mp u
. .

Co d v o n E en ts
P b b
ro h w d d v w hh
a ility t at t o in ep en en t e en ts ill b o t ap p en is p p
’

mu h d
Th e fo r d d v la o l s als o fo r ep e n en t e en ts
Ch v wh h h
an c e o mu u uvw
f an e en t ic c an ap p en in t ally e x c l s i e ay s

m XXXII
E xa ple s b
m
. .

h v h
C an c e o f an e en t ap p e n in g e x ac tly r ti es in n trials
E x p ec tatio n v u d p ro b ab le
an al e

Pro b le m o f p o in t s
”
 X C O N T E NTS

E xan
In v
m XX X I
les
ro b ab ili ty
I . c .

ers e p
State mt en o f B ern o u lli s T
’
h eo re m
Pro o f o f fo r mul a Q, 2
t
( )
p P
C o n cu rren t tes ti my on

d
Tra itio n ary t es tim y on

E xa mplXXXII des

mt i mth
. .

L o cal P ro b ab ility . Geo e r cal e o d s

u m
M isc ellan e o s ex a p le s
E xa plesm XXXII . e .

CHAPT E R XXX III D E T ERM I N A N T . S .

E limi t f tw h mg
n an u li qu ti
o o o o en e o s n ear e a on s

E limi t f th
n an h mg u li q u ti
o ree o o en eo s n e ar e a o ns

D t mi t i t lt d b y i t h gi g w d lum
e er n an s no a e re n erc an n ro s an co ns

D v l pm t f d t mi t f thi d d
e e o en o e er n an o r o r er

Sig nf d t m
o i at i lt d b y i t h gi g tw dj t
e er n an s a e re n e rc an n o a ace n ro w s

um co l n s

w
If t w m
o ro d d m v h
s o r c o lu n s are i en tic al, th e e te r in an t an is es

mm
A fac to r c o w um m d u d on to an y ro o r co l n ay b e p la ce o ts i e

md um m
mm
wh
Cas e s u ere c o n s tit en ts are a e up o fa n b e r o f te r s
du
Re d m
c tio n o w f um ete r in an ts b y si ifi c atio n o f ro s o r co l n s

P du
ro w d m
ct o ft o e ter in an ts

m XXXIII
E xa ples a

mu
.

u u u
.

A p plic atio n to so l tio n o f Si ltan e o s eq a tio n s

D m uh d
.

eter in an t o f fo rt o r er

D m eter d
in an t O f an y or er

N o tatio n 2 a1 b 2 c d

m XXXIII
3 4
E xa ples . b .

C HAPT E R XXX I V MI C E LLA N E O U T E O REM . S S H S AN D

vw
R e ie udm wo f th e f n a en tal la s o f A lgeb ra
f ( ) wh d v d d x
5
0 en v m d f( )i i e by a lea e s re ain er a

Qu o f ( ) wh
tien t dvd d xo f T en i i e by a

M h det D hd
o o f e t ac e C o e ffic ien ts
H M h d
o rn er s
’
h Dv et o o f Sy n t e tic i is io n
S m
y m Fu
e tric al an d Altern atin g n c tio n s

E xa m d w kd
ple s o f i en titie s or e o ut

u ul mu
L is t o f s ef fo r lae
E xa mpl es XXXIV . a .

I dtities p ro
en vd e b y p ro p ertie s O f c b e u ro o t s
3 3 3
Lin ear fac to rs Of a + b + c 3a b c
Value o f a n
+b +c
n n
wh en a +b + c=0
E xampl XXXIV b es

E lim
. .

i ti na on

E lim
i ti b y ymmt i l f
na on s e r ca un c tio n s

E l mth d f limi ti
u er S
’
e o o e n a on

Sy l v Di M h d
es ter s
’
aly tic et o

B ez o u t mh d ’
s et o

Mis c ellan eo u m mi s ex a ple s o f eli n atio n

E xa m XXXI V l
p es . 0 .

C H APT E R XXX V . T H E O RY OF E Q U AT I O N S .

E v e ry e q u atio n o f th e n
th
d egree h as n ro o ts an d n o m o re

R elatio n s b et w een th e ro o ts an d th e c o e ffi cien ts

T h e se relatio n s are n o t fi cien
su f t fo r th e so l ui
t on

C ases u ud v o di
f so l tio n n er gi en c o n it on s

E asy mm i u
cas e s O f s y etr c al f n c tio n s o f th e ro o ts
E xaml XXXV p es a

m
. .

I d u d
a gin ary an ui i s r ro o ts o cc r n pa rs

F m or d u f u
atio n an w h ud so l tio n o eq atio n s it s r ro o t s

D Ru S
es carte s
’
le o f ign s

m XXXV
.

E xa p les . b .

V u f(
al e o f D iv d Fu i 37 + er e n ct o n s

u
C alc latio nf ( ) m o f r
c +h by H o er s
’
p ro c e s s
f( ) h 33 i v lu
c du an ges ts a e gra ally

If f( ) a an d f (b) are o f co n trary S ign s , f( ) x

—
: 0 h as a ro o t b et w een

a an db
An eq u atio n o f an o dd d e gre e h as o n e re al ro o t
An eq u atio n o f an e en v d e gree w hi
it ts las t ter m n e gati e v h as two re al

ro o ts
If f ( )x
—
: 0 h as r ro o tsu eq al to a,
’
f ( ) x :
-
0 h as r 1 ro o ts eq u al to a

D mi’
eter n atio n o f eq u al ro o ts .

f ( ) x 1 1 1

f (x) 57 a x b +
3; _ c
0
+

Su mf d w
o an as s ign e po er o f th e ro o ts
E xa m XXXV
ple s 0

m
. .

Tran s fo r u atio n o f eq atio n s

Eq u wh atio n it ro o ts O f Sign Op p o s ite to t h o se Of f( x ) =0

E qu w i h m
atio nu t ro o ts ltiple s o ft h o se o f f (x ) 2 0
xx fi C O NT E NT S

Equ wh atio n i h it f( ) ro o ts rec p ro cals o ft o se o f x =0

D u
isc i u
s s io n of rec p ro c al e q atio n s
Equ wh atio n u h f( )
it ro o ts s q ares o f t o s e o f s =
a O
Equ wh atio n di h
it f( )
ro o ts ex c e e n gby h t o se o f x =0

R mv
e o d m
al o f an as s ign e ter .

Equ wh atio nv u it h f(
ro o ts gi en f n c tio n s o ft o se o f x ) =0

m XXX V d
E xa ple s . .

u u i
C b ic d S u
eq at o n s . C ar an s
’
ol tio n
D u
is c u
s s io n o f th e so l tio n
S u
ol m du
tio n b y Trigo n o etry in th e irre c ib le c as e

ud u F S u
B iq a ratic E q atio n s errari s
’
o l tio n .

D S u i
esc arte s
’
ol t on

U d m d mu
n eter in e ltipliers
D m ub
is c ri i n atin g c ic ; ro o ts all re al

h mu u u x
S u
r
/ z
o l ti o n o ft re e S i ltan eo s e q ati o n s
a + l\ b C A
m XXX V
E xa p le s . e .

M u m
is cellan e o s E xa p le s
An w s e rs
 H I GH E R A L GE B R A .

C H APT E R I .

RA T I O .

1 D E F INI T I O N
R at io is t h e re la t io n h ic h o n e q a n t it w u y
m m m
. .

h
b e a rs t o a n o t e r o f t h e s a e kin d, t h e c o pa ris o n b e in g a de b y
c o n s ide rin
g at lt ip le,
p wh mu
a rt , o r
p a rt s , o n e
q a n t it is Of t h e u y
o t h er .
'

Th e ra t io o f A t o B is s a ll rit t e n A B u
Th e q an t itie s u yw u
m fi m
.

A a n d B a re c a lle d t h e ter s o f t h e ra t io Th e rs t t e r is
m s
.

c a lle d t h e an t e c e den t , t h e s e c o n d t e r t h e c o n e q en t u .

To fi n d
2 wh t mu l ipl p t A i f B w divid A
a t e o r ar s o e

B my b m u d b y h f ti
.
, e

b y B ; h en c e th e ti A ra o a e ea s re t e ra c on

A
B
an d we s h ll u u lly fi d t v t t d pt th i t ti
a s a n I co n e n i en o a o s n o a on .

In o rde r t o mp t w qu ti i t h y mu t b p
co a re di o an t es e s e ex re s s e n

te r m s Of th e sam u i Thu t h ti f £ 2 t 1 5 i m u d
e n t . s e ra o o o s . s ea s re

2 20 8
by t he f ra c t i o n
x

15 3
N OT E A ra tio e x p re s s e s th e nu mb er o f ti mes t h at o n e q u an tity co n

h h
.

tain s an o t er, an dt ere fo re eve ry ra tio is a n a b s tra c t q u a n tity .

3 . Sin ce b y t h e la w s o f f ra c t io n s ,

a m a

b mb ’

it f
llo ws t h a t t h e ra t io a
o b is e q a l t o t h e ra t io a b; u m m
h
t at is , th e va lu e of a ra tio re a in s u n altered if th e a n tec ede n t m
a n d th e c o n sequ e n t a re u ltip lied o r di vided b g th e s a m
e qu a n tity m .

H . H . A . 1
2 H IGH E R ALGEB RA .

4 Two o r m o re ra t io s my b a e co mp a re d by u
re d c in
g t h e ir

mm mi
.

e
q i uv a le n t f ra c t io n s to a co on de n o n a to r . Th u s s u pp o se

bx
a b an d a: y a re two ra tio s . N ow
a

b
ag
_

by
’
an d
ac
_
by
’
h en c e
z/
th e ra t io b is gre a t e r t a n , e q a l t o , o r le s s t a n
a h u h th e ra t io

a: g a c c o rdin
g a s a g is
g re a t e r t a n , e
q a l t o , o r le s s t h u h an b et .

5 . Th e ra t io o f t wo f ra c t io n s c an be e x p re s s e d a s a ra t io

o f t wo in t e ge rs . T hu s th e ra t io Q
b
E is
d
m u eas re d by th e

f ra c t io n an d is t h f e re o re eq u iv a enl t to th e ra t io

a d be .

6 . If e it h
b o th , o f t h e t e r s
e r, or m of a ra t io b e a s rd u
q u
y h
an t it , t e n n o t w o in t e ge rs c a n b e o fu n d ic wh h w
ill ex a c tly
m u h
e a s re t e ir ra t io T s t h e ra t io J 2 . hu 1 c an n o t b e e x a c t l y
e x re s s e d b
p y an
y t w o in t e ge r s .

7 .D F
e x p re s s e d e x a c t l
b y t h e ra t io o f t w o in t e ge rs , t h e q an t itie s
a re s a id t o b e c o
mm s u
E INI T I O N
I f t h e ra t io o f a n y t wo q an t itie s c an b e
. u
y
u
en rab le ; o t h e r is e mm s u
t a re s a id t o b w hy
,
e e

in c o en rab le .

A lt h u gh w t fi d tw
o i t g e can n o n o n e e rs w h i h w ill
c ly ex act

m u th ti f t w i mm u b l
ea s re e ra o o o n co en s ra e
q u t it
an i w es, e c an

alw ys fi d t w i t g s w h
a t i diff
n o n e er o se ra o e rs f mt h t qui d
ro a re re

by mll qu t ity w pl
as s a a an as e ease .

£
N
5
[

J 5 559 01 7 559 01 8
an d t h f
e re o re
1 000000 1 000000
4
an d

h
SO t a t t h e dif fe re n c e b e t ee n t h e ra t io s 559 01 7 w 1000000 an d
J 5 4 is le s s t a n 0 00001 B yhc a rr in
g t h e de c i y m a ls fu
rt h e r, a

m m
.

c lo s e r a pp ro x i a t io n a
y b e a rri e d a t v .

8 D F E INI T I O
N R a t io s a re co p o u n ded b y ltiply in g t o m mu
hm mu
. .

g h
e t er th e ra c t io n s if
c d e n o te t e ; o r b y lt wh h
i l
p y g in t o

g h
e t e r t h e a n t e c e de n t s fo r a n e w a n t e c e de n t , a n d t h e c o n s e
q e n ts u
fo r a n e w c o n s e q e n t u .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e ra tio c o mp u o n de d o f th e t h ree ratio s
2
2a : 3 b , Ga b 50 ,
c a
4 H IGHER ALGE B RA .

Th e p ro o o f t h e f f ll w i
o o n
g i mp o rt a n t t h e o re mw ill illu s t ra te

th e mh
e t o d o f p ro c e d u re .

h n n
re
a
q e
h th es e ra tio s
ea c 0 f d “
ri
n

wh ere p , q, r, n a re a n y q u an tities wh a tever .

‘
. f c
3

a z bh, e = dh, e t ,

" " " " " " "

b h h fh
”
d
”

p a
p , qc q ,
re r ,

" " " " " " "

pb h qd h f l
” ”

p a qc re r c

"
a + ge + re a c
—
b d

v
By gi in g di fe re n t f v lu s p q m y p ti u l
a e to r, n an ar c ar c a ses

m u d ; t h y my
, ,

o h
f t is ge n e ra l p ro p it i y b
o s d d on a e e ce or e a be
p v
ro e d in de p e n de n t ly b y u i g h m mt h d F i s n t e sa e e o . or n s t an c e ,

a c e
if
b d

ea c h of t h e s e ra t i o s H

b + d +f +

a re s u lt o f s u h f qu
c re en t u tili y t h t at th e f ll w i g v
o o n e rb a l e q ui
v a le n t S h u ld b
o e n o t ic e d : W hen a s eries of fra c tio n s a re equ a l
mi su mof a ll th e n u m
,

f
ea c h o th e
s e u a l to th e
q era to rs divi ded b y th e

su mo
f a ll th e d en om in a to rs .

m
E x a p le 1 . If s hw h e t at

3 2 2
a b 2c c 3ae f ace
'
'
b 4 + 2 d {f 3 bf 3 ij
ir

CL C e

b d f
a z b k, c z dlc, c =
fh ;
 RA TI O .
5

n w
‘
s 2
a el e 3a e f sa s
3 bf3 k3
b 4 + 2 d3f 3b b 4 + 2 d2f 3 bf3

m z
E xa pl e 2 If
x

a
y
b c
, p ro v h e t at

- 2
c

y +b z +c

It , so h
t at x = a lc,
y z b k, z z ck ;

a
2
h2 + a2 (k
2
+ 1) a

ak + a k+ 1

(k 2
+ 1) a
( r
t b (It c

k+ 1 k+ 1 k+ 1

k+ 1

— —
( x
. Iy i - - -
z
P -
I ( i + c)
a b 2- -

13 I f a n e q a t io n is h o u mg w it h p o en e o u s re s ec t to c e rta in

u m h u titi u b tit u t i u
.

a n t it ie s , we fo r t es e q an es s s e th e i
at o n
q a
y n e
q
an
y o t e rs ro
p p h
o rt io n a l t o t e hm F i t th . or n s an c e , e e
q u a t io n

lx
s
y my y 0 x
f
z n
g
z
2

is h mgo o e n eo u s in x, y, L e t z . a
, B , y b e t h re e
q u an t itie s p ro

p o rt io n a l to x, y, z re s e c t i e l
p v y .

P t h u x
_ y
B 7
t h en la
s
filt
4
mfiaB a /
4
n
fi
z
y hf
g ‘
0,

h l fl mfi y 0
s g
t at is , a a

an e
q u i
at o n of th e sa e m f m o r as th e o ri
gin al o n e, b u t wi h t
a
, B , y in th e
plac e s o f x , y, z re s
p e c ti v ly e .
6 HIGHER ALGE B RA .

14 . Th e f ll w i
o o n
g t h eo re mi imps o rt a n t .

a a a an
3
b
l

be
2

b3 bn
be u n equ a l fra c tio n s , f
o wh ich th e de

mi m
l

n o n a to rs a re a ll o f th e s a e s i gn ,
th en th e f ra c ti o n

b l
+ b2 + b3 + + bn

lies in mg a n i tu de b etween th e grea tes t an d leas t of th e m.

S u pp th o se at a ll th e de n o mi n at o rs a re
p o s it i v e . Let
61
-

6
3 b e th e

le a s t f ti ra c on ,
an d de n o t e it b y h t h en
r

by a dditio n ,

a + a 2 + a3 +
1

d + a + a +
2 3
k; t l1 a t ls, >
b, b, 63
m y w my p v
Si ila rl e a ro e th at

a + a + a + + a ,, a,
l 2 3
3
bl + b2 + ba + + 6 .
6,

w h e re
g is t h e gre a t es t o f t h e gi v f en rac t io n s .

m mmy
8

In like an n e r t h e t h eo re a b e p ro v ed wh e n all th e
de n o m in at o r s a re n e
g a ti v e .

15 y
Th e rea d applic a t io n o f t h e gen era l p rin cip le in o l e d v v
mh m
.

in A rt 1 2 is o f s c
g re a t a l e in a ll uhb v u
ra n c h e s o f at e a t ic s ,

h s mf m
.

u
t h a t t h e s t de n t s h o ld b e ab le t o u s e it wit u o e ree do in
an
y p a rt ic la r c a s e t a t u a
y a ris e w i t h o h m
t n e c e s s a ril in t ro d c in
g u y u
a n a x ilia ru s bol y ym ,

E x a p le lm . If
x y z
b +c —a c + a —b a + b — c

p ro v e tl mt a +b +c
 R AT I O .
7
sum f um t o n e ra o rs

su m fd mi ot en o n a o rs

x +y + z

a +b + c 0)
A gain , if we mu
ltip ly b o t n h um e rato r an d d m i n ato r f th e t h
v
gi en frac tio n s b y y + z , z + x , x + y re s e c ti e l ,
p y v en o o re e

e ac h frac tio n
x c +e y c+ a z c +n
—b —c
) )
su m f um t o n era o rs

su m f d mi t
o en o n a o rs

x
(M y)
2 ax 2by 2 cz

fro m( 1 ) an d

2 ( ax b y + cz )

m
E x a p le 2 ° H
mb
x

la ) m( mb ) mb
l( no nc la n ( la +

l m n
p ro ve th at — cz
°

x (b y + cz )
x y i
We h l m n
ave
mb + uc — la nc + la — 7n b la + mb — no

s e
m
i
r
.

2 la

two Si mil ar e xp re s s io n s ;

m z lz + n x m+ lyx

b c

u
M ltiply th e fi rs t o f t h es e frac tio n s ab o v e an d b elo wb y s ec o n d by
an d th e t irh d by 2 ; t h en

n xy m xz ly z n xy m xz ly z
ax by cz

two Si mil ar e x p re s s io n s ;

l m n

x ( b y + cz — a :r
) y ( ce + ux —b
y) z( o r
.
+ by — cz
)
°
8 IGHER ALGE BRA H .

I f we
16 h v w qu ti
a e t o e a on s co n t a in in g th ree u n kn o wn
q u
an t i t ie s in t h e fi tdg u h
rs e re e , s c as

a x
l
+ b ly + c z
l
z 0

a
z
m by c z
z
0

we c an n o t so l v th
e es e co mpl t ly ; b t b y writ in g t h mi th e
f m
e e u e n
o r

c
l
0,

0
2
0,

we by di n g
0 w y th e u kn o w v
d l th e
v

c an re
gar an as n n s, so e in
,
z z
o rdi n a r yw y a an d o b t a in

as b l e
z y c ,a
,
£
— c a
, l

z a b z a b
l 2
—a b

m
l g

o r, o re s y mmt i lly e r ca ,

b c b c o al
z
a b
l 2
“ 5
2 1

h u pp t h t wh w h v tw qu ti f th typ
It t s a e a rs a en e a e o e a on s o e e

re
p t d b y ( )
re s e n 1 d
e
( )
2 w m y l w yanb y t h b v f mu l e a a a s e a o e o r a

w it d w t h i
r e o n y i m s f
e ra t o s x : t h ffi i t f th z n ter o e co e c en s o e

e
q u t i ab y t h f
on s ll w i g u l e o o n r e

W it d w t hr e ffi i to n f y z i
e co e d b g i i g wi thc en s o x, n o r e r, e n n n

m
,

th f o se o d 1
p t h an i hre d i g
ea t ese as n t e a ra .

u
M lt iply th e co e ffi i
in t h e wa y in dic a ted b y t h e
c en ts a c ro s s

a rro s, wre e b e rin mm at in o r g t h

in g t h e p ro d c t s a n y o n e f m u
o b t a in e d b de s c en din i it i ve , a n d a n n e o b t a in e d b
y g s
p o s
y o
y
a s c e n din
g is n e ati e
g Th e t re e r e v
s lt s . h u
b l ee 62 0 1 , o a
l l
2
b o a
z ,
a
, 2
“
2
6 1

a re
p ro
p o rtio n a l to x,
y ,
z re s
p t iv l
ecy e .

h
T is is c a lle d t h e R u le o f C ss Mu lt ipli
ro c at io n .
 RATI O .
9

m
E x a p le 1 . Fin d th e ratio s o fx y z fro mth e eq u a tio n s

7 x = 4y 8e , 3x : 1 2x l ly .

By tran s p o s itio n we hv a e 7x 4g 8 z = O,
l 2x My 3e z 0 .

Write dw
o n th e fi c ien
co ef ts , t
'
hu s

4 s 7 4
11 3 12 11,
wh en c e we o b tain th e p ro du c ts

—4 8)
) x ( -
3) -
x 12 7 x 11
1 00, 7 5, 1 2 5;
x
_
y _
z
1 00 -
75 125

h
t at i s ,
x

4
y
3
z

m
E x a p le 2 . E li mi n ate x ,
y ,
z fro mth e eq u atio n s

al x —
I b + c = 0
ly l
z

a x
3 + b 3 y + c 3z = 0

Fro m(2) an d by c ro s s multipli c atio n ,

x y z
b 2c 3 b 3 02 02 a
3
c a
3 2
u b
z 3
a b
3 2

d en o tin g h
f t e s e ratio s b y k , b y
e ac o h multiply i n g u p s u u
b s tit tin g i n
dvd
an d i i in g o u t b y h , we o b tain
,

“
1 ( 11 203 bl ( C a
z s
c3 a2 ) C
i ( “2 1’s a bi) 0

T ish re la t io n is c a lle d th e eli m

i n an t o f t h e gi v en eq u a t io n s .

E xa m
pl e 3 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

—c —
)( c a )( a b)

Fro m( 1 ) an d by c ro s s multipli c atio n ,

x
y z h, s u se
pp o
b c c a a b
—b
x =h b
( — c
) , y z h ( C —a
) ,
z = h ( a ) .

u u
S b s tit tin g in

k { be (b —b
) —c
) < c —a >
(a —b
).
—c —b — c — a )( a — b) ;
h —
( b )( c n
)( a
) c )(

wh en c e r
.
z c —b
, y z a — c, z z b —a .
IO HIGH E R ALGE B RA .

17 . I f in A rt . 16 w p t z 1 q u t
e i s ( )
1 u ,
e a on an d ( 2) b e co m e

a ,x b ,y c
l
0,

an d ( 3) b eco m es

as l
b l o
g
— b e a ,b — a h
,

b i as b sc i c
i d e
c a
s i
O

a h
, g
a b
g ,
a b
l g
a b
g l

H en ce an
y two si mu lt an e o u s e
q u at io n s in v lvi
o n
g
k n o wn s in th e fi rs t degre e my a be so l v ed b y th e ru le
mu lt iplic a tio n .

E x a p lem . So l v e 5x 3y 1 0, x 2g 12 .

By tran sp o s i tio n , 5x 3y 1 O,

x 2y 12 0;

y 1
1 60 10 3

59
wh en c e _
I§

E XA M PLE S . I .

1 . Fi n d th e ratio c o mp u o n dd e o f

( )
I th e ratio 2a 3b, an d th e du pli c ate ratio o f 9 b2 a b .

( )
2 th e sub dupli c ate ratio o f 6 4 9, an d th e ratio 27 56 .

2
2a /6 a
du pli t
.

(3) th e
s
ca e ratio o f an d th e ratio 3 ax 2 by .

b 62

2 . If x + 7 2 ( x + 1 4 ) in th e dupli cate rat io o f5 8 , fin d x .

3 Fin d two n u mb e rs in th e rat io o f 7 12 so t h at th e greater

d
.

e xc e e s t h e les s b y 2 7 5 .

4 h t umb muW st be dd d to h t mf th e rat io 5 37

mk i qu l t
. a n er a e eac er o
to a e ? t e a 0 ~
1 3

5 . H a:
y = 3 z 4 , fi n d th e ratio o f 7x — 4
y 3x + y .

6 . I f 1 5 ( 2x 2 fi n d th e ratio o fx y .
12 H IG H E R AL GE BR A .

0 18 . If x = c
y + b z,
y = az + cx , z = b x + ay ,

s hw h
e t at 9 0

19 . Gi v h en t at a b ( z + x) =
y,
p ro v th
e at be ca + ab + 2a bc = 1 .

S lvo e th e fo llo wi g q u n e at io n s

20 . 3 x — 4y + 7 z = 0,
2x y 22 0, 3 x — 2y + 1 7 z O
— 3 3 3:
y
3
2
3 18 . . x + 3y + 2 2 16 7 .

2 2=
7y z 3z x = 4x y , 2y + 52 O,
2 2 2=
2 1y z 4x y , 7x 3y 1 5z o,
x+ 2y + 3 z = 19 . 5x

l
24 If
Ja
°

l m n

J a + Jb J b + Jc J on i
-

Ja

s h ew th at
l m
x/e
i b) x/b c)
— b) c — — c c— a
( a ( ( b )( a ( )
So l v e th e eq u at io n s

25 .

b cx + cay a bz = 0,
a bc ( by
3 3
x
y z Cl/ .23 O.

— c c— a
)( )( a

27 . If
2

p ro v e th at
— bc b (1
9
— ca
)
°

a ( 1 ) c (l — ab
)
lax + g +fy + cz
x

2
_ '
bc — f
2
cd —
g
2
ab — iz z

( 5 — 2
f)(
2
)( a ?)
( fy 072 (9 2
0 c a
9 ) 7 f f
O
) ( f
l by )
 C H A PTE R II .

PR O POR TI ON .

18 D E F I I TI O N N W h en t wo ra t io s a re eq u a l, fu
th e o r

m hm
. .

q u
an t it ie s c o
p o s in
g t e a re s ai d t o b e p ro p o rt io n a ls Thu
. s

if
b
a

d
c
__
’
t h en a, b, 0, cl a re p ro
p o rt io n a ls . h
T is is ex
p re s se d b y
sa y
in g t h at a is t o b as c is t o d, an d t h e p ro p o rtio n is wir tten
a b c d
o r

Th e t e r m s a an d (l a re c a lle d t h e ex tre m es , b an d c th e m ea n s .

19 If fo u r qu a n ti ti es a re i n p rop o rti o n , th e p ro du ct o
f
m m
.

ex tre es is equ a l to th e p ro du c t of th e ea n s .

Let a, b, c, d b e t h e p ro p o rt io n a ls .

T h en b y de fi n itio n
a

b
C

d
wh en c e ad z
bc .

H en c e if an
y t h re e ter m s o f a
p ro
p o rt io n a re
giv en ,
th e

f u t h my b f u d Thu
o r a e o n . s if a , e, d a re
gi v en ,
t h en b
a

?
C v ly if h
on e rs e ,
t e re a re an
y f u q uo r an t it ie s , a, b , c , ( I, s c uh
th d b hat a b d e, t en a, c, a re
p p i
ro o rt o n a ls a a n d cl b e in
g t h e

m
:

m
, ,

e x t re es, b an d c th e e an s ,
o r v v i ce e rs a .

20 D E FI N I TI O N .
Q u ti ian t es b e in
a re s a id to c o n t in u ed
wh fi t i
.

p ro p o rt io n en th e rs s t o t h e s e c o n d, a s t h e s ec o n d is
t o t h e t h ird, as th e t hi d r to th e o rt ; an d so fu h on . T hus
a, b, c, d, a re in co n i u dp
t n e ro
p o rt io n w e n h
a b c
-

b e t l
14 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

If t h re e
q u an t it ie s a, b, c a re in co n t in u e d p ro p o rt io n , t h en

[
2
ac b . A rt

In t h is c as e b is s a id t o b e a m
ean p ro p o rt io n al b e t we e n a an d
c an d c is s a id t o b e a t h ird p ro p o rt io n al t o a a n d b .

21 .
q f
I th ree u an tities a re p ro p o rtio n a ls th e fi rs t is to th e

third in th e du p lica te ra tio f

o th e fi rs t to the s eco n d .

b
L e t t h e t h re e q u an t i ti e s b e a, b, c ; t h Z
en
l
—
c

a a b
x
c b c

a a a
x
b b b

t h at is , a c = a b
g
.

h
I t w ill b e s e e n t a t t i p ro p o s it io n is t h e hs sa m e as t h e defin itio n
ofd
p li u
c a t e ra t io
gi e n in E c lid, B o o k V v u .

If a b d an d e z f z
g h, t h w ill
en ae bf

i
‘
f 9 .

’
b d f h

ae cg

ae bf : cg dh .

COR . If a z b z c z d,

an d b z x z d ; y,

th en a :x = c y .

Th i s h mk w
is t h e t q li i G mt y
e o re no n a s ex ce u a n eo e r .

23 I f f u qu ti i s b d f m p p ti
o my
r an t e a, c, or a ro or on an

h p p i my b d du d b y h p p i f f i
.
, ,

o t er ro o rt o n s a e e ce t e ro e rt e s O ra c t o n s

y fu l d m f
.

Th eul s f th p i
re s t o ese o e ra t o n s a re ve r u se an so e o

th m m b wdf m
,

e ft qu t d b y th
a re od en o e e an n exe na es o rro e ro

G mt y
eo e r .
 PR O PO R TI O N .
15

( )
1 If a : b = c d, t h en 6 a :
d e .

[ l n verten da ]
Fo r
a

5 22
—
e
,
t h f e re o re I
a

b
l
e

d
0

t h at is
b d
;
a e

b a = d e .

If a b : e d, t h en a e b d .

[ A ltern a n da
]
ad be
Fo r a d be t h f
e re o re
a 5
62
-

t h at is
a b J
C d
a e b d .

( )
3 If a b e d, t h e n a b b r
e d [ C o m
p o n en da ]
Fo r
a

b
e

d
’
t h e re f o re
a

E
+ 1
e

d
+ 1,

a + b c + d
t h at Is 5
b d
a + b z b z e + d z d

( )
4 If a b e d, t h en a b b e d [D ividen da
]
Fo r
a

6
e

d
t h f e re o re
5
a
— 1
e
— —
61
1;

a b c d 0

b d
a — b z b z e — d z d

—b
( )
5 If a z b z e z d, t h e n a + b z a : e + d e d .

a + b c + d
Fo r b y ( 3 )
b d
b d
g s
a
an d by ( )
4 ;

a + b c + d
b y di v1 s 10 n ,
a b e d
a + b :a — d
h
T is pro po s it io n is u u lly qu
s a o te d as Co m
p o n en do an d D ivi
den do
my b
.

Se ve ra l o th e r pro po rt io n s a e p ro v e d in a si mil ar wa y .
16 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

24 u
Th e re s lt s O f t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le a re t h e a lge b ra ica l
m
.

u iv a le n t s o f s o e o f t h e p ro p o s it io n s in t h e t h b o o k O f E c lid, fif u
q
u
a n d t h e s t de n t is a d is e d t o v
ak e i s el a ilia r it t e m hm f f m w h hm
h v
in t e ir e rb a l o r f m
Fo r e x a p le , dividen do
. a
y b e q o t e d as m m u
f ws
o llo

Wh en th ere a re f ou r ro o rtio n a ls ,
p p the exc es s
f fio
rs t a the
b o ve

th e d is to th e s eco n d,
s eco n as th e ex c ess o
f th e th ird a b o ve the

fo u rth i s to th e fo u rth .

25 .h ll w mp t h
We s a n o co a re e a l e b ra ic a l
g de fi n it io n o f p ro
p o rt io n w i h t h t giv i E u lid
t a en n c .

E u lid s d fi i i i f ll w
’
c e n t on s as o o s

F u qu i i
o r id b p
an t t e s a re s a wh e n if a n y equ i
to e ro
p o rt io n a ls

m u lti les wh a te ver b e t a k e n o f t h e

p rs t a n d t ird, a n d a ls o a n
y fi h
e qu i m u lti les wh a tev er o f t h e s e c o n d a n d
p o rt , t h e lt ip le o f fu h mu
h u
t h e t h ird is gre a t e r t a n , e q a l t o , o r le s s t a n t h e lt ip le o f t h e h mu
fu h
o rt , a c c o rdin g a s t h e mu
lt ip le o f t h e firs t is gre a te r t an , e q a l h u
t o , o r le s s t an t h e h mu
lt ip le o f t h e s e c o n d
y mb l h my b h u t t d
.

In a lgeb ra ic a l s o s t e de fi n it io n a e t s s a e

F o u qur an t itie s a, b, e, d a re in ro
p p t i wh o r
p on en e z qd

ac co r di n g as
p a b
q , p an d q b ei n g
O

an
y p o s i ti ve
0 O

in
0

tegers wha tever .

I .To de d c e t h e geo u mt e ric a l de fi n it io n o f p ro p o rt io n f m

ro

th e a l e b ra ic al de n it io n
g fi .

Si n c e f
; d mu lt iply i ’
by n
g b o th s ide s by
5 ,
we Ob t a in

p a
PC
96 9 05
h e n c e, f m he p
ro t ro
p e rt ie s o f f ra c t io n s ,

pe yd acco r di n g as
p a
gb
z : ,

wh ic hp v ro es t h e p ro po s it io n .

II u
To de d c e t h e a lge b ra ic a l de fi n it io n o f p ro po rt io n
m
.

t h e ge o e t ric a l de n it io n fi .

G i ve n t h a t p e
I

gd acco r i n d
0

(T
g
as
p a
gb , t o p ro
I
v e
 PR O POR TI O N .
17

If
a

b
1 s n o t e
qu a l to
e

at
on e o f t h mmu t
e s b e th e gre a t e r .

mf
a e
u
S ppo s e > ; e n it w il th
l b e p o s s ib le t o fi n d s o ra c t io n
b 3 e

h h w
w ic lie s b e t e e n t e , 9 a n d p b e in
gp o s it i e in t e hm v g e rs .

Q
H en c e
g
b 20

9
d p
m( 1 )
FrO p a > b
g ;
f m( 2 )
ro
p e d
g ;
an d t h es e co n t radic t t h e hyp t h o e s is .

Th e re f g ; o re an d i
(
a re n o t u n e
q u al t h at is wh ic hp ro ve s
t h e p ro po s it i on .

26 I t h u ld b
s o e n o t ic e d t h
de n it io n o f p ro at t h e geo mt e ric a l fi
m
.

p o rt io n ea d ls wit h
c o n c rete a n it de s
g s c a s lin e s o r a re as u uh
m mm u
,

re re s e n t e d
p ge o e t ric a ll b u t n o t re e rre d t o an
y y
co o n n it
,

f
ofm u m eas re s fi
en t
’
h
So t a t E c lid de n it io n is a pplic a b le t o in u
mm u mm u
.

co u wh
e n s rab le a s w e ll a s t o c o e n s ra b le
q an t it ie s ; e re a s

fi y y m
t h e a lgeb ra ic al de n itio n , s t ric t l s p e akin g, a pplie s o n l t o c o
m u e n s ra b le
qu y um m
an t it ie s , s in c e it t a c it l ass es t h a t a is t h e s a e

m mu
de t e r in at e h
lt iple , p a rt , o r p a rt s , o f b t a t e is o f d B u t th e
fs hv v mm su u
.

p ro o w h ich a e b e en
g i e n fo r c o en ra b le
q a n t it ie s will

s u mm u
t ill b e t r e fo r in c o m e n s rab le s , s in c e t h e ra t io o f t wo in c o

m wy m f f m
e n su rab le s c a n a l a s b e a de t o di fe r ro t h e ra tio o f t wo
s h
in t e ge r b y les s th a n a n y a ss ign a ble qu a n tity T is h a s b ee n
m m
.

w
sh e n in A rt 7 3 it y a
y .a ls o b e
p ro ve d o re
ge n e ra ll a s in t h e

n ex t a rt ic le .

27 u
S pp o s e t a t a an d b a re in c o h
e n s ra b le ; di ide b mm u v
m h m
.

u
in t o an e q al p a rt e ac h e q al t o B , s o t a t b s fi w e re is a u h
m h
,

p o s it ive in t e e r
g A lso s
pp o s e ,8 is c o n t a in e d in a o re t an n u
m m
.

t i e s a n d le ss t an n 1 ti es 3 h
( + 1 ) ’B
E>
6 n n

m3 an d <
mfl
-

,
b
l
t h at is , lie s b e twe e n an d
”

l
a

so t h ; diff f m2mb y
at e rs ro
7'
a
q u an t it y le s s t h an A n d s in c e we

H . H . A .
18 H I GH ER AL GE B R A .

c an c h o o se 8
, ( o u r u n it o f m u m e as re en t ) as smll a as we plea s e , m c an

b e md a e as
g re a t as we ple ase . H en ce
1
771.
c an be md a e as s mll a

as w e ple a s e , d t wo in t e ge rs
an n be o nd
an d m
o s e ra t io
c an f u wh
w ill e x p re s s h
t a t o f a an d b t o an
y re
q ire d de re e o f a c c ra c
g u u y .

28 Th e p ro p o s itio n s p ro e d in A rt 2 3 a re o t e n se l in v f u fu
m
. .

v
s o l in g p ro b le s I n p a rt ic la r, t h e s o l t io n o f c e rt a in e q a u u u
m
.

t io n s is gre at l a c ilit a t e d b
yyf
a s kil l u s e o f th e o
p e ra t io n s c o fu
o n en do a n d di vi den do
p .

E x a p le 1 m
m mb
.

I f (2 a 6 9 u d) ( 2 m 6 mb 3no 9 u d)
(2m 6 m
a

b a 3n e 9 n d) ( 2 m 6 mb
a 3ne 9 n d) ,
p ro v h e t at a , b, e, d are p ro p o rtio n als
m 6m
.

W h v
2 a b 3 710 9 n d 2m 6a a 3n e 9n d
m 6 mb 2m 6 m
e a e
2 a 3 ne 9n d b a 3 71 0 9n d
co mp o n en d o an d i i dvd d en o

m+ 3 ) m
,

2 (2 a ne 2 (2 a 3n e )
2 ( 6mb 9 d) n 2 (6 m
b 9 nd)
2m 3 mb
A ltern an d o ,
2m 3
a

a
ne

ne
6
6mb
9n d
9n d
A gain co mp o n en d o an d dvd d i i en o

m mb
, ,

4 a 12
(3n e 18nd

a b
W h en c e ’
e d
a b= e d.

A gain , co mp o n en d o an d dvd d i i en o ,
'

2x 3 2x 2 1 6x + 1 0
2 3 2x -
8
1 6x — 8 x + 5
2
x
.

1 6x — 4
wh en c e 1 6x
‘
3 — 4 x = 1 6 x 2 — 8x + 5
;
D
20 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

I f th e wo r do n e b y x 1
18 e n in x + 1 k
ay s is t o th e m d w kd or one

m
.

by x +2 en in x 1 day s in th e rat io o f 9 1 0, fin d x .

19 in F dfu
o r p ro p o rt io n als s c t uh h at th e m f th e e x tre m is
m
su o es
m m f th u fu
.

2 1 , th e s u o f th e ean s 1 9 , an d th e su o e sq ares o f all o r

n um b ers is 4 4 2 .

Two c as ks A an d
20 Bw fi d h k d h m
e re lle wit two in s o f s erry , ix ed
k B
.

in A in th e rat io o f 2
th e 7 , an d in th e c as k in t h e ratio o f
mu m m
c as
1 5 h u
W at q an tity k f m h
s t b e t a en ro eac t o fo r a ixt u re
h h h k d h
.

w ic s all c o n s is t o f 2 gallo n s o f o n e in an d 9 gallo n s o f th e o t er ?

21 Ni ll d w f m k fu ll f w i it i t h
fill d wi h w the i g ll f th mi u
g ne a o n s are ra n ro a c as o ne ; s en

e
.

t at er, d w d th n n ne a ons o e xt re are ra n an e

k i g i fill d with w t I f h qu i y f wi w i h k t t t
,

t
h w m
cas s a a n e a er e an o ne no n e cas

th q u tity f w t u h d th k
.

b e to e i it 6 t an o a er n as 1 o 9, o c o es e c as

h ld 1
o

22 If f u p itiv q u ti i io ti u d p p t i
r os hw e an t e s are n co n n or

h im
e ro on s e
t h t h d iff b w h fi
.
,

a t e dl i t l
eren c e et e en t e rs t an as t s a eas t t ree t e s as

g reat h diff asb w th

t h w
e eren ce et een e o t er t o .

23 I E gl d th p p u l i n i d n
p an b w e o at o n n c reas e 1 59 er c en t et een
if h t w p p u l i
, .

18 17 d i
1 88 1 ; d d h
t e o n o at o n n c reas e 18 cen t t
mp h w d u y p p l
an p er an e
u y p pul i p
.

co n tr o at on 4 er c en t ,
co are t e t o n an co n tr o u a

t io n s in 1 8 7 1 .

24 In a certain c o u ntry th e
f t e a is fi ve t i es th e umpti m
um m
co ns on o

m
.

co n s p t io n o f co f
fee I f a pe r c en t o re t e a an d b p e r c e n t
um mu
o re
ff w u md w u
. . .

ed, t h e aggregat e a n t co n s ld b e 7 0 p er
m
co n s

m
co ee e re o

m
e o

t ; b u t if 6 p er ce n t o re tea an d a p e r c e n t o re c o f
fee
um md w u d
c en o re

w mu
. . .

ed, th e a gre at e a t l b e 3 c p e r ce n t
m m
e re c o n s o n c o u e
g g n s o .

o re co p are a an d b .

25 Bras s is allo y
d z in c ; b ro n z e is an allo y
an o f c o pp er an
d
.

c o n tain in g 80 p er c en t o f c o 4 f i d 1 6 f t i A f
m pp e r o z n c an o n u s e

ud
. .
, ,

as s o f b ras s an d b ro n z e is fo n t o c o n ta in 7 4 p e r c en t o f c o p p e r, 1 6
m
.

o f z in c , an d 1 0 o f t in fi n d th e ratio o f c o ppe r to z in c in th e co po s itio n

o f b ras s .

26 A c re w w a c ertain u s tre a mi 84 m i ut
mi
c an ro co rs e up n n es
m u mi u t l th
;
hy dw
.

t w h
e c an ro t e sa e co rs e o n s trea n 9 n es es s an
th uld w i i ill w
ey c o ro t n st at e r : h o w lo n g w uld h y k t ta to w dw
m?
o e e ro o n
wi h h t t e s t rea
 C H A PTE R I II .

VA R IA TI ON .

29 D E F I ITIO
. N N
On e q a n tit A is s a id t o vary direct ly
. u y
a s a n o t h e r B , w en t h e t wo
q h
a n t it ie s de e n d
p p o n e a c h o t e r in u u h
u
s ch a m
an n e r t a t if B is c h an
g e d ,
A is hc h an
g e d in th e s a e m
ra tio .

N OTE . Th e w d or directly is o fte n o mitt d e ,

an d A is s ai dt v o ar
y
as B .

Fo r in s t an c e
if a t ra in o in
g at a
: n i o r ra t e t ra e ls mv u f m v
40 ms
ile in 6 0 in t e , it will t ra e l 2 0 mu s iles in 3 0 in t e s , v m mu
80 ms
ile in 1 2 0 mu
in t e s , a n d s o o n ; t h e dis t an c e in e a c h c ase
m h
b e in g in c re a s e d o r di in is e d in t h e a e ra t io a s t h e t i e sm m
f m
.

hs
T i is e x p re s s e d b y s a y in g t at en th e e lo c it is n i or h wh v y u
th e dis ta n c e i s p rop o rtio n a l to the ti e, o r th e dis ta n c e va ri es a s m
th e ti e m .

30 Th e s
-
. y mb l o cc is u s ed to de n o t e v i
a r a t io n
; so t h at

A v
”
A at B is re a d “
i
ar es as B .

31 . If A va ri es a s B , then A is equ a l to B mltip li d b y m

u e so e

c o n s ta n t qu a n ti ty .

Fo r s u pp o se t h at a ,
dl ,
“
2,
b, b ,, b2, a re c o rre s
p o n din g
v a lu es o fA an dB .

b b b
T h en b y de fi n i ti o n ,
a a a

5
an d so on

a
, ,
b; “
2
b, “
3 3

al

bl
a

b,
, fl,
63
ea c h b el n g e q u al to

H
an
y v al u e o fA
is l w th e m
en c e
c o rre s p o n v lu f B
di n g a e o
a a
y s sa e

th at I s,
A
B
m wh m
,
e re i s c o n stan t .

A = s .
22 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

If an
y p i a r o f c o rre s o n
p din g v lu s
a e o f A an d B a re k n o wn ,
th e c o n s ta n t m can be det e r in e d m . Fo r in s ta n c e , if A 3 wh e n
B = 1a
we h a v e

32 ND E FI
. O q u t i y A i id
I TI O N t y i. ly n e an t s sa o var n vers e

as h wh A v i di ly th ip l f B
a n o t e r B, en ar es rec t as e re c ro c a o .

Th u s if A v i s i v ly B A
m
ar e wh mi s tn t e rs e as e re s co n an
B , ? 9 .

Th f ll w i g i
e illu
o oti fi v
n v i ti I f 6 m
s an s t ra on o n e rs e ar a on en

d o i w k i 8 h u
a c e rt a n 1 2 m w u ld d t h
or n mw k i o rs , en o o e sa e or n

4 h u 2 m i 24 h
o rs , ; d en nThu it pp s th t o u rs an so on s a ea r a

w h t h u mb f m i i d t h t im i p p ti
.

en e n er o t lyen s n c re a s e ,
e e s ro or on a e

d d;
e c re a se d vi v a an ce -
e rs .

m
E x a p le 1T uhe v iv c h u be ro o t Of x aries n ers ely as t e s q are o f y ; if
x = 8wh wh
en y = 3 , fi n d §
.

at en y = 1 .

By
om
o f/
s u pp o sh m o on x
”I !

W e re 1 8 c o n s tan t
.

31
Pu i tt w h v
ngx= 8, y = 3 , e a e 2

h e n ce , u
b y p ttin g y we o b tain x = 51 2 .

m
E x a p le 2 u
Th e sq are o f th e ti e o f a p lan e t s re o l tio n a rie s a s m ’
v u v
u d m m V u v u
.

th e c b e o f its is tan c e fro th e S u n ; fi n d th e ti e o f en s re o l tio n ,

’

um
in g th e di s tan ces o f th e E art an d e n s fro h V u
th e Su n t o b e 9 1 } an d m
m m
as s

66 illio n s o f ile s re sp e c ti ely v .

L et P b e th e p erio ic ti d mm u d d
e ea s re in D th e d is tan c e in milli
m
ay s , ons

of iles ; we a e hv P g
oc D 3
,

”:
or P kD 3

m
,

wh e re k is so e co n s ta n t .

Fo r th e E art h , 3 6 5x 3 6 5: k x 9 1 3; x 9 1 1 x 9 1 3
1,

wh e n ce
4 x 4
365
x 4 .

4 x 4 x 4
365
 V A R I A TI O N .
3

Fo r V en u s, x 66 x 66 x 6 6
wh en ce

2 64 x J 7 2 33 '
, ap p ro xi mt lya e ,

—2 6 4 x 8 5

H en c e th e ti m e o f re v u o l tio n is n early d ay s .

33 D E F I I TI O N N
On e q a n t it is s a id t o vary j o in t ly u y as a

um
. .

n b e r o f o t h e rs , w
h e n it v a rie s dire c tl a s t h e ir p ro d c t y u .

Th us A v i s j i tly
ar e o n as B an d 0, w h en A = mB 0 Fo r in
m m y v j y
.

s tan c e , t h e in t e re s t on a su of on e a rie s o in tl as th e
p rin c i
p a l, th e t i m e, an d th e ra t e
p e r cen t .

34 . D E FI N ITI O N . A is s a id to v y ar dire c tl y as B an d in
B
v e rs e ly a s 0, wh e n A v i
a r es a s
C

3 5 If A va ries a s B wh en C is
. co n s ta n d A va ries a s C
t, an

wh en B is co n s tan t, th en will A va ry as B C wh en b o th B a n d C

v
Th e a riat io n o f A dep en ds partl o n t a t o f B an d p a rt l o n y h y
th at o f 0 u
S pp o s e t h e s e la t t e r a ria t io n s t o t a k e pla c e s e pa
. v
y u
ra t e l , e a c h in it s t rn p ro d c in g it s o wn e f f u
e c t o n A ; a ls o le t

a , b , c b e c e rt a in s i lt an e o mu
v al e o f A , B , C us us .

1 L et C b e c o n s ta n t w h il e B c h an
ges to b t h en A mu t s

h um m i mdi u
.

un de r o a
g p a rt ia l c an
ge an d will a ss e so e n ter e a t e va l e
’
a , w
h e re
A B
'
a b

2 L et B b e co n s ta n t, t h at is , le t it re t a in it s v lua e b, wh il 0 e

mu t mpl t f mit
.

c h an
ge s to e t h en A s co e e it s c h g an e an d pa s s ro s

in te r mdi e a te v lu
a e a
’
t o it s fi n a l v lua e a, wh e re
'
a C
a c

F m( 1 )
C
’
A a B
ro an d ( 2) x
d
’
a b c

t h a t is , 9 . B C,
be
A v i
a r es a s BC .
 24 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

36 f w i g illu t ti s f th t h mp v d i
Th e o llo
.
n a re s ra on o e eo re ro e n

th e la s t a rt ic le .

Th mu f w k d b y gi
e a o n mb of m
t o i s or on e a ven n u er en va r e

di t ly
rec th u mb f d y t h y w k d th mu t f
as e n er o a s e or an e a o n o

w k d i gi im v i di ly t h u mb f m ;
,

or on e n a ven t e ar es re c t as e n er o en

th f wh h u mb f d y d t h u mb f m
e re o re en t e n er o a s an e n er o en a re

b th v i b l th
o mu t f w k w ill v y
ar a e, h p du t f
e a o n o or ar as t e ro c o

th u mb f m d t h umb f d y
e n er o en an e n er o a s .

A g i i G mt y t h a n ,
f
n i gl v i s di
eo tlye r e a re a o a tr an e ar e re c as

it b s whase th h igh t i ten t d di tly th

e h igh t
e s c o n s an ,
an re c as e e

wh th b ien te t; d whas e b t h t h h igh t

s d b
c o n s an an en o e e an as e

a re v i b l th ar a v i e,th p du t f t he u m ba re a ar e s as e ro c o e n e rs

re
p t i
re s e n
g h h igh t dnh b t e e an t e ase .

m
E x a p le v um
Th e o l h u v
e o f a rig t c irc lar co n e u
arie s as th e s q are o f th e

du wh h h h h wh
.

ra i s O f th e b ase en th e e ig t is co n s t an t, a n d as th e e ig t e n th e
b as e is c o n s tan t du h h
I f th e ra i s o f th e b as e is 7 feet an d th e e ig t 1 5 feet ,
v um u h h wh v m
.

th e o l e is 7 7 0 c b ic fe e t ; fi n d th e e ig t o f a c o n e o se o lu e is 1 32
u wh h d
c b ic fe e t an d wh d u
ic s tan s o n a b as e o s e ra i s is 3 fe et .

L et h d v d r h h d du bte res p ec ti ely t h e eig t an i f th e

m u d
an en o ra s o
eas re in v um u
fe e t ; als o le t V b e th e o l e in c b ic fee t .
as e

h T m wh m
en V : r
2
h, ere is co n s tan t .

u
By s m x
pp o s itio n , 7 7 0= x 7 2
15

wh en c e
22

22
21

by s u b s tit tin g V u : 132, r_ we get

22
—
X 9 X h ,
21

wh en c e h : 14 ;
an dt h ere fo re th e h h eig t is 1 4 feet .

37 Th e p ro p o s it io n o f A rt 3 5 c a n e a s il b e e x t e n de d t o t h e y
m
. .

c a s e in wh ic h v
t h e a ria t io n o f A dep e n ds p o n t a t o f o re t a n u h h
t wo v
a ria b le s rt e r, t h e .a ria t io n s Fu h a
y b e e it e r dire c t o r v m h
v
in e rs e Th e p rin c iple is in t e re s t in g b e c a s e o f it s re q en t o c u f u
m
.

u
c rre n c e in P y s ic a l Sc ie n c eh Fo r ex a ple, in t h e t e o r o f h y
m h
.

g a s e s it is o n d b y e x
p e rfu
i e n t t a t t h e
p re s s re
( p) o f a
gas u
va ri e s a s t h e
“
ab s o l t e t e
p e ra t re
()
t w e nu it s o lu e m u
( )
v is h v m
c o n s ta n t , a n d t a t t h e
p re s s re a rieh in e rs e l a s th e o l eu v s v y v um
h m
w en t h e t e p e ra t re is c o n st a n t t at is u h
p or t, wh en v is c o n s t an t;
 V A R IA TI O N . 25

1
5
wh i en t s c o n s t an t .

F mt h ro u lt w h u ld p t t h t wh b h d
ese re s s e s o ex ec a en o t t an v
v i b l w h uld h v t h f mu l
,

ar a e, e s o a e e or a

t
p
5 p h whcc I ort t v= t, e re t I s c o n s an

an d by tu l p i
acm t t hai i f
ex u d t b th
er en s s o n o e e c a se .

m
E x a p le du
Th e ratio n w ju v d
o f a ra il ay o rn ey arie s ire c tly a s th e
d v v v v d
.

is tan c e an d in e rs ely a s th e elo c ity ; th e elo c ity arie s ire c tly as th e

u u u d m
s q are ro o t o f th e q an tity o f c o al v ile , an d in e rs e ly a s th e
um m
se p er
b er o f c a rriage s in th e t rain j u h hu
I n a o rn ey o f 2 5 ile s in a lf a n

u d w mu h
n o r
w h w .

it w
1 8 c arriage s 1 0 c t o f c o al is req ire ; h o c o al ill b e
mu w h
c

umd j u m
.

co n s e i n a o rn ey o f 2 1 iles in 28 in te s it 1 6 carriages ?

m di h u
L e t t b e th e ti e e xp re s s e o rs ,
m
n

d d th e is tan ce in ile s ,
v v th e m hu
e lo c ity in ile s p er o r,

u w
q th e q an tity o f c o al in c t ,
um
.

e th e n b er o f c arriage s .

W h v e a e

9
C

wh en ce
ed

da
_
ke d
_
_
Ja
wh e re k is c o n s tan t .

u u
S b s tit tin g th e v u al e s gi v en , we hv a e

1 k x 18 x 25
2

t h at I s , _
Jfi
25 x 36
H en ce
J 0
1 ed

2 5x 3 6 Jq
u
S b s tit tin g u no w th e v u al es o f t, e, d gi v en in s ec o n d
q u e s t io n , we hv
a e

28 Jfi x zr
i ex f
60 2 5x 3 6 Jq
th at is ,
J 10 x 1 6 x 21
_
4
1 5x 2 8 3
32
wh en c e
3
H en ce th e q u an tity o f c o al is 6 -3 c wt .
26 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

E XA M PLES . III .

1 . If x varies as y, an d x= 8 wh en y = 1 5, fi n d x w h en y = 10 .

2 . If P varies in v e rs ely as Q, an d P= 7 wh en Q = 3 , fin d P w h en

Q = 2%
3 . I f th e s q u are o fx varie s as th e c ub e o fy , an dx= 3 w h en
y = 4,
1
fin d th e u
val e o fy w h en x
JS
4 . A v arie s as B an d C j o in tly ; if A = 2 wh en B = § an d C
'
5
fin d t en A = 54 an dB= 3 .

5 If A v aries as 0, an d Bv aries as 0, t h en A + B an d VA B will

hv
.

e ac ary as 0 .

6 . If A v arie s as B 0, t h Bv en aries in v e rs ely as

;
7 . P v aries direc tly as Q an d in vers ely as R ; als o P=
§ h w en

3 1
an dR h P
9
/48 d
4
fin d Qw en = x an

8 If v i .
y p xv t h t + y
ar es as v i y ,
ro e a x
2 2 ar es as x 2 ?

9 If y v i h m f tw qu i i f wh i h v i
ar es as t e su o o an t t es , o c one ar es
d i ly h i v ly wh
.

rec t d h as x an d if y
t e o t er d n e rs e as x ; an = 6 en x = 4, an

y = wh3 ,;1
—
fi d h en x =
q u i b tw
3; n t ed y e at o n e een x an .

10 If y i q u l h m f w qu i i
s e a f wh i h v i
to t e su o t o an t t es on e o c ar es
d i ly d h th i v 9 wh
.

2
re c t ly t d if y = 1 en x = 2,
mf
as x ,
an e o er as x n ers e ; an or

3; fi dy i n n t er s o x .

11 If A v i di ly h quar es t fB d i v
re c t ly as t e s are ro o o an n ers e as
ub f 0 d if A wh B 6 d C fi d B wh A 2
.

th e c e o ,
an = 3 en = 25 an = 2, n en = 4
1
an d 0
2

12 . Gi v th
en
2 h
at x
t y +y i v aries as 2 + an dt a x var es as z

fi d th
n l i b w e re at o n d p v id d t h et wh
e en dx an 2, ro e at z = 2 en x = 3 an

y = 1 .

If A v i B d C j i tly wh il B v i '
13 ar es as D d C an o n e ar es as
2
an
’

v i i v ly A h w h t A v i D , ,
.

ar e s n ers e as ,
s e t a ar es as .

14 If y v i h m f h q u i i f wh i h h fi i
ar es as t e su o t re e an t t es o c t e rs t s

dv i hi d wh
.

2
c o n s tanh t, t d h
e s e co n d if y
ar e s as x , an t e t r as x an = 0 en

y 1, wh d
= 1
y wh en x = fi d y wh2, 7 an = 4 en x = 3; n en x = .

15 Wh b d y f ll f m en i adi o f mh i g re s t ts s tan c e ro t e s tart n

m
a s ro
v i u
.

p i o n t h qar es asf h i i h tb e s f lli g if

are ob dy f ll t e t e t as e en a n : a o a s

t h ugh 5f i
ro 4 02d m h w f d it f ll i
ee t n 5 d?
se c o n s, o ar o es a n 10 s eco n s

Al h w f d
so i f ll i th
o ar d?
o es t a n e 10 s ec o n
 C H A PTE R I V .

A R I TH M E TI C A L PR O G R E SS I O N .

38 D E FI N N Q u ti i
I TI O an t e s a re s a id to b e in A rit h mt i
e c al

mm
.

wh h y i
.

Pro gres s io n en t e n c re a s e o r de c re a s e b y a co on dif1

feren c e .

Th u s eac h f h f ll w i g
o t e o o n s e rie s f m
or s an A rit h mti e cal

Pro gres s io n
3, 7 , 1 1 , 1 5
8 , 2, -
4 , — 10
a, a + d, a + 2 d, a + 3 d,
Th e c o o n dif mm
fe re n c e is o n d b y s b t ra c t in g a n y t e r of fu u m
s
th e s e rie ro t at f m h wh h
ic fo llo ws it I n t h e rs t o f t h e ab o e fi v
m s mm f
.

ex a le t h e co o n di fe re n c e is 4 ; in t h e s e c o n d it is in
p
h
t h e t ird it is d .

39 . I f we ex a mi n e th e s e rie s
a, a + d, a + 2 d,
we n o t ic e t h at in an y te r mth fii i t f d ie co e e en o s les s b y one

th an th e n u mb er o f th e ter mi th i n e s er es .

T hu s th e 3 la
t mier 2d s a

6 ih
t mier 5d ; s a +

20 “
t mier 1 9d ; s a

an d, ge n e ra ll y ,
th e p
th
t er mi s a
(p l) d .

If n b e th e n u mb er o f t er m s, and if l de n o t e t h e la s t , o r

n
th
t er m ,
we a e hv l : a
( n 1) d .

40To .
fin d th e su mof a nu mb er of ter mi s n A rith mti e ca l

Pro gress io n .

L et a de n o t e t h e fi rs t te r m d th e co mm on f
di fe re n c e , and n

um ms m
,

th e n b e r o f t er . A ls o le t I de n o t e t h e la s t t e r , an d s
 A R I TH M E TI OA L G
PR O R E S S I ON . 29

th e re
qu i re d s u m th en

( l

an d, b y w itir n
g t h e s e ries in t h e re v e rs e o rde r,

l+ (l — 2d +
s =
) + ( a + + a .

A ddin g t o ge t h er t h es e t wo s e rie s ,

to n ter m s

l= a + ( n -
1) d

{2 a
( n 1 ) d}

41 h v h u fu f mu
I n t h e la s t a rtic le w e a e t re e se l or lae
m
.

h hin e a c o f t es e a n
y o n e o f t h e le tt e rs a
y d e n o te

the u w u y wh
n kn o n
qh h s
a n t it w e n t h e t re e o t e r a re k n o n F or .

u u v v u
in s t a n c e , in ( 1 ) if we s b s tit t e gi e n al es fo r s , n , l, we o b ta in
an e u q fi
a t io n f m y
o r n din h f mu
g a
; an d si ila rl in the o t er or l ae

mh
.

y u h
B u t it is n ec e s s a r t o g a rd a ga in s t a t o o e c an ic a l u s e o f t e se

g f mu
e n e ra l o r w f l fu
ae, a n d it v m ill o te n b e o n d b e t te r t o s o l e s i
p le

qu e m
s t io n s b h h
y a e u f
n t a l ra t e r t a n b
y a n a c t al re e re n c e t o t h e

re u
q f mu
is it e o r la .

m F d
E x a p le 1m 5 m
in th e f th e s e rie s 5 8, t o 1 7 te r
mm d
s.

m
su o

1 h
.
,

H e re th e c o on iffe ren ce is 1 ; en ce fro

m
{
—
17 l
th e su 2 x
2

17
—
—
2

17 x 31
2

_ 2635 .

E x a p le 2 m Th e fi rs t t er mf i i 5 th las t 4 5, d th e m
m d th mm d iff
e an su

um
. o a s er e s s ,

4 00 : fi n d th e n b er o f ter s , an e co o n e re n ce .

I f n b e th e n um b er o f te r m th f m( 1 )
s, en ro

4 00 4 }
2

wh e n ce it 16 .
30 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

If d b e th e co mm on d iffe ren c e

45 th e 1 6
‘h
te r m5 1 5d ;

wh en c e d 2s .

42 If
y an A rit
two ter m
e t ic a l Pro gre s s io n
s ob ef an hm
v m y m
. .

i th e
s e rie s c an b e co l e t el d e t e r in e d ; fo r t h e da t a
g e n , p
fu rn is h two s i mu u
lt an e o s e q at io n s , t h e s o l t io n o f w ic u
will u h h
gi v e t h e rs t t e rfi an d t h e c o m
o n dif fe ren c e mm .

E xa m
le
um
Th e 54 an d 4 ter s o f an A P are — 6 1 an d 6 4 fi n d th e
h
“
m ;
m
p . . .

d
23 ter .

If a b e th e fi rs t ter m , an d d th e co mm diff on eren ce,

6 1 = th e t m + 53d ;
er = a

an d 6 4 = th e 4 t m= + 3d ;
er a

w h en ce we o b tain t
a
g a 7 1g

an d th e 23
rd
ter m a 22d 16A .

43 D E F I I TI O N
W h en t re e q an t itie sN h u h mti
in A rit c al

m m
a re e

m
. .

Pro gre ss io n t h e iddle o n e is s a id t o b e t h e arit h et ic ean o f

h
t h e o t e r t wo .

Th us a is t h e a rit h mti m e c e an b et w e en a d an d a d .

44 . To fi nd th e a ri t h mti m
e c ea n b etween two given qu an ti ties .

L e t a an d b b e t h e t wo q a n t it ie s ; A t h e u a rit hm i m
et c e an

mu h v
.

h
T e n s in c e a , A , b a re in A P w e st

m
a e . .

b —A z A —
e ac hb e in
g e
qu a l to th e co mm on f
di fe ren c e

wh b
g
a
en c e

B e t we e n t wo gi e n q an t it ie s it is alwa s p o s s ib le t o
45 v u y
um m uh h
.

in se rt an y n b er o f te r s s c t at t h e o le s e rie s t h s wh u
f m h
o r e d s a ll b e in A P ; an d b y an e x t e n s io n o f t h e de n it io n in fi
m hu m m
. .

A rt 4 3, t h e t e r s t
. s in s e rt e d a re c alle d t h e a ri th etic ean s .

E x a p le m . In s ert 2 0 hm m b w arit etic ean s et een 4 an d 67 .

ud
I n c l in g th e ex tre e s , th e n m u m mw b er f t er s ill b e 2 2 ; s o t at we a h hv
m
o e
to fi n d a s e rie s o f 22 ter s in A P wh h . .
, of ic 4 is th e fi rs t an d 6 7 th e las t .

L et d b e th e co mm d on ifferen c e

th en 6 7 = th e 2 2 “d
ter m4 21 d

wh en c e d= 3, an d th e s erie s is 4 , 7 , 1 0, 6 1 , 6 4, 6 7
an d th e re q u dmire e an s are 7 , 1 0, 1 3 , 58 , 7 1 , 6 4 .
 A R I TH M E TI C A L PR O R E SS I ON G . 31

46 To in s ert a given
. n u mb er of ar ith mti m e c ea n s b etween
two given qu a n tities .

Le t a an d b b e t h e gi v en qu an t ities , n th e n u mb er o f me an s .

u
I n c l din g t h e e x t re e s t h e m n u mb er o f te r s ill b e n mw + 2;
h v
s o t a t w e h a e t o fi n d a s e rie s o f n m
2 t e r s in A P , o f . wh h ic
fi
.

a is t h e rs t , a n d b is t h e las t .

L et d b e t h e co mm on difi e re ii c e

t h en b th e ( n 2) ‘h
te r m
a
( n 1) d ;

b
w h en c e
n
a

an d the re
q u i re d m e an s a re

b —a 2 ( b —a ) n
( b —a
)
u + l
’
u + 1 n + 1
E x a p le 1 m Th e s u o f t m h umb ers in A P is 2 7 , d th e mf
hm
ree n an su o

h u
. . .

t e ir s q ares is 2 9 3 ; fi n d t e .

L e t a b e th e iddle n m um b er, d th e co mm on d ifferen ce ; t h th e t h re e

um
en
n b ers are a d, a, a + d .

H en ce a

wh e n ce a = 9, an d th e t h re e n um b ers are 9 d, 9 , 9 + d .

(9
wh en c e d: 4 5;

an d th e n um b ers are 4, 9, 14 .

m
E x a p le 2 Fin d th e su m f th o e fi rs t 1) te r m s o f serie s wh o se

m
.

“‘
n te r is 3 n 1 .

u
By p ttin g n : 1, an dn :
p re s p ec ti ely , v we o b tain
fi rs t ter m 2 l t t m 3p
:
, as er = 1 ;

su m § ( 2 + 3p 1 3
f =
9
=

E XA M PLE S . IV . a .

2, 3i, m
t o 2 0 te r s .

4 9 , 4 4, t 17 t m
o er s .

t 19 t m
3 2 7
o er s.
, ,
4 3
32 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

4 Su m3 g , ,
to n t er m s .

5 . Su m3 7 5 3 5 ,
m
t o 1 6 te r s .

6 . Su m t 24 t m
o er s .

7 S u m —7 . t 10 t m o er s .

m 3 3 J3 t 50 t m
1
8 Su o er s
7
.
,
/3
.

m5 m
9 . Su
3 ,
N
t o 2 5 te r s .

10 . Su m 3b a —
,
2 a — 5b , 3 a t o 4 0 t er m s .

11 . Su m2 b a ,
4a 3b, 6a to n te r m s .

12 . Su m2+b a 3a — b
2
t o 2 1 te r m s .

13 . I n s ert 1 9 arit hm i m et c ean s b et w een

1
4
an d 93 .

14 . I n s e rt 1 7 ar i hm i m t et c e an s b et w een 3% an d 4 15 .

15 . I n s ert 1 8 ar i hm i m t et c e an s b et w e en 3 5x an d 3x .

16 . I n s ert x ar i hm i mt et c ean s b et w ee n x
2
an d 1 .

17 . Fin d th e su mf h fi o t e rs t n o dd n u mb e rs .

18 I n an A P th e fi rs t t e r mi s 2 , t h e las t t er m29 th e su m1 55;

d
.
,
. .

fi n d th e iffe ren c e .

19 Th e s u o f 1 5 t er m mf s o an A P is 6 00, an d th e co mm on d iff er

fi m
. .
.

e n c e is 5; fi n d t h e rs t te r .

h d mf A Pi
20 Th e t ir t e r d h v h t mi o an s 1 8, an t e se en t er s 30
m m
. .
.

fi n d th e s u o f 1 7 ter s .

21 Th m f th umb i A P i 7 d h i p du i
e su o ree n e rs n s 2 an t e r ro ct s

fi d h m
.
,
.
.

504 ; n t e .

22 Th mf h u mb i A P i d h mf h i o t re e n e rs n s 1 2, an t e su o t e r

fi d h m
e su

ub i
. .
.

c es s 4 08 ; n t e .

23 Fi d h
. mf m f h i wh
n t mi
e su o 1 5 ter s o t e s er es o se n
th
te r s 4n + 1 .

24 Fi d h m f m f h i wh p
n t mi 7
e su
P o 3 5 ter s o t e s er e s o se
‘h
te r s +2 .

25 Fi d h
. m fp m f h i wh
n t mi d b
e su o t er s o t e s e r es o se n
ib
t er s
n
.

26 Fi d h
. mf mfh i
n t e su o n t er s o t e s er es
2 2
2a 1 3 6a
’
a a
 A R ITH M ETI C A L PR O G R E SSI ON .
33

47 I n a n A I it h III e tic a l Pro gI e s s io n en 3 , a , d a i wh m v

m
.
g e n ,

to de te r in e t h e al e s o f n v u
we h a e t h e q u a dI a t ic e u a t iO I
q
v i

2
0
. a
. l
- -

( n 1)d

wh en bot h ro o ts a re
p o s it i e
d in t e gral t e re is n o di c lt v an h ffi u y
in in te rp re tin g t h e re s lt c o rre s p o n din g t o e a c u
I II s o e c a s e s h m
u v v v u
.

a s itab le in te r re t at io n c a n b e i e n fo r a n e a t i e al e o f n
p g g .

E x a p lem How my te r m f th e series 9, —6 mu t b

mmy b
an s o s e
k h
-
.
,

ta e n t at th e su a e 66 ?

g { —l 8 + n
(
7n

(n 1 1)

n : 11 or 4 .

I f we ta k e 1 1 te r m s o f th e serie s , we hv a e

—9 , — 6 , — 3 , 6 , 9 , 1 2 , 1 5, 1 8 , 2 1 ;

th e su m f wh i h i
o c s 66 .

h m u m
If we b egin at th e la s t o f t e s e te r s an d co u n t b a c kwards fo r ter s , th e
mis also 6 6 ; an d t s , alt o g hu h u h v u d
th e n egati e s o l tio n d
o es n o t irec tly
m
su
w u d d v
an s er th e q es tio n p ro p o s e , we are en ab le to gi e it an in telligib le ean in g,
h w u
a n d we s ee t at it an s e rs a q es tio n c lo s ely c o n n ec te d w h h wh h
it t at to ic
v
th e p o s iti e so l tio n ap plies u .

48 . We c an ju tify th is i
s n t e rpre ta t io n in t h e ge n e ra l case in
th e f wi
o llo n
g wa
y .

Th e e
qu a tio n t o det e r mi n e n is

a — d
2
dn + ( 2 ) n — 2s z 0

u
Sin c e in t h e c a se n de r dis c s s io n t h e ro o t s u o h
f t is e q u a t io n hv a e

o pp o s it e s ign , le t u s de n o t e t es by n l hm an d —n Th e la s t
m
.

te r o f th e s
e rie s c o rre s p o n din g t o n l is
,

a
( n 1) d ,

if we b etg in a t t h is t er a n d c o n t b ackwa rds , t h e c o m u mm on

dide ren c e
a

u st b e d e m
n o t e d b y
— d,
an d t h e s u o f n t e I n Is is m
— l
2 ( a + n
, )( — d)

an d we h a ll s s h e w t h a t t is is h e
q u a l to s .

H . H . A .
34 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

Fo r t h e ex
p re s s io n 2a ( 2 u
1
n
2
1) d

2 an 2 2n l
n
2
d n
2 ( n
2
l) d

2
2n d ( 2
d 2a d )
)
n n n
l 2 2

1
§
f ( 4 8 28 ) : s,

s in c e — n s a t is fi es dn 2
( 2 a — d n
) 2s O, an d n n is th e

p ro d u ct o
2

f th e ro o ts h
o f t is e
q a t io n u .
l 2

49 W e n th e h v lu a f n is ra c tio n a l t e re is
e o f h n o ex act n u m
m
.

b e r o f t e r s w ic h h c o rre s o n ds t o s c
p a s o l t io n uh u .

E xa m
pl e H o w myt m
an er s o f th e s e rie s 26, 21, b e ta k to
mu
. en
a o n t to 7 4 ?

—5 = 74 .
n
2
591 57 n + 1 4 8 = 0

( n -
4 ) ( 571

n = 4 or

T hu s th e n um
b e r o f t er s is 4 m w
I t ill b e fo n udh t at th e su m ter m s
wh m m h
.

is gre a ter, ile th e s u o f 8 te r s i s less t an 7 4 .

50 . We a dd so m Mi e s c e lla n e o u s Exa mpl es .

E xa m
pl e 1 Th e s um
f n te r
s o m s o f two arit hm e tic s e rie s are in th e
h ms
.

ratio o f7n +1 4n + 2 7 ; fi n d th e ratio o f t e ir l l tk ter .

L et th e fi rs t ter m an d co mm on d ifferen ce o f th e two s erie s be a d1 an d

0 2, d2 res p ec ti ely v .
l ,

—l
We hv a e
2 a1 + ( n ) dl 7n + 1
2az + (u 1 ) d2 4n + 27

N o w we h a v e to fi n d th e v u al e o f
a

“2 +
l
l 0d1
1 0d2
0
h en c e , u
b y p ttin g n : 21, we

o b tain
2 a, —
l—2 0d1 148 4
’
2 a2 + 2 0d2 111 3

t hu s th e re q u d
ire ratio is 4 3 .

E x a p le 2 mI f S]
m
SQ , a re th e uwhm
s s o f n m f te r s o a rit hm et ic
wh mm d iff
.
,

s e rie s o s e fi rs t ter s a re 1 , 2, 3, an d o se c o on e ren c e s are

1 , 3 , 5, fi n d th e v u al e o f
S 1 + S 2 + S3 + + Sp .
36 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

9 Su mth e s e ries
1 1
’
1
1—.
’ to n t er m s .

Jx
’
J
.

1 + x 1 -
x

10 I f th e s u o f 7 t er m mi s s 4 9, an d th e su m f 1 7 t mi o er s s 289 ,
m m
.

fi n d th e s u o f n te r s .

11 I f th e p “
g
“
r
“h
ter m s o f an A P a re a, b, c res p ec ti ely , s v hw e

ht
. .
. , ,

t a (g
12 Th e s u m fp t m f A P is g, d th e m f g t mi
m fp 9 t m
. o er s o an . . an su o er s s

p; fi n d t h e su o er s .

13 Th mff u i t g r n e ers in A P is 2 4 , an d t h i p du t i
e r ro c s

d th m
. e su o o . .

9 4 5; fi n e .

14 D i ide 20 in to v fu po r arts whic h are in A P , an s c d u h th t h a t e

u fi fu hi du d d hi d
. .
.

p ro d c t o f th e rs t an d o rt s t o th e pro c t o f th e s eco n an t r

in th e ratio o f 2 t o 3 .

15 Th e p th
te r mf A P is 9 , d th e mt mi fi n d th e

mt m
o an an er s
p
. . .
g ;
“! er .

16 H ow my t m f th e s eries 9 , 1 2, 1 5 mu t b ta k to
mk
,
an er s o s e en
a e 3 06 ?

17 . I f th e su mf
m f A P i 2 + 3 fi d th t m o n ter s o an . . s n n ,
2
n e r
‘h
er .

18 If th m f mt m f A P i t th m f t m
mt M h w th t th m t mi t th t m 2m 1 i t 2 l
. e su o er s o an . . s o e su o n er s as
2 “ ‘11
o ,
s e a e er s o e n er as s o 71. .

19 P v th t th m f dd umb f t mi A P i q u l
t th m idd l t mm ultipli d b y th u mb f t m
. ro e a e su o an o n er o er s n . . s e a

o e e er e e n er o er s .

20 I f .
( 5 3 ) f ll
s ==n lu f fi d t h
n p t m ora va es o n, n e
ih
er .

21 Th umb f t m i A P i v ; th m f th dd
t m i 24 v t m3 0 d th l t t m d th fi t b y
. e n er o er s n an . . s e en e su o e o
f th
um ft m
er s s ,
o e e en er s ,
an e as er ex cee s e rs
fi d th n b e n er o er s .

22 Th tw t f um b h i ti g f 3 t mi A P
m f h t i 1 5 Th mm d iff
ere are o se s o n e rs eac co n s s n o er s n

f th fi t
. . .

d th t
mm diff
an e su o e ac se s e co on ere n c e o e rs se
b y 1 th
.

i g
s t rea er th f th
an d t d th
e co on e ren c e o e s ec o n se an e
du t f t h fi t t i t t h p du t f th d t 7 t 8 fi d
,

u mb
p ro c o e rs se s o e ro c o e seco n se as o : n
th e n ers .

23 F i d th l ti b tw dy i d t h t th m ‘h

d 2y my b th m b tw 2 d y
n e re a on e e en x o r er
m th
an n a e r e an
b tw
.

‘h

m
e e e n x an a e e sa e as e r e an e een x an
it ean s b ein g in serted in eac h cas e .
,

I f th e s u
24 o f an A P is th e m mf fo r 9 t er m hw
m m
sa e or as s, s e
p
h
. .

t at I ts s u fo r p + g t er s I s z ero .
 C H A PTE R V .

G E OM ETR I C A L G
PR O R E S S I O N .

51 D E F I I TION
. N .
Q u an titie s a re s a id t o b e in Geo mt i
e r cal
Pro gress io n wh e n t e h yi n c re a s e o r de c re a s e b y a co n s ta n t fa c to r .

T s hu ea c h o f t h f ll wi
e o o n
g s e ries o r s a Geo f me t ric a l Pro m
re s s io n
g
3 , 6 , 1 2, 2 4 ,
1 1
3 g
2 3
a , a r, a r ar

f
Th e c o n s t an t a c t o r is als o c a lle d t h e co mm on r a t io , a n
d it is
f oun d b
y di i div
n
g an
y t e r b y t a t w ic i m h h h mmdi e at e l yp recedes

it . fi
I n t h e rs t o f t h e a b o e e x a ples t h e c o v m mm on ra t io is 2 in
1
t h e s eco n d it is ; in t h e t ird it is r
-

5
h .

52 . I f we ex a mi n e th e s e rie s
’z 3 “
a , a r, a r ,
ar ,
ar ,

h
we n o t ic e t a t i n a n y ter th e i n dex m f
o r a lwa
y s les s b y on e

tha n th e n u m
b er of th e ter i n th e s eri es m .

Thu s th e 3 ra
ter mi s ar
2

the 6 th
ter mi s ar

t h e 20 th
ter mi s ar

an d, ge n e ra ll , y th e p th
te r mi s ar
f’ “

I f n b e th e n u mb er o f te r m s , an d if l de n o t e t h e la s t , o r n

m
t e r , we a e hv t

53 D E F I I TI O N N W h u
t h re e q a n t it ie a re in s G eo mt
e ric a l

m m
en

m
. .

Pro gres s io n t h e iddle on e is c a lle d t h e ge o et ric ean bet w een

t h e o t h e r t wo .
38 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

To fi n d th e geo mt i m e r c ea n b etween two given qu an ti ti es .

L e t a a n d b b e t h e t wo q u an t it ie s ; G t h e ge o mt e ric m e an .

h
T e n s in c e a , G, 6 a re in G R , .

b 0
G a

eac h b e in g e q u a l to t h e co mm on ra t io

2
G ab
—

w h en c e G
’

J tb e .

54 . To i n sert a
given n u mb er of geo mt e r c i m ea n s b etween
two given qu an ti ti es .

L et a an d b b e t h e gi v en
q u an t it ie s , n th e n u mb er o f m e an s .

In a ll t h e re w ill b e 2 te r s ;
n + m so t h at we h a v e to fi n d a

se rie s o fn 2 te r mi s n G P, of
. ic h . wh a is t h e fi rs t a n d b t h e la s t .

Let r b e th e mm
co on rat io

t h en b th e ( n 2) ‘h
ter m
ar

( )
1

H en ce th e re
q u i re d m ean s a re a r, ar
"
,
wh e re r h a s th e
v lu f u
a e o n d in

E x a p le m . I n s ert 4 geo mt i m
e r c e an s b et w ee n 1 60 an d5 .

We hv a e to fi n d 6 ter mi G P
s n o f wh h ic 1 6 0 is th e fi rs t, an d 5 th e
h . .

s ix t .

L et r b e th e co mm o n rat io ;
t h en 5= th e s ix t h t er m
5
1 60r
1
32

w h en c e
1
Q
an d th e m e an s are 8 0, 4 0, 2 0, 1 0 .
 G E OM ETR ICA L G
PR O R E S S I O N . 39

55 . To fi n d th e su mf o a n u mb er of ter mi s n Geo mt i
e r ca l

Pro gres s i o n .

Le t a f
b e t h e irs t t e r , r t h e c o m mm o n ra t io n th e n u mb er o f
m m u
,

te r s , an d s th e s u re
q ire d T e n . h
mu ltiply i n
g e v y t mb y
er er r, we hv a e

2 " 2 "

rs ar ar ar ar

H en c e by s ub t ra c t io n ,

rs — s = ar — a
"
;

( r l) s = a
( r l) ;
"
(
a r l)
r 1

Ch a n gin g t h e si
gns in n um e ra t o r a n d de n o mi n a t o r,

"
a
( l r
)
1 r

N OTE I t will b e fo n ud co n v en ien t to re mmb e er bot h fo r m giv

s en ab o v e

u wh
.

fo r s , s in g ( 2 ) in all c as e s e x c ep t en r is p o s itive a n d grea ter th a n 1 .

Sin c e an
t- 1 : l, th e fo r mul a ( )
1 my ba e w ritten

T’ 2
1 .

r 1
a fo r mwhi h i c s so mtime es u s eful .

E xa m
pl e . Su mth e s e ri e s
2
t o 7 ter m s.

Th e co mm o n ratio h en c e b y fo r mul a ( )
2

th e su m
40 HI G H ER AL GE BR A .

56 . C o n s ide r t h e s e rie s 1

Th e su mt o n te r m s

F mt h i
ro s re s u lt
it app e ars t a t h o we e r an ter s b e h v my m
t ak e n t h em su v
o f t h e a b o e se ries is al a s le s s t an 2 A ls o we wy h
t h t b y mk m
.

see a ,
a in
g n s f c ien t l l ufi
a rge , w e c a n a ke t h e y
rac t io n f
2
1
11 —1
s m
as ll w a as e p le as e . T hu s b y t ak in g a s u ffi ie c n t n u mb er

of t m ther m s e su c an be md a e t o di fe r b y f as litt le as we p l s ea e

f m2ro

m
.

I n th e n e x t a rtic le a o re g e n e ra l c a se is dis c u s s ed .

57 . F mAro rt . 55 we h a v e 3

a ar

1 —r l —r
°

u
S pp o s e r is a
p ro
p er f ra c t io n
; t h en t h e gre at e r t h e v al e ou f

mll
n
W
n th e s v lu f a d er is t h e a e o r
”
,
an c o n se
qu en tl y o f
1 r
an d

th f b y mki g u ffi i ly l g
e re o re a n n s c en t ar e, we c an mk a e th e su mf o

t m f th diff f m mll qu y
a
n er i s o e s e r es er ro by as s a a an tit as

w pl s
e ea e .

Th i su lt i u u lly t t d th u
s re s s a s a e s : th e su mof an in fi n i te

nu mb er o f ter m of s a decrea sin g Geo mt i e r ca l Pro gress io n is

a

1 r

or m o re b rie fl y , th e su mt o in fi n i ty i s
l —r
a
'

E xa p le 1 m Fin d h t ree n umb e rs in G P wh o se s u mi s 19, an d wh o se

du
. . .

p ro c t is 2 1 6 .

D en o te th e n um b ers b y
g , a , ar ; h
t en
Cz
—x
r
a x ar= 21 6 ; h en c e a = 6, an d

th e n umb ers are

2 6 , 6r .
 GE OM E TR IC A L PR O R E S S I O N G . 41

wh en c e r
3 2
3
.

T hu s th e n um b ers are 4, 6, 9 .

m
E x a p le 2 Th e s u O f an in fi n ite m n um b er o f te r mi s n G P is 1 5, an d
m
. . .

th e s u h
o f t eir s q are s is 45; fi n d th e u s erie s .

Let a d en o te th e fi rs t ter m , r th e co mm on ra tio ; h

t en th e su m f th o e

mi m f th
2

ter s s
a
an d th e su o e ir s q u are s is
-

1
a

r
?

H en c e

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Div d i in g ( 2) b y ( )
1
11 7
°

an d fro m( 1 ) an d ( 3)
it: _

wh en ce r g , an dt h e re fo re a = 5 .

T hu s th e series is 5,

E XA M PLE S . V . a .

g3 ,
3
,
t o 7 t er m s .

Su m— 2 ,
25,
to 6 ter m s .

S u g5in , 1 ,
t o 8 te rm s .

Su m2 4 ,
—
,
to 10 t m er s .

Su m1 6 2 5 4 , ,
t 7 t m
o er s .

Su m1 5 , ,
to p te r m s .

Su m3 4 3 16
,
-
m
to 2 a ter s .

Su m1 to 12 t m er s .

Su m t 7 t mo er s .
42 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

10 . S II II I —
é ,
1
£
2
,
t o 7 te r m s .

11 . I n s e rt 3 ge o mt i m e r c e an s b et w ee n 2 k an d
g
12 . I n s e rt 5 geo mt i m e r c ean s be tw e en 3 3 a n d 4 05 .

13 . I n s ert 6 geo mt i m
e r c ean s b et w ee n 14 an d
6
7
4
Su mth e fo llo wi n g s e ries t o in fin ity

14 .

g ,
l, 15 . 4 5, 0 1 5, 0 005

—1 —3
16 . 1 6 6 5,
-
74 , 17 . 3 ,
3

18 . 3, J3 ,
1 19 . 7, J4 2 ,

20 Th e s u o f th e m fi rs t 6 ter m s o f a G P is 9 t i m es th e su mf o

m mm
. . .

th e fi rs t 3 t e r s ; fi n d t h e co on ratio .

21 . Th e fi ft h mf t er o a G P is 8 1 ,
. . an d th e s eco n d mi te r s 2 4 ; fin d
th e s eries .

22 Th e s u o f a G P m o se wh co mm on rat io is 3 is 7 2 8, an d th e
m fi m
. . .

las t t er is 4 8 6 ; fi n d th e rs t ter .

23 I n a G P th e firs t t er mi 7 s t h e las t t er m4 4 8 an d th e su m
mm
. . .
, ,

8 89 ; fi n d th e c o o n rat io .

24Th e su m f th o re e n u mb i G P i e rs n s 3 8, an dt hi e r
p ro du ct is
h m
. . .

1 7 28 ; fin d t e .

25 Th e c o n tin udp du f h umb ct o t in G P is 2 1 6 , d

m
e ro re e n ers
h mi p i i
an

du f um
. . .

th e su o f t h e p ro ct o t e fi n a rs s 1 56 ; n d th e n b e rs .

26 I f Sp en o te t h e d su m f th o e s e ries a d i nf , an d
m v h
. .

th e o f th e s e ries 1 — rp 2p
ad inf , p ro t at
s
p
su +r . e

27 I f th e p “
g
“
r
th
ter m s o f a G P be a, b, e re s p e c ti e l v y p ro v e
h ,
.
, . .
,
t at aq
r
b r P
‘ ‘

28 um
Th e su mf o anin fi n ite n b er o f t er m f a G P is 4 , d th e
m h ub
. . s o . . an
su o f t eir c es is 1 9 2 fi n d th e s e ries .

58 R u i g d iml fu i h ec rr n ec a s rn s a
go o d ill ut
s ra t io n o f in fi n ite
G m i lP g
.

eo i et r ca ro re s s o n s .

m F d v u
E xa p le 23 . in th e al e o f 4 °
.

4 22 : 4 2 32 3 2 3
4 23 23
10

4 23 23
44 HI G H E R AL G E BR A .

60 . To fin d th e su mf o n ter m f th s o e s eries

s
( 3 d)
e
a,
( a d) r,
( a 2 d) r ,
a r ,

in wh i c h ea ch ter mi th p s e ro du c t o f c o rresp o n din g ter mi

s n an

a ri th m
eti c a n d geo mt i i e r c s er es .

D en o t e t h e su mb y S ; t h en

r
f
S ar
( a+n

By s ub t ra c t io n ,

"
— + n — l cl)
S (I + dr ( a r

dr ( 1
— ld
( )
n
— a + n r
l —r ,

"
dr ( l —
"
l
a r

1 ( )
2
r l r

C OR . W rite Si n th e f m
o r

a dr ( a + n

l —r ( l — r
)
2
( l — r
)
z
’
l —r

t h if r< l w
en e c anmk mll w pl a b y t ki g
e r
”
as s a as e ea s e a n n

mi g th t ll th t m whi h
,

s u ffi i tly g t
c en rea I t h is n c a s e , a s su n a a e er s c

b md mll th t th y my b gl t d w
.

in vo lve r
“
ca n e a e so s a a e a e ne ec e ,
e

o b tain
1
a d
f
r
th m t i fi it y
or W h ll f e su o n n . e s a re e r
( )
2
r 1 r

h
t o t is p o in t a
gain in C h a
p.X X I .

In s u mmi g t n o fi y
in n it s e rie s o f t h is l
c a ss it is u s u lly b
a e st to

p ro c e e d as in t h e f o llo win
g exa
p le m .

E x a p le 1 m . Ifx < 1 , su mth e s erie s

to in fi n ity .

xS 2 2 3
a + x + 3 x +

S (I

1
1 —x
’
 G E O M E TR IC A L PR O G R E SSION . 45

E x a p le 2 m . Su mth e sen e s to n m
te r s .

4 7 10
S_I+ +
5
1 4 7—
+ + +
5 g 2 3

3 3 3
S— l l -

3n — 2
5 11

E XA M PLE S . v b . .

1 . Su ml to n te r m s .

2 . Su m 3
E
7 15 31
to i n fi n l ty .

3 . Su m t o in fi n ity .

4 . Su m1 + 5
2 3
2
. to n t er m s .

5 . Su m 3 5 7
to 1n fi n 1 ty .

6 Su m1 6x 2
. t o in fi n ity .

v h th ( ) m f G P f wh i h h fi
7 Pro t m
at +1
‘h
te r t rs t te r
mf G P f
e e o a o c e

mb i q u l h
n
d h th i d
.
,
. .

i t t er to t e te r
t m
s a an e r o a o

mb
s e a
wh i h h fi d th fi f h
. .
,

c t e rs t er IS a an e t te r .

8 Th mf m f G P wh fi mi d m 2 n te r s o rs t te r
m i i q u l h m f f G P wh fi
co

mi b d
. e su o a . . o se s a an

o n rat o r to t e s u rs t te r
mm i
s an

h b i qu l h m f h fi w
s e a o n o a o se

P v
. .

rs t t
‘
3
rat o ro e t a t to t t e
mfh fi
co on r . s e a e su o o

te r s o t e rs t s e ri es .
 46 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

9 . Fi n d th e su m f th o e in fi n ite s e rie s

r+ ( 1 r3
+
r an f i
d b b e in g pro p e r rac t o n s .

10 Th m f h u mb mG P i 7 if h tw m t re e n ers s 0; t e x tre
ul ipli d h b y d h m b y h p du
e su o e o
b m
. . . es
e t e i A P e ac 4, an t e e an 5, t e ro c ts are
umb
n . .
;
fi d h
n t e n e rs .

11 Th fi w m f ifi i GP h u
q l rs t t o ter s te are to et t o 5,
mi im h m f ll h m h f ll w i fi d
g e o an n n er e a

d v y
. .
.

an e er t er s 3 t es t e su o a t e t er s t at o o t; n

th ie s er es .

S m h f ll w i g
u i t e o o n s er e s

12 . v + a,
. .v
2
+ 2a, to n te r m s .

13 . v
.
( v
.
g) x
2
( x
2
g)+
?
33 to n te r m s .

14 . a + 1 , 3a 5a +
1
1§
+ m t o 2p t e r m s .

2
5
+
3
3
2
2 3 2
to 1n fi mty .

4 5 4 5 4— 5
7 7 2
7 3
7 4 +
7 5 "+
3
t o in fi n ity .

17 . If a, b , c, d b e in G P , p ro . . v h e t at

( b — d) 2
.

18 I f th e arit hm i m et c w
b et ee n a d b is t ic e w gre at th e
m
e an an as
m
as
hw h
.

geo e tric ean , s e t at a b = 2 + J3 2 — J3 .

19 . Fi n d th e su mf o n ter m s o f th e s e rie s th e r
‘“
ter m f wh i h io c s

( 2 r 1)

20 Fi d th m f2 m
t er s o f a s e ries o f ic wh h v v ter m
m
e su e er
y e en
m m tim
n o
t mb f
77.
v
.

is a ti e s t h e e r it, an d e e ry o dd t er th e te r
t t m
e o re 0 es
b e fo re it, th e fi rs er b i e n g u n ity .

21 I f Sn d te t h e s u o f n te r m m fa G P wh fi rs t te r mi
mm
en o s o o se

m
. . . s
a, an d co on rat io r, fi n d th e s u o fS S3 ,
I

22 I f S I , S 2, th e um f i fi i te ge o mt ie r c s e ries ,
m
are s s o n n

wh fi d wh mm
.

o se rs t t er s are 1, 2, an o s e co o n rat lo s are

1 jl 1
-
re s p e c tive ly ,
2
,
3 ,

p ro v h
e t at —

2
9

23 If r 1 an v d mi p i iv i g h w h
d p o s it i e , an s a os t e n te e r, s e t at

( m ) (
.

2 m )
m 1 r 1 — r < 1 — r
2 +1

i i d fi i ly mll wh
.

H en c e s h w th
e at u rn s n i i d fi i ly g
e n te s a en n s n e n te re at .
 C H A PTE R VI .

H A R M ON I C A L PR O G R E SS I O N . TH E O R E M S C O NN E CTE D W IT H
TH E PR O G R E S S I ON S .

61 . D E FI N ITI O N . h qu T re e an t it ie s a, b, c a re s a id to b e in

H ar
o
mm l P o ca ro gre s s
om whn en
a a b
C 6 6

A n
y n u mb er o f qu ti i an t es a re s a id to b e in H m
ar o n ic a l
Pro gre s s io n en e wh v y th
er re e c o n sec u tiv e m
te r s a re in H ar

mo n ic a l Pro res s io n
g .

62 Th e rec i ro ca ls o
p f qu a n ti ties i n ll a r mi
o n ca l Pro gre s s io n
mti
.

a re i n A ri th e ca l Pro gres si o n .

B y de fi n itio n , if a , b , c a re in H ar m o n ic a l Pro gre s s io n ,

a a — b .

c b — c
’

a
( b — c
) c
( a b) ,

v
di idin g e v y t mb y
er er a b c,

1 1 1 1
’
e b b a

wh i h p v
c ro es t h e p ro p o s it io n .

63 m
H a r o n ic a l p ro p e rt ie s a re c ie in t e re s t in g b e c a s e h fly u
m m y
.

h
o f t e ir i
p o rt an c e in G eo e t r a n d in t h e T eo r o f So n d h y u
in A lge b ra t h e p ro p o s it io n st
p ro e d is t h e o n l ju o n e o f an y v y
m
i p o rta n c e h
T e re is n o ge n e ra l o r la fo r t h e s u o f an y f mu m
um m
.

n u
b e r o f q an t it ie s in H a r o n ic a l Pro gre s s io n Q e s t io n s i n u
m mk
.

H P a re ge n e ra ll
. . o l ed b
y in ys v
e rt in g t h e t e r s an d
,
a inv g u se

o f th e ro e rt ies o f t h e c o rre s o n din

p p p g A P . .
48 HI GH E R G
A L E BR A .

64 . To fi n d th e h a r mi m on c ean b etween two given qu a n tities .

Le t a, b b e t h e t wo q u an t it ie s ,
H t h e ir h a r mi m
on c ea n ;
1 1 1
th e n — , a re 1 n A P ,
5
.
’ .

d H
1 1 1 1
’
11 a b H

2
’
H a b

E xa p lem . I n s ert 4 0 h mar o n ic m ean s b et w ee n 7 an d

H ere 6 is th e
m
l
4 2 ter mf o an A P
. . wh o se fi rs t t er m 13 le t d b e th e

co mm on di fferen c e t h en

6=
1
-

7
41d ; wh en c e d

T hu s th e ari t hm m eti c ean s are

2
7
3
7
, an d t h ere fo re th e h ar

mi m on c ean s are 35,

7
41

65 I f A , G, H b e t h e a rit e t ic ,
geo hm mt
e ric , a n d h ar mi on c

m sb
.

e an e t we e n a a n d b , we h a v e
p ro e d v
a 6

b 6
f g5
a

36 G
2
Th e re o re AH ab

t h at is , G is th e geo mt i m
e r c e an b etween A an dH .

F mt h
ro s
e e re su lts w e see t h at

A —G
 H A R MON ICA L PR O G R E SSI ON . 49

w ich hi s p o s it i ve if a an d b a re
p o s it i v e t h f e re o re th e a ri th mti e c

m ea n
f
o an
y t wo p o s it ive qu an tit ies i s grea ter th a n th eir geo mt ie r c

m ea n .

A ls o ro f m
t h e e q a t io n G u
A H , we s e e t a t G is in t e r
2
h
m e dia t e in al e b e t v u w
e e n A a n d 11 ; a n d it h a s b e e n
p ro e d t at v h
A 0 , t e re o re G
’
h f
11 ; t a t is , th e a ri th etic, geo etri c , a n d h m m
m m
h a r o n ic e a n s b e tween a n y two p o s itive q u a n tities a re i n des cen d in g
o rder of a gn i tu de m .

66 u u
M is c e lla n eo s q e s t io n s in t h e Pro gre ss io n s a ffo rd s c o p e
u u f
.

fo r s k ill a n d in ge n it y , t h e s o l tio n b e in g o te n n e a t ly e ffe c t e d

m
b y s o e s pe c ial a rti c e Th e s t de n t fi
ill fi n d t h e o llo in g . u w f w
h in ts s e l u fu .

1 m u
I f t h e s a e q a n t it b e a dde d t o , o r s b t ra c t e d ro y u f m ll a

m mw f m
.

u wi h
,

t h e ter s o f a n A P , t h e re s lt in g t e r s ill o r a n A P t
m mm
.

f f
. .

the sa e co o n di fe re n c e a s b e o re
[A rt .

2 If a ll th e te r m s o f an A P be mu ltipli d e o r di ide d b yv
m qu m will f m
. .

ul i
.

th e sa e an t it y , t h e re s t n
g t e r s o r an A P, but
mm
.

wi h
.

t a n ew c o on diffe re n c e .
[
A rt

3 l th e te r s o f a G P b e
If al m mu ltipli d e o r v
di ide d b y t h e
m u m w ill f m
. .

y u w h
.

sa e q a n t it , t h e re s ltin g t e r s or a G P it th e
m mm
. .

sa e co o n ra t io a s b e o re [ A rt f . .

4 I f a , b , c, a re in G P , t . . hy e a re a ls o in co n tin u e d p ro
fi
.

o rtio n s in c e , b y de n it io n
p , ,

a b c

b c d

Co n v e rs e l y ,
a s e rie s o fq u an t it ie s in co n t in u ed
p ro
p o rt io n my a
e
be re
p re s e n ted b y x , xr , x r ,

E x a p le 1 m . If b
'
2
, C
2
are in A P . .
, s hw h
e t at b + c, c + a, a +b are

in H P . .

By a dd in g a b + a c + b e t o e ac h ter mw , e s ee t h at

in A P ;
‘
2
b c + ca + cb + a b are . .

t h at is ( a + b) ( b + c) ( c + a ) ( a+ b) are in A P . .

dvd
i i in g e ac h mb y
ter ( a + b ) (b + c )

b +c
1
’
c +
1
a
’
a +b
1
a re mA . P

th a t is H P .
.
50 HI GH ER A L E BR A G .

m
E x a p le 2 If t th e las t te r md th e c o mm on d ifferen c e , an d s th e su m
m d u v h
.
,

atio n = ( + 2 l) , p ro
2
o f n ter s o f an A P b e c o n n ec t e . . b y th e e q 8 ds d e t at

d = 2a .

Sin c e th e gi v en relatio n is tr u e fo r an y n um b er o f t er mp s, u t n : 1 t h en

a l: 3.

H en c e by s u u
b s tit tio n , 8a a z
(d 2 a) 2 ,
2
(d 2a) O;

d = 2a .

m
E x a p le 3 I f th e p q . 3
“
ter m s o f an A P . . are in G P , . . s hw h e t at
— r r — s are in G P
q, q ,
. .

W it h th e uu s al n o tatio n we hv a e

a + (p — 1 ) d a + (q — 1) d a (
+ r— 1) d
— r—1
[A rt . 66 .

a + (q 1 ) d a + ( ) d a + (s -
1) d

e ac h h o ft es e ratio s

—
{ + (p
a — 1) d } { a + (q — l ) d l l a + ( q l ) dl { G M T- l) dl
— —l d
{ + (q l )
a dl {M U 1 ) }
d -

{M V ) l l a + ( s -
1) 6
3

H — — r, r — s are in G P
en ce p q, q . .

67 Th e n b e rs 1 , 2 , 3 , um a re o f ten f
re e rre d to as th e
m m f th si mf
.

th
n a tu ra l n u b ers ; t h e n ter o e s e rie s n ,
an d th e su o

fi t msi 9il
— n
th e rs t n er s
z
-

68 To fin d th e su m f th o e s qu a res f
o th e fi rs t 11 n a tu ra l
m
.

n u b ers .

L et th e su mb e den o t e d b y S th en

S 1
2
2
2
3 ’

We hv a e n
3
—
(
n — 1
)
3
= 3 n — 3n + 1 ;
2

an d by c h an i
g g
n n in to n 1,
—3
( n
( n 3 (n ( n 1) 1 ;

si mil a rl y ( n ( n 3 (n 3 (n 2) 1

3 — 2
3

3
2
1 —0
3 3 2
z
3 . 1
52 HI G H ER AL G E BR A .

70 . f
I n re e rrin g t o t h e re s lt s we h a v e st
p ro e d it will u ju v
v
b e c o n e n ie n t t o in t ro d c e a n o t a t io n u
ic h t h e s t de n t wi ll fre wh u
qu en tl ym w h
ee t it i n H i
g e r M at e at ic s W h
e s a ll de n o te t h e hm . h
s e rie s

En
b y En ;
3
b y 2n ;
wh 2 e re
p lace d b e o re a t e r f
si n i
g m fi es th e su mf o al m
l te r s o f
wh i h t h
c a t ter m
is t h e ge n e ral t p e y .

m
E x a p le 1 Su mth e s erie s

m
.

1 n te r s.

Th e u
‘h
d by w ritin g o n e ac dw ter in a h m
m h h v w um
an
m
si ilar fo r we s all a e t o co l n s, o n e c o n s is tin g o f th e fi rs t n n at ral u
num b ers , an d th e h h u
o t er o ft eir s q are s .

th e su mE n
2
Zn

n ( u + 1 ) ( 2n + 1 ) n (u + 1)
6 2

m
E x a p le 2 . Su mt o n t er m th s e s erie s wh o se n ter mi s 2 71 —1
8n 3 6n 2
.

L e t th e su mb e d en o te d by S t h en

] 3
S 2 2 n
82 6 2 72 2
‘

: n

"
(
2
2 1 8n n 1
+ )
2
6n ( n + 1) ( 271 4 1 )
-

2—1 4 6
-
2n
— 2n

E XA M PL E S . VI . a .

Fin d th e fo u h mi
rt ter n ea c h o f th e fo llo wi g n s erIe s

( 2) 2, 25,

( )
3 2 , 2 2, 3 3

I n s ert two h mi m ar on c ea n s b et wee n 5 an d 1 1 .

I n s e rt f u h m
o m
r ar o n ic ea n s b et w ee n
2
3
an d
2
13
 E X A M PL E S O N TH E PR O R E SS I ON S G . 53

4 I f 1 2 an d 9 2 are t h e geo et ric m d h mi m e an s , re s p e c t

m hm
an ar on c
w
.

ively , b e t ee n two n u b ers , fi n d t e .

5 I f th e h an i m b tw w qu t tities is to t e ir geo h
m
non c e an

mt
e ee n o an
e ri c e an s as 1 2 to 1 3 , p v h h qu ro e t at t e an t i t ie s are in th e ra tio
o f 4 to 9 .

6 . If a , b , c b e in H . P h w h .
, s e t at

a z a —a

7 I f th e m t mf ‘“
er o a H P be eq u a l to n an d th e u
‘h
ter mb e
m
. . .
,

eq u l mp v h
a to ,
ro e t at th e ( tn -
N l
m
) t mi er s eq ul m a to
n

7,

8 I f th e q
“
,
r
‘“
te r m s Of a H . P be. b , 0 re s p e c t i
a, v ly e , p ro v e
— r bc + r— —
(q ) ( ~

p) ca + (p q) a b = o .

9 . I f b is th e h mi m
ar on c ea n b et w een a an d c, p ro v h e t at

1 1
'
b — a b — c a c

Fin d th e su mf O n te r m s Of t h e s e ries wh o se n
t "t e r mi s

10 . m t
11 . n
3
+
g n . 12 . n

2
13 . n 14 . 3 n — 2” 15 .
— 4n 3 .

16 If t h e ( + d t e r s O f an A P are in m
mm
n an
m hw h
. . .

G P, . . an d ,
n, r a re in H . P, . s e t at th e rat io O f th e c o on

d iff e ren c e t o th e fi rs t te r mi n th e A . P is.

2
-

7b

17 I f I,m th
m
u mb i G re e n P , p ro v h t at th e fi rs t te r m
mm
n are e rs e

m d t m
n

P wh
.
, . .

f an A
o o se an n
th
er s are in H P is t o th e c o on
m+ l t 1
. . . .
,
differe n c e as o .

18 If th mf t m f i
e su be + b n + cn
2
fi n d th e n
th

m
O n er s o a s er e s a

u ,
.

te r an d th e n at re o f th e s e ries .

19 . Fi n d th e su mf o n t er m s Of th e s e rie s wh o se n
th
t er mi s

2
(n + 1) (6n
2
4n

20 If b e t ee n an y two q w u h
tities t ere b e in s e rt e d w i hm i
t o ar t et c

m m h m m
an

m
.

ea n s A 1 , A 2 t wo ge o e tric e an s G , 0 2 ; a n d t wo ar o n ic ea n s

H 2 ; s e t at G1 0 , hw h 1
fi g

21 fi t f i hm i m b w
I f p b e th e t et c et t wo n umb er
s
h mi m b w h m mb
. rs o n ar e an s een

an d
q t h e fi rs t o f n ar on c ea n s et een t e sa e t wo n u e is ,

p v roh t h v lu f qe li b w
t pad t e a e o c an n o t e et een an p .

22 Fi d h m f h ub f h m f A t t t te r s P, an d s hw
e

mf h m
n e su o e c es o e o an

h ii ly div i ib l b y h
. .
.

t at t s exac t s e t e su o t e te r s .
54 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

PI L E S OF SH OT AND SH E L LS .

71 To fi n d th e n u mb er o
f sh o t a rra n
ged i n a co m
p l t e e

mid
.

r
py a on a s qu a re b as e .

u h h
S pp o s e t a t e ac S ide Of t h e b a s e c o n t a in s n S o t ; t e n t h e h h
n um h
b e r O f s o t in t h e lo e s t la e r is n
2
w
in t h e n e x t it is ( n y
in t h e n ex t ( n an d s o o n , u p to a s in
gle s ot a t t h e h
to p .

S = n + ( n

n ( n + 1 ) ( 2n + 1)
6 [A rt

72 To fi n d th e n u b er m o
f sh o t a rra n
ged in a co mp l t e e

m
.

p y ra i d th e b a s e of wh ich i s a n eq u i la tera l tri an gle .

u h
S pp o s e t a t e a c S ide Of t h e b a s e h co n ta in s n s h o t t h en th e
n um h
b e r O f s o t in t h e lo e s t la e r is w y
n + ( n

h n
( n + 1) 1
t at is
2
n
)
h
I n t is re s lt rit e n u w
1, n 2, fo r n an d we t hu s Ob t a in
um i
,

th e n h
b e r Of s o t I n t h e 2 r d, 3 rd, la y e rs .

J
( 2
2
S :
f
71 7 En )
n
( n + 1) ( n + 2)
6 [A rt

73 To fi n d the n u mb er f ho t
o s a rra n
ge d in a co m
p l t e e

m
.

pg 7 a id th e b a s e of wh ich is a rec tan le

g .

L et m an d n b e th e n u mb er o f sh o t In t h e lo n g an d s h o rt s ide

re s e c t i
p v ly e o f the b a e s .

Th e t o p la y er c o n s is t s o f a s in
gle ro w Of m— ( n o r
m n + 1 S ot
; h
in t h e n ex t y la er th e n u mb er is 2 ( m n 2)

in t h e n ex t l y a er th e n u mb er is 3 (m n 3)
an d so on

in t h e lo w est la y er th e n u mb er is n
( m— n n
) .
 PI L E S O F S H OT A N D S H E LLS . 55

S :
( m + u
( m -
n + n
)
( m
( m ( 2 n + 1)
2 6
1)
n
( n

; {3 ( m— n
) 2n + 1}

-
u + 1)
6

74 To fi n d th e n u b er of s h o t a rra n ged i n m an i n co m
p l t e e

m
.

py ra i d th e b a se of whi ch i s a rec ta n gle .

L e t a an d b de n o te t h e n u mb e r Of s h o t in t h e t wo s ide s o f th e
y
t o p la e r, 7 7 t h e n b e r o f la
. um y e rs .

I n t h e t o p la y er th e n u mb e r Of s h o t is a b
in t h e n ex t l y a er th e n umbe r is (a 1 ) (b 1)
in t h e n ex t l y a er th e n u mb er is ( a 2 ) (b 2)
an d so on ;
in t h e lo w e st la y er th e n u mb er is ( a n 1) (b n l)

a b ( a + b) ( n

1)

a bn ( n
( n n

7
— —
ab —l
é { 6 + ) ( 2 n

75 u m i l mpl i In n er ca exa es t is ge n e ra ll y e a s ie r to u se th e
f ll wi g mt h d
.

o o n e o .

m F d
E xa um p le h in th e n b er f t i n an i n mp l t u p ile f 16
m h
o s o co e e sq are o
cou rs e s , h d
h av g 1 2 S o t in eac Si e o f th e to p .

w v u
I f e p lace o n th e gi en p ile a sq are p ile a in g 1 1 hv s h o t in e ac h d
Si e o f
w
th e b as e, m u
e o b tain a c o p le te s q are p ile o f 2 7 c o rs es ; u
anum h
d n m b er O f s o t in th e co p le te p i le
27 X 28
6
X 05
6930 [M L

x 12
um
also nh dd d b er o f S o t in th e a e p ile
11
6
X 23 —
506

um h n m b er o f s o t in th e in c o p le te p ile 6 42 4 .
56 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

E XA M PLE S . VI b . .

d th umb f h i
Fi n e n er o s o t n

1 A qu.
p il h sv i g h i
are h id f th b e, a n 15s o t n e ac s e o e as e .

2 A t i g l p il h v i g
. r an h i h id f h b u ar e, a n 18 s o t n e ac s e o t e as e .

3 A g u l p il h
re c tanl g h d th b d h f h b
ar e, t e en t an e rea t o t e as e c o n
h p iv ly
.

ta i i g 0
n n d 5 an 28 s o t res ect e

mpl i gul pil id f h b h i g h

.

4 A i n n co e te tr an ar e, a s e o t e as e av n 2 5s o t,
id
.

an d a s f h t p e o t e o 14

mpl t q u pil f 7 u h vi g h t i h
.

5 A i n n co e e s are e o 2 co rs es , a n 40 s o n eac
id
.

s f h b
e o t e as e .

6 Th umb f h i mpl gul er O

p il i sif o t n a co e te rec ta n ar e s 2 4 39 5 ;
h i th b d h f h b h w m y h i i
e n

h
.

t e re are 34 s o t n e re a t o t e as e , o an are t ere n ts

l gh l
en t

7 Th umb f h i h p l y f q u pil i
e n er o s o t n t e to a er o a s are e s 1 69,
h l w h wm y h d h pil
.

an di n l y
t e i o es t a er i ?s 1 08 9 ; o an s o t o es t e e co n ta n

8 Fi d h u mb n f h i t mpl e n
gu l p il f
er o s ot n a co et e re c t an ar e o

u h vi g h i h l g id f i b
.

1 5 co rse s , a n 20 s o t n t e on er s e o ts as e .

9 F i d h u mb f h i n t i mpl
e n g u l p iler o s o t n an n co e te rec tan ar e

umb f h i h id f i u pp u b i g
.

t h t dt ts 1 1 an 18
u mb i h h
e n er O s o n e s es o er c o rs e e n
an d h t e n id erfi l w n u big
t e s o rt e r s e o ts o es t c o rs e e n 30 .

10 Wh i h u mb f h t q ui d mpl
at s t e n t gul er o s o re re to co e t e a rec a n ar

h v h h
.

p i l e i g a d n i h l
1 5 an g d id
6 ps i o ly t f n t e on e r an s o rte r s e , res ec t ve o

i tsupp ? er c o u rs e
,

11 Th umb f h t i i ul pil i g
e n er o by h s o a tr an g ar e reat er 1 50 t an

h lf h u mb f h i qu pil h umb f l y i h
. n s

t e n er o s o t n a s a re e, t e n er O a e rs n e ac

m fi d th umb f h i h l w l y f h i
a

b i g h
e n t e sa e ; n e n er o s o t n t e o es t a er o t e tr
an gu l p ilar e .

12 Fi d h u mb f h i n t i e nmpl q u pil f er o s o t e te are e o 16

u wh h u mb f h i h upp u i 00 l h
. n an n co s
co rs e s en t e n er o s o t n t e er c o rs e s 1 5 es s t an
i th l w
n e u o es t c o rs e .

13 Sh w h h u mb f h i q u pil i f u th h
e t at t e n er O t r t e

u mb f h i i gul pil f d ub l h umb f u

. s o n a s are e s one -
o
n er o s ot n a tr an ar e o o e t e n er o co rs e s .

14 If h u mb f h i i gul pil i h umb of

t e n er o s ot a tr to t e n er

h i qu pil f d u b l h u mb f u
. n an ar e s
ot a s are 7 fi d t as 1 3 t o 1 5;
umb f h i h pil
s n e o o e e n er o co rs es n

t h e n er o s o t n e ac e .

1 5 Th v lu f e i gul il
a f 1b
e O h i £ i f h tr 16 ot 51 ; t
umb f h i h
a an ar e O s s e
p
v lu f i b
. .

a e O d p
ro n wt fi d h e 1 03 6 er c n t e n er o s ot n t e

l w
. .
,
.

o l y
es t a er

If f m mpl t q u p il f u
.

16 ro i gu l il f tr
m u mb f u b f md h w h h mi i g h
a co e e s are n co rs es a an ar e o
.
p e o
t h e sa e n er o t at t t
f m
co rs e s e or e s e e re a n n s o

will b ju uffi i st h i g l pil d fi d h t to an o t tr t

umb f h i i id
e s c en or er an u ar e , an n e
n er O s o t n ts s e .
 C H A PTE R VII .

S CA L E S O F N OTA TI ON .

76 Th e o rdin a r n y um
b e rs with wh ic we a re a c q a in t e d in h u
hm m s mu
.

A rit e t ic a re e x p res s e d b
y e an of lt iples o f
p o e r o f 10 w s
fo r in s ta n c e
2 5= 2 x 1 0 + 5;
10

T is h mth d f p ti g u mb i ll d th m
e o o re m re s e n n n e rs s ca e e co on o r

den ar y s l
ca e o f t ti d i id t b
noth di
a f h
o n , an t en s sa o e e ra x o t e

sc a le . e s Th ymb l mpl y d i h i y t m f t t i
o s e th o e n t s s s e o n o a on a re e

n in e di it s a n d z e ro
g .

I n lik e an n e r a n
ymn b e r o t e r t an ten a
y b um
e t a k e n as h h m
t h e ra dix o f a s c ale o f n o t a t io n ; t
3
s if 7 is t h e ra dix , a n b er hu um
x 7
2
e x re s se d b 24 5 3 re re se n t s 2 x 7 + 4 x 7 5 3 an d in
p y p ;
h h h
t is s c a le n o d igit ig e r t a n 6 c a n o c c r h u .

A ga in in a s c ale wh
o s e ra dix is de n o t e d b
y r t h e ab o e v
n umb e r 2 4 53 s tan ds fo r 2 r
3
5r 3 M o re ge n e ra ll , if in . y
t h e s c ale wh o s e ra dix is r w e de n o t e t h e digit s , b e gin n in g it w h
h
t a t in t h e n it s
’

p lu
ac e, b y a a a t e n th e n b e r so h um
f m w
or ed ill b e re p re se n t e d b y
n M —l
‘
n
+ a r
,

_ a 7 1 a 7 a
” 2 , o ,

wh th e re fi
e c o e f c ie n ts a a re in t e ge rs , a ll le s s t h an r, o f
m fi m
,

wh i h yc an on e o r o re a
n

ft er th e rs t a
y b e z e ro .

H e n c e in t is h s c a le t h e digit s a re r in n u mb e r, t h e ir v lu
a es

ra n in
g g ro O tf m
o r 1 .

77 m y
Th e n a e s B in a r , Te rn a r , Q a t e rn a r , Q in a ry , Se n a ry , y u y u
m
.

y
S e p t e n a r , O c te n a ry , N o a ry , D e n a r , U n de n a ry , a n d D o de n a r
-
y u y
a re us e d t o de n o t e t h e s c a le s c o rre s o n din
p g t o th e a l e s t wo , v u
O f t h e ra dix .
 58 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

I n th e de n a ry , un s c a le s w e S a ll re
q ire S b o ls h u ym
t o re p re s e n t t h e digit s h ic h a re gre at e r t a n n in e w
I t is n s a l h u uu
h h h h v
.

t o c o n s ide r a n y s c a le h ig e r t an t at wit ra dix t we l e ; wh en

n ecessar y h m y sym
we s a ll e plo t h e b o ls t, e, T a s digit s t o den o t e
’
v
t e n , e le e n an d t wel e ‘
v ’
.

It i p i lly w t
s h y f i
est h ec a or o n o t ce at in e v y
er s c a le 1 0 is t h e
s ymb l o n o t fo r ten b u t fo r t h e ra dix it sel f .

Th e o rdin a r o p e ra t io n s o f A rit h et ic
78 a
y b e p y
er o r ed m m f m
m
.

in a n y s c ale ; b u t, b ea rin g in in d t at t h e s c ce s s i e p o e rs o f h u v w
t h e ra di x a re n o lo n ge r p o e rs o f t e n , in det e r in in g t h e ca rry in g w m
fi g u res we s t n o t d i id e b ymu t e n ,
b u t b y t h e ra dix o f t h e v
s c a le

u
in q e s tio n .

E x a p le 1 m I n th e s c ale o f e ig h u t s b trac t 3 7 1 532 fro m53 02 25 an d

mu d
.
,

ltip ly th e iffe ren c e b y 2 7 .

53 022 5 1 3 647 3
3 7 1 53 2 27

1 3647 3 1 22 6 2 3 5
2 7 51 6 6

4 2001 1 5

E xp la n a tio n um u
A fter th e fi rs t fi g re o f th e s b trac tio n , s in c e we c an n o t
k m
t a e 3 fro hu h v k
2 we wh h v h .

add 8 ; t s we a e t o ta e 3 fro te n , i c lea es 7 ; t en

m wh h v
6 fro te n , h ic m h wh h v lea es 4 ; t en 2 fro e ig t ic lea es 6 ; an d s o o n .

i i m u i
A ga w h v n , n ltip ly n gby 7, e a e

w 3 x 7=t ty en o n e= 2
w h e t dw
ere fo re pu t o n 5 an d c arry 2 .

N ex t 7 x 7 + 2 = fi fty o n e= 6 x 8+3;
dw d
pu t o u n mu 3 i
anm d c arry 6 an d so on , n til th e ltip licatio n s co p lete .

dd i
I n th e a it on ,

3+6= n in e = 1 x 8+1
w h e t dw
ere fo re pu t o n 1 an d c arry 1 .

m
S i ilarly
an d
an d so o n .

E xa m
pl e 2 . Dvd i i e l 5e t2 o b y 9 in th e s cale o ft wv el e .

9 ) 1 5e t2 0

E xp la n a t io n . Sin c e 1 5 1 x T+ 5 v
s e en teen 1 x9 8,
we p u t dw o n 1 an d c arry 8 .

A ls o 8 x T e= one hu d d
n re an d v
se en =e
we t h erefo re pu t dwo n e an d c arry 8; an d so on .
60 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

v
D i ide N b y r, t h en th e re mi a n de r is d
o ,
an d th e q u o t ie n t is
"" 2
a — r + + a r + a, .
l 2

mi
n n

h u
I f t is q o t ie n t is di ide d b y v r, th e re a n de r is a

if t h e n e x t q o tie n t u a ;
an d s o o n , u
n t il t e re is n o rt h fu h er q u o t ie n t .
2

T hu s a ll th e re
q u i digit s a o a , ,
re d a re de t e r
. mi n e d by
s u c cessi v e v
di is io n s b y t h e ra dix o f t h e p ro p o s e d s c ale .

E xa m
p l e 1 . E xp re s s th e d en ary n um b e r 52 1 3 in th e s c ale o f se v en .

5
2
1
2 1

T hu s

an d th e n um b er re q ire u d is 2 1 1 2 5 .

m
E x a p le 2 . Tran s fo r m2 1 1 2 5 f m ro s c ale s e v en to s c ale e le v en .

e) 2l l 25
c ) l 244
e) 6 1

3
th e re q u d um
ire n b er i s 3 to t .

E xp la n a ti o n . I n th e fi rs t lin e o w k f or

x 7 + 1 = fi fte e n = 1 x e +4;
t h ere fo re o n dvd i i in g b y c we p u t dw o n 1 an d c arry 4 .

N ex t 4 x w
7 + 1= t en ty n in e 2 e+ 7 ; x
t h erefo re we p u t dw o n 2 an d c arry 7 ; an d so 0 11 .

E xa m
pl 3e du Re c e 7 2 1 5 fro m w v
s c ale t el e to s cale
ten b y w k or in g in
u w k wv
.

s c ale ten , an d verI fy th e re s lt b y or i n g in th e s c ale t el e .

7 21 5 0 5
7 21
12

1 24 01
T hu s th e re s u lt is 1 2 4 01 in e ac h c as e .

E xp lan a tio n 7 2 1 5 in s c ale t el e e an s 7 x 1 2 3 + 2 x 12 wv

5 in m x
u m d w h
.

s cale t en Th e calc latio n is o s t re a dily e f

fe c te b y ritin g t is e x re s s io n
m p
hu mu
.

I n th e fo r x t s we ltip ly 7 b y 1 2 , an d
mu
x x
a dd 2 t o th e p ro d c t ; t en we
h
t e n 1 03 3 b y 1 2 an d add 5 t o th e p ro
u h
ltip ly 8 6 b y 1 2 an d add 1 to th e
p ro ct ;
du du
ct .
 SC A L E S o r N O TA TIO N .
61

80 H it e rto w e ha e o n l dis c hv y u sse d wh o le u mb but

m
n e rs ;
.

f ra c t io n s a
y a ls o b e e x re s s e d in a n
p y s c a le o f n o t a t io n t hu s

2 5
2 5 in s c a le t e n de n o t e s —
10 lo

2 5
2 5 in s c a le s ix de n o t e s 5
6 2
6

2 5
2 0 In s c a le r de n o t e s
r r

F ra c t io n s hut s e x p re s s e d in a o r
gf m
a n a lo o u h s to t at o f
o rdin a r yd ec iml fa ra c t io n s a re c a lle d radix frac t io n ,
-
s d h p an t e o in t
is c a lle d t h e radix p o in t -
. Th e ge n e ra l t p e o f s c y uhf i ra c t o n s in
s c a le r is

wh e re b ,, b , , a re in t e ge rs , al l les s t h an r, o f wh i h c an
y o n e

or m my bo re a e z e ro .

81 . To exp res s a gi ven ra dix

f ra c tio n in an
y p ro
p o s ed s c a le .

L e t F b e t h e gi v f en ra c t io n ,
an d r th e ra dix o f t h e p ro po s e d
s c a le .

L et b , , b b b e th e re
q u i re d digit s b e gin n in g f mhro t e

f
le t ; t h e n
6 b b
7
‘
r
4
‘
7
+

We v wt fiha e no o n d th e v lu a es o f b , , b , , b a,

M u lt ip ly b t h id o s es o ft h u
e e
q a t io n by r ; t h en

b b
rF= Q +J
”
+ -

,
L h
2
7

H en ce u
b l is e q a l t o t h e in t egral p a rt o f rF an d, if w e de n o t e
th e f ra c t io n al
p a rt b
y R ,
we a e hv

M ltiply u g i b y r ;at e a n
n a s b e o re , 6 i h
s t h e in t e gra l p a rt f
m y u v mu h
, 2
o f an d si ila rl b y s c c e s s i e ltip lic a t io n s b y r, e a c o f

t h e digit s a
y b e o m n d ,
a n d t h e fu
ra c t io n e x p re s s e d in t h e p ro f
o s e d s c a le
p .
 62 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

I f in t h e s c c e s s i e u v mu
lt iplic a tio n s b y r an y o n e o f t h e
p u
ro d c t s is a n in t e ge r t h e p ro c e s s t e r i n a t e s a t t is s t a e
g a n d m h
v f fi um
,

t h e gi e n rac t io n c an b e e x p re s s e d b a n it e n b o f di it s
y e r
g
u v
.

B u t if n o n e o f t h e p ro d c t s is an in t ege r t h e p ro c e s s will n e e r
m
t e r in at e , an d in t i c a s e t h e digit re c r, hs o r in
g a ra dix s u f m
fra c t io n an alo o
g s t o a re c rrin
g du e ci al u m .

m
E x a p le 1 . E x pre s s 1
1
1 2 as a ra d ix frac tio n in s cale s ix .

13 13 x 3
16 8
7 7 x3
8 4
1 1 x 3
4 2
1
x 6_ 3 .

2
5
th e re q u d i re frac ti o n
4
6 6 2
63
1
6
3
4

4 51 3 .

m
E x a p le 2 . Tran s fo r m fro m s c ale e ig h t to s c ale fi ve .

We mu t t s re at th e in tegral an d th e frac tio n al p arts s ep arate ly ,

-
24
5

5
4 04
-

h
A fter t i s th e d
igit s in th e frac tio n al p art rec u h th e u d
ire
um
r; en ce re q
n b er i s 2 1 2 3 4 0 12 4 0 .

82 I n a n y s ca le of n o ta tio n of whi ch th e ra dix is r th e s u m

m
.

of th e digi ts of a n y wh o le n u b er di vided by r — 1 will lea ve th e

sa m m
e re a in der a s th e wh o le n u b er divided b y r 1 m .

L e t V de n o t e t h e n
7
I b e r, a o , a , , a 2 , a um
t h e digit s b egin
h u m
n
w
i
it h t at in t h e n it s
’
l
p a c e, a n d S t h e s u
n n
g o f t h e di it s
g ;
t en

N a
o
a r
,
a r
2
2
a r
"
;
n

N —S ( — l "“
—1
z a, r
) + + a
( r
) + a r
”
—l
) .
 S CA L E S O F N OTA TIO N .
63

Now e v yt m er er o n the r ig th h an d s ide is di is ib le b

y
v r 1

xV S
an In t e ge r ;
r 1

N S
t h a t is ,
1 1

wh e re I is so mi te n e
g er wh i h p v th p p i i
c ro es e ro os t on .

H en c e a n u mb in s c a e r
er l w ill b div i ib l b y e s e r 1 wh th e
m f it
en

su o s digits v
is di is ib le b y r l .

83 B y t ak in g r = 1 0 we le a rn ro t h e ab o e p ro p o s it io n f m v
um m m
.

h
t at a n b e r di ide d b y 9 v w
ill le a e t h e s a e re a in de r a s t h e v
su m
o f its di it s di ide d b
g y 9 T h e r le k v
n o n as
“
c a s t in
g u
out w
u y mu
.

t h e n in es
”
fo r t e s t in g t h e a c c ra c o f lt iplic a t io n is o n de d fu
o n t is h p p
ro e rt y .

Th e ru l my b hu e a e t s ex
p la in e d

Le t tw u mb b
o n e rs e re
p re s e n te d b y 9 a b an d 9c + d, an d
h
t e ir p ro du t b y P; t h
c en

P : 8 la e 9bc 9ad bd .

H e n ce
P
9
h as th e
9
sa m mi e re a n de r as
bd
an d t h f
e re o re th e

su m of th e digits o f P, h en di ide d b y 9 , gi e s t h e s a e w v v m
re m
a in de r a s t h e s u of th e digits o f b d, m e n di ide d b
y 9 I f wh v
mu mu h v
.

o n t ria l t is s o h hu
ld n o t b e t h e c a s e , t h e ltip lic a tio n st a e

y
b e e n in c o rre c t l p e r o r e d f m
I n p ra c tic e b a n d d a re re a dil y
f m su ms um
.

fu
o n d ro th e o f t h e digit o f t h e t wo n b e rs t o b e s
mu ltiplie d t o ge th e r .

E xa p le m . C an th e p ro du ct o f 3 1 2 56 an d 8 4 2 7 b e 2 6 33 9 53 1 2 ?

Th e s um d
f th e igits o f th e
s o ltiplican , mu d mu ltip lie r, a n d p ro du
c t are 1 7 ,
2 1 , an d 3 4 v
re s pe c ti ely ; again , th e s s o f th e um d h
igits o f t es e t ree n h
b e rs
m
u m
8, 3, an d 7 , wh
e n ce b d = 8 x ic wh h h as 6 fo r th e s u O f th e

m mu
are
d igits ; t hus we a e two hv diffe ren t re ain ers , 6 d an d 7 , an d th e ltip lic atio n
is in co rrec t .

84 If N den o te a n y n u b er i n th e s ca le of r, a n d D den o te m
m
. ,

th e dfifi zren c e s u
pp o sed p o s i ti ve b e twe e n th e s u s o
f t h e d igit s i n th e

m
, ,

o dd a n d th e e v e n
p l a ces ; th en N — D o r N + D i s a u lti le o
p f
r l .
64 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

Let a
, ,
a a
2 ,
a de n o t e t h e digit s b e gin n in g wi h th
t at

in th e u n
’
it s p la c e ; t h en
n

+ a 7 + a r .

JV— ( ) dl ( — 1
)
9 a
a + a, 1 + a r + r + a ( r

m h w
o 2 3
"
an d t h e la s t t e r o n t h e rig t ill b e o r a
(r 1 )
a c c o rdin
g as n i s o dd o r e e n T s e v . hu v y t m er er on th e
n

ri
g t i h
s

v
di is ib le b y r 1 h e n ce

— — —
N ( a
O
a
,
+ a
2
a
an in t e g e r .

r 1

( L — (b -
f (b
-

O l

N 4 0
is an in t e bg e r
r 1

wh i h p vc ro es t h e p ro p o s it io n .

C OR I f th e s u m
o f t h e digit s in t h e e v en
p la c e s is e
q al t o u
m
.

th e su o f t h e digit s in t h e o dd p la c e s , D 0, a n d N is di is ib le v
by r 1 .

E xa m
pl e 1 Pro e t v h at is a sq u are n um b e r in an y s c ale o fn o tatio n
wh d h
.

o s e ra ix is gre ater t an 4 .

L et r b e th e ra d hix t en

— + é ‘
1
’ ‘ ;
1 I

t hu s th e gi v en n um b er is th e sq u are o f2 1 .

E xa m
pl e 2 . wh
In at s c ale is th e d e n ary n um b e r 2 4 3 7 5 rep re sen te d by

L et r b e th e s c ale t h en

r
i
r
2 '4 3 7 5z 2

w h en ce 1 67 '
48 0

t hat is, (7 7
°
1 2) ( r 4) = 0 .

H en c e th e ra d ix is 4

mtim
.

So e es it is b e s t t o u se th e f ll w i g m h
o o n et o d
.

E x a p le 3 m . In wh at s c ale w ill th e um
n o n ary n b e r 2 5607 b e e x p res s e d
b y 1 01 2 1 5
Th e ire s cale
re q u d mu
s t b e les s t an 9 , s in c e th e n e w n h um b er app ea rs
th e gre at e r ; als o it s t b e gre ater t an 5 mu
; t erefo re th e hh h u d
re q ire
mu s t b e 6 , 7 , o r 8 ; an d b
y tria l we fi n d t at it is 7 .
s c ale
 SC A L E S O F N O TA TI O N . 65

E x a p le 4 m By o r in g in th e w k m du d o e n ary s c ale ,
fi n d th e e ig t o f a h h
u d wh v u
.

rec tan g lar s o li o se ol e is 3 6 4 cu b ft 1 04 8 c u b in , an d th e are a o f

wh
. . . .

o s e b as e is 4 6 s q ft 8 s q i n . . . .

Th e v um l o e is 3 6 4 44443 c u b . ft .
,
wh h ic exp re sse d in th e s c ale o f t wv el e is
264 7 34 cu b . ft .

Th e are a is 4 6g 1 s q ft , . wh h
. ic e x p re s s e d in th e s cale o wv
f t el e is 3 t o 8 '

hv h dvd wv
.

We a e t ere fo re to i i e 2 6 4 7 3 4 b y 3 t 08 in th e °

s c ale o ft el e .

22 t 4 8
3 627 4
3627 4
T hu s th e h h
e ig t is 7 ft 1 1 111 . .

E XA M PLE S . VI I b . .

1 . E x pres s 4 9 54 in th e s c ale o f s e ve n .

2 . E x pre s s 6 2 4 in th e s c ale o f fi ve .

3 . E x pres s 206 in th e b in ary s cale .

4 . E xpre s s 1 4 58 in th e s c ale o ft h re e .

5 E x p re ss 538 1 in po e rs w O f n in e

m
.

m
.

6 Tran s fo r 2 1 2 23 1 fro s c ale fu o r to s cale fi ve

umb
. .

7 E x pres s th e du d o e n ary n er 3 9 8 e in p o w e rs Of 1 0

m6 t1 2 f m l tw l
. .

8 Tran s fo r t l
ro l v s ca e e ve o sca e e e en .

m2 1 3 01 4 f mth
.

9 Tran s fo r y t th ro
y e s e n ar o e n o n ar s cale

m2 3 8 6 1 f m l i t l ight
. .

10 Tran s fo r ro sca e n n e o sca e e

m4 00803 f mth
. .

11 . Tran s fo r y t th q u i
ro
y e n o n ar o e n ar s c ale .

12 . E xp res s th p t y um
e se b 206 6 51 52 i p w
en ar n er n o ers o f 12
mttt f m l tw lv t th mm
.

13 . Tran s f
or eee ro sca e e e o e co on s c ale .

14 . E xpres s
II )
as a ra di f i x rac t o n in t h e s e p t e n ary s cale .

15 Tran s fo r m1 7 1 56 2 5 ‘

f m ro s c ale ten t o s c ale t w lve e

m2002 1 1 f mth t
. .

16 Tran s fo r ro e e rn ary t o th e n o n ar
y s c ale

m f mth du d
. .

17 . Tran s fo r ro e o en ary to th e o c te n ary s cale .

1 552
18 . E xpres s th e s epten ary f rac ti o n
26 26
as a den ary vu lg f ar rac tio n

I ts lo w es t t er m s .

19 Fi nd th v lu e a e o f4 an d o f 42 in th e
'
s cale o fse v en

u mb
. .

20 . In wh t l i a s ca e s th e de n ary n er 1 82 de n o te d by 2 22 ?

21 . In wh l i at s c a e s th e d e n ary frac t io n
£ 3
de n o te d by 0 302 ?

H . H . A . 5
66 HI GH ER AL GE B R A .

22 d h d i f h l i whi h
.
Fi n t e ra p x o h q u t e sca e n c 554 re re s en ts t e s are

O f 24 .

23 I wh l i n 7 d d by 7
at s c a e 2 s 51 1 1 9 en o te 1 4 6 335
u mb d d b y
.

24 Fi d h di f h l i wh i h h
t e ra x O t e sca e n c t e n ers en o te
i hm i l p g
. n

4 7 9 6 9 8 07 i 9 are i n ar t e t ca ro res s o n

i g m i
.

, ,

25 I wh t l th di f i rac t o n s 1 6 , 2 0, 2 8 e tr c
‘ ‘ ‘

. n a s c a e are e ra x -
n eo

p rog i ?
re ss o n

26 Th u mb e n i i h l f i er i wh2 12 54 2 l w ill i s n t e s ca e o s x ; n at s c a e t
d by 7 6?
.

b d e en o te 1 48
27 Sh w h 8 ie p f tt q u at i v
14 y l i84 wh i h h s a er e c s are n e er sca e n c t e

ra di g x IS h igh re ater t an e t .

28 Sh w h e i p f t q u
at i
1 2 3 4 32 1 sy l wh di a er ec t s are n an sca e o s e ra x

i g h
re ate r
.

d h t h
an qu 4 ; ani lw y
t at t p d by h e s are ro o t s a a s ex res s e t e

m f u d igi
s

sa e o r ts .

29 P v th roi pe f u b ati y l
13 31 wh d is ai er ec t c e n an s ca e o s e ra x s

h h
.

g reat er t an t ree

mu b u d
.

30 F i d wh i h f h w igh n c lb
o t e e ts 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , s st e se to
w igh
.
.

e on e to n
m b u d
.

31 Fi d wh i h f h w igh n c7 lb
o t e e ts 1 , 3 , 9 , 2 s u st e se
w igh th u d lb t m h h ki d b i g u d , .
.

to e te n o s an f s n o o re t an o n e o e ac n e n se

i h l h
,
.

b ut i n e i
t er s c a y e t at s n ec es s ar .

32 S h w th 7 e i p f ub i v y l i whi h th
at 1 36 6 3 1 s a er e c t c e n e er sca e n c e

ra di g x is h v reat er t an s e en .

33 P v th i h ro d i y l u mb will b d ivi ib l b y
at n t e or n ar s ca e a n er

u mb f md b y i l h d igi i divi ib l b y igh

. e e s e

8 if h t e n er or e ts as t t re e ts s s e e t .

34 P v th h q
ro u ef i h at l ft i e s
q OOO wh are o rrrr n t e sca e o s s rrr l, e re

h v
.

q r, s are an y t i i g re e c o n s ec u t e n te e rs

35 If y u m w um
.
,

b N b an k i h l n d er b N e ta en n t e s c a e r, an a ne n er
’

b f md b y l i g h d igi i y w y h w h h
.

e or e d f i
a t er n t e o r er o ts ts n an a s e t at t e

d iff b w
e re n ce N d N i d iv i ib l b y
et een an
’
s s e r 1
,

umb h
.

36 If a v u mb f d igi h w th i i
n er as an e en n er o ts , s e at t s

d ivi ib l b y if h d igi q u id i f m h d h m
.

s e r+ 1 t e ts e s t an t ro eac en are t e sa e

d i y l S b h m f h digi f umb
.

37 If i h t t t ts
m f h d igi f h u mb N p v h h
n e or n ar s ca e e e su O e o a n er
.
I
N d S b h 3 t t ts t 3 t at t
mu l ipl f
an e e su o e o e n er ro e e
diff ,

b w
e re n c e S
2
d 8 iet e en
I
an 7
2
s a t e O 3 .
,

38 Sh w t h i h e di y lat
y u mn b t
f m d by e or n ar s ca e an n er
h di gi d h p i g h mi h m d
or e
w i i gd w
.

t t ts t e at n t t
mul ipl f 7
r n o n ree an en re e n e sa e o r er
is a t d e o ,
1 1, an 13 .

39 I l wh n a d i i dd h w h h m f h
s ca e o se ra x s o t at t t
umb will b dd if h umb b dd d v if
.
,
s e e su o e
digi f
ts o t
u mb b v y an n er e O e n er e O an e en
,

t h e n er e e en .

40 I f b dd d n umb i h d y l b f md
e O an a n er n t e e n ar
d igi d h p i g h mi h m d
s ca e e or e
by w i g d w
,

ri t n o n 77. t s an t en re eat n t e t
h w h i will b d ivi ib l b y h umb f md b y h digi
n e sa e o r e r,
s e t at t e s e t e n er or e t e n ts ,
an d als o b y co n tain in g n 1 digits .
68 HI G HER AL GE B R A .

86 To fi n d th e fa c to r which will ra ti o n a li s e a n y give

m
.
.

ia l s u rd .

CA E I S . u
S pp o s e t h e gi v en s u di r s /
f
,a
f/
,
b .

L e t fi/a x,
Z/b y, a n
z d le t ,
z n b e th e L C M
. . . o fp an dq
x
"
an d
y
"
a re b o t ra t io n a l h .

N ow a
“

y
"
is di is ib le b yv x yf o r a ll v a l e s o u fn ,
an d
" 1 " " g
( y)
2 s
(
”
sf
- ‘ ”

a: + x no
a) y y y

T hu s th e ra t io n a lis in
g f ac t o r is
n —l n —3 2
a:
y +

an d th e ra t io n a l
p ro d uti c s x
”
y n

CA E I IS . u S pp o s e t h e gi v en s u dir s
i/ a

Let x, y, n hv a e th e sa mm e ean in gs as be f o re 5 t h en

( )
1 If n i v
s e en ,
a
”

y i s di is ib le b
”

y v a
c
y ,
an d
"
( (
1
y) ?
” -
” “ 2
(f
f
a
c y x o a
s I

T hu s th e ra t io n a lis in
g f ac to r is

as
n —l
{it
" “
Q
y m
y
“ ?
y n —l

an d th e ra t io n a l p ro d u ct is a
”

y
n

( )
2 I f n is o dd, x
"
y
"
v
is di is ib le b y x + y, an d

a
c
”

y
”

( c
c
y) m g/
’H ’
wy
”" 2

T hu s th e ra tio n a lis in
g f a c to r is

x n —l
x n —2
y + xy
" "
2
+ y
an d th e ra t io n al
p ro d u ct is x
”

y
“
.

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e fac to r wh h w ic ill ratio n alis e
J 3 + 5
75 .

1 3
L et
.

t h en
“
at an dy “
are bot h ratio n al, an d
xG (
5— 4
+ wy
3 2 — w2 3 4
x x y
y + y x

t hu ub u
s, s s tit tin g fo r a: an d y , th e re q u d ire fac to r is

2 1 2 2 1
3 1
é
3 — 2
.

32 -
3 2
5 3 -
53
,

E 3 2
1
2 3 5 5
2 —
.

3 9 53 3 — 3
5 5 ;
6 s

an d th e ratio n al
p ro du ct is 35
 S U R DS AND IMA GI N A R Y Q U A N TIT IE S .
69

l
m
I
) (5
I 1
E xa p le 2 . E x p res s ( 52
9 8 3
9) 5

a s an e q uv i alen t frac tio n wh it a ra tio n al d en o mi n a to r .

d mi wh h u 1
To ratio n alis e th e en o n ato r, ic is eq al to t 5f =
1
pu z ,

3 ;
y t h en s in ce
y
4=
(
a:
y) $ 2] y
S
)
1
3 2 1 1 2 3

th e re q u d ire fac to r is 5 2
5
u

2
3I 3 1
+ 31

4 4

an d th e ratio n al d en o mi n ato r is 5 2 3
3 : 59 3 22 .

1 1 i1
(
I
)(
9 1
2
)
_
2 4
54 3 - 2
5 + 52 Bi l 52 - 4
3 4 3 4 -

th e exp re s s io n

i i
f 1 2 g 3 é

22
i
f .
1 l 1 1
}
1 4 4 52 -
. 52 3 4

11

hv hw
87 W e a e s e n in t h e E le en ta ry A lgeb ra , A rt 2 7 7 , m
m
.
.

su
h o w t o fi n d t h e q are ro o t o f a b in o ia l q a dra tic s rd We u u
m mm
.

a
y so e ti e s e x t ra c t t h e s q a re ro o t o f an e x p re ss io n c o n ta in u
m h u
in g o re t a n t wo q a dra t ic s rds , s c h a s a J b J o
J d u u .

If t h en
J o,

an d if, at th e s m tim th v lu s f
a e e, e a e o x, y ,
z t hu s fu o n d s a t is fy
a:
y z a, w h ll h v b t i d th
e s a a e o a n e e re
q ire d u ro o t .

m
E x a p le . F d
in u th e sq J are ro o t o f 21 4 5 8,J 3 4J 1 5 .

A ss um e , J ai J
, z

Ji g, N E Jy
“

21 4 J 5+ 8J 3 4J 1 5= x + y + z ” 2 z .

—
Pu t 2 Jy 5= 4 J 5;

by multipli catio n , xy z = 24 0 ; t h at is n
, z =4
J ;
1 5
wh en c e it fo llo ws t h at Jy z 2,

A n d s in c e t h v u
e se al e s s atis fy th e eq u atio n th e re q u d ire
ro o t i s 2J 3 2 J 5 .
70 HI G HER G
A L E BR A .

88 .
[f f/ a
J b : x +
Jy ,
th en will f
/a
J b

Fo r, b y c ub i n
g,
w e o b ta in

J w Jy /
3 2
a b = 3x + 3x y + y N y
.

Eq u a t in
g ra tio n al a n d irrat io n a l pa rts , we hv a e

J Jy Jr ;
3 2
a 2 90 + 3x y , b = 3x .
+ y
a —
w t s wt —
y y a ;

t h at is , f/ a N/b = a:

Si mil ar ly , b y t h e elp h o f t h e Bin o mi l Th a e o re mC h a

p X I I I
my b
.
, .
,

it a e
p v
ro e d t a t if h
t h en
f/ a

wh e re n is an
y p o s it i v i g e n te er .

89 By th e f ll w i g mt h
o o n e od th e ub c e ro o t o f an e x p re s s io n

f m i Jb my mtim
.

o f th e or a a so e es b e fud o n .

u
S pp o s e

i/ a —
J b = x

A ga in , as in t h e la s t a rt ic le ,

3
a x 3xy .

Th e v lua es o f w an d y h a v e t o b e de t e r mi n e d f m( 1 )
ro an d

I n ( I ) s pp o s e t u h at
i/a
2
b c t h en by s u b tit utis n
g fo r y in

( )
2 we o b ta in
—c
3 a: (cc )
3 2
a = x + ;
t h at is , 4 90
3
3a m a .

I f ro f mt h i s e
q u a t io n th e v lu f a e o a
s c an b e de t e r mi n e d by
t ria l, t h e v lu f y is b ta in e d f my 2
a e o o ro = x 0 .

N OTE We do n o t h ere as s um J e x + Jy fo r th e c u be ro o t, in th e
as
u whh um u h ud
.

e x trac tio n o f th e sq are ro o t ; fo r it t is as s p tio n on c b in g we s o l

hv a e
,

a + Jb = w
an d s in c e e ery ter v
o n th e m rig h h d dt an si e is irratio n al we c an n o t equ ate
ratio n al an d irratio n al p art s .
 S UR DS AND IM A GI N A R Y Q UA N TITIES . 71
E xa mp l e. Fin d th e c u be ro o t o f72 3 2J 5 .

Ass um e

t h en

By multipli catio n ,

h
t at is , 4z a
‘
z —
y .

A gain 72 3 2J 5 x
3
3 xy n ;

wh e n ce

Fro m( 1 ) an d 72 = a'3
(x
2

th at is , x
3 3x 18 .

B y tria l, we fi n d t h at x =3; h e n ce y = 5, an d th e c u be ro o t is 3 J5 .

90 . W h en t h e b in o mi l wh a o se c ub e ro o t we a re s eek i m
c o n s is t s o f two q u a dra tic s ud r s, we p ro c e e d as f ll w
o o s .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e c u be ro o t o f 9J 3 1 IJ 2 .

11

d
By p ro c ee in g as in th e las t article , we fi n d t h at

i/
th e req u d uire c be ro o t 1

J3 N /2 .

91 . We a dd a fe w h a rde r ex a mpl es in s u rds .

E xa m
pl e 1 . E x p re s s wh it ratio n al d en o mi n ato r

Th e e x pre s s io n
e 1
33 — 3 3 “

M “
3 3 )
72 HIGHER G
A L E BR A .

m
E x a p le 2 . Fin d th e u
Sq a re ro o t o f

Th e e xp re s s io n
{3 x 3 2 J (2 x 1) ( x 4)

h en c e , b y in sp ec tio n , th e s q u are ro o t is

$ 2 ( J 2x + 1 + Jm ) .

m
E x a p le 3 . Gi v en fi n d th e v u
al e o f

J3 J5

u
M ltip ly in g n um era to r an d d en o mi n ato r by $ 2,

th e ex p res s io n

°
44 7 2 1 .

E XA M PLE S . VI H . a .

E xp res s as e q uiv l t f
a en rac t io n s wit h ratio n al d mi
en o n ato r

1 J2
2

m
‘

1 + J2 — J3
1 2 W
A/a — l

J +J
10 5 —
J3 ( J 3 + J 5)
J3 + 10 — 5 J J J2 + J3 + J5
Fi n d fa ac t o r w ich h will ratio n alis e
1 l
i I
7 . 8 .
as + 3/2 . 9 . a
f
+ b
— 1 —
10 . . 11 . 12 .
eh, se .
 SU R D s A N D IM GI N A R
A Y Q U A N TI T I E S .
73

E xpre s s wi h t ra t io n al d mien o n ato r

— 1
3 3
1

Fin d th e sq u a re ro o t o f
—2
19 . 16 — 2 J 2 0 J28 + 2 J BJ . 20 .
— 4 J2 1 2 /
N 35 .

—
21 . 6 + J 12 — J 2 4 J8 . 22 . 5

x/3 l Vaa b
23 .
—4 2 .

24 . 21

Fi n d th e c ub e ro o t o f

25 . 10 + 6 J3 . 26 . 3S + I 7 J5 . 27 . 99

28 . 3 8 J 1 4 — 100 J 2 . 29 . 30 .

Fi n d th e sq u are ro o t o f

31 . 32 . 2a A/3 a — 2a b — z
b 2
.

1 l
— ag
33 . 34 .
) z

I 1
35 . H a
2 — /
N 3
’
b 2 + .l3
’
fi n d th e v lua e ( sh u n t s

36 . If (v fi n d th e val e o f 3 x u ?
5xy 3y 2

Fi n d th v lue a e o f

V 2 6 — 1 5J 3
'
33 — I9 J3

( 28 40 .
( 2 6 + 1 5 as )
; ( 2 6 + 1 5 3

Gi v en J5 fi n d th e v lua e o f
10 J2
—
J 10 + J 1 8
J I S —
VzwT/B
vd
Di i e a
3
+ 1 + 3 1: by x 1

Fi d h u b
n t e c e ro o t o f 9al
)
z
(b
?
24a ?
)M 6 2
3 ai
“

/ T L 1
E v lu wh
N x 1
a at e en —
/( l
N 4
74 HIGHER A L E BR A G .

I MA G I N A RY Q UA N TI TI E S .

9 2 A lt h u h f m t h u l f ig it i id t t
e h t r e o s n s s ev en a a

m
o ro
g
v y h v u y
.

n e
g t i a q
u teit an t l q
c an n o t y t i g
a i e a re a s a re ro o e a n ar

m
,

u t i t i s t d b y y m b l
res e ns f t h f e J T
J s f o o e or -
a, a re o

mth mti l i v tig ti

re
q an
p e
f qu t u
re en o cc i rre n c e n a d th i e a ca n es a o n s, an e r

u se l ds t ea lu b l o su lt W t h f p d t pl i
va a e re s . e e re o re ro c ee o ex a n

i wh t
n a su h t t b g d d
s en s e c ro o s a re o e re ar e .

W h th qu tity u d t h di l ig i g t i
n v w er e ra ca s n s ne a e, e c an n o

ymb l J i di ti g p ib l ith mti l

en e an

l g id th e s o as n ca n a o ss e ar e ca

m
on er c o n s er

m
,

o
p t i
e ra 5 b t
on ju t J u y b d fis d as y b
,
l wah i h b
a y e e n e as a s o c o e s

th l ti
e re a J J on wa h ll d fi a J t b
a, so s u h t h t e s a e n e a o e c a

m
,

I}
c x i dw h ll p
a, ant t h i g t w
e s h i h at h i ac c e e e an n o c s

a ss u mpti l d on ea s us .

I t will b f u d t h t t h i d fi iti w ill b l t b i g

o n a s e n on en a e us o r n

m
e

im i y u t i i s u d t h d t i ie f d i n y erlg b i l e o n on o or n ar a e ra c a

u lt my b b t i d wh i h
n ar an
g a
q
u l d t h t t h u gh t h i ro e r u s e re s s a e o a n e c

w it h mu h t i ty t h wh i h d p d
r e s , an a

c an b li d
e re e on as c c er a n as o e rs c e en

l ly
so e th on f l q u t it i s
e u se o re a an e .

93 . B y de fi n itio n , J _ 1 x _ 1 .

J a .
J — l x
J a .
Jj = a(— l ) ;

t h at is , (J ab
J z I
)
2
a .

T hu s th e p ro d c t Ja u J rl my b a e re ga rde d a s e q u iv a le n t to

th e i m
y u yJ a in a r
g q an t it a .

94 I t w ill g lly e n e ra be fu o n v
d c o n e n ie n t t o in dic a te t h e
imgi y h t f
.

a n ar c a ra c e r o an e x p re s s io n b y t h e p re s e n c e o f t h e
sy mb l J l t huo — s

95 We s h all a l w ys a c o n s ide r t h a t, in th e ab se n c e o f an y
m t t th m
.

s tat e en o e co n t y
ra r ,
f t h e s ign s
o ic h wh a
y b e p re fi x e d

b f di l t h
e o re a ra ca e
p it
osi v e s i n is t o b e t ak e n
g B u t in t h e u s e
f imgi m
.

o y qu titi
a n ar an es t h e re is o n e p o in t o f i p o rt an c e w ic h h
de s e rve s n o t ic e .
76 HIGHER AL GE B R A .

Th u s i n i agin a ry exp res s io n s

o rder th a t two m
a y b e equ a l i t m
is n ec ess ary a n d s ufi cien t th a t th e rea l p a r ts s ho u ld b e equ a l, a n d
m
th e i a gin a ry p a rts s h o u ld b e equ a l .

1 00 N
D E F I I TI O N
W en two i agin a r h m y e x p re s s io n s diffe r
m
. .

on l y
in t h e s ign o f t h e i a gin a r p a rt t y hy e a re s a id t o be
j
c o n u gat e .

T hus a b J r I is co n ju g at e to a b J 1 .

Si mil a rl y y 2 3 J _ I is co n ju g at e to y z 3 J _ 1 .

1 01 Th e s u
. m and th e p ro du c t f
o two co n
j u
ga te i mgi a n a ry

exp res s io n s a re b o th rea l .

J
a + b TI + a

( b J )(
— l
J j 1)
2
a+ a — 6 : a — b )
2 g
~

a + b .

1 02 N
D E F I I TI O N Th e p o s it i v v lu f th e s qu t f
m u us
. . e a e o a re ro o o

a
2 2
6 is c a lle d t h e od l o f eac h f h o t e co n ju g t a e ex
p re s s io n s

a + b Jj an d a

1 03 Th e m
o du lu s of the p ro du c t of two i mgi a n a ry exp res

m
.

s io n s is equ a l to th e p ro du ct of th ei r o du li .

L e t t h e t wo ex
p re s s io n s b e de n o t e d b y a
J
+b fl an d c+d J —l .

h
T e n t e ir pro d h u ct ac bd ( ad be )J 1, wh i h c is an

i m a in a r
g e x
p re s syion wh o se muu od l s

2 2
6 0

J( )(
g ?
b )
e e
_ a + c + d

wh i h p v c ro es
p ro
p o s it io n .

1 04 m
I f t h e de n o in a t o r O f a ra c t io n is o f t h e f f m or a b J 1,
m mu um
.

it a
y b e rat io n a lis e d b
y lt ip l in
g t h e n y e ra t o r an d th e

de n o mi n a to r b y th e co n ju g t a e ex
p re s s io n a b J;
 S UR DS AND IMA GINA R Y Q U A N T ITI E S .
77

Fo r in s ta n c e
_
0 4
-

d ( c + d J J — b — l)
a + h -
1 ( “ w i
nd N i )
-

: I
— b
)J c
2 2
a + b

b
j ii ff
ft
a ‘ ‘
g
— l

T hus by f A rt 9 7 , we s e e t a t th e s u , difi eren ce,

re e re n c e to h m '

m
.

p ro du c t, a n d
qu o tie n t o
f tw o i a in a r
g y ex
p res s io n s i s i n ea ch c a s e

an i m
a in ar
g y ex ress io n o
p f th e s a e fo r m m .

1 05 . To fi n d th e s qu a re ro o t o f a b J TI .

A ss um e J a + b v 1
f = x +
y V — l,

wh e re x a n dy a re re a l
q u an t it ie s .

By s
q u a rin
g ,
a + bs = x
2
-

y
2
2 n 1;

t h f
e re o re , by e
q u at n i g re a l a n di mgi a n ar yp a rt s ,

Q z
— a
x
y z

29 ( 9)
2 2

( ( 2
?
a x 5
0

2 2
a 6 ;

F m( 1 )
ro an d we Ob ta in

J
g 2
a 6 a

m z i
, y z dz

T hu s th e re
q u i re d ro o t is Ob t a in e d .

Sin ce x an dy are real q u an titie s , x

2
+y
2
v
is p o s iti h e , an dt e re fo re in ( )
3

th e po s iti v e s ign mu t b s e p refi xe db e fo re th e u

q an tityJ a
z b e
.

Als o fro m( 2) w th at th e p ro ct x y st du mu h v m a e th e sa e s ign a s b ;

dy m
e s ee
h en c e x an u th s v
a e like s ign s i f b is p o s iti e , v u k an d n li e s ign s i f b is
n e gati e v .
78 HI G HER AL GE BR A .

Sin c e th e p ro du c t xy is n egati e , v we mu t t s a k e

—4 —3 = 4
x : 3, y :
; or x , y .

T hu s th e ro o ts are 3 — 4 J TI an d 1 ;

h
t at is , J -
7

E xa m
pl e 2 . TO fi n d th e v u al e Of U 64a 4
.

J J N
-

+ : I = IB +

N / x
2 _
y
2
2x y ,. l —1

a x
?
y
_
2—
0 an d 2x y 1 ;
1 1 1
wh en c e
3
y _
~
A

s/
' 2
,

J s + i
(1 + J 1

m
—
Si ilarly J J ,
l l z =
1: 1 J — l)

an d fi n ally i 2 a (1 i ~ /
80 H I G HER AL GE B R A .

A ls o w s a t is fi es th e e
q u at o n i x
2
x 1 0
e
1 w w 0
t h at is , th e su mf tho e th ree cu be ro o ts o f u n i ty i s z ero .

A gain ,
w 1
t h f e re o re
( )
I th e p ro du c t of th e two i mgi a n ar
y ro o ts is u n i ty ;
3

( )
2 e ver
y i n te ra l
g p o wer o
f 01 is u n it
y .

1 09 It is u fu l
se ti h t h u iv p itiv
to n o ce t at e s c c es s e os e

mu l ipl f 3
.

in t e gra l p o e rs o w f w 1
a re d f if b w, an (0
2
or n e a t e o

mu f m3m d
, ,

st b e o f th e I
“
it or an w :
.

If n b e n o t a mu l ipl f 3 i mu t b f h f m3 m 1
t e o t s e o t e o r o r

m
,

3 2 .

3 m+ l
If
If . m= m .

1 10 h
W e n o w s e e t a t e e r q an t it h as t re e c b e ro o t s , v y u h u y
m
.

h h
t wo o f w ic a re i a gin a r Fo r t h e c b e ro o t s O f a a re t o s e
s
y u h
m y
.

Of a x 1 , an d t e re o re a re a , a w, a w
3
h f ”
S i ila rl t h e c b e ro o t s u .

o f 9 a re
f/ 9 on ( 0
2
e re i s t h e c b e ro o t o n d b
y wht h e u fu
hm
,

o rdin a r a rit ye t ic a l r le In t re , u
n le s s o t e r is e s t a t e d fu u u h w
ym m
.

th e s wy
b o l f/a w ill a l a s b e t a ke n t o de n o t e t h e a rit h e t ic al
,

u
c b e ro o t O f a .

E xa m
pl e 1 . Re du ce ( 2 3 J 1 )2
to th e fo r mA B J 1 .

Th e e x p re s s io n

wh h ic is O f th e re q u d m
ire fo r .

m
E xa p le 2 . R es o lve x
3
+y 3
in to t h ree fac to rs o f t h e fi rs t degree .

Sin ce x
3
+y
3=
(93 + y ) m 9 )
y+2
2

w+ w — 1, an d
 S U R DS AN D I MA GIN A R Y Q U A N T ITI E S .

E xa m
pl e 3 . S hw h e t at

2 '
( a + wb + x c ) (( n + w b 9
+ b +c2 3
be ca ab .

I n th e p ro du ct o f a wb wc an d a a
l
‘

b we,
th e fi c ien ts
co e f o fb ?
an d c
?
are or 1

th e fi cien
c o ef t o f be (0
2
+w
4
w w

th e c o ef
fi c ien ts o f ca an d a b = 2
w +w 1
— b c — ca ab .

E xa m
pl e 4 . Shw h e t at

(1 + w
2 3
w) ( 1

Sin ce 1 w+ w 2 : 0, we hv a e

w — 2 3
( 1 + w) 2 w) ’
6 3
8w + 8w

0 .

E XA M PLE S . VI II b . .

1 . u
M ltip ly 2 \/ — 2 by 4 V3
’

— 5
v — 2 .

2 . M u ltiply 3 4 — 7 — 5
4 — 2 b y 3 a/7 —2 .

3 .u M ltip ly e N/ “
l —
l e -
‘

N/ 1
7
by e N / ‘

— 3 I
4 M u l iply
. t x
2 2

E p x wi h
res s t rat io n al d mi
en o n at o r

5 .

3 a/T -
2— 2 /
a -
5

— .
a — x v — l

2 —1 I a — x f
A/ i

' '
( Jr _
-

J Tl — I

F in d th e v lu a e o f Vii
-

IV “ 3
,
wh en n is a
p o s it i e v in teger.

H . H . A .
82 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

Fi n d th e sq u are ro o t Of

13 .
— 1 . 14 .
—11 — 1 .

16 — e /— 1 17 2 — 1
+ 2 / — 1
. x . . a a a .

4ab ) /
2 2
18 .
s -
2 (a b a 1 .

E x pres s in th e fo r mA + iB
3 + 5i J3
2 J3 — i J2
‘ ’

2 — si
2
( ( a + ib ) (a ib ) 2
1
22
3—i a — ib a + ib
If 1 , a) , 00
2
are th e t h re e c ub e ro o t s o f u n ity , p ro v e

24 . 25 .
— 2
( l co l w ) - — (1 + co

26 .
( 1—w )( 1 — w
i
) (1 — m) ( l
4 — w5 =
) 9 o

27 .
( + 5w l
2 -

28 .
( 1 co +w ) (1
2
(O
2
00
4
) (1 to 2 h fac to rs = 2 2n

29 . Pro v h e t at

(N e w)
3
+2 3 e ez =
( 93 + re
30 . If x = a + b, y = a co +b m 2
,
a co
2
+ b w,

s hw h
e t at

( )
1 y
x z = a
3
+b
3
.

(2)
(3) x 3
+y +
3
z
3=
3

31 . If cx + by + az = Y,
s hw h
e t at
( a
2
+b +
2
c
2 — bc — ca — ab ) ( x
2
+y +
2
2
2—
y z — ex — x
y)
X +I 2 z
YZ — XZ
’
2
= +Z
 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

1 13 I n A rt 1 1 1 le t t h e t wo
. . ro o t s in ( )
2 b e de n o te d b
y a an d
s o th at
B ,

J — b— J b — 4 ac
2 g
b + b 4ao .

2a 2a
t h e n we h a v e th e f ll w i
o o n g u lre s ts

( )
1 I f b — 4 ao th e
(
2
q u it y
an t u n de r t h e ra dic a l
) is p o s it i v e,

a an d
B a re re a l a n d u n e
q u la .

( )
2 I f b — 4 a o is
2
z e ro ,
o r an d B a re re a l an d e
q u a l, e ach

6
re d u c in
g in t is h c as e to
ga
( )
3 Ifb
2
4 a o is n e
g at v
i e, ( 1 an d Ba re i mgi a n ar y an d u n e
qu a l
.

( )
4 If b
2
4 a o is a
p f
er ect sq u a re , a a n d B a re ra t o n a i l an d
un e
qu al .

h y
B y a pp l in g t e s e t es t s t h e n at u f t h e ro o t
re o Of s an
y
q u
a drat ic a
y b m m w h
e de t e r in e d it o u v
t s o l i ng t h e e q a t io n u .

E x a p le 1 m hw h u S e t at th e i
e q at n
o 2 x
3 —
6x + 7
‘
= 0 c an n o t be s atis fi e d
u
.

b y an y real val e s Of x .

H ere a = 2 b
,
so th at

b — 4 ac = — 20
( 4
2 -

mgi
. .

T h erefo re th e ro o ts are i a n ary .

E xa m
pl e 2 . I f th e u
e q atio n x
2
2 (k 2) x 9k 0 h as e q u al ro o ts , fi n d
Th e co n d itio n fo r e q u al ro o ts gi v es

(k 9 k,
2
k 576 4 0,
0 —4 ) (k
0
k= 4, 01
‘
1 .

E xa m
pl e 3 . S hw he t at th e ro o ts O f th e e q u atio n

2 2
x
2 -
2p x + p q + 2 qr

are ratio n al .

Th e ro o ts
u w
ill b e ratio n al p ro i e
h v d dud 2p ) 4 (p
2 ? 2
q + 2 qr is a

(q
2
f t re B u t t i s e x p re ss io n re ce s to 4 or 4 (q
p er e c s q a .

H en c e th e ro o ts are ratio n al .

1 14 . Sin c e a

we hv a e by a ddit io n

J —b —
J b — 4 ac
2
b 4ao z
+ b —

2a
 TH E TH E O R Y OF Q U A D R A TI O EQ U A TI O N S . 85

an d by mu ltipli c a t io n we h a ve

2
4a

b) 4 ao )
3 2
(b
2
4a

writin g e
qu at o n i in t h e f m
or

b c

Cb (6

th e s e re s u l myts a a ls o be e x p re ss ed as f ll w
o o s .

In a
q u d t
a i ra c e
qu at o n i wh ere th e co e fi cien t f
o th e fi rs t ter m
u n ity ,

()
i t h e s u Of t h e m ro o t si s e
qu al t o th e c o ef c ie nfi t o f x wit h
its s i n c an e d
g g h
( )
ii t h e
p ro d u c t Of t h e ro o t s is e
qu al t o t h e t h ird t e r m .

N OTE I n an y eq u atio n th e ter ic mwh hd t tain th e uk w n no n

m
o es n o co n
u u d
.

q an tity is fre q en tly c alle th e a b s o lu te ter .

1 15 . Sin c e B ,
an d

th e e
q u a t io n
g2x +
2
m y b wx itt 0 a e r en

m e

H e n c e an
y q u d t i m y l ba
p
ra c a a so e ex re ss e d in t h e f m
or

x
2
( m f t )
su
p d u t f
o ro o s x ro c O ro o ts 0
A ga in , f m( 1 ) w h
ro e a ve

— —
( x a
)( x B) = 0

We mya n o w y f m qu
e a s il or an e a t io n w i h giv
t en ro o ts .

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fo r m u wh
th e eq atio n o se ro o ts are 3 an d 2 .

Th e eq u atio n is ( x 3) ( x 2 ) = 0,
2
x x 6 0 .

W h th e ts irra t io n a l it is e a s ie r to the f ll w i
o o n
g
mt h
en ro o a re u se

e o d .
86 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E x a p le 2 m . Fo r mth e eq u atio n wh o s e ro o ts are 2 + ,J3 an d2 J 3 .

We hv
a e su mf O ro o ts : 4 ,

p ro du c t Of ro o ts 1;

th e u
eq atio n is x
2
4x 1 0,

by u s in g fo r mul a ( )
2 O f th e p re sen t artic le .

116 By a mh
e t o d a n a lo go s to t u h t u di
a se n Exa mpl 1 e o f
f m u w ith h m giv
.

th e las t a rtic le w e c a n o r an e a t io n t re e o r
q o re en

ro o t s .

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fo r mth e eq u atio n wh o s e ro o ts are 2, 3, an d
g
Th e req ire u d u eq atio n mu st be satis fi e d by eac h o f th e fo llo w in g su p .

p o s itio n s :
7
x x + 3 : 0, x —
g
t h ere fo re th e eq u atio n mu t b s e

m
< ( )
g a
o -

( x
(5x
5x — 2x32

E x a p le 2 m . Fo r mth e eq u atio n wh o s e ro o ts are 0, i a

Th e eq u atio n h as to b e s atis fi e d by

x = a, x = — a, x

th e re fo re it is

—a
x (x + a
)( x )
— a2
x
(x ) (bx
4 3 2 2
bx 6x a bx a ex 0 .

117 Th e re s lt s o f A rt 1 1 4 a re u o st i
p o rt a n t , an d t h e m m y
m
. .

a re
ge n e ra ll s f fi c ie n t t oy u
so l e
p ro b le s c o n n e c t e d wit v t h e h
ro o t s o f
q a dra t ic s u I n s c
q uh u
e s t io n s th e ro o ts sh o u ld n ever b e

m
.

c o n s idered s i n
gy l b u t u se s o ld b e a d e o f t h e r e la thu
io n s Ob

m
,

t a in e d b y rit in
g d ow n th e s u w
o f t h e ro o t s , an d t e ir
p ro d c t h u
m fi u
,

in t e r s o f t h e c o e f c ie n ts o f t h e e q at io n .

E xa m
pl e 1 . If
“

a . an d B are th e ro o ts Of x
2
fi n d th e v ual e Of

( 1) — 2
( )
8 3 3
0 4 19 2 . d + l3

We hv
a e a
B :
p,
88 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

1 18 To fi n d th e c o n di tio n th a t the ro o ts f
o th e equ a tio n
mg
.

ax + b x + c = 0 s h o u ld b e
( )
1 equ a l i n i tu de d o s ite
2
a n an op
p
in s ign , ( 2) recip ro ca ls .

Th e ro o t s w ill b e eq u al in mg it u d
a n e an d O
pp o s it e in Si n
g if
h
t e ir s u mi s z e ro h en c e t h e re
q u i re d co n dit io n is

— é 0, or b = 0 .

(b

A ga in , t h e ro o t s will b e re c i
p ro c a ls wh en t h e ir
p ro d u ct is
u n it y
h e n c e we st h a e mu v
0
-
1, or c z a .

fi h u
Th e rs t O f t e s e re s lts is o f re q e n t o c c rre n c e in A n aly ti f u u
c a l G eo m y
e t r , a n d t h e s e c o n d is a p a rt ic u la r c a s e o f a o re m
g e n e ral c o n dit io n a pplic a b le t o e q a t io n s Of a n y degree u .

E m
pl Fin d
th e c o n d itio n t h h 2
at t e ro o ts O f a x + b x + c = 0 my b ( )
1
hm
xa e. a e
bot h p o s iti v
e,
( 2 ) o pp o s ite in Sign , b u t th e greater o f t e n egati e v .

b c
W e h ave a +B , a
B
a (l

(1 ) I f th e ro o ts are b ot h p o s iti v e, d B is p o s iti v e , an d t h erefo re c an da

hv ka e li e s ign s .

Al s o , s in ce a + B is p o s iti v e, is n e gati e ; v h t e refo re b an d a hv u k

a e n li e

s ign s .

H en c e th e req ire c o n itio n i s t u d d h at th e s ign s O f a an d0 sh ud k

o l b e li e,
an d o pp o s ite to th e Sign Of b .

( )
2
hv u k
I f th e ro o ts
n li e s ign s
are O f o pp o s ite Sign s , a B is n egati e , an v dt h ere fo re c an d
a a e .

A ls o Sin ce 0 . + 73 h as th e Sign o f th e greater ro o t i t is n egati e , an v h dt ere

fo re
i i s p o s iti v h e; t e re fo re b an d a hv k a e li e s ign s .

an
u d d
H en ce th e req ire c o n itio n is t
d o pp o s ite to th e Sign o f c
h at th e s ign s O f a an db s h ud
o l b e li k e,
.

E XA M PLE S . IX . a .

Fo r mth e eq u at io n s wh o s e ro o ts are

4 . 7i 2 5 . + 2 N/3 — 5 .
 TH E TH E O R Y OF Q U A D R A TI c EQ U A TI O N S . 89

7 . 3i a ih .
9 , i (a b) .

2 1 a 2
10 —3 O, 12 Qi N /3 ) 4
5 Q , ,
. .
, .

2
.

13 . Pro v h e t at th e ro o ts o f th e fo llo wi g qu
n e at io n s a re re al

— 2a x a 2 — — c2 =
( )
‘
l 3
1 b 0,
‘

x
.
+

( )
2 ( a — b

14 If th e eq u at io n x
2
15 m( 2 x h as ul ts , fi n d
m
eq a ro o
v u
.

al es O f .

15 . Fo r wh v lu at a es Of mwill th qu e e a tio n

( 1 3m m)
2
x 2x ) + 7 (3 2 0
hv
a e eq u al ro o ts ?

16 . Fo r wh v lu at a e Of mw ill th e eq u a tio n

x —
2
bx '
m— l
ax —c m+ 1
hv
a e ro o ts equ l i mg i ud b a n a n t e u t o pp o s it e in S ign

17 . Pro v h h e f th
t at t e ro o ts o e fo llo wi g q u
n e atio n s are rat io n a l

( )
l ( a +o
2 2 2
( ) a bc x
2 z
b b
°
2 3 a cx cx 6a a 2b 0.

If a , B are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u a t io n a x
2
bx + 0 : 0, fi n d th e v lua es

1 1
19
a
t .
; 2
18

Fin d th v lu e a e Of

21 . 3
3
x
2
x 22 wh en x 1 2i .

22 . x
3
8x + 1 5 wh en x :
3 i .

23 . x
3
ax
2 2
2a x 4a w 3
h en 1 J 3 .

24 If a an d B a re th e ro o ts o f mth
fo r e eq u a t io n

h
.

w o s e ro o ts are (a an d

25 . Pro v h e t at t h e ro o ts o f (x a
)( x b) = h 2
a re al wy a s re al .

26 . I fx “ x
2
are th e ro o ts o fa v + bx 2
c= 0, fi n d t h v lu
e a e o f

<1)
-
2
,

3
( )
2 ( ax
l
b) 3
( a rz b) .
90 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

27 Fi n d th e c o n d iti on t h at one ro o t o f s h ll b
a e

m h
.

n ti es th e o t er .

28 I f a , B are th e
. ro o ts O f ax
?
b x + c = 0, fo r mth e eq u a tio n wh o se
2 2
ro o ts are a + B an d a
2
+B
‘ “

29 .
F mth
or e eq u at io n wh o s e ro o ts are th e sq u are s Of th e su m an d
o f th e diffe re n c e o f th e ro o ts o f

2x + 2 2
(m+ n ) x m+ 2
n
2=
0 .

30 . D is c u ss th e s ign s o f th e ro o ts o f th e eq u a tio n

119 Th e o llo in g e x a p le ill

. f w m ut s ra t es a u fu l
se a
pp lic a t io n

u
o f t h e re s lt s p ro e d i n A rt 1 13 v . .

E xa m
p l e . If x is a re al qu an tity , p ro v h e t at th e e x p re s s io n

c an hv a e all n um e ric al v u al e s ex ce p t s uh c as lie b e t w een 2 an d6 .

L et th e gi v en e x p re s s io n be rep re s e n d te by y . so h
t at

2
x 2x 11
2 (x 3)

t h en multiply i n g u p an d tran s p o s in g, we hv a e

—
( y) + 6 y
2
x + 2 x 1

h ud u
T is is a q a ratic e q atio n , an d in o r e r t at x a e real al e s d h mhv v u
mu m
ay

)
2—
4 ( 6 — 11
) t b e p o s iti e ; o r ivi i b 4 d i lif v d d
i
mu
y y s n g y a n s p y n g,
mu v h v
-

2
8g 1 2 s t b e p o s iti e ; t at is , ( y 6 ) (y 2 ) s t b e p o s iti e H en ce
y
h du mu h v h v
.

st b e b o t
t h e fac to rs O f t is p ro ct p o s iti e, o r b o t n egati e In th e
m h h h
.

fo r e r c as e y is gre ate r t an 6 ; in th e latte r y is les s t an 2 T erefo re

w m hv h v u .

c n t lie b t e e 2 a n d 6, b u t a a a n y o t er a l
y a n o e n y e e .

h
I n t is e x a p le it will b e n o c e m a ti d t h t t h q d i p i e u a ra t c ex ress o n

y
2
8 y 1 2 is p o s it i e s o lo n as o es n o
2
v g y d t li b t w t h t e e e en e ro o s

o f t h e c o rre s o n din u adra tic e u a tio n 8y 12 0

p gq q y .

h
T is is a p a rt ic la r c a s e u Of t h e ge n e ra l
p ro
p o s it io n in v e s tiga t e d
in t h e n e x t a rt ic le .

1 20 Fo r a ll rea l va lu es bx o
f x the exp ress io n ax
2
c h as
m
.

th e s a e s ign a s a , ex c ep t wh en th e ro o ts of th e e u a tio n ax + b x
2
q c z 0
a re r ea l a n d u n e u a l, a n d x h a s a va lu e l in
q y g b etween th e m
CA SE 1 . u
S pp o s e t h at th e ro o ts o f th e e
q u a tio n

2
ax bx c 0
a re re a l de n o t e t h mb y
e a an d B ,
an d le t a b e t h e gre a t e r .
 92 H I H ER G AL G EB R A .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e li mit s b et w wh h
een ic a mu t li s e in d h
o r er t at

2
ax -
7x + 5
5x — 7 x 1
2 - -
a

my b a e c ap ab le o f all v u al es , x b ein g an y re al q u an tity .

‘
i
ax 7x + 5
Pu t '
3
5x

t h en
( a — 7x
(1
In d h
o r er
exp re s s io n
t u d mh u d m
at th e v u
al es o f x fo n fro t is q a ratic ay be real, th e

( ) )( )m u
49 1 — y v 2
( 4 a 5y 5 ay st b e p o s iti e,

h i ( 9 0)
t at s, ( )
4 ( ) mu
2 a i v y
2
2 2a 2
1 y 49 2 0a st b e p o s ti e

h v( ) m
2a 2 + u v mu t b
?
en c e
( 49 2 0a st be n ega ti e o r z ero , an d 49 2o u s e

p o s iti e .

w( No ( 9 ) 2a + 2
v d 4 2 0a 2
is n egati e o r z ero ,
acc o r in g a s

( ) ( 2 a ) 2
v
l 0a 25 x 2 a
2
+ l oa 2 4 is n egati e o r z e ro ;

th at d is , ( acco r ( ) (i n g as
) iv 4 a a 12 a 2 is n e gat e o r z ero .

h v w
T is e x p res s io n is n egati e a s lo n g as a lies b e t e en 2 an d 1 2 , an d fo r
u hv u al e s 4 9 v wh
2 0a i s p o s iti e ; th e e x p re s s io n is z ero e n a = 5, 1 2, o r 2 ,
m v u
s c
v wh
b u t 4 9 — 2 0a i s n egati e en a = 5 H en c e th e li itin g al es are 2 an d
m hv md v u
.

1 2 , an d a ay a e an y in te r e iate al e .

E XA M PLE S . IX b . .

1 D e te r in e t h e li
. m mit s b et w ee n wh i h n mu c st lie in d th
o r er at
th e e quatio n
z =
— 2) c 0

my h v
a a e real ro o ts .

2 . Ifx b e real, p ro v h e t at mu t li s e b et w e en 1 an d

2
1 1
3 . S hw h
e t at
x

x
2
x

x 1
h es b e t w e en 3 an d
3
fo r all real v lu f a es O x .

2
+ 3 43 71
4 . I fx b e real, p ro v h e t at
x

x
2
2x
“

7
can hv a e n o v lu b w
a e et ee n

5 an d 9 .

5 . Fi n d th e eq u at io n w h o s e ro o ts are
Ja
Ja a b
6 . I f a , B are ro o ts o f th e eq u a tio n x 2
px + q = 0, fi n d t h e v lu
a e o f
2 —I e —1
( ) (a fi z 2
1 Q +3 (B a a
) ,

( 2) (0
 TH E TH E O R Y OF Q u A D R A TI c EQ U A TI O N S . 93

7 . I f th e ro o ts o f lx 2
+ ux +n = 0 b e in t h e ra t io o fp q , p ro v h e t at

8 . If x be re a l, th e e xp re s s io n a d mi ts o f all v lu a es

e xc ep t s uhc as lie b e t w ee n 2a an d2 m .

9 I f th e ro o ts Of th e eq u a tio n ax
9
+ 2 b x + c = 0 b e a an d B, an d
h u v h
.

t o se o f th e e q a tio n b e a + 8 an d B+ 8, p ro e t at
b 2
ac B 2
AC ’

2 2
a A
z
3x 4
10 . S h w th
e at th e e x p re s s io n
p
p x

3x 4x
will b p b l
?
e ca a e o f all

v lu wh
a es en x is real, p ro vid d h e t at p h as an
y v lu b w a e et een 1 an d7 .

+2
11 . Find h t e gre at es t v lu f a e o
2 v + 3x2
x
f
6
l v lu f
o r rea a es o v
. .

12 . Sh w h e t at if x is real, th e e x p res s io n

ii — — c ”
( x b e) ( 2x — b )
h as n o re al v lua es b et w een b an d c .

I f th e + 2 bx + d diffe re n t , t h e n
2
13 . ro o ts Of a x c= 0 b e p o s s ib le an

th e ro o ts o f

)
2
( a + c) ( ax 2 bx + o 2 ( ac b 2
)(
2
30 + 1)

will b imp ib l e o ss e, a n d vice vers d .

14 Sh w h e t at th e e x p res s io n
( ax b ) ( dx c) will b e cap ab le o f a ll
d)
.

(bx a ) (ox
v lu wh i
a es en x s rea l, if a 2
b 2
h v h m ig
an d 0
2
d 2
a e t e sa e s n .

*
122 We s h al l co n c lu d t h i h p t
e w it h m mi ll u
s c a er so e sce an eo s

m m
.

t h e o re s an d ex a p les I t w ill b v i t h t i t du e co n en en e re o n ro ce

h y wh i h th t u d t w ill f qu tly
.

a
p l g d t
ra se o o an n o a ti on c e s en re en

m t wit h i h i mth mti

ee n s a e a c a l re a din
g .

D E F I I TI O N N
A n y e x p res s io n
. ic wh h i v lv d wh n o es x, an o se

v u al e is de p en de n t o n t h at o f x , is ll d fu t i f ca e a nc on o x

ymb l f h f mf (
.

Fu n c t io n s o f x a re s all de n o t e d b y s uu y o s O t e o r x
) ,

W) e , 2( ) 96

T hu s
q u
th e
y t i( ) e a on f x my b a e c o n s ide re d a s eq u iv l a en t
t o a s ta e e n t m t h t
t a a n y c a n ge a e n th e al e Of x ro h md i v u w ill p
u
d ce a c o n se en
q u
c an
gt h
e in y , a n d vi c e vers a T h e q a n t it ie s x u
s fu h u h
.

an d a re c a lle d v ari ab le , a n d a re t di t i is e d as th e
y r e r s n
g
in dep en den t variab le a n d t h e dep en den t v ariab le .
94 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

A n is a q a n t it
in dep en den t ic
va ria b le a
y a e an
y u y wh h m h v
v u h
a l e w e c o o s e t o a s s ign t o it , an d t h e c o rre s p o n din g dep en d en t

va ria b le h a s it s al e de t e r v u m
in e d a s s o o n a s t h e a l e o f t h e in de v u
p e n de n t v
a ria b le is k n o n w .

A n e x p re ss io n o f th e f m
or

" '
H n —2
p0 x + p ,x + p 2x

where is a p o s itive i n teger, a n d t h e c o e f c ie n t s p o , p , , p ,

n p do fi
v v
. .

n o t in o l e x , is c alle d a rat io n al an d in t egral algeb raic al f n c t io n u

ofx h
I n th e p re s e n t c ap te r we s all c o n n e o u r a t t en tio n t o h fi
fu h
.

n c t io n s o f t is k in d .

*
1 24 . A fuis s a id t o b e lin ear
n c t io n h e n it c o n t a in s n o w
v w h fi
h igh e r p o e r o f t h e a riab le t a n t h e rs t t s ax b is a lin e a r hu
fu n c t io n of x fuA n c t io n
. is s a id t o b e q a drat ic en it u wh
h h w
c o n t a in s n o v
ig e r p o e r o f t h e a riab le t an t h e s e c o n d ; t s h hu
ax
”
u fu
b x + c is a q a dra t ic n c t io n o f x n c t io n s o f t h e th ird, . Fu
s h h h
de gree a re t o s e in w ic th e ig e s t p o e r o f t h e h h w
v v y
a ria b le is re s p e c t i e l t h e th ird, T s in t h e la s t hu
fu
a rt ic le t h e e x p re s s io n is a n c t io n o f x o f t h e n
th
de gree .

1 25*
Th ymb lf ( y ) i u d t
. e s o x, s se o de n o t e a fu i
n ct o n o f t wo
d y th u b xy
2
i bl
va r a es x an by d s ax c, an ax +
g
o g + dx e
y + f
a re re s
p t i v ly li ec d q u de i fu n e a r an a ra t c n c t io n s Of x ,
y .

Th e i
equ a t o n s
( )
x 0 f( x y
) f :
-

0 a re s a id t o b e lin e a r, q u ad
ra t ic , . . a c c o rdin
g a s th e
f u n c tio n s f( ) f x , ( y)
x, a re lin e a r,
q u ad

ra t ic , .

*
126 We hv a e
p ro v A rted 1 2 0int at t h e ex p r ess i on h
dm f m
. .

it s
°
ax bx + c a o f b e in
g p u t in t h e or
(
a x a
) ( x
B )
wh e re a a n d B a re t h e ro o t s o f t h e equ a tio n a x
”
bx c _ 0
,

hus
T a
q p u
a dra t ic e x re s s io n a x + bx +
2
c is p ca ab le o f b e in g
s v
re o l e d in t o t w o ra t io n a l ac to rs o f t h e f firs t de re e ,
g e wh v
n e er

u 2
t h e e q at io n a x + b x + c 0 h a s ra tio n al ro o t s ; h
t a t is , w h en

b
2
4 a o is a p e r e c t s q a re f u .

1 27
*
To fi n d th e co n di tio n th a t a qu a dra tic fu n ctio n of x y
m
.
,

a
y b e reso lved i n to two li n ea r a c to rs
f .

D en o te th e fu n ct o n i by f( x, y) w h e re

f( + 2hx y
2
y) 2gx + 2fy
2
x, :
ax by c.
96 HIGHER AL G EB R A .

*
E XA M PLE S . IX . c .

1 . Fo r wh at val e s o u f mwill th e ex p re s s io n

y +
2
2 x
y + 2 x + m
y
—3

be ca
p a b le o u
f res o l tio n in to two ratio n al fac to rs ?

2 Fi n d th e v lu
a es o f mwh i h c will mk a e

u iv l du
.

eq a en t to th e p ro ct o f t wo lin ear fac t o rs .

3 . S h w th
e at th e e x p res s io n

2 — r
A ( x -

y
2
) y .
( B 0)

al w y d mi
a s a ts o f two real lin e ar fac to rs .

4 . I f th e eq u at io n s

hv a e a co mm o n ro o t, s hw h
e t at it mu t b s e e it h er

1) d a 9
0
l

9 9 P P
"

5 . Fi n d th e co n d i i th
t on at th e e x p re s s io n s

la:2
my fc n
y
z
,
lx
''2
my ’
x n
'2
y
my ha av e a co mm on lin ear f
ac to r .

6 . I f th e e x p res s io n

3x 2
2n 2y 2
2 ax 4y 1
c an be res o lv d i li f
e n to n ear ac to rs , p ro v h e t at I ’
mu t s be one o f th e
ro o ts o f th e eq u i at o n

7 . Fin d th d i i he co n t on t at th e e x p res s io n s
’ ' '2
ax
2
Q iix y by 2
,
a x
2
2 /i xy by
my ba v d ivi ib l b y f
e res pe c t i ely s e a c to rs o f th e fo r my m m
y+ x, x .

8 . Sh w h t i
e h qtu ia n t e e at o n

2 ‘ 2
x 3 xy .Zy 2v . 3y 3 5= O,

v
fo r e e ry real al v u e o f x t h e re is a re al v lua e o f y, an d fo r e v e ry re al
u
val e o f y t ere is h a real v lu
a e o fx .

9 . If x an dy are t wo real qu an t it ies c o n n e c te d by th e eq u atio n

2
Q ay + y 9 2x 2 oy + 2 4 4 = O,

h will li b w
t en x e et e en 3 an d 6, an d y b et w ee n 1 an d 10 .

If fi n d th e di i h
my b
10 co n t on t at x
l fu
.

a i e a ra t o n a n c t io n o fy .
 C H A PTE R X .

MI C ELLA N EO U
S S EQ U A TI ON S .

1 29 In t is h c h a
p t e r we p ro
p o s e to c o n s ide r so m mie s

th t m y f th
.

c e lla n e o u s e
q u a t io n s ; it w ill b e s ee n a an o ese c an be
so v
ld b y t h e o rdin a r
e y ul f qu d ti qu ti b
r es or a ra c e a o n s, u t o t h s
er

re
q i u
re s o m
e s p ec ia l a r t ifi f th i
ce lu t i
or e r so on .

3 3

E xa m
pl e 1 . So l v e 8 x 27 ”
3

u
M ltiply b y x
55
an d tran sp o s e ; t hu s

3 3

8x 5

3 3

(9 —8
)
3

2n

x = ( )
2 3 3 or

E xa m
pl e 2 . So l v e 2

a . 1
y , th en ,
x y
3 b 6a
2 y+ —+
L b
.

g
2ab y 2
6 a y b y 3a b O ; 2

2
( ya b )( y
b 3 a
) = 0;

b 3a
_ or
y ’
2a b
2 2
x b 9a
or
.

z. 74 1 ? b ?

11 2
9a 3
th at I S,
—
74 5 ,

H . H . A .
98 HIGHER AL GE BR A .

E x a p le 3m . So l v e ( x 5) ( x 7) (x 6) ( x 4 ) = 504 .

We hv
a e (x
2
x 2 0) (x
2
x 504

wh h ic , b ein g arran ge d as a q u adratic in x

2
x, gi v es

—x
) (x
2 2 2
(x 62

—x — 6
( )
2 Q
x ( x -
x

x —6=O or x
2 —x
,

wh en c e —2
,
8, —7 .

1 30 . An y e
q u a tio n wh i h c c an be t h w ro n in t o t h e f m
or

x + c =
q

my a b e so v
l ed as f ll w
o o s . u
P t t in g y J ax
g
bx c, we o b tain

pa q 0

Let a an d ,8 b e th e ro o ts o f t is h e
q u at io n ,
so t h at

f m h qu t i w h ll b t i f v lu f
ro t e se e a ons e s a o a n ou r a es o x .

Wh ig i p fi d t
en n o s di l it i u u lly u d
n s re t d xe o a ra ca s s a n e rs o o

th t it i t b t k
a s op i t i v e h if a d 8
en b th as os e en ce , a an a re o

p it
os i v ll t he, f u v
a lu f et i fy h o igi rl q u t i a es o x sa s t e or n a
,

e a on

If h w v v f u f m
.

o e8 i g t
er a o ri h t d h
s n e u lti g a e, t e ro o s o n ro t e re s n

q u d a i w il l
ra t c t i fy t h q u i sa
,

s e e at o n

but n o t th e o ri
gin al e
qu a t io n .

E x a p le m . So l v e x
2
5x 2 J x
2
5x 3 12 .

A dd 3 t o e ac h d hsi e t en

u
P ttin g J ag
?
5x + 3 = y ,
,
we o b tain y 2
+ 2g wh en c e =
y 3 or 5 .

Sq u arin g, an d so v
l in g th e re sul tin g q ud
a ratic s , we o b tain fro mth e firs t

x =6 or —1 ; an d fro mth e sec o n d x

2
0 Th e fi rs t p air o f v u al e s

satisfi es th e gi v en e q u atio n , b u t th e s ec o n d p air satis fi es th e eq u atio n

— 5x
x
2 -
2 Jx 2
1 00 HIGHER AL GEBR A .

1 33 . Th e so u
l t io n o f an e
qu a t io n o f th e f m or

ax
‘
i bx
s
i cx
g
i bx + a z0
m qu idi t
,

in wh i h thc e co e ffi i c en ts o f ter
b egi n n in g s e s an t f mth ro e

an d e n d a re e a , c an bequ l a e o md t d p
e e n d o n t h e s o l t io n o f a u
qu a drat ic a E qu t i
o n s o f t h is t
y p e a re k n o n a s r e c i
p ro c a l eq u a w
m
.

ti o n s, a n d a re s o n a e d b e c a se t e a re n o t a lt e re d w en x is u hy h
1
c h an e d in t o it s re c i ro c al
g p x
' ,

Fo r a m o re co mpl t e e dis c s s io n o f u re c i
p ro c a l eq u a t io n s th e
st ud en t is f
re e rre d to A rt s 56 8— 57 0. .

m
E x a p le . So l v e 1 2x 4
56903 89x 2
56 x 12 0 .

Dvd
i i in g b y x
2
an d rearran gin g,

l 2
x x

2
12 ( z 2) 56z + 8 9 = 0 ;

wh en ce we o b tain
1
3
6

By so l v in g t h ese equ atio n s we fi n d t h at x = 2

1 34 f
Th e o llo win g e q u a t io n t h u gh
o n o t rec ip ro ca l my a

m m
.

v
s o l e d in a si ila r an n e r .

E xa m p le . So l e v 6x 4 l 2x 2 2 5x 6 0 .

We hv a e 25 x

1
wh en c e — 25
( x —
g

wh en c e we o b tain

h
1 3 5 W en o n e ro o t o f a q a drat ic e q at io n is o b vio s b y u u u
m
.

in s p ec tio n , t h e o t e r ro o t a
y o te n h
b e re a di l o b t a in e d b
y f y
mk a in
g u s e o f th e ro e rt ies o f t h e ro o t s o f
p p q a dra t ic e
q a t io n u u s
p ro ve d in A rt 1 1 4 . .
 M I SC E L LA N E O US EQ U A TI O N S .
1 01

E xa m
pl e . So l ve (1 a
?
) (x + a) 2a ( 1 x
9

) : 0
.

Thi s is a q ud
a ratic , o n e o f wh o s e ro o ts is c learly a .

A lso , s in c e th e eq u atio n my b a e written

2
2 ax + ( 1 ?
)x
a a
( 1

th e p ro du ct o f th e ro o ts is
l + a2
2
an dt h e refo re th e o h
t er ro o t

E XA M PLE S . X . a .

So l v e t h e fo llo wi g q u
n e atio n s

2
1 — 2i 1=
8
‘

x
“

2
s l 1
3 2 Ji + 2v 4
6 x == v4 7 — 2x 4

2
: 1
5 x m+ 6 = 5x n 6 3x
1
2n — x“
1
2=

6 Jx = 5x § — 1 3 1
2x
3 + 9 = 10 3x

2x + 8
2 + 1 = 32 2 x
2 2x +3 —
57 = 6 5( 2 x

1
/
,

2 x
+
~
fl ,
i?
T
an 5
1 02 HI GH E R A LG E B R A .

26 . 7x

x4 + x3

4
37 . x +l

10 ( 4 — 6 3x
x + )
1 (x
2

a + 2x + J a
z —
4v
.
2
5x

a + 2x /
g a
2 — 4x2 a

J l
Jx + x + x3 — x
2
x — 5

J 2

2
2x = “
2 2 8 1 (
?
1) 3x
(a
x
)a
~
“
a a a .

8 JF 5 J 3x — 7 1 8 (7x — 3) 2 50 J 2x + 1
2x + 1 3 J 7x -
3

48 .

51 .
52 .
3
2 7 x + 2 1x + 8 = 0
1 04 HI G HER AL G E BR A .

Fro m(3) y
3
7 x + 5y
29

1; by eq u atio n

x = 2, y = 3 .

A gain , fro m 7 x + 5y
— 82

_
29
82
’ by eq u atio n

1 24 7
82

551
H en c e orx
82

E x a p le 4 m . So l ev 4 x3 3x y 2
y
3
8,
3 2 2
2x 2x 3] xy 1 .

Pu t y z m x , an d s ub u s tit te in b o t h u eq atio n s . Thu s

4+3 m+ m 3

m 8m+ 1 9m
3 2

h m—1 m—3 m
t at is , ( )( )(
m1 z
, or 3, or 4 .

( i) Tak e m1 z
, an d s ub u s tit te in e it h er ( 1) or

Fro m x
3 =1 ; x= 1

an d

( )11 Ta kme = 3, an d s u u
b s tit te in ( 2)
t hu s 5x 3 = 1 ; x

an d

iii
( ) Ta km e =4; we o b tain

1 0333 : 1 ; x
 M I SC E L L A N EO US EQ UA TI O N S . 1 05

H en c e th e co mpl t e e so l u tio n is

N OTE Th e ab o v mh d
e et o fl tio n
so u
ay m al w ay s be u d wh se en th e
md g
o
u m
.

e q a tio n s are o f th e sa e e ree an d h o o gen eo u s .

E xa m
pl e 5 . So l v e 3 1x y 3
‘
2
l 1 2 xy 64 0

Fro m( 2) w e hv a e 8 = x2 4
7 xy 1 y 2- -
an d, s u u
b s tit tin g I n
2 4 2
(
2 2 = 0;
3 1 x 3] 2
7 31 + 14 x y ( x 7 xy 4y ) x 7 xy
2
)
2 2
) (
2
( x 7 xy 4y 1 4 xy x 7 xy 4y 0;

)
2 2 2
3 1 x 3] 9
(x ( 7xy 0;

th at is , x4 1 0x y
‘
2 2
0

310 0
2 2
( 9y ) 0;
2 =
if? 0

h e n ce x z flz
y,

k
Ta in g t h es e c ases in s u cces s io n an d s u b s tit tin g in u we o b tain

= — = i
x y

x = i 3, y :

x = =
3=3
y z
x

N OTE It h ud d h
l b e o b s erve t at e q atio n ( 3 ) is h o o gen eo u s Th e u m
mh md h m
s
m
o
dh d wh h u u
. .

et o ere e p lo y e b y ic o n e e q atio n is a e s by a
m
o o gen e o

u itab le c o b in atio n wh h
it th e o t er is a al ab le artifi c e I t is e s p ec ially v u
G m
s
u u s e f l in A n al tic al
y eo etry .
.

m
E x a p le 6 . v
So l e (a: y)
% 2 (x 3 (x
2

Dvd i i e e ac h m ter o f ( 1) b y ( x
2 2
y )
i
,
or ( x + y ) (33 y)
1 1
s s

( ) 6
T
+ 2
— +y
x
y x
1 06 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

Thi s eq u atio n is a q ud a ratic in fro mwhi h w c e eas ily fi n d,

2 or 1 ; wh en c e 8 or 1

7 x = 9y , or =
y 0 .

Co mb i n in g t h es e e q u atio n s wi t h we o b tain
13
x = 9, y : 7 ; or x —
3

E XA M PLE S . X b . .

So l v e th e fo llo w mg eq u atio n s

1 . 3x — 2y = 7, 2 .

xy = 20 .

4 .

2 2=
x x
y +y 19 .

6
2=
x
2
+ xy + y 22 7 5 .

8 3x 2 —5 2=
7, 9 5y — 7 x3 = 1 7 ,
2
.
y .

2 2
3 xy 4y 2 b xy 6x 6 .

12 .

2 2=
3 1 xy 3x 5y 45

4 4=
13 x
4
+y
4=
7 06 , 14 . x +y 27 2,

+y = 8 x — = 2
x y
2 2
16 . x -
i
- é 9
,
y y x 2

it

1 1 1 1
19 x +y = lo72, 20 . x
2
+y
2 z 5,
’’

1 1 2 i .
_1 _l
3 2 2= 2
x +y 3= 16 . x +y 65 . 6 ( x +y
1 08 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

A ls o fro m u + z = 13 ;

wh en ce we Ob tain u =7 or 6; z =6 or 7 .

T hu we hv +y 7,
i
s a e x z

xy = 10

H en c e th e so lu tio n s are

x = 5, or 2,

y = 2 , 01
’
5: or

z = 6; =7
z .

m
E x a p le 2 . So l v e ( x + y) ( x + z ) = 3 0,

Write a , v, w fo r y + z , z + x, x +y re sp ecti ely v thu s

vw 3 0, io n : 1 5, u v= 18

u
M ltip ly in g t h es e e q u atio n s to get h er, we hv a e

u v
2 2
w 2 = 3 0 X 1 5X 1 8 : 15 2
X 2
6 ;
uv w i 90 .

Co mb i n in g t is h res u wh h
lt it ea c o f th e eq u atio n s in we

u = 3, v= 6, or u -
3, v= -
6 , w= — 5;

wh en c e xz 4, y = 1, z =2; or x= —4
, y = — 1, z

m
E x a p le 3 . So l v e y
2
yz z
2
49
2 2 = 19
z + zx + x

2 2z
x + xy +y 39

u
S b trac tin g ( 2) fro m( 1 )

h
t at is , (y
Si mil arly fro m( 1 ) an d (3 )

(z
H en c e fro m( 4) an d by dv i is io n

wh en ce
y = 3z — 2 x .
 M IS C E L L A N EO US EQ U A TI O N S . 1 09

u
S b s tit tin g in u eq u atio n we o b tain
2 2
x 3z = 13 .

Fro m x
2
+ xz + z
2=
19 .

v
So l in g t h hmes e o o ge n eo u u s eq atio n s as in E xa mpl e 4 , A rt 1 3 6 , we . o b tain

x : 4 2, z : £ 3; an dt h ere fo re y : $ 5;

11
z an dt h ere fo re y
19

E xa m
pl e 4 . So l v e x 2
yz a
2
, y
2
zx D, 2
2
2
xy

u
M l tiply th e eq u atio n s by y, z , x re s p e c ti ely an v d add ; t h en

9 2 2
c x +a y b z = 0

u
M ltiply th e eq u atio n s by z ,
x,
y re s p e c ti ely an v d add ; t en h
2 z g
b x c y a z = 0

Fro m(1) an d by cro s s multipli catio n ,

2 2
b c b “
y
0 a
2 2
c
“
z

a
2
b 2
k s u p p o se .

u
S b s tit te in u an y o n e o f th e gi v en e q u atio n s ; t h en

( 3 a2 b 2 c 2)
2
li d
e
l) 6 0
6 1

x y z 1
a
4
b 2
0
2
b“ 0 a
2 2
Ja e b e
0
6 3a b 2 2 2
0

E XA M PLE S . X . c .

So l v e th e fo llo wi g q u n e at io n s

1 9x + y — 8z = 0,
.

z 2 — z2= 2 1,
x -
ly
-

3 x z + 3y z 2xy = 1 8 ,
—z = 5
x +y .

2
x 2 xy 3 x2 50,
11 0 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2z 2 2
x y z u 1 2, x y zu 8, x yz u 1 3 xy u 4 .

12 . 2 xy
3y z + y — 6 z = 52 ,

xz +y = 7 z , y z + x = 8z ,
2 2 2 2
x +y + z a ,

3x

z + zx — x = 6 2
a , 3x + — 2z = 3 a
y y y .

I ND E TE R M I N A TE E Q U A TI O N S .

1 38 . u
S ppo s e th e f ll w i
o o n
g p ro b le mw e re
p ro p o s e d fo r so u
l
t io n :

A p e rso n p d s £ 4 6 1
s in b
en i n
g uy h o rs es an d co w s if e a c h
h o rs e c o s t s £ 2 3 an d e a c c o w £ 1 6, h o w h m an y o f eac hd o es he b uy ?

L et x, y b e th e n u mb er o f h o rs e s a n d co w s res p e c ti v ly h e t en

2 3x l 6y 46 1 .

hv u v v u
H e re we a e o n e e q atio n in o l in g two n kn o wn q a n titie , u s
h
a n d it is c le a r t a t b y a s c rib in g an y v u
al e w e p le a s e t o x , w e c a n

o b t a in a c o rre s p o n din g al e fo r y t v u
s it hu w u
o ld a
pp e a r a t rs t fi
si
g th h
t at t h e p ro b le ad it m m
s o f a n in n it e n fi b um
e r o f o l t io n s s u
f m mu
.

B u t it is c le a r ro u u h
t h e n at re o f t h e q e s t io n t a t x an d y st

v
b e p o sit i e in t e ge r ; an d s w h h
it t is re s t ric t io n , a s we s all s ee h
lat e r, t h e num u m
b e r o f s o l t io n s is li it e d .

I f th u mb f u k w qu titi i g t th th
e n er o n n o n an es s rea e r an e

n um b f i d p d t qu t i
er o n th e will b
en en u lim it d
e a o n s, e re e an n e

u mb f luti s d th qu ti id t b i d t
m
n er o so on an e e a on s a re sa o e n e er

h ll ly di u th impl t
,

i t
na e I th p t ti
n w e re s e n s ec on e S a on sc ss e S es

fi d t m
.

ki d n s o i t qnu t i fi
e er i g tt
n a e e t i t p i a o n s, c o n n n our a en on o os

i
t ve i g ln l
te f t
ra h u k w u
va u es
q t it i s ;o it w i ll b e n no n an e e s ee n

t h t th i
a st i ti s re bl s t r c
p ss t h
on s lu t i
en a s i ve y us o ex re e o on n a er

s im p l f m e or .

Th g l th
e y f i d t mi t qu ti w ill b f u d
e n e ra eo r o n e er na e e a on s e o n

i Ch p
n V
a . XX I .
112 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

h e n ce in teger ;

th at is , x 2 in teger

in teger p s u pp o s e

an d, fro m y 1 419 5

T is ish d
c alle th e gen e ra l s o lu ti o n o f th e e q atio n . an d b y gi in g t o p u v
an y p o s iti v e v u in te gral al e o r z ero , we o b t a in p o s iti e in tegral al e s o f x v v u
an d y ; t hu w h v
s e a e

p = 0, 1, 2, 3,
1 7 , 28, 39,
= 5, 1 9 , 33 , 4 7 ,
y
th e n um b er o f so l u tio n s b ein g in fi n ite .

E xa m
pl e 3 . In h o w m yw y
an a s c an £ 5 b e p ai in d h alf- cro w n s an d fi o rin s ?

L et x b e th e n um b er o f h alf- c ro w n s, y th e n umb er o f fi o rin s ; t h en

5x 4 31 2 00

‘
x +y + E 50 ;
4

4
in teger p s u ppo s e

x 4p .

an d y 50 5p .

u v u d
So l tio n s are Ob tain e b y as c rib in g to p th e al es 1 , 2 , 3 , 9 ; an d
h um
t ere fo re th e n h wv mm
b er o f ay s is 9d w
I f, o e er, th e s u ay b e p ai ei t h er
h m hv v u
.

in alf c ro wn s o r fi o rin s , p ay als o a e th e al e s 0 an d 1 0 If p z o ,

h m d h
-
.

t en x = 0, an d th e s u is p ai en tirely in fi o rin s ; if p = 1 0, t en y = 0 an d
m d h w hu v u .

th e s u i s p ai e n tirely in alf c ro n s T s if z ero al es o f x an d y are

dm um w
-
.

a i s s ib le th e n b er Of ay s is 1 1 .

m
E xa p le 4 um w Th e f p arty n b erin g 4 3 £ 5 1 4 s 6 d ; if
hw m
ex p en s e s o
hm d
a ere
h hd wm w
. . . .

eac an p ai d e ac o an 2 3 6 d , an e ac c il ho an y ere
h h
. .

t ere o f eac ?
L et d um m w m
x, y z hd v
en o te th e n b er o f en o en an d c il ren resp ec ti ely

t enh whv e a e
, , , ,

x
y z 43

l 0x 5g 2z = 2 2 9 .

E li mi n atin gz , we o b tain 8x 33; 1 43 .

Th e gen eral so l u tio n o f t is h eq u ati o n is

 I ND E TE R M I N A TE EQ U A TI ON S . 113

H e n ce by s u u
b s tit tin g in we o b tain
z 5p 3
my
.

H ere p c an n o t b e n egati v e o r z ero b ut hv p o s iti e v in tegral v u al

m
a a e es
fro 1 to 5 T s . hu ,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
x : 4, 7 , 1 0, 1 3 , 1 6 ,

5,
z : 2 7 , 1 2, 1 7 , 22

E XA M PLE S . X d . .

So l v e in p o s iti v e in tegers :

1 . 2 . 5x + 2y = 53 . 3 . 7 x + 12y = 1 52 .

4 . 1 3 x + 1 1y = 4 14 . 5 . 2 3 x + 2 5y = 9 15 . 6 .

Fi n d th
ge n e ral s o l t io n in p o s iti e in tege rs ,
e u v an d th e lea s t valu e s
o fx an d
y w ic h h
s atis fy th e e q atio n s : u
7 . 5x — 7y = 3 . 8 . 6 x — 1 3y = 1 . 9 . 8 x — 2 1y = 33 .

10 . l 7y — 1 3 x = 0 . 11 . 1 9y — 2 3x = 7 . 12 . 7 7y — 3 0x = 29 5 .

13 A f m d
s £ 7 52 in b uyi g h d c o s ; if e ac w hh
my
ar er s pe n n o rs es an o rs e
h hd
.

c o s ts £3 7 d c o w £2 3 , h o w f ea c o es h e b u
an ea c an o
y ?

14 I n h o w an y ay s m w c an £5 b e p a id i hilli g n s n s an d s ix p e n c es ,
ud u
.

in c l in g z ero s o l tio n s 2

vd
1 5 D i i e 8 1 in to two p art s so t h at o n e my a be a multipl e o f 8
h
.

an d t h e o t e r o f 5 .

16 Wh at is th e si mpl
way fo r a p ers o n wh o h as
es t o n ly gu in e as
h w h
.

t o p ay 1 03 6 d t o an o t e r wh o h a s o n l alf c ro ns
y
-
. .

17 F i d u mb wh i h b i divid d b y giv mi d 39 16,

mi d 7 H w m y u h u mb
n a n er c e n g e e s a re a n er
h ?
.

and by 56 a re a n er 2 . o an s c n ers are t ere

18 Wh i h mll umb f fi i h mu b giv

at s t e s a es t n er o or ns t at st e en to
di h g d b f £ 6 d if h h g i b p id i h lf w
.

sc ar e a e t o 1 68. . .
,
t e c an e s to e a n a -
c ro n s

o nl
‘

y 3

19 vd
Di i wh i h wh d ivid d b y
1 3 6 in t o two p arts o n e Of 5
m d
e c en e
v h d v d d b y l v mi d
.

lea es re ain e r 2 , an d t h e o t e r i i e 8 ea e s re a n er 3 .

20 I b y iml i i g f m £ p ig
4 0 an £ d a s c o n s st n s at 4, s at 2,
h wm y f
u o ra an o xe n

£ 7 if I p d £ hd I b y?
.

at 1 s en 301 , o an o e ac o u

21 I m k I h v 7 i wh i h v i h lfet w 2 are s o e re

h w m y
g co n s, c n s, c ro ns

mu I h v i £
y p n oc a e a -

h illi
.

or s d h
n gs , an d t e a i o n t a e s 5 Os 6 ; o an co ns o f
h h v I7
. . .

e ac s o rt a e

H . H . A .
 C H A PTE R XI .

PE R M U TA TI ON S AND C OM B I N A TI ON S .

139 E A CH f t h e a rra n ge en ts m whi h be md b y t a in g k

mt
o c c an a e

m um h
.

so e o r a ll o f a n b e r o f t in gs is c a lle d a p er u at io n .

E ac h f t h e gro u p s o r s electio n s wh i h be md b y t a kin g

mb i
o c c an a e

so me or a ll o f a n um
b e r o f t in gs is h c a lle d a co n at io n .

T hu s t h e p er u ta tio n s m wh i h c c an be md b y t ki g
a e a n th e
le t t e rs a, b , c, d t wo a t a t i m e a re t we l e in v umb
n mly e r, n a e ,

a b, a c, a d, b c, b d, c d,
b a, ca , da , c b, db , dc ;

eac h o ft h es e p re s en t in g a diffe re n t a rra n

ge mt en o f t wo le tt e rs .

Th e co mb i n at o n s i wh i h c c an be md a e b y t a kin g t h e le t t e rs
a, b, c, d t wo at a ti m e a re s ix in n u mb er : n a el , my
ab, a c, a d, b c, b d, ed

eac h o ft h ese
p re s e n t in g a diffe re n t l
s e ec ti o n o f t wo le tt e rs .

F mt h i
ro f mi g mb i i w
s it a
pp e a rs ly t h at in or n co n at o n s e a re o n

d wi h h
c o n c e rn e u mb f t h i g h l ti
t t e t i
n ; er o n s ea c se ec on co n a n s

wh i f m
e re a s i gp m ni w h v
or l t n id th er u ta t ons e a e a so o co n s er e

d
o r ft
er o t h i g wh i h mkhe p h gn m t ; fs i t c a e u eac a rran e en o r n s an c e,

if f mf u l t
ro bo d w mkr s l ti f t h u h
e t e rs a, c, e a e a e ec on o ree , s c

mb i i dmi f b i g
,

as a b thic, i gl s s n e
g dco i t h n at o n a ts o e n a rra n e n e

f ll wi g w y
o o n a s

a b c, a cb , b ca , b a c, ca b , cba,

an d so gi v e s ri e s to s ix diffe re n t p e r mu t a t io n s .
116 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

th wy h
ese d pl
a s, th b fill d p i
e seco n 1 w y ac e c a n t en e e u n n a s

an d i h w y f filli g p h fi pl
s n ce ea c b
a i od n u t e rs t ac e c an e a s s o c at e

wi h h w y f filli g p th
t eac a d h ou mb f w y i n u e s eco n ,
t e n er o a s n

wh i h h fi t t w pl
c t e b fi ll d p i giv
rs b y t h p du t
o a c e s c an e e u s en e ro c

n
( n A d wh t h fi t t w p nl h v b fi ll d en
p i e rs o a c es a e ee n e u n

an
y w y t h t h
a i d p l b fi
e ll d p i 2 w r y A d a c e c an e e u n n a s n

u mb f w y i wh i h t h pl
.
,

i g
re a s o n b f n th as e o re , e n er o a s n c re e a c e s c an

b fi ll d p i
e e ( l )( u s n n n

P di g t h u
ro c e e d ti i g t h t
n wf t i i t du d
s, an n o c n a a n e ac o r s n ro ce

w it h h w pl fill d p d t h t t y g th u mb
e ac n e ac e e u an a a an s ta e e n er

m h u mb f pl fi ll d p w h ll
,

off t i th
a c o rs s e sa e as t e n er o ac e s e u e s a

h t h u mb f w ys i wh i h pl
,

a ve e n er o b fi ll d p a n c r a c es c an e e u

e
q l
ua t o

( 1 )( 2 ) t f t n ; n n o r ac o rs

an d th m f t i e r ac or s

— —r+ 1
( r or n .

T h f e re o re th e n u mb er o f pe r mu t a t io n s o f n h
t in gs t a k e n r at

a ti mi e s
— l —2
n
( u
)( n
) ( n

COR Th e n umb er o f pe r mu t a t io n s o f n h
t in gs t a k e n a ll a t

m
.

a t i e is
n
( n
( 1) n 2) to n f a c t o rs ,

—l n
n
( u
)( -
2)

It is uul t o de n o t e t is p ro d
s a h ut c b y th e s ymb l L wh i h i
o n c s

mtim
,

re a d
“
f a c t o ria l n A ls o n ! is s o . e es u df se or
I
n .

1 42 We s h a ll in fu t u re de n o t e t h e n er o f er
p u mb mu t a t io n s
m ym
.

o h
f n t in gs t ake n r at a ti e b y th e s b o l P s o t at
”

r
h
— l) 2)
( n -

In w o rkin
g n u me i r c al ex a mpl es it is u ful t
se o n o t ic e t h at th e
su ffi i h ymb l P lw y d t t h u mb
x n t e s o
"
a a s en o es f f a c t o rs in
th f m
r
e n er o
e ul w
or ui g a e a re s n .

1 43 Th u mb f p mu t ti f h i e n er O er t t ake n at
t im my l
a on s o n n s
g r
b f u d i t h f ll wi g m
.

a e a a so e o n n e o o n an n er .

L et
”
P re re s e n
p t th e n u mb er o f per mut at o n si o f h
t in gs
m
r n
ta k e n r at a ti e .
 U TA TI O N S N N
'

PE R M AN D C OM B I A TI O S . 1 17

S pp o s e w e u f m ll h p mu t i
o r a t e er at o n s o fn t hi n
gs ta k l
u mb f t h w ill b
en
m
r
"
a t a ti e ; th e n er o es e e P
NVit h ea ch of th es e p u t o n e o f t h e re a in in g n r 1 t in gs m h
h m h h mu h
.

E a c t i e w e do t is we S a ll ge t o n e p e r t a t io n o f n t in gs
r a t a ti m
e ; a n d t e re o re t h e o le n h f
b e r o f t h e pe r t a t io n s wh um mu
o f n t in
g h
s r at a ti e is
"
P _ x
( n r t at I s , m h
"
P r
:
P P l
x
( n r

By w iir t n
g r l fo r r in t is h f mu l or a, we Ob t a in
"
P r —l
“
P h g
x
( n r

si mil ly ar ,
"
P “
P r
-
3
x
( n r

"
P3 P2 x
( n

" "
P2 P, x
( n

P, n .

M lt ipl u yt o
g et h er th e v e rt ic a l c o l um n s an d c an c el lik e f a c t o rs

f m h
ro e ac s ide , an d we o b t ain
"
P —l —2
r
= n
( n
) ( n
) ( n

E x a p le 1 m Fo u p ers o n s en ter a w rail ay c arriage in wh h h ic t e re are s ix

myw
r
h k hi
.

s eat s ; in h o w an ay s c an t ey ta e t e r lac e s
p
Th e fi rs ers o n a tp
s e at my
i hm s elf in w 6 dt h en th e d s eco n
m
ay s ; an p ers o n
in h d
5 th e t ir in 4 ; an d th e fo u h rt in 3 ; an d s in ce e ac h of t h w es e ay s ay
be a s s o c iate d h
wit eac o f th e h h o t e rs , th e re q ire u d an s w er is 6 x 5x 4 x 3 ,
o r 3 60 .

E x a p le 2 m
How m y diff
an eren tn um b ers c an b e fo r md b y u
e s in g s ix ou t
d
.

o f th e n in e igits 1 , 2 ,

H e re w h v
e d a e 9 h
ifferen t t in gs an d we hv t o fi n d th e um b er f p er
mu t hmk m
a e n o
a tio n s O f t e ta en 6 at a ti e ;

th e re q u d u
ire re s lt :
9
P6
— 6 5x 4
9 x 8 x 7 x x

604 80 .

144 To fi d th
n e n u mb er of co mb i n a ti o n s o f n diss i mil ar

m
.

thi n gs ta ken r a t a ti e .

L et
"
0 den o t e t h e
.
re
q u i re d n u mb er o f co mb i n a t io n s .

T en eac h o f t ese h h mb i co n a t io n s c o n s is t s o f a
gro up o f r

m
diss i ila r t in gs ic h wh h b can e a rran
g ed a m on g t h ml e s e ve s In

1 w 1
.
a
y s .

[ A rt
1 18 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

H en c e
“
C x ] r is eq u al to th e n umb er o f a rra n
ge mt en s o f n

m th
,

h
t in gs t a k en r at a ti e at is

"
C P
”

|Z
x =
r r

n
( u -
2)

— l
n
( n
)( n
( )
1
i
f
.

C OR T is h f mu l f or a or
"
(7 my a als o be w itt r en in a diffe re n t
f m mu l iply um m
.
r

or ; fo r if w e t th e n e ra t o r a n d t h e de n o in at o r b y
-
r w e Ob t a in

— 2 —r
n
( u l) ( n
) ( n

n — r
lf |
um t
Th e n e ra o r n o w c o n s is t s o f t h e p ro d u ct o f a ll th e n at u ra l

n um f mb e rs ro n to 1

w ill b
It v i t t mmb b t h t h
e co n p i f
en en o re e er o e s e ex re s s o n s or
"
0 u i g ( 1 ) i ll
s n s wh u m i l u lt i qu i d
n a c a se e re a n er ca re s s re re ,

an d ( 2 ) wh it i uffi i t t l v it i
en lg b i l sh p
s s c en o ea e n an a e ra c a a e .

N OTE .mu ( ) w w h v
I f in fo r la 2 e pu t r= n , e a e

b ut so t h at if th e fo r ml u a is to b e tr u e fo r r= n , th e sy mb l Ii) mu t
o s

be d d
c o n s i ere as eq uv i alen t to 1 .

E x a p le mFro m1 2 b o o k s in h o w my w a s elec tio n f 5 be

md
an ay s c an o
wh d k w ud d ( ) wh d
.

a e, ( 1 ) en o n e s p ec ifi e b o o is al ay s in cl e 2 en o n e s p e cifi e
k
b o o is al ay s ex cl w ud d e ?
,

( )
1 i S d k
n c e th e s p e cifi e boo is to b e in c l ud d v in ery s elec tio n we
m
e e
hv a e h
o n ly t o c o o s e 4 o u t o f th e re ain in g 1 1 .
,

um w
H en ce th e n b er o f ay s = 1 1 04

11 x 10 x 9 >
<8
1 x 2 x 3 x 4

3 30 .
1 20 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

146 To fi n d th e n u mb er of w a
y s i n w h i ch n th in s c a n b e
g m
m
.

divided in to two gro u p s co n ta in i n g a/n d 11 thin gs res ec tive l

p y .

T is is h y qu iv l t t fi di g th u mb f mb i
c le a rl e a en o n n e n er o co

n a t io n s Of m t h i g m t t im f v y t im w l n n s a a e, or e er e e s e ect

on e g u p f
ro m t h i g w l
o v g u p f t h i gs b h
n i d s e ea e a ro o n n e n

m
.

Th u s t h u i d u m b
l
e re re er
+ n
q n

N OTE m. Ifu n u d hi
z
, um
th e gro p s are eq al, an in t s c as e th e n b er o f

d ifi w
eren t u divi i
ay s o fs b w s on is fo r in an y one ay it is p o s sib le
l i l?
’
a r
:
t o in terch tw an whu b
ge th e wd u
o gro u p s it o t O tain in g a ne i s trib tio n .

147 To fi n d th e n u b er of way s in which n

p th i m
n gs c a n m
m
.

be divi de d in to th ree gro u p s c o n ta in in p th i s s v r ll

n , n g e e a
y g
m
.
,

Fi rs t di ide v + n + p t in
g h
s in t o t wo
g ro up s co n t a in in g m
an d n p t in s
g h re s p e c t i el v y
th e n b er o f um wy a s in w ic h h hi t s

c an b e do n e is

h
T en t h e n um
b e r o f a s in w ic h t h e gro p o f n p t in
gs wy h u h
v
c a n b e di ide d in t o t wo gro p c o n t a in in
g n an d
p t in
gs re s e c
p us h
fn 10
t iv e ly is

H en c e th e n u mb w ys i wh i h th u b divi i
er o f a n c e s s on in t o t h re e

g ro up s co n t a in in g m p t h i gs b
,
m d
n i ,
n c an e a e s

m,mIm ’

as diffe ren t
md
all th e p o ss ib le o r ersd in wh ic H i e t u u i
—
h ree gro ps c an o cc r n

an y one o e o f s u dv b i is i o n h
A n d s in c e t ere
| u h d are 3 s c o r ers co r

h md um f ig w
.

d
re s p o n in g to e ac o e o f s u divi
b s io n , th e n b er o d
'
eren t ay s in

w h u dv
hi c s b i is io n in to th ree e qu a l gro u ps md ican be a e s

E xa p lem Th e mb f w in w h u
hi c divid d
1 5 recr its be in to

W
. nu er o ay s can e
l5
t h ree eq ul u a gro p s is ; an um w
d th e n wh h h b er o f ay s in ic t ey

c an be d d h d
rafte in to t ree ifferen t regi m en h |
ts , fi ve in to e ac , is
15

i fE
.

I f
 PE R M U TA TI O N S AND C O M B I N A TI O N S . 121

14 8 h hf w
I n t h e e x a p les w ic m o llo m it is i p o rt a n t t o n o tic e
f mu m
.

h
t at t h e o r hu u u
la fo r p er u ta tio n s S o ld n o t b e s ed n t il t h e

u u
s it ab le s elec ti o n s re
q iu hv
re d b
y t h e m
q e s t io n a e b ee n a de .

m F m
E x a p le 1 hm m mm 7 E n glis e n an d 4 A eric an s it te e f 6 i s to
md wm w
ro a co
mm
o

h d ( ) wh
.

b e fo r e ; in h o ay s c an t is b e 1 th e ittee
m m
an y o n e, en co co n
tain s e x ac tly 2 A ( ) erican s , 2 at le as t 2 A eric an s

( ) W h v
1 h m e a eh m to c o o se 2 A eric an s an d 4 E n glis en .

um w
Th e wh h m h
b er o f ay s in ic th e A erican s c an b e c o s en is 4
0 2 ; an d
um w
n
th e n b er wh h hm
o f h
ay s in h
ic th e E n glis e n c an b e c o s e n is 7 0 4 E ac o f
u dw h h d h
.

t h e firs t gro p s can b e as s o c iate it e ac o f th e s ec o n ;

u d um w
en c e
th e re q ire n b er o f ay s : 4 (J2 x 7 0 4 .

I!
? L13
L 2

( )
2 Th e co mmitt my ee a co n tai n 2 , 3 , or 4 A mi er c an s .

We h all e x hu u m
itab le c o b in atio n s b y fo r in g all th e gro p s
s t all th e m u
m m
s
hm
s a

c o n tain in g 2 A eric a n s an d 4 E n glis e n ; t en 3 A e ric an s an d 3 E n lis h h

m e n ; an d las tly 4 A m
eric an s an d 2 E n glis en
g
hm .

Th e s u m f th o e t h ree re s lts u w
ill gi e th e an s er v w H e n c e th e re q u d
ire
um w
.

4 4 7
n b er o f ay s
4
0 2 x 0 4 4 0 3 x C3 + 0 4 x 6 2
7 - 7

mIf I I
} 7 7
X
.

X
2
11
3 4
B1 5

h m
I n t i s E x a ple we a e o n ly t o hv
a e u s e o f th e s itab le fo r mk
u la
e fo r u m
m d h
b i n a ti o n s , fo r we are n o t c o n c ern e wit th e p o s s ib le arran ge en ts o f th e m
mm mm m hmv
co
e b ers o f th e co i ttee a o n g t e s el es .

E m
pl 2 Ou t o f 7 c o n s o n an ts an d 4 vw e ls , ho w myw d be
md
xa e o an o r s c an
h vw
.

a e e ac c o n tain in g 3 c o n so n an ts an d 2 o els ?
um w
Th e n h
b er o f ay s o f c o o s in
g th e t ree c o n s o n an ts is h 7
0 3 , an d th e
n um w h vw
b er o f ay s o f c o o s in g th e 2 o els is 0 2 ; an d s in ce e ac
4
h o f th e fi rs t

gro u p s ca n bdw h h
e as s o c ia t e i t e ac o f t h e s ec o n , th e n b er d um o f co b in e m d
gro u sh
p , ac co ta
e n in in g 3 c o n s o n an ts a n d 2 o e ls , is 7
03 x vw
Fu h rth h u e r, e ac f t e s e gro p s c o n tain s 5 le tte rs , wh h mic ay be arra n ge d
m hmv
o
a on gt [ w e s el e s in 5 ay s H en c e .

th e u d um w d
re q ire x n b er o f or s = 7 C3 4
02 X
[E
1 22 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

E xa p le 3 H o w an y m m w d o r s c an b e fo r md e out o f th e letters arti c le , s o

h vw u v
.

t at th e o els o c c py th e e en places ?

H w h v vw
t o p u t th e 3 o els in 3 s p ecifi e p lac e s , d d th e 4
m
ere e a e an co n so

n an ts in th e 4 re ain in g p lace s ; th e fi rs t o peratio n c an b e d o n e in 3

| w ay s ,

an d th e d L4
sec o n in H en ce

th e req ire u d um w d n b er o f or s

h
In t is E x a ple th e fo r la fo r p erm tatio n s is i e iately mu mu m
md app lic ab le ,
u m
b ec a s e b y th e s tate e n t o f th e q e s tio n t e re is b u t o n e way o f c u h h o o s in g th e
vwo els , an d o n e way o f c o o s in g th e c o n s o n an ts h .

E XA M PLE S XI . a .

1 wy
I n h o w an y d v w lb m h f a s can a co n s o n an t an a o e e c o s en o u t O
w d g?
.

t h e le tt e rs o f th e or co u ra e

2 Th d id f Cl i l 7 f M h mti l d 8 at es at
hip I h w m y w y
e re are c an or a as s c a or a e a ca an
N tu l S i S h l
.
, ,

4 f or a a ra h c en c e c o ars n o an a s c an t e

S h l hip b w d d ?
.

c o ars s e a ar e

3 Fi d th v lu f P
. n 0 0 e a e o 8
, ,
25 0
1 5,
24
4 ,
19
14
.

4 H w m y d iff o g m b md b y
an ki g e re n t arran e en ts c an e a e ta n 5
f h w d q
.

o f th l e i
et te rs o? t e or e u at o n

5 If f im h u mb f p mu t i f hi g g h t t at o n s o t 3 to e t
m
er o er

m
our es e n er n n s
u m u u h
.

is q l e fi i h
a b
to f p t ive f i t
g es t e n er o er at o n s O n 1 t n s

3 to g h fi d et er, n n .

6 H w m y p m ut i b md t f h l f at o n s e t e t te rs o

H w m y f h
o an er can a e ou o e

h w d will b gi wi h d d
.

t e i gl ? or tr an e o an O t ese e n t t an en

wi h t e .9

7 H w m y diff l i b md b y ki g f u f t s e ec t o n s ta
t um
r o

b f md
an e re n c an e a e n o

? H w m y d iff
o

h d igit
.

t e 7 s 3 , 4 , , 5, 8 , 1 b o an e re n n e rs c an e or e

wi h f u f h d igi ?
t o r o t es e ts

8 . If 3 , fin d n .

9 . my
u g wi h p l f b ll ?
H ow an c h an ge s can be r n t a ea o 5 e s

10 H g b g wi h o wm y
p l f 7 b ll h an ch an es c an e ru n t a ea o e s, t e t en o r
lw y b i g l
.

a a ? s e n as t

11 O h w m y igh t my wth f m b d f df m
n o an n s a a a c o 4 ra te ro a

i l? O h wm y f h
en e
h w w h id
.

w f 24, t at n o t atc t t
m
c re o so o es are en ca n o an o es e
w u ld
o
y b k ?an one an e ta en

12 H w m y g m b md o f h l f h an arran e en ts c an e a e ou t o t e e tt e rs o t e

w d d gh h v w l v b i g p d
.

or ra u t, t e o e s n e er e n se arat e
 24 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

30 An e ig ht db o at is t o b e m an n e d by a c re w h fm
c o s en ro 11
wh m
o are
m
-
.

en o f o 3 c an s tee r but c an n o t ro , an w d h t e res t c an wb ro u t can

m y w y wb g d if w
,

t s te er In how an a s c an t h e c re e arran e f h t o o t e

m
n o

b w id ?
.
,

en c an o n ly ro w on o S e

31 Pro e t at t v h h e u mb n er f o wy a s in whi h p c p o s it i e an v d n

v m d h v h ll
.

n e gati e S ign s ay b e p l i
ac e n a ro w SO t at n o t wo n e gat i e S ign s s a

b e t o get er is P H ’
On h .

32 . I f PM56
6
3 08 00 1 , fin d r .

33H ow m y diff t s ign als be md by h i i g d iff

o st n 6
u mb f h m
an eren c an a e er

en tly c o lo re
.

u dflg a s o n e ab o v e th e o t h wh e r, en an
y n er o t e

m ay b e o is t e h d a t o n ce ?

34 . I f 28
02, 2 25 1 1 , fin d r .

14 9 H it e rt o , in t h e o r
. h lae we a e p ro e d, t h e t hi n g f mu hv v s
hv a e b e e n re a rde d a s u n like
g B e o re c o n s ide rin
g c a s e s in w ic f h h
m m m
.

so e on e o r o re s e t o f t h in
g s a
y b s
e like, it is n e c e s a r to s y
p y
o in t o u t e x a c t l in a t s en s e t h e wo rd lik ewh
a n d u n like a re s
u h
sed W e n we s p ea k o f t in gs b ein g dis si i la r, difleren t, u n h m ‘

my h
.

like, we i pl t at t h e t in gs a re vi sib ly u n like, s o a s t o b e h

y u h
e a s il f m h h
dis tin g is ab le ro eac h h
o t er On t h e o t e r an d we
m
.

h wy
S all a l a s u s e t h e t e r h u
like t in gs t o den o t e s c h a s a re a lik e
u h f m h h
t o t h e e y e an d c an n o t b e dis t in g is e d ro eac o t er Fo r
m
.

v
in s t an c e , in E x 2 , A rt 1 4 8 , t h e c o n s o n an t s a n d t h e o wels a
y
mm
. .

h u h u
b e s aid e a c t o c o n s is t o f a gro p o f t in gs n it e d b y a c o on

h hu
c a ra c t e ris t ic , an d t m
s in a c e rt a in s e n s e t o b e o f t h e s a e kin d ;

hy h u h
b u t t e c a n n o t b e rega rde d a s lik e t in gs , b e c a se t e re is a n
v u y
in di id a lit m
e x is t in g a h on
g t h h u h h
e t in gs o f e a c
g ro
p w ic

m s hm y
ak e t e e a s il u h f m h h
di s t in g is a b le ro e ac o t er H e n c e , in
m
.

th e fi n al sta e o f t h e
g e xa
p l e w h u
e c o n s ide re d e a c
g ro
p t o

m h
c o n s is t o f fi ve di s s i h f
ila r t in gs a n d t e re o re c apab le o f L 5
a rra n
g m t m e
g t h m lv
en
[A ts1 4 1
a C ] on e se es . r on

1 50 Supp s w h v fi d ll t h p ib l w y
o ef ge a e to n a e o ss e a s o a rran

h lf 5 f t h mb i g L ti 4 E gli h d
.

i g 12 b
n k o o s on a s e o e e n a n n s an

mi d i diff t l gu g
, , ,

th e re a n er n e ren an a es .

Th b k i e h l g g my b g d d b l gi g t
oo s n eac an ua e a e re ar e as e on n o

on e l u it d b y
c as s, mm h t i ti ; b t if t h y w
n e a co on c a rac e r s c u e e re

di t i gu i h b l f m
s n sh t h h u mb f p mu ti
a e ro e ac o e r, t e n er o er ta on s

w uld b l1 2 i f h p u p f
o e ,
m
S n ce
g t m g t h mo r t e r o se o arran e en a on e

selv th y
es i lly dif
e f a re e s s e n t a e re n t .
 PE R M U TA TION S AND C OM B I N A TI O N S . 1 25

hwv
I f, o m u
e e r, t h e b o o k s in t h e s a e la n g a ge a re n o t dis
f m h h hu hv
t in gu is h a b le ro e acum o t e r, w e S o ld a e t o fi n d t h e n b er
y wh h h
o f wa s in m hm v
ic 1 2 t in gs c a n b e a rran ge d a o n g t e s e l e s ,
wh hm y
en 5 o f t e k y k
a re e x ac t l a lik e o f o n e in d, a n d 4 e x a c t l a li e
mwh h y u
o f a s e c o n d kin d : a p ro b le ic is n o t dire c t l in c l de d in a n y
v v u y
o f t h e c a s e s we h a e
p re io sl c o n s ide re d .

1 51 fi d thTo
e nu b er of way s in wh ic h 11 thin s
n mg a
y e b m
m m m m
.

a rra n ged a o n g th e s elves , ta kin g th e a ll a t a ti e, wh en

p
of th e thin gs a re ex a c tly a like of o n e kin d,
q of th e ex a c tl
y m
a like
qf a n o th er kin d, r of th e
'
m
ex a c tly a like of a third kin d, a n d

th e res t a ll difieren t .

Le t t h e re be n u
le t t e rs ; s pp o e p o f t e s h mt be
o a, q o f th e m
to b e b, r o ft hm
e t o b e e, an d t h e re s t t o b e u n lik e .

Le t b e t h e re q ire d n
x u
b er o f per um
t at io n s ; t e n if in mu h
an
y s o n e o f t h e e p er t mu
a t io n s t h e p le t t e rs a we re re la c e d b
p y p
u f f m
n lik e le tt e rs di fe ren t ro an
y o f t h e re s t , ro t i s s in
gle f mh
p mu
e r w hu t a t io n , it o t a lt e rin
g t h e
p o s it io n o f a n
y o f t h e re a in in
g m
s u f mI mu
le t t e r , we c o ld o r p n ew
p e r t a t io n s H e n c e if t is c an
g e h h
w md i h f th p mut ti s
.

e re a e n eac o e x er a on we S h o uld o b t i
a n x x Ip
p e r mu t ti a ons .

Sim il ly ar if t h e q le t t e rs b w p l e re re ace d by q u n lik e lett e rs ,

umb mu
,

th e n er o f per t a t io n s w u ld b
o e

wx
E E X

I n lik e m a n n e r, b y re p la c in g t h e r le tt e rs 0 by r u n lik e le t t e rs ,
we hu fi
s o ld n all y o b t a in x x
p x q I I I r
p er mu t a t io n s .

B u t t h e t hin gs a re n o w al f
l di fe re n t , an dt h f e re o re a m
d it o f
In

p e r mut at o n i s m g th m lv
a on e se es . H en c e

x x
Ip x
Iq x
I I
r = n ,

t h a t is
Eh r
’

wh i h ic s th e re
q u i d u
remb f p m
u
n t er o er a t io n s .

A y
n c a se i n wh i h h th i g
c t e n s a re n o t a ll di fe ren t f my a be
t re a t e d s i mil a rl
y .
1 26 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

E x a p le 1 m H ow my an d
iffere n t p er tatio n s mu c an be md a e o ut o f th e
letters o f th e w d .

or k
ass a ss in a ti o n ta en all t o get er ? h
We hv h 1 3 letters o f ic wh h 4 are 3 , 3 are a , 2 are i, an d2 are n

mu
ere

um
a e .

H en c e th e n b e r o f p er tatio n s

| 13

H E
W ?

1 001

E x a p le 2 m H ow an y n m
b ers c an b e fo r e um md wh
it th e d igits
.

h
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , s o t at th e Odd digits al ay s o c c py th e w u Odd p lac e s ?

Th e o d
dd igits 1 , 3 , 3 , 1 can be arran ge d h u in t e ir fo r p lac e s in

I 4

I|
2 2

Th e e env d igits 2 , 4 , 2 c an be arran ge d in t h h

eir t ree p laces in

I 2

E ac h o f th e way s in ( )
1 c an be as s o c iate dw h h it e ac o f th e w ay s in
(4
H en ce th e req u d um
ire n b er
L
x 6 x 3 : 18 .

1 52 To fi n d th e mb f p mt ti
n u er o er u a ons o
f 11 th in gs r at a

m th i g my b
.

ti e, wh en ea ch n
p t d a e re ea e o n c e, twi c e, u
p to r

tim es in an y a rra n g m
e t en .

H e re we h a v e t o id th
co n s u mb er e n er o f wa ys i wh i h n c r

p lac e s can b e lle d fi p wh

u w h v en e a e n f
di fe re n t hi gt t n s a o ur

s
dis p o al, e a c o f t h e h hi g b i g u
n t n s e n sed as o f t en as w e p le a s e in
an
y a rran
g met en .

Th e rst plac e fia e e u n n my b fi ll d p i
a s , an d, e n it h a s wy wh
fi
b ee n lle d u p in an y o n e w ay , t h e s e c o n d p la c e a
y a ls o b e lled m fi
u
p i y
n n w a s , S in c e w e a re n o t p re c l de d ro s in
g t h e a e u f mu sm
h
t in g aga in T e re o re t h e n. h f
b er o f a s in ic t h e rs t um w y wh h fi
t wo pla c es c an b e lle d u p is n x n o r n fi 2
Th e t ird pla c e c an h .

a ls o b e fi
lle d u p in n a s , a n d t e re o re t h e wy rs t t re e
p lace in h f fi h s
n
3
wa ys
hsm
.

Pro c e e din g in t i a n n e r, a n d n o t ic in
g t h at at an
y s ta e t h e
g
in dex o f n is alwa s t h e s a e a s t h e n y m
b e r o f pla c e s lle d u p, um fi
h hv
w e s all a e t h e n b e r o f wa s in um
ic t h e r pla c e c a n b e y wh h s
fi lle d u p e q al t o n
'
u .
1 28 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

th e v lu a es 1 , 2, 3 in s u c c e s sio n ,
"
O is r
co n t in u lly i
a n c re a s e d
+

r
1
1 b ec o m es eq u a l to 1 o r le s s th an 1 .

n 1
r

so lo n g as

1
t h at Is,
n

2
r .

We ha v e to c h o o se t h e gre a t e s t v lua e o f r c o n s is t e n t w it h
h
t is in eq u li y
a t .

( )
1 L et n be e v en ,
an d e
q u a l to 2 m; t h en

u + 1 2 m + l
m+ 1
2 2 2

an d fo r v lu
a ll a es o f r u p t o mi n cl u iv t h i i
s e s s g re a t e r t h an r .

H en c e b y p u tt i g n r m B, we fi n d t h t th g a e re a t e st n u mb er o f
2
co mb i n a t io n s is
”
0

( )
2 L et n b e Od d, an d e
q u l t 2 m 1
a t h o en

2m 2
n

2
+ 1
m l;
2
+
+

an d fo r a ll v lua es f r
o u
p t o i m u v h
n c l s i e t is is gre a t e r t a n r ; h
but wh en r m 1 th e mu y f
lt ipl in g a c t o r b e c o e s e q al t o 1 , a n d m u
”
0m+ 1
"
0m) t h at is ,
"
C
"
0 n
—l ’

an d t h f e re o re th e n u mb er o f co mb i n at o n s i is gre a t e s t wh en th e

t h in
gs a re taken
97, —
+

2
1 n

2
1
at a ti m; e the re s u lt b ei n g t h e

sa mi e n t h e t wo c a se s .

1 55 f mu l f th u mb f mb i ti f h i g
Th e or a or e n er o co n a on s o n t n s

t im my b f u d w i h u t u mi g h f mu l f h
.

r a t a e a e o n t o ass n t e or a or t e

n u mb f p mu t ti
er o er a on s .

L t C d e t h u mb f mb i i f h i g t k
”
en o e t e n er o co n at o n s o n t n s a en

t im thi g b
r

r at a d l t h d
e t d by
°
h l t
an e t e n n s e en o e t e e t e rs

a, b, c, d,
 PE R M U TA TI O N S AND C O M BI N A TI O N S .

Ta k h w h
wa a ; t e n
e a m y f m
it t h e re a in in g le t te rs we c a n o r
0 m co b in a t io n s o f n m
1 le tt e rs t a k e n a l at a ti e W it h
h h w hu h m
.

eac o f t es e rit e a ; t s we s ee t at o f th e c o b in a t io n s
of nh m um
t in gs 7 a t a t i e , t h e n wh h
b e r o f t h o se ic c o n t a in

a i s m y
C —l ’ s i ila rl um th e n wh h
b er o f th o se ic c o n t a in

b i s h r

C” , a n d s o fo r e a c o f t h e n le tt e rs .

Th f x
e re o re i q u l t t h unm b f mb i ti s e a o e n er o co na on s

r at a t im wh i h i e t g th w ith t h t h t t i b
c co n ta n a, o e er o se a co n a n

th th t t i
o se a d co n a n 0, an so on .
,

B t by f m
u i g th mb i ti i th i m o r n hp e co n a on s n s an n er e ac ar

m
o ,

ti l will b
c u ar o n e p t d t i F i t e if 3 th
re ea e r es or n s a n ce, r e

mb i ti f u d m g th
:

mg
.

b w ill b
,

co n a on a c t i i g e o n a on o se co n a n n a, a on

th t i i gb
o se co n d m g th s
a n t i i g
n ,H an a on o e co n a n n 0 . en c e

0 x

By w iti r n
g n 1 an d 9
' — l in s t e a d o fn an d 9
'
re s
p e c ti v lye ,

—2
0
11

_ X
r 2

Si mil ar l y ,
“ 2 ” 3

—r + 2
n
C2
’ n
—r
+l
C, x
an d fi n all y ,
= n — fr + 1 .

M lt ipl u yt o
g h
et er th e v e rt ic a l c o l um n s an d c an c el lik e f a c t o rs

f m h
ro eac s ide ; t h u s

— l — 2
”
O'
n
( n
)( n
)
— 1 —2
( )( )
'
7 r r

1 56 To fi n d th e to ta l n u b er of wa y s in wh ich i t is p o s s ib le m
m m
.

to a ke a s el c ti o n b y ta kin g s o e o r a ll o u t of p + r
e
q
th in gs , whereof p a re a like of o n e kin d, a like of a s ec o n d kin d, r
q
a like o
f a third ki n d ; a n d s o o n .

Th e p t in gs h my b a e dis po s e d f in p + l
o a s ; fo r w e a
y wy m
k
t a e 0, l , 2 , 3 , p h m m y o f t e . Si ila rl t h e q t in gs a
y b e h m
dis po s e d o f in q + l w y ; h h a s t e 7
°
t in gs in wa y s ; a n d
so on .

H . H . A .
 H I GH E R G
A L E BR A .

H en c e th e n u mb er o f w a
ys in wh i h c a ll t h e t h in gs my a be
dis p o s e d o f is ( 19 + 1 ) (q -
l l) ( r -
l l)

h u
B u t t is in c l de s t h e c ase in wh i h c n on e o f t h e t in g h s a re

ta k en ; th f j e re o re , re e c t in g t is h c a s e, th e t o t al n b er um o f
w a
y s is
l)

1 57
g A e n e ra l f mu l
or a e x p re s s in g t h e n u mb er o f pe r mu t a

m m wh
.

t io n s , o r c o b in a t io n s , o f n t in gs t ak e n r a t a t i e , h en th e
h
t in gs a re n o t a ll di fe re n t , a
y b e so e at c o
pflic ate d m mwh m b ut a

p u
a rt ic la r c a s e a
y b e s o l e d in t h e m
o llo in
g an n er v f w m .

E mpl Fin d th e um b er o f ay s in ic w wh h ( ) 1 a s elec tio n , ( 2 ) an

md m
n ar

g m t
xa e.

ran e en , o f fo u r letters c an be a e fro th e le tte rs o f th e w d or

p ro p o rti o n .

T h e re are d 1 0 letters o f s ix ifferen t s o rts , n a mly e 0, r; t; i, n .

d u
I n fi n in g gro p s u h m o f fo r t e se ay b e clas s ifi e d as fo llo w s

( ) 1 h k d if
Tf re e ali e, o n e eren t .

( ) 2 w k w h T k o ali e , t o o t ers ali e .

( ) 3 w k h T w d o ali e , th e o t er t o ifferen t .

( ) 4 u di A ll fo r fferen t .

( )
1 Th e md s elec tio n c an be a e in 5 ay s ; fo r eac w
o f t h e fi ve le tte rs , h
p , t, i, n k wh , c an b e ta en it th e s in gle gro p o f th e t ree li e le tters 0 u h k .

( )2 Th e m d s elec tio n c an be a e wv
in 0 2 ay s ; fo r we a e to
3
hv h c o o se two o ut
o f he t
t h ree h
p airs 0 , o p p , r, r. T is gi es 3 s elec tio n s .

( )3 h m dm
T is s elec tio n can b e x w
in 3 1 0 ay s ; fo r we s elec t o n e o f th e
h w m
a e

3 p airs , an d t en t o fro th e re ain in g 5 le tters h v

T is gi e s 3 0 s elec tio n s. .

( )4 h i T m d
s s elec tio n be in 6
04 w w h v k d to ta e 4 iffe ren t
m
c an a e ay s , as e a e
le tters to h c o o se fro th e s ix 0, p, r, t, i , n h v
. T is gi es 1 5 s electio n s .

T hu s umbth e to tal n i er o f s elec t on s is 5 h i

3 + 30 + 1 5 t at s, 53 .

di d m
I n fi n n g th e iffere n t arran ge en ts o f 4 le tters w h v mu e a e to per te in
all p o s s ib le w
ay s eac h
o f th e fo rego in g gro p s u .

'
4
( ) 1 v x L gi es ris e to 5 or 20 arran ge mt en s .

[ E

v 3 x
I 4
mt
(2 ) gi e s ri s e to or 18 arran

7
ge en s .
1
2 2
L .

1
4
( )
3 gi v es ris e to 3 0 x3 or 3 60 arran ge mt en s.

( )
4 gi v es ris e to 1 5 x ]4 or 3 60 arran ge m en ts .

T hu s th e to tal n um b er o f arran ge mt en s is 2 0 + 1 8 + 3 6 0 + 3 60 ; t h at i s , 7 58 .
1 32 HIGHER AL G EBR A .

17 A telegrap h h as 5 ar s an d m e ac h mi ar s c ap ab le f 4o di s t in c t

it i
.

in c l ud in g t h e p o s itio n o f re s t wh i at th e t o t al n umb f
md
o s o n s, ; s er o
p
s ign als t h at c an be a e?
In h o
18 wm y w
ay s c an 7 p e rs o n s fo r m a rin
g? I n h o w an y m
m
an
w ay s c an 7 E n glis
.

hm
en an d 7 A eric an s s it dw ud at a t ab le , n o
m
o n ro n

t wo A e ric an s b ein g t o get er ? h

19 I h wm y w y i i p n o ib l d w an mfm f m a s s t o ss e to ra a su o o n ey ro

a b g a
.

i i g co n v ig h lf v ig
ta n n a so w fl i hilli g
e re n a a -
so e re n a c ro n , a or n a s n

a
p y en n d f h i g a?
n a art n
, , , ,

m
,

20 F m u l 3 d g h w y l
ts , 4 2 o ran es , o an s e ec

b md
es , an
ro pp co co a n a
t i on s off i
.

ru ki g l
t c an f eh ki d ? a e, t a n at e as t o n e o eac n

21 Fi d h u mb f d iff t w y f d ivid i g m h i g i
n t e n er o e ren a s o n n t n s n to
u u
.

n e q l g pa ro s .

22 H w m y ig l b md b y h i i g fl g f diff o st n 4 t
h wh y umb f h mmy b h i d
o an s n a s can e a e a s o e ren

l u b v
.

h t t t o s te

? H w m y wi h
co o rs o n e a o e e o er, en an n er o e a e
a t o n ce fl g? o an t 5 a s

23 Fi d th u mb f p mu i wh i h n e n b f md er o f er tat ons c can e or e ou t o

f h w d i t k h g h ?
.

t h l e ett e rs o t e or ser es a en t ree to et er

24 Th p p i i l
e re are
p h f whi h i h m o n ts n a an e , n o t re e o c are t
m
n e sa e

igh li wi h h wh h h
.

s tra t n e
p i f t i t ll i h
e ex c e i t on o c are a n t e s tra t
u mb ( ) f igh li ( ) f i gl whi h ul
e sa
g g ,

li fi d th 1 s tra t 2 tr an t
f mj i i g h m
ne ; n e n er o n es , o es c re s
ro o n n t e .

25 Th 1 p i i ere a re
p f u f wh i h0 i o n h mts n ac e , n o r o c are t e sa
m
s o n e
w h wh h
.

l i h it f t i ll i h t l fi d t
h w m y pl
an e p e ex c e on o c are a n e sa e
p g p an e ; n

o han h tiigh fh pi
an es t e re are eac
,

co n a n n t ree o t e o n ts .

26 Th diff b k d 3 i f h fi d h t t
b md f m th m
ere a re n p e re n oo s , an 9 co es o eac ; n e
u mb f w y i whi h l i
.

n er o a s n c a s e ec t o n c an e a e ro e

m
.

27 F i d th u mb f l i d f h t b s e e c t o n s an ts t
f mh w d p i
n e n g er o o arran e en a can e
md b y ki g l
.

a e ta n 4 ett ers ro t e or ex ress o n

H wm y p m b md
.

28 u i f l
o an er f h tat ons o 4 e tte rs c an e a e out o t
mi i
e
f h w d
.

l e tt e rs o t e or ex a n at o n

29 F i d th m f ll u m n b g t
e su t h 0 f om d b y a n ers rea er an 1 0 00 or e
d i y u mb
.
.

u s 1n g h d ig i t e 7 digi b i g p
ts l , 3 , 5, , 9, n o t e n re eat e n an n er .

30 Fi d h m f ll u mb g n t e su th 0 00 f md b y
o e rs reater an 1 0 or e
d igi b i g p d i y u mb
a n

digi
.
0

u s 1n g h t e 6 ts 0, 2 , 4 , ,
8, n o t e n re eate n an n er .

31 If fp q h i g p b
o lik + d g b lik
+r t d h nt s e a t
h w h h l umb f mb i i i
. e , an e a e , an e re s
'
dfi 1 e re n t, s e t at t e to ta n er o co n at o n s s
— 1

umb f p mu i whi h b f md
.

32 Sh w t h t h t t at
f m l
e a e n er o er ons c
umb
c an e or e
wh i h i h wh
.

’
ro 2n e t t ers b i g c th
are e t
’
reat e s t
m
er a s o r s s en e n er
o f i a sq
’
u l t h s e u b afb o t e n er o
’
s

umb
.

t
33
e
If h
h m p imm u mb p v h h umb f diff f
.

a r
t be n
e n
l +1
b ll diff
e r,
n d
ro
h
f h
f
ers a ,
t at t e
, 0, o , e a e re n

t
t, an
ac to rs o
\
e ac o

(m
e n er o e re n t e
e x p re s s 1o n a b cd is 1) 2 ”
1 .
 C H A PTE R XI I .

MA T HEM T I A C AL IN DU C TION .

1 58 M A N Y i p o rt an tm mt h mti l f ml a e a ca or u ee a re n o t e a s il y
m t md
.

de o n s t ra t e d
dire c by a fp f; i u h
o e o ro o n s c c as es w e fre
u yen tl fi n d it c o n e n ie n v t t mpl y mt h d f p fk w
m m
o e o
q a e o o ro o n o n as

at h e at ical in d ct io n , wh i h w h ll w illu t
u c e s a n o s t ra e .

m
E x a p le 1 . Su u d
pp o s e v h
it is mre q ire t o p ro e t at th e su o f th e c u b es

o f th e fi rs t n n at u um
ral n u b ers is eq al to

We h m u m
b y trial t at th e s tate en t is t r e in s i ple cases , s c
c an eas ily s ee uh
wh en n = 1 , o r 2 , o r 3 ; an d from h w mh
t is i g t b e le d t o co n ec tu re t at
j h
um h
e
m
as
mu
th e fo r u
la was tr e in all cas es A ss u wh
e t at it is tr e en n ter s are

k h u
.

ta en ; t at is , s p p o s e

m i ) to n ter s
n 1

A dd th e ( n + mh
ter ( ,
t h d h
at is , n + to e ac si e ; t en

m wy }
2

to n + 1 ter s
h -
U

2
( u + 1) + n +1
Z
2
( n ( n 4n 4)
4

wh h k f
ic mf m u w umd u w m
is o t h e s a e o r as th e res lt e as s e to b e tr e fo r n te r s ,
h w d u u wh
n + 1 t a in g th e p lace o f n ; in o t er k
o r s , if th e re s lt is tr e en e ta e

um
a c e rtain n m wh v h um m
b er o f ter s , whm w
ate er t at n b er ay b e , i t i s t ru e en e

h um
in c rea s e t at n w h u wh
b er b y o n e ; b u t e s e e t a t it i s tr e e n 3 te r s are

k h u wh m
ta en ; t ere fo re it is tr e k h u wh
en 4 te r s are t a e n ; i t 1 8 t e re fo re tr e en

m k hu u i u u v
5 ter s are ta en ; an d so o n T s th e re s lt s t r e
.
n i e rs ally .
1 34 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

E xa m
pl e 2 . To d e te r mi ne th e p ro du ct o f n b in o mi l f a ac to rs o f th e fo r m
a: a .

By ac t al u mu ltiplicatio n we hv a e

m
( + a ) ( a + b) 33
2
+ x + abc ;

( 13 + a )( x + b) ( a + c ) x3

(a b + a c + a d + b c + b d + c d) x
2

'

ac d e d) a ab cd
( a b c a b d + b : .

In t h e se res u lts we o b s er e v h t at th e fo ll o w in g la wh ds ol :

1 Th e n um
b er o f ter m s on th e rig h t is on e m h o re t an th e n um b er o f
m
.

b in o ial fac to rs o n th e le ft .

2 d
Th e in e x o f a: in th e fi rs t ter is th e s a e as th e n b er o f m m um
m h h m d h
.

b in o ial fac to rs ; an d in eac o f th e o t er ter s th e in ex is o n e le s s t an

h
t at o f th e p recedi n g ter m .

3 Th e c o effi cien t o f th e firs t ter is n ity ; th e c o effi cien t o f th e s eco n m u d

m m h d
.

ter i s th e s u o f th e le tters a , b , c , th e c o effi c ien t o f th e t ir

te r m is th e s u o f th e p ro mc ts o f t e s e letters t a en two at a ti du
e; h k m
th e c o efii cien t o f th e fo rt te r i s th e s u u h
o f t e ir p ro c t s ta e n t re e at m m h du k h
a ti m e ; an d s o o n ; th e las t ter is th e p ro c t o f all th e le tters m du .

A ss um h h e t at t ese la wh d s ol in th e c as e o f n 1 fac to rs t h at is , s u pp o s e
"
( )( b) ( h) 1 n" 2 3 4
’
n "
n
+p l + p 2 co +p 3 +p n
‘ ‘

x a x x x az x
.
1
. -

wh ere

P3 = ab 0 + ab d +

p n —l ab c h o

u
M ltiply b o t h d s i es by an o t h er fac to r a: k; t hu s

( x + a) ( a + b ) ( a + b ) (13 + k)
—2 —3
“

w + (191 + 70)
n
x
ii - 1
+ ( 192 + P1 k) in
n
+ x
ii
+ + Pn —1 k ‘ ‘

su mf o all th e n letters a, b, c, . . k;

—
su m f th o e p ro du c ts ta k en two at a ti m e o f all th e
n letters a, b, c, k;

su m f th o e p ro du c ts ta k hen t ree at a ti m e o f a ll

th e n letters a, b, c, ls ;

pn _1 k = pro du c t o f all th e n letters a, b, c, k .

 C H A PTE R XIII .

B I N OM I A L TH E OR E M . PO SI TI V E I N TE GR A L I ND EX .

161 . IT my b h w
a e s e n by ac t u l multipli
a c a tio n t h at

( 33 + a ) ( x + d)
2
- -
1 cd ) x

x + a b cd
"

We my h w v
a w it d w th is u lt b y i p ti ; f t h
o e e r, r e o n re s n s ec on or e

mpl p du t m f u mb f p ti l p
,

co ete i ts f th
ro c co n s s o e su O a n er o ar a ro

du t c s h f w h i h i f md b y m
eac o u ltiplyi g t g t h f u
c s or e n o e er o r

l tt s
e er b i g t k on e f m h f th f u f t s I f w
e n a en ro ea c o e o r ac o r e

mi t h w y i wh i h t h v i u p ti l p du t
.
,

ex a n e e a n c e ar o s ar a ro c s a re

f md w t h t
or e , e se e a

( )
1 t h t m i e f m d
er b y t ki g t
x h
4
l t
s t or f h
e a n e e er a
t ou t o ea c

of th f t s e ac o r

m
.

( )
2 t h t i v e l v i g er f sm d b yn t ki
o g t h l t
n t a
s
a re o r e a n e e e r as

ou t f o y h f
an t s i t reev y w y p ib
ac o r l d f hn e er a o ss e, an one o t e

mi i g f t
,

l tt s
e er b t a, t f th c, a ou o e re a n n ac o r

m m
, .

( )
3 t h t s i v el v i g er f d b
n
y t o ki g t h nl tt x
2
a re or e a n e e er a
s

ou t f o y w f t
an i t v yo w y p ib
a c o rs ,l d w nf t h e er a o ss e, an t o o e

l tt s
e er b d a, t f th c, mi i g f t ou o e re a n n ac o rs

m m
, .

( 4 ) t h t s i v e lv i g er f d b n
y t ki o
g t h l nt a: a re or e a n e e t e r as

o ut f o
y f t
an d h
on e f t h l tt s
a c o r, a n b d t f t ree o e e er a, c, ou o

mi i g f t s
,

th e re a n n ac o r .

( )
5 t h t m i d e
p d t
er f i t h pn d u et f l
enl t h l tten o x s e ro c o a e e e rs

a, b, c, d .

E xa m
p l e 1 .
( x 2) ( x + 3) ( x —5
) (x + 9 )
— —4 5
)
2
(
4
x + -
18 :e

— 135
) x + 27 0
4
+ 5x
3 —4 7 x 2 — 6 9 x 27 0
+
-
x .
 B I N OM I A L TH E OR E M . POS ITI VE I N TE GR A L I ND EX . 1 37

m E xad p le 2 . Fin th e fi c ien

c o ef t o f x 3 in th e p ro du ct
—3
( x
) ( )
x + 5 (x 1 ) (x + 2 ) ( x
mi v v
Th e ter s n o l g x are fo r e b y in 3
ltiply in g to ge t er th e x in an md mu h
th ree o f th e fac to rs , an d two o f th e n e ric al q an tities o u t o f th e t wo re
y
um u
m h
ain in g fac to rs ; fi c ie n t is e q al to th e s u
e n c e th e c o e f o f th e p ro c ts u m du
u
o f t h e q an titie s 3 , 5, 1 , 2, 8 ta e n two at a ti e k m .

hu Tu d s th e re q ire fi cien
co ef t
— 40 — 16
39 .

162 . I f in e q a t io n u ( )
1 o f t h e pre ce din g a rt ic le we s u pp o se

w e Ob t a in

( x a
)
4
a
c
“
4 ax
3
Ga
g
a
:
2
4a
s
m a
“

mt h d h
.

Th e mplifi d e o e re ex e f de d c in g a p a rt ic la r c a s e
e o u u
f m m g l u lt i
ro a o re e n e ra re s s o n e of re
q e n t o c c rre n c e i n f u u
M t h mt i ; f it ft
a e h pp a cs or O en a e n s t a t it is h o re e a s to p ro e m y v
a
gen e ra l
p ro
p o s it io n t h an v
it is t o p ro e a p a rt ic la r c a s e o f it u
mpl y t h mmh dt p
.

We h al l in t h e n e x t a rt ic le e et v
mi l Th mb y wh i h y b i mi l
s o e sa e o o ro e

a f mul k w
or a n o n as t h e B in o a eo re c an n o a

f th f m
,

o e or x a c an be ra is e d to an
y ig d p it iv i
as s n e
g l os e n te ra

p wo er .

1 63 . To fi n d th e exp a n s i o n o f wh en n is a p o s iti ve

in teger .

C o n s ide r t h e ex re ss io n
p

th e n u mb e r o f f a c t o rs b e in g n .

Th e e x p an s io n h
f t is e x pre s s io n is t h e c o n tin e d p ro d c t o f
o u u
th e n f a c t o rs , as a, x b , so c, x k, an d e e r t e r in t h e v y m
ex
p a n s io n is o f n m
di en s io n s , b e in g a p ro d c t o r e d b y lti u f m mu
p l in yt
g gohe t s er n le tt e r , o n e t a k e n ro ea c o f t es e n a c t o rs f m h h f .

Th h igh t p w e f i es o er o x s x
"
an d i f md b y t ki g t h
s or e a n e

f m h f th f t
,

l tte e r a: ro ea c o e n a c o rs

Th t m f md b y t ki g th l
.

s i v lvi g
e er n o n x
”“
a re or e a n e e t te r x

f m y l f th f t
ro an d f th l
n — b k O e a c o rs , a n one o e e t t e rs a , c,

f mth mi i g f t ; t h u h ffi i t f
,

ro e re i th
a n n ac o r s t e co e c en o n e

fi l p du t i th m f th l tt
n a ro b c k; d t i s e su o e e e rs a , ,
c, en o e t
by
Th m i v lv i g
e f md b y ki g h l t
t er s n o n x
"' 2
a re or e ta n t e e t e r a:

f m y 2 f th f
ro an d w f th l
n b k o e a c t o rs , a n t o o e e tt e rs a , c,

f mth tw mi i g f t ; hu h ffi i f f i
,
" g
ro e o re a n n a c o rs t s t e co e c en t o a n

th fi l p du t i t h m f th p du t f h l
e n a ro c s e su o e ro c s o t e e t t e rs

a
,
b, c, k t ak e n t wo at a ti m; e de n o te it b y S 2 .
1 38 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

A n d, gen e rall , t h e t e r s in o l in g y a re o r ed b
ymv v
t a kin
g f m
h
t e le tt e r 93 r o a n
y n — f m
r o f th e f
a c t o rs , an d r o f t h e le t t e rs

a , b, c, k ro f m
t h e r re ain in g a c t o rs ; t m f
s t h e c o e fi c ie n t o f hu f
x
""
fi u
in t h e n al p ro d c t is t h e s u o f th e
p ro d c t o f t h e le tt e rs m u s
a , b , c, k t ak e n r a t a t i e ; den o t e it b y S m .

Th e la s t t e r mi n t h e p ro d u ct is ab c k ; de n o t e it b y S" .

H en c e
—2
( x + k)
" H
S lx S en S S
’
x _, x .
n n

I n S l th e n u mb m i ; i S th
er of ter s s n n e nu mb er o f ter mi s s

m u mb mb i ti tim
2

th e sa e as th e n f f er o co n a on s o n t h in gs 2 at a e

t h at is ,
"
02 in S th mb f t m i 0 ;
3
e n u er o er s s
"
3
an d so o n .

N o w s ppo s e b , c, u
k, e a c h qu e al to a ; t h en S l b eco m es
" " 2
0 1 a S2 b e c o e s 0 2 a ; S 3 b e c o m m es
"
03a an d so on ; t hu s

2 2 3 " 3
( )
” ” ‘

x + a x a x a x

s ub s t it u ti n
g fo r 0
"
0 we o b t ain

x
"
+ n ax
”
+
n
( n 1)
a x
z 2
+
1 . 2
th e s e rie s c o n t a in in g n 1 ter m s .

h
T is is t h e B in o ia l Th eo re m m ,
an d th e e x p res s io n on th e ri
gh t
is s aid t o b e t h e e x p an io n o f ( so s
164 . Th e B in o mi l Th
b e p ro e d a s o llo s
a eo re mmy a a sol v f w
u
B y in d c tio n we c a n fi n d t h e p ro d c t o f t h e n a c t o rs u f
x + a , a + b , 96 + c, a s e x lain e d in
p A rt 1 58 ,
E x 2 ; w e . .

c an h u "
t e n de d c e t h e e x pan s io n o f ( oc + a ) a s in A rt 1 6 3 . .

165 Th e c o e f c ie n t s in th e fi e x p a n s io n o f a re ve r y
ymb l
.

co n v
e n ie n t l ex p re s s e d b yy th e s o s
"
02 ,
”
03 ,
h h
W e s all, o we e r, s o et i e s rt v m m fu h b b v i er a re at e th mb y mitti
e o n
g
n , a n d writ in g 0 02 , 0 3 , 0 W it h t h i . s n o t ti
a w h v on e a e
" "
0
3
C2 a
1 ’ 3
0 , ax
i 2
03 a
“
x + + x + x + 1
- -
a .
n

I f we w itr e — a in t h e la c e
p o f a , we ob t ain

—a "'
0 S, (
" —a "
) ) 03 ( )
2
( )
2
— a
"

x a z oo x + 9c +
"
—
02 a
2 ” 2
— 03 a
3 ” 3
‘

x + x x +

T hu s th e ter ms i n th e e x p an si on o f an d ( x — a
)
"
a re

n u mi er ca lly b u t in ( x a ) t e
th e m
sa e,
"
hy a re a lt e rn ate l yp o s it i v e

an v
d n e gat i e , a n d t h e la s t te r is p o s it i m v e o r n ega t i v e a c c o rdin
g
as n is e e n o r O dd v .
 140 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e fi ft h ter m f( o a

Th e req u d m
ire ter 17
04 a
13

“ 6“ ,3
x 1,

38 08 0a 13
x
l2
}

E xam
pl e 2 . Fin d th e fo u rteen t h m ter o f(3 a
)
Th e req u d ire ter m 15
01 3 a )
“

15
0, x 9a m ) [A rt
13
4
9 5a .

1 67 Th e i ple s t o r sm
o f t h e b in o ial t e o ref m is t h e e x m h m
f m f mu
.

p an s io n o f T is i s o b t a in e d ro t h e
gehn e ra l or la
o f A rt 1 6 3 , b
.
y w rit in
g 1 in t h e
p la ce Of x , an d x in t h e l
p ce
a

ofa T s
. hu
"
( 1 + 0 x

— l
—
1 + nx +
n
( n
)

t h e ge n e ra l ter mb e in
g
—l —2 —
n
( n
)( n
) ( n r + 1)
x
I] ;
Th e e x p a n s io n o f a b in o mi l my lw y b md
a a a a s e a e de p e n d
u
p o n t h e c a s e in w ic h h th e fi t t mi u ity ; t hu
rs er s n s

( 96

x
”
( 1 w h e re z
E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e fi c ien
c o ef t o fx 16
in th e ex p an s io n o f (x 2

wh v e a e ( x2 2 m
)
m
an d, si c e a
n 20
mu v ltiplie s e ery ter mi n th e exp an sio n o f
( 1 we hva e in

h
t is exp an s io n k
to s ee th e c o effi c ien t o f th e ter mwhi h c co n tain s
51
H en ce th e ui d
req re c o eff
icien t_ -
1° '
C4

3 3 60 .

In so m e c as e s th e f ll wi g mth
o o n e o d 13 Si mpl e r.
 B IN OM IA L TH E O R E M . PO SI TI VE I N TE GR A L IN D EX . 141

m d
(
1

)
E x a p le 2 Fin th e fi c ie n
c o ef t "
f x i n th e
. o e x p an s io n o f sf5 +
-

7L'
u h u m
’
.

S pp o s e t at x " o c c rs in th e ( p te r .

Th e ( p te r m CI , ( w y il -
1)

n
(j p m 2 a —5p

h
B u t t is t e r m co n tain s a
r
, an dt h e re fo re 2a 5p : r, o r p

T hu s th e re q u d ire fi c ien
c o ef ta p

( 3n r)

2n — r
U n le s s
5
Is a p o s I ti ve I n te ger t h e re W 1 11 b e n o m
te r co n tain in g x
" in
th e e x p an s io n .

168 I n A rt 1 6 3 we de d c e d t h e e x p a n s io n o f x
( a
) ro u f m
mh
. .

th e p ro d ct o f n u f
a c t o rs
( as a
)( x b ) ( x k ) an d th e e t o d
o f
p ro o t f h
e re
gi ev v u
n is a l a b le in c o n s e
q
,

en c e o f th e ide ge n e u w
ra lit
y u
o f t h e re s lt s o b t a in e d B u t t h e o llo in g s o rt e r p ro o o f f w h f
m h mh u
.

t h e B in o ia l T eo re s o ld b e n o t ic e d .

It w ill b
e s e eni Ch p
n a XV t h at a si mil mth ar e o d is u se d

m f th
. .

to o b t a in t h e e n e ra l t e r o e e x p a n s io n f
g o

16 9 . To p ro ve the B in o mi l Th a eo re m .

f
Th e e x p a n s io n o f (90 + a ) is t h e p ro d c t o f n ac t o rs , e a c h
"
u
e u
q v y m
a l t o 33 + a , a n d e e r mt er in t h e e x a n s io n
p i s o f n di en

u f m mu
s io n s , b e in g a
p ro d c t h or ed b
y lt ip l in
g t o
ge t e r n le tt e rs , y
f m h
o n e t ake n rof hu h m v v
eac o f th e n a c t o rs T s eac te r in o l in g
m
.

""
a
'
f
is Ob tain e d b y t a kin g a o u t o f a n y r o f t h e a c t o rs , a n d x
m
o u t o f t h e re f h f
a in in
g um
n — r a c t o rs T e re o re t h e n b er o f

m wh h v v mu um
.

ter s u
ic in o l e wy st b e e
q al t o t h e n b er o f a s

in wh h h h fi
ic r t in gs c a n b e s e le c t e d o u t o f n t a t is , t h e c o e f c ie n t
of v "
v u
is C , an d b y gi in g t o r t h e a l e s 0, l , 2 , 3 , n in

u m
r

s c c e s s io n w e o b t ain t h e c o e fiic ie n t s o f a ll t h e t e r s H en c e .

" " " "

( ) 0 1x
2
x a x a a ,

s in c e 00 an d 0
"
a re e a c h qu e al to u iyn t .
142 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E XA M PL E S . XI I I .

E x p an d t h e fo llo wi g b i mi l
n n o a s :

1 .
( x 2 .
( 3 x 2y ) 4
.

5
+ x)
2
) ( 37
z 6
4 .
(1 3a . 5 . .

2
a
3

12 . 1

W rite dw o n an mplify
d si

13 . Th e 4 ih
t m f(
er 5)o x 14 . Th e l o th
t er m f(1 o

15 . Th e 1 2 th
t m f (2
er o x 16 . Th e 2 8 th
te r m f (5 o x + 8y ) 30

17 . Th e 4 11
t mf
er o

18 . Th e 5 t e r ih
mf o a

19 . Th e 7 th
ter mf o

mf
i

th
20 . Th e 5 t er o

Fi n d th e v lua e o f
21 .
w ar 22 .
( / xx
z —
a
2
+ x ) 5
w as

23 . 24 .
( 2 —
v 1 —x 6
)
25 . Fi n d th e midd l e t er mf o

26 . Fi n d th middl e e t er mf o

27 . F in d th e c o ef
fi c ien t o fx 18
in

28 . F in d th e c o e ffi c ie n t o fx 18
in ( ax
4
bx ) 9
,

29 . F in d th e c o effi c ien ts o fx 32
an d x
‘
17
in

Fi n d th e two mid dl e ter m s o f

 1 44 HI G H ER AL G E BR A .

L et th e r
m d an
(
r+ 1 ) bth
e an
y t w o c o n s e c ti u v e ter m s
t mi mu mb y
.

Th e ( r + er s o b t a in e d b
y lt iply in g t h e rt h t er
+ 1
n

I 2 h ; t at I s, by
[ A rt

1
Th e f a c to r
n

: 1 de c re a s e s as r in c re a s es ; h en c e th e

( r + ter mi s n o t a l wya s
gre a t e r t h an th e r
mt m b er ,
u t on ly
u n t il b ec o m es e
q u a l to 1, o r les s t h an 1 .

so lo n g as

t h at is ,

1
n

x
be an In t e ge r, de n o te It by p ; t h en If r
p th e
1
Cb

mu ltiplyi g f n a c to r b ec o ms e 1, an d t h e (p ter mi s e
q u al t o th e
p
th
an dt h es e a re
gre a t e r t h an an
y o th e r t e r m .

+ 1
11 be n o t an In t e ge r, de n o te I ts In t e gra l p a rt b y g
x

th e n t h e gre a t e s t al e o f r v u c o n s is t e n t wit h ( )
1 is Q h en c e th e
(g ter m
is t h e gre a t e s t .

Sin c e we a re o n l y c o n c e rn e d wit h th e n u mi er c a lly grea tes t

ter m t h e in e s t igat io nv w ill

b e t h e s a e fo r ( x t h e re o re m f
um m
,

in a n y n e ric a l e x a
p le it is n n ec e s s a r t u
o c o n s ide r t h e S ign y
o f th e s ec o n d ter m
o f t h e b in o ia l m
A ls o it ill b e o n d b e s t w fu
m f mu
.

to w
o rk e a c ex a p h
le in de e n de n t l
p o f t h e ge n e ra l o r l a y .
 B IN OM I A L TH E O R E M . POS I TI VE I N TE GR AL I ND EX . 145

m
E x a p le 1 . If 9: fi n d th e gre ates t te r mi n th e exp an s io n o f (1

D en o te th e r
‘“
an d (r + 1)
mt mb y er s T, an d T, “ v
re s pe c ti el
y h
; t en

8 +l
TT+ 1
1 4 a3 x 1
1
.
7

9 -
r
0
Q

h en c e Tr+ 1 > Tr i

so lo n g as

18
Th e greates t al
h
th e s ix t , an d its
v uv u e o
al e
f r c o n s is ten t wh h it t is is 5; h en c e th e greate s t ter m

E x a p le 2m . Fin d th e greates t ter mi n th e e x p an s io n o f (3 2x ) 9 wh en

= 39
(3 2x ) 9

t hu w s it ill b e s u ffi c ien t to co n s i er d th e exp an s io n o f

( i)1
f
9

x nu m eri ca lly ,

10 r 2
X X Tr ;
7
‘
g
h en c e

so lo n g as

t h at is , 20>

v u
H en ce fo r all al es o f r u p t o 3 , we a e T”.r hv b u t if r = 4 , t h
m m
en
h
Tr“ : Tr , an d t e s e are th e greate s t ter s T s t e hu an d te r s are
n um u
eric ally e q al an d gre ate r t an an y o t er te r , an d t h h
.

m h v u
e ir al e

(
2
39 x
9
C3 x 36 x 84 x
g
H . H . A .
1 46 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

17 3 . To fin d th e su mf o th e co e fiici en ts in th e exp a n s io n

f
o
( 1

I n t h e iden t it y 1 0lx 03 x 3
0 x
"
,

p t u x z 1; t hu s

su m f th o fi c ie n
e c o ef ts .

C OR —1
.
;
t h at is “
t h e t o t al n umb er o f co mb i n a t io n s o f n h
t in gs is 2
"
1 .

[A rt .

To p ro ve th a t in th e exp an s io n of ( 1
17 4 th e su mf o

m mf th
.

fi
th e c o e ci en ts o
f th e o dd ter s i s equ a l to th e s u o e co e
flici en ts

of th e even ter s m .

I n t h e ide n tit y ( 1 x
)
"
z1 02 x
2
03 2 3
3

p t u x 1; t hu s

— 05 +
1 + 02 + C4 +

1
2 ( su mf o a ll th e co e ffi i
c en ts )
2

17 5 Th e Bin o ial T m h e o re mmy a a ls o be a

pp lied to ex
p an d
m m
.

e x re s s io n s
p ic h wh
c o n t a in o re t h an t wo t e r s .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e exp a n s io n o
2
f ( x + 2x
R egar in g 2x d 1 a s a s in gle ter mth , e e xp an s io n
2 3 2 2
( )x 3 ( x ) ( 2x 1) 3 x 2 ( 2x ( 2x
x
6
6 x5 9x 4
4x 3
9x 2
6x 1, o n re du c tio n .

17 6 . Th e f ll w i
o o n
g ex a mpl e is in s t r u ct i v e .

E x a p le m . If (1 x )
”
00 c 2x
2
c ,, x
”
,

fi n d th e v u al e o f e0 2 01 3 c2 4 c3 (n 1) on

an d cl
?
2022 3 032
n c ,,2

Th e s erie s (1) ( 00 01 Cg on ) ( 1c 2 02 3 c3

n —l ) +
( n 1 ) (n 2)
(
148 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

7 S e t hw h at th e c o e fli c ie n f th e
t i le t er mdd m f (1 + ) 2“
is
m
o

mddl t m
o x

u fi
.

e q al t o t h e su o f th e c o e f c ien t s o f t h e t wo i e er s of

(1
8 If A b e th e s u o f th e m dd t er m d B
th e s u m f th
m
o s an o e
v v h
.

ter s in t h e e xp an s io n o f t at A 2 — B 2 2
e en p o
r e =
( x

Th e
9 3 ta
4 ih
t er mi s n th e ex pan s io n o f x ( y)
" ar
e 2 40, 7 2 0,
v ly ,
.

108 0 res p e c ti e ; fin d x, y ,
n .

10 . Fi n d th e e x p an s io n o f ( l + 2x x
2 4
)
11 . Fi n d th e expan s io n o f( 3x — 2d x +2
3a 2 3
) ,

12 . Fi n d th e r
t“
mf mth d i
t er ro e en n (x
m m
2n + 1
13 . Fin d th e (p + 2 ) t f t h th
er ro e en d in 1

14 I n th e s io n o f ( 1 + x ) th e 43
fi
c o ef c ien ts o f th e
( 2 I )
“
d
m
ex an +
p r an
u
.

th
th e ( r + 2 ) t er s are e q al ; fi n d r .

15 F d
in th e relatio n b e twe en r an d n in o r er t at t h e d h fi
c o ef c ien t s
m m u
.

“ th “
o f t h e Sr an d ( r + 2) t er s o f ( 1 + x ) ay b e e
q al .

16 . S h w th
e at th e middl e t er mi n th e ex
p an s io n o f(1 is
— 1
1 3 . 5 ( 2 n )
i
f

I f co , cl , 02 , on d e n o te th e c o effi c ien ts in t h e ex
p an s io n o f (1
pro v h e t at

17 . c1 2 02 3 03

18 .

3
fi 1 9
2 23 +
C
o
01 02

2
2 0 2 30 4
2 0 2 n + l
cn 1
21 2 00 —l
.
+
2 3 4 n +l

2 2
22 . 00 01 02
2

23 . 01 07 .
1 02 07 .
2
 C H A PTE R XI V

B I N OMI A L TH E O R E M . ANY I ND EX .

177 IN th e h
la s t c ap t e r w e in e s t iga t e d t h e B in o v mi l a

mwh
.

T h e o re e n t h e in de x w a s a n
y p o s iti e in t e e r ; w e s a ll
g v h n o w
co n side r f mu h
wh h et e r th e h o r lae t e re o b t a in e d o ld in t h e c a se

O f n e a ti
g vev u fa n d ra c t io n a l a l e s o f t h e in de x .

Si b y A t 167
n c e, v y b i mi l my b r e er n o a a e re d u c ed to o n e

mm typ it w ill b u ffi i t t
.
,

co on e, fi e s c en o co n n e our a t t en t io n to
bi m i l
no f t h f m( 1
a s o e or

By t u l v lu t i
ac w h v a e o on ,
e a e

1
.

an d by a ct u al v
di is io n ,

—x
)
2
(
"

[C mp E 1 A t
o a re x .
,
r .

an d in ea c h o ft h e se s e rie s th u mb e n er o f t mi u lim
er it d s s n e .

In t h e s e c a s es we hv
a e b y in de pe n de n t p ro c e s s e s o b ta in e d an

ex
p an s io nf o r eac o f t h e h
e x p re s s io n s
( 1 x
) an d 1
( x
) W e
? "
2

h
s all
p y v h hy
re s e n t l
p ro e t y
at t e a re o n l p a rt ic la r c a s e s o f t h e u
ge n e ra l f mu
or la fo r t h e e x a n s io n
p of
( 1 h e re n is an y w
ra t io n a l
q u yan t it .

Th is f m u l w di v d b y N w
or a as sco e re e to n .

17 8 S u pp
. w h v tw p i o se e a e o ex re s s o n s a rra n ed
g in asc e n din g
p o w f uh
e rs o x, s c as

l + m m( m
x +
1) m( m 1) ( m 2)
x +

n ( n — l) n
( n — l) ( n — 2)
an d 1 n L
‘
 1 50 HI GH E R G
A L E BR A .

u
Th e p ro d c t o f t e s e t wo e x pre s sio n s will b e h a s e rie s in as

c e n din g p o w
e rs o f x ; de n o t e it b
y

t h en it is A , B , 0, c le a r a re t hn c t io n s o f
at an d n , fu m
h f
a n d t e re o re t h e a c t al va l e o f A , B , 0 , u
in a n y p a rtic la rus u
c ase w
ill de p e n d p o n t h e al es o f u
an d n in t a t c as e Bu t v u m h .

t h e way in wh h f
ic t h e c o e fi c ien t s o f t h e p o e rs o f x in ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) w
co m
b in e t o gi e A , B , 0, v
is q it e in dep e n den t o f an d n u m
h
in o t e r wo rds , wh a tever va lu es In a n d 11 a y h a ve, A , B , O, m
p reserve th e s a e in va ria b le fo r m I f t h e re o re we c a n de t e r in e m f m
f m u m
.

th e o r o f A , B , 0, fo r a n y val e o f an d n , we c o n c l de u
h
t at A , B , 0 , will h a e th e s a e o r fo r a ll va lu es o f v mf m m
an d n .

Th e p rin c iple h e re e x plain e d is o t e n re e rre d t o a s a n e x a ple f f m

of
“
uv f m m
t h e p e r an en c e o f e q i ale n t o r s ; in t h e p res e n t c as e we
hv y f h
a e o n l t o re c o gn ise t h e a c t t a t i n an
y a lg e b r a i c a l p ro du c t t h e

fo rm o f t hu w
e re s lt ilmw h
l b e t h e s a e h e t e r t h e
q an t it ie s in u
v v h um
o l e d a re w o le n f v
b e rs , o r ra c tio n s p o s iti e , o r n e a ti e
g v .

W h ll mk f t h is p i ipl i th
e s a a e u se o r n c e n e g e n e ral
p ro o f o f
th Bi m
e i l Th mf n o
y i d Th a e o re or an n ex . e
p ro o f wh ic h we
gi v i d t
e E u ls ue o er .

17 9 To p ro ve th e B in
. o mi l a Th eo re mwh en the i n dex is a

o s i ti vefrac tio n
p .

Wh a tever
b e th e mp iti va lu e o f os ve o r n ega tive, in tegra l or

mb l f (m) t d f th
,

n a l, le t t h e s y e s e rie s
fra c tio o s an or

l + m m( m 1 )
x + +
m ( m— 1 ) ( m— 2 ) 90

t h en f( n
) w ill s tan d fo r t h e s e rie s

— I — l
1 + nx +
n ( n
) n
( n )( n -
2)
1 2 1 2 3

mu ltiply t h tw
I f we i s t g th t h p du t wi ll b
e se o s er e o e er e ro c e

an oth s i i er di g p w er es f nwh as c en
efi i t w ill
n b o e rs o x, o se co c en s e

u nalt d i f mwh t
ere m d my b
n or a ever an 11 a e.

T d t m i o t hi i i b l f mf th p d t w my giv
e er n e s n va r a e or o e ro uc e a e

t m d
o y an lu s t h t n m t
an v vai t ; f t h
e i u
p p a a re os co n en en or s r o se

su pp t h t m d o se p i
at i v i t g an I t h i n
f( )
a re m os e n e e rs n s c ase

m m
.

i th
s
p d d f
e ex f ( 1 an d f e( ) i t h
or
p d d
o f f an n s e ex an e or o

( 1 x )
”
an dt h f
e re o re
1 52 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

180 To p ro ve th e B in
.
o mi l Th a eo re mwh en i n dex is an
y
n ega ti ve qu a n ti ty .

I t h a s b e e n p ro v ed t h at

m
f( ) f( ) f( m ) x n n

fo r a ll v lu s a e o f m d R pl i g mb y
an n . e ac n n
( wh e re n is
p o s it i v e
) ,
we h a v e

—n +
f( -
n
) f( )
x n :
f( n
)
=
f ( 0)
1,

s in c e a ll ter m s o f th e s e rie s e x c e p t th e fi tv
rs an is h
1
=
f( _ n
)
f (n )
but f( ) n an yp o sitive v lua e

1
" f( _ n
) ,

( 1 + x )
( 1 =
f( ”
l
s e rie s
Bu t f n
) s t an ds fo r t h e

— 1
—n ( “
n )x 2
) x +

wh i h c
p ro v es t h e B in o mi l Th
a e o re mf or an
y n e ga t i v e in de x
mi mpl t ly
.

H en c e the t h eo re s co e e e s t ab lis h ed .

181 f
Th e p ro o c o n t a in e d in t h e t w o p re c e din g a rtic le s a
y m
m
.

n ot a
pp e ar o ll s wh y
a t is a c t o r , a n d will
y p ro b a b l
pfre se n t s o e dif y
fi c u lt ies t o t h e s t de n t u T e re is o n l o n e p o in t t o . ic weh y wh h
h
S a ll n o w re e r f .

I n t h e e x p re ss io n fo r ( ) t h e n b er o f t e r f m um mi fi s s n ite wh en

m v
is a p o s it i e in t e ge r, a n d n li it e d in a ll o t u m h er c a se s . See
A rt 1 8 2
. h f
I t is t e re o re n e c e s s a r t o e n q ire in
. y u wh a t s e n s e we
 B IN O M I A L TH E OR E M . ANY I ND EX . 1 53

a re to re a rd
g h t f (m) f ( ) f ( m ) I w ill
th e s ta te m en t t a x n n t
i Ch p t h t wh h f t h i f (m)
.

b e s een n 1
a t e r XXL , a en x < eac o e s er es

m m m
,

u h
,

f ) (
( n
f ) i g d f(
n
) i t h
s c o n ver en i i l t, an n s e tr e ar t et ca

m
,

e
q u iv l t f f ( ) f( )
a en B ot wh 1 ll t h x in u en x > a es e se r es a re

y h m
,

di ver en
g d w t, l an t t i f w e u l i
c an
p ly t h
on i a s se r t a e t e ser es

d en ot d b y f (m
e
) y
b t h i s d t d b y f( ) t h fi t t
e se r e m en o e n e rs r er s

fi t t m ff
,

o f t h p du t will g
e ro wit h t h c a re e e rs r er s o
wh t v a e fi i v lu my h v [S A 308 ]
er n te a e r a a e . ee rt .

E xa m
pl e 1 . E x p an d( 1 x )
?
to fo u r ter m s .

t )(
3 3 3 3

)
3
-
1 —2

(1 "
x )
3 2
e a 79
.

” 2+

3 1
1— x + --
x
2
+ x 3
+
2 8 E

E xa m
p l e 2 . E xp a n d to fo u r ter m s .

—4

5)
3

( 1+

2
5) 6) 3

(2 )
3x 3x
1
- -

(
45
1

1 82 In fi n di ng t h e g e n e ra l ter mw mu t e s n o w u se th e
f mu
. .

o r la
—l —r + 1
n ( n
)( n -
2) ( n )
E
w itt
r en in fu ll ; fo r t h e s bol ym O can n o lo nge r b e e mpl y o e d
wh en n is f ra c t io n a l o r n e a t i e
g v .
r

A ls o t h e c o e ffi c ie n t o f t h e ge n e ra l t e r c a n n e e r a n is n le s s m v v hu
o n e o f th e f
a c t o rs o f it s n e ra t o r is z e ro ; t h e s e rie sum ill t e re w h
fo re s t o p a t t h e r
‘h
t er , en m wh
n — r + 1 is z e ro ; t a t is , en h wh
r= n 1 b u t s in c e r is a p o s it i e in t e ge r t is e q a lit c a n n e e r v h u y v
h o ld e x c e p t wh
e n t h e in de x n is
p o s it i e a n d in t e gra l T s th e v hu
m m m wh
.

e x p a n s io n b y t h e B in o ia l T e o re e x t e n ds t o n 1 ter s en h
n is a
p v
o s it i e in t e e r, a n d t o
g an in n it e n b e r o f te r s in a ll fi um m
o t h e r c as es .
1 54 HI GHER AL GE BR A .

E x a p le 1m . Fin d th e ge n eral ter mi n th e ex p an s io n o f ( 1 + x)

1 1 1 1

Th e (r + ter m

Th e umb f fac to rs in th e n um erato r is d 1 h

f t e s e are n ega
m
n er o r, an r o
v h
ti e ; t ere fo re , k
b y ta in g 1 out o f eac h of t h ese n egati ve fac to rs , we ay
write th e ab o v e ex p res s io n

—3
5 ( 2 r )

mi my
1

E xa m
pl e 2 . Fin d th e gen eral ter n th e e x p an s io n o f (1 ;

— r
+ 1
Th e ( r 1) ‘h
ter m 7t x
)
"

'
— 2n r—
-
n ) ( 1 ) (1 -
l . n )
If
.

r— —1
1M ( n -
l ) ( 2n -
1) ( l . n )
[ r

—l r— —l
( n ) (2 n -
1) ( L n )
l
l

—1
)
2r -
1

E x a p le 3m . Fin d th e gen eral te r mi n th e e x p an s io n o f

—5
m
—3
Th e th ) -
r+ 1)
(r + 1 ) ter
r

3 4 5 ( r+ -
2)
1 r

by re mvi o n g li k e fac to rs fro mth e n um erato r an d d en o mi n ato r .

1 56 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

an d, if n o t, n de r u wh at co n ditio n s t h e ex
p an s io n o f (1 a
s
)
"
my a

b e u s e d a s it s t r e u qu iv e a en l t .

u
S p po s e , fo r in s t a n c e, t h at n 1 5t h en we hv
a e

( — x
)
1
1 1
‘

in t is h e
q u at o n i p t u a: 2 5 we t h en o b t a in

T is h co n t ra dic t o r y re s u lt suffi i 1s c en t to s hw he t at we c an n o t
ta k e

1 + nx +
n
( n 1)
1 2
as t h e t ru h mti l quiv l f ( 1 ) i
e a rit e ca e a en t o x
“
n a ll c a s e s .

N ow f mth f mu l f t h m f
ro e o r a or e su o a
g eo mt i e r c al
p ro

gre s s io n , w k ew t h t th m f th fi
n o a e su o e rs t x t m er s o f th e
l — x ”

s e rie s l)
l — x

1
3
l — x 1 -
x

an d, wh en a; is n u m i lly l
er ca ess t h an 1 , b y t a in g k 9
°
s u ffi i c en tl y
mk m
r

t h t i b y t ki g
x
la rge we c an a e ll w pl as s a as e e as e a s, a n
1 x

a s u ffi c ie n t n u mb er o f t m ther m b md t diff s e su c an e a e o er as

litt le as we p le a s e f ml —
ro
1
B t wh i u m i lly a
c
u en a: s n er ca

g re a t e r t h an 1 , th e v lu
a e o f
l —x
a:
in c re a e s s wit h r, an dt h f e re o re

n o u h pp
s c a ro x i mti a on to th e v lu a e o f is o b t a in e d b y ta kin g

an
y u mbn er o ft m er s o f th e s e rie s

1 x x
2
m a

It w ill
b e s e e n in t h e c ap t e r o n C o n e rge n c an d D i er h v y v
g e n c y o f Se rie t p s h
a t t h e e x an s io n b y t h e B in o ia l T e o re m h m
o f
( 1 + x
) in a s c e n din
g p o e rs o f a: is a l a a rit e t ic a ll inw w ys hm y
t e lligib le wh
e n x is le s s t a n 1 h .

B u t if x is gre a t e r th an 1, t h en s in c e t h e ge n e ra l t er mf o

th e s
e rie s

0 0 0 0 0 0
 B I N OM IA L TH E O R E M . AN Y I ND EX . 1 57

co n t a in s xi t c an
’
b e a de
g re a t e r t a n an m
n ite
q a n t it by h y fi u y
m
,

uf
t a kin g r s fi c ie n t ly la rge in ic c a s e t e re is n o li it t o t h e wh h h
v u v
a l e O f t h e ab o e s e ries ; a d t e re o re t h e e x a n s io n o f l
n
p ( x
)
"
h f
fi
a s an in n i te s e rie s in a s c e n din g p o e rs O f a: h a s n o e a n in w m
hm y
a rit e tic a ll in t e lligib le e n x is great e r t a n 1 wh g
h .

1 84 m m h
W e ay re a rk t a t we c an a lw y a s ex
p an d
m h m my w
.

b y t h e B in o ia l T e o re ; fo r w e a rit e th e ex re ss io n in
h
e it e r O f t h e t wo o llo in g o r s f w f m p

y l +

an d we Ob t a in t h e e x pa n s io n ro th e f m fi rs t o r seco n d Of t h es e
a c c o rdin
g a s a: is
gre a t e r o r le s s t a n
y h .

1 85 To fi n d in
. its si m
pl es t fo rmth e gen era l ter mi n the
—x
ex a n s io n f( 1 )
‘
11
o
p

Th e ( r l) th
te r m
—n —l —n —r + l
n
) ( )( — n
)
[
Z

—l
n
(
n + ( n + r ) -

{B
r

1
1

+ r—
n
( n + 1) ( n + 2) ( n 1)
x

If .

n
( n + -
1) ( n + 2) ( n + r 1)

I r

F o mt h i
r s it a
pp e ar s th at e v y er ter mi n th e ex
p an s io n o f
( 1 is po s v
iti e .

A lt h ugh th g
o e e n e ra l t er
y b i m
n o ialin th e e x p a n s io n O f an m
m a
y al wy b fu
a s e o n d a s e x la in e d in A rt
p 1 8 2 it il l b e o n d w fu
m v f m
,
.

o re e x e dit io s in
p p ra c tuic e t o u s e t h e a b o e o r o f t h e
g e n e ra l

t m
er in a ll c a s e s wh
e re t h e in de x is n e ga t i e , re t ain in g t h e v
f m
or
— 2
n
( n l) ( n
) ( n — r + l)
x

1
1

on ly in t h e c ase o f p o sit i v e in dic e s .

1 58 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E x a p lem . Fin d th e gen eral ter mi n th e ex p an sio n Of

Th e ( r n
th
ter m
0 0 0 0 0 0

I f th e gi v en ex p re s s io n h ad b een (1 :
3 x ) 7 we
9
s h udh v u d
o l a e se th e m
sa e

fo r mul a fo r th e gen eral ter m ,

replac in g 3x b y 3x .

186 . Th e f ll wi
o o n
g ex
p a n s io n s s h o uld b e mmb re e e re d

( 1
—w
( l )
( l

1 87 v
Th e ge n e ral in es t igat io n Of t h e gre at e s t t e r
. in t h e m
e x an s io n
p of
( 1 en n i wh
s u n re s t ric t e d in a l e , will b e v u
fu
o n d in A rt 1 8 9 ; b u t t h e s t de n t will a e n o diffi c lt in u hv u y
um m m
.

a
pp l in
g y t o an
y n e ric a l e x a
p le t h e e t h o d e x lain e d in
p
A rt 1 7 2
. .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e greate s t ter mi n th e exp an s io n o f (1 + x)
-
n
wh en

g , an d

We hv a e
n +T
r
1
x x nu mi
er ca lly ,

19 +r 2
x x
r 5
Tr+ 1 > Tr ,
2 ( 1 9 + r)
so lo n g as
3r

th at is , 38 > r .

H v u
fo r all al es Of r u p t o 3 7 , we a e b u t if r = 3 8 , t en hv hm
m
en c e
h h
an d t e s e a e t e gre ate s t t er s T s th e 38
th
an d 3 9
th
te r s hu
u um m
r

h h
.

are e q al n erically an d greate r t an an y o t e r ter .

160 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

m
E x a p le 3 . Fin d th e v ual e o f to fo u r p laces o f d ec i ml a s.

1 1

To o b tain th e v ual es o f th e v
se eral ter mw s e pro cee d as fo llo ws

7 1 4 2 3 57

an d we c an s ee t h at th e ter m 1s a dec i ml f a rac tio n h

b egin n in g wit
5 c ip h ers .

1 4 28 57 '
OO2 9 1 5 0 00088

1 4 58 6 ,
an h
d t is re s u lt is c o rrec t t o at leas t fo u r l
p ac e s Of d m ec i als .

m
E xa p le 4 . Fin d th e c ub e ro o t o f 1 2 6 t o 5 p lace s d m o f eci als .

( a
l 2 i z
( 53
Di

°
04 ‘
0003 2 0 0001 2 8

51 ‘
00003 5

—
50 1 3 2 9 , t o fi ve p lac es o f d eci ml a s .
 B I N OM I A L TH E O R E M . A N Y IN D EX .
161

E XA MPL E S . XI V b . .

Fin d th e (r+ l )
“l
ter mi n e ac h o f th e fo llo wi n
g e xp a n s io n s
- l 1
1
3 .

4 ( 1 m ) ?

1 1
Ji
°

+ aw — 3x
) — n a'

Fi n d t h e great es t t e r mi n eac h Of t h e fo llo wi g

n e x p a n s io n s

13 . wh en x

21

14 .
( + )
1 x 2 wh en a:

15 .
(1 7 x ) 4
wh en x —
8

16 .
( + g)
2 77 5 12
wh en x = 8 an d y = 3 .

17 .
( 5— 4 x )
‘

7 wh en x
g .

18 . wh en x = 9, g = 2, n z
15 .

Fin d to fi ve p lac e s d iml v lu

m
Of ec a s th e a e o f

19 . « is . 20 . 35
5 .
21 .
22 , $ 2 4 00 ,

1 3
24 15 1— 3
25 6 30l
s . .
.
4
, 26 .
J ews
5 .

I f x b e s o s all t m h at its sq u a re an d h igh er p o w my b e rs e n e le c te d

fi n d th e al e Of v u a
g ,

1
- 3
27 .
(1 + 23 ) 4
28 .

( + 3x )
8 3

( 2 3x )

H . H . A .
 1 62 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

y 8 + 3 x — f/1T x
1
3

( + ) +
1 5x
5

33 . Pro v h e t at th e fi
c o e f c ie n t Of x
" in th e e x pan s io n Of ( 1 — 4x )
2

I2
”
Oz )
—x
l ( + 1) 1
m
n n
34 Pro ve th at (1 M )
n = 2 n
1 ” +
1 1+
.

1 :

35 .
Fi n d th fi e rs t t h ree t er mis n th e e x p an s io n Of

36 . Fin d th fi e rs t t h re e t er mi s n th e e xp an s io n o f
3

< >
1 x
2

37 . S eh w th at th e n
th
co e ffi i c en t in th e e xp an s io n o f (1
do u b le o f th e (n

189 . To fin d th e n u mi er ca lly greates t ter mi n th e

of ( 1 f o r an y ra tio n a l va lu e o fn .

Sin c e we a re On ly c o n c e rn e d w ith th m i e n u er c a l val u e Of th e

gre a t e s t t er mw h ,
e s a ll c o n s i de r 93 t h u gh u t
ro
p o as o s iti e v .

C A SE 1 . L et n be a
p o sitiv e in t ege r .

Th e ( r+ 1) th
ter mi s Ob t ain e d b y multiplyi n
g t h e
t In
r m
t er
1 1
by
n
. x ; t h at I s, by 1 x ; an d t h f e re o re th e

te r m s co n tin ue t o in c re a s e so lo n g a s

—1 cc > 15

t h a t is , 1 x,
164 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

( )
I f x b e gre ate r t an
1 h u n it y w my e a s h e w, a s in C a s e
h h
t a t t e re is n o gre at e s t t e r m .

( )
2 I f x b e le s t an s h u n it y ,
th e mu ltiplyi n
g f a c to r will b e
g re a t e r h
t a n 1 , s o lo n g a s

t h at is , 1 x,

If
( m 1) x
be o s it ive in t ege r, de n o t e it b y p ; t h th e
a
p en
1 a
c

(p m i qu t er s e al to th e p t“
te r m an d t h e s e a re gre a te r t h an

m
,

an
y t h t
o er er .

m
(
3
1 _
If b
1 9
90
e p o s it i v e b ut n o t an in t e ge r, le t 9 b e it s in t e

g ra l p a rt t h en th e (g 1) th
ter mi s t h e gre at es t .

If ( m v h m
1 251:
i l th
be u it y ; d b y
n e at i e, t en s e ss an n
g an
l
m
9

w iti g t h
r n multiplyi g f t i th f m
e
1
; n w ac o r n e or a
s, e

s eet h t it i lw y l
a th s 1 h a h t mi l t h
a s es s an : e n ce eac er s e ss an

th p e di g d
re c e qu t
n ly h,
fi t
ant m i t h g t t
c o n se en t e rs er s e re a es .

190 To fi n d th e n u mb f h
er o o o gen eo u s p r o dmu c ts
f r di m
m
. ( en

s io n s th a t c an b e fo r ed o u t of th e 11 le tters a , b , c , a n d th eir

po wers .

B y di is io n ,v or b y t h e B in o mi l Th a eo re mw ,
e ha v e

1
l— dx

2 2 3 3
1 + 690 6 90 6 33

9
1 + cx + 0 x
2
+ 0 x
3 3
4»
 N M BI O IA L T H E O R E M . AN Y I ND EX . 165

H en c e , by mu ltipli c a t io n ,

l 1 1
0

l -
( lx 1
.
— bx 1

e
+ bc + c +

1 S ix
0
Sex 0
2
S ax s
3
s u pp o se

wh e re S ” S , S3 , a re t h e su m s o f th e h mg
o o en e o us p ro

du t c s
“

O f o n e, two , th ree, di m e n s io n s t h at can be f m

o r ed Of

a, b, c, a n d t e ir
p o e rs h w .

m
To O b ta in t h e n u b er o f t e s e p ro d c t s , p u t a , b , c , eac h u h
e u
q al t o l e ac t er i h
n S , S , S ,” m n o w b ec o e s 1, a n d th e m
v u v m
] 2

al es Of S , S S s o O b t in e d i e t h e b r O f t h e
a
g n u e

hm m
, , ,

o o e n eo s
g p
2

ro d c t u
3

u
O f o n e, two , th ree, s d i e n s io n s .

1 1 l
' '
1 — ax 1 — bx l— cx

b eco m 1
( 1 )
"

<
es o r x
1 w)

ffi i f ( l — x)
"
i
'

H en ce S r
co e c en t Of x in t h e ex
p an s o n o

— 1)

19 1 To fi n d th e n u b er of ter s i n th e m m exp a n s i o n of an y
m m
.

u lti n o ia l wh en th e in dex is a p o s iti ve i n teger .

I n the e x p a n s io n O f

( a
l
a
3
ar )
v y t mi f dim i t h f t h u mb en s o n s e re o re e n e r Of te r m s 13

m
e er er s O n

th m h u mb f h mg u p du t f
e sa e as t e n er O o o en e o s ro c s O n dn n en s n s

th t b f md t f h qu ti i s
a c an e or e o u O t e r an t e a
”
a
2 ,
a, an dt h ei r

p w o d h f b y
e rs t h p d g
anl q u t e re o re e re c e in a rt i c e I S e a l to
1 66 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

192 ro F mt h e re s u lt Of A rt 1 90 we a
y ded m u ce a t h e o re m
u mb m
. .

re la t in g t o t h e n e r Of c o b in at io n s o f n t in g h s .

C o n side r d, n t en if we
le tt e rs e re t o
a, b,
rit e c, h w w
w m
do n a ll t h e h o o ge n eo s p ro d c t s Of r di e n s io n s wh ic h c an b eu u m
f m h
o r e d o f t e s e let t e rs a n d t e ir p o e rs , e e r s ch
p ro d c t h w v y u u
wu o ld re p re s e n t o n e Of t h e c o b in atio n s, r a t a t i e , Of t h e n m m
h
le t t e rs , w e n a n y o n e o f t h e let te rs ig t o c c r On c e , t ic e , mh u w
t h ric e , u
p t o r ti e ms .

Th e re f o re th e n u mb e r Of c o mb i i f n t in gs r a t a t i e
n at o n s O h m
w h en re e t it io n
p s a re a llo w e d is e
q u
al t o t h e n b e r o f ho o um m
ge n eo u s ,

p ro d u cts Of r di m e n s io n s wh h
ic c an b e o r e d o u t o f n f m
n + r —1
le tt e rs , dt h f e re o re e u l to I
“

an
q a

T h is , t h e n
at um
b e r O f c o b in a t io n s O f n t in gs r a t a t i e m h m
wh en re e t it io n
p a re a llo e d is e
q s
al t o t h e n b e r O f cwo u um m
b in a t io n s O f n + r — 1 t in gs r a t a t i e en h
re e tit io n s a re
p m wh
u
e x c l de d .

193 We s h a ll c o n cl ud th i h
e s c a
p t e r wi ht a fe w mi sco l
mpl
.

la n e o u s exa es .

m d ( 1 2x) ~

E 1 Fin th e c o effi c ien

"
t O f x in th e e xp an s io n
xa pl e . o f
(1 1
3
$

Th e exp re s sio n ( 1 4x 4 x2) ( 1 + p 1 x 19250 s u ppo s e .

T e c o effi c ien t o f x
h " ill b e o b tain e b y w d mu ltip ly in g Pr , p , _ 1 , by 1,
v
4 , 4 respecti ely , an d a in g th e re s lts ; dd u h en c e

th e req u d
ire c o effi cien t =p , . 4p , _2 .

2 [E x . 3 , A rt .

H en c e th e re q u d ire co ef
fi cien t

—1

—1
>
r

2
168 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

Fin d th e fi c ie n
c o ef t o fx ”
in t h e e x p an s io n Of

Pro v e t h at
1 l 1 . 3 1 1 . 1
+ 3
2 . 4 . 6 2

Pro ve th at
3

7 . Pro v h e t at

n + 4)
1+_
2n 2n ( 2 n + 2 ) 2n (2n + 2) ( 2
J
r
3 3 . 6 3 . 6 . 9

n
0 0 0 0 0 0

3 3 .

— l —
+
n
+
n ( n ) n ( n l) (n
7

9 . Pro v h e t at a
pp ro x i mt a el ,
y wh en x is v e ry s mll a ,

10 S e hw ht at th e in t egral p art o f is Odd, if n be a

v
.

p o s iti e in tege r .

11 S e hw h t at t h e in t egral p art Of is O dd, if n be a

v
.

o s iti e in te ge r
p .

12 . Fi n d th e c o ef fi c ie n t O f x
" in th e e xp an s io n O f

( 1 — 2x + 3x 2 — 4x 3 + n
-

13 . S hw h
e t at th e midd l e t er mf O is e q ul a to t h e c o e f fii c en t

o
"
f x in th e e x pan s io n o f (1 4 x) ( M
E)

14 . Pro ve t h at th e e xp an s io n Of
( 1 — x
3
)
”
my b a e p u t in to t h e fo r m
3n ( 3 7 3
x “
2
“
) ( )
2 4
( 1 3n x ( l 1
“

x x 0 0 0 0 0 0

1
 BI N O M I A L TH E OR E M . ANY I ND EX . 169

15 . Pro v h e t at th e fi c ie n
c o ef t Of x
"
in th e ex
p a n s io n

1 , O, 1 ac c o r di g n as n is Of t h e fo r m3 m3 m 1 , ,
o r 3 m+ l .

16 I n t h e e xp an s io n o f fin d ( 1 ) th e umb er Of te r m
m
n s,

m
.

( )
2 t h e su Of t h e c o e f
fi c ie n t s O f th e te r s .

17 . Pro v h e t at if n b e an e v en in tege r,
1 1 1 1
— l — 3
|1 | n
l
o
_
n —
| 5 | n — l | i_
18 If co cl , 02 , o” are th e c o e fi i c ie n ts in th e e x p a n s io n o f
wh ,

v v h
.
n

( 1 en n 1s a p o s it i e in t eger, p ro e t at

"
( )
1 cO — c
, + co -
c
3 + — l)

( 2) 00 4 c3 +

(3) c
0
2 —
ol
2
+ e
z
2
o r g
U o ”,

mg
5
a c c o rd as n 18 o dd o r e v en .

19 . If s ,, d en o te t h e su m f th O e fi rs t n n a t lu al n
'
umb e rs ,
p ro v h e t at

2
( )
1 ( 1 8
1+
s r+ s x
z 3 +
—4
(2 n +

( 2) 2 ( 3 1 3 2n + 3 2 3 2 n — 1 +
2n — 1

20 . I f g,,
1 3
22 1 . . (
0

8
m
p ro v h e t at

1
( 1) 9 2n + 1 + 9 1 9 2 n + 9 29 271 . 1 + + 9 71

( 2) 2 i9 2 n _
9 9
1 2n — 1 + 9 29 2n — 2 +
_ 1 2
— 1) n
9 °

21 Fd th e s u
1n m f th o e p ro du c ts , t wo at a ti m e , O f t h e c o e f c ie n fi ts
wh v
.

in th e e xpan s io n Of ( 1 en n is a p o s it i e in t e ger .

22 If ( 7 + 4 J S) "
p + [3 wh e i e n an dp are p o s it i e v in te ge rs , an d (3
a
p rO e r
p frac tio n ,
s hw he
,

t at ( 1 B) (p
23 If 0 1 c , 0 , o a re th e fi
c o e f c ie n ts in th e e x p an s io n o f
h 0 l 2
v hw h
.
n

( 1 w e re n is a
p o s iti e in te ge r, s e t at

— l n -
1 1 1
n 2 3
 C H A PTE R XV .

MU LTI N OM I A L TH E OR E M .

194 WE a e hv
a lre a d s e en y
in A rt 1 7 5, h o w we
y m
m
a

m mu
. .

a
pp l y
t h e Bin o ia l T e o re t h
o O b t a in t h e e x a n s io n O f a
p lti
n o mial e x p re s io n s I n t h e p re se n t c h a pt e r o u r o b e c t is n o t j
mu m mu m
.

so c h to O b t a in t h e c o ple t e e x p a n s io n Of a ltin o ia l a s
ffi
t o fi n d t h e c o e c ie n t Of an y a ss ign e d t e r m .

m
E x a p le . F d in th e fi c ien t
c o ef o
2 3 5
4
fa b c d in th e ex pan s io n o f
d) “
(a b c

Th e exp an s io n is th e p ro du
c t O f 1 4 fac to rs e ac h u
e q al to a + b + c + d , an d
v
e e ry ter m dm
in th e exp an s io n is o f 1 4 i en sio n s , b ein g a p ro c t fo r e by du md
tak in g o n e l tt r
e e o u to f ea c o f t e sh h
e fac t o r s T s t o fo r thhu
e te r 4 2 3 5
a b c d , m m
k u
.

we ta e a o u t o f an y fo u r o f th e fo rteen fac to rs , b o u t o f an y two o f th e re

m ain in g ten , c o u t O f an y th re e O f th e re m
ain in g e ig t h
B u t th e n b er o f um
w wh h h d u um w
.

ay s in ic t is c an b e o n e is clearly e q al t o th e n b er o f ay s o f ar
wh
ran gin g 1 4 le tters en fo r o f t e u h mmu
s t b e a , two 6, t ree 0 , an d fi ve d ; h
h u
t at is , eq al to

[A rt
i li li
Ii lfi
h h
T is is t erefo re th e n umb
f ti es in
er o m
i c th e ter wh h m 1 2 3 5
a b c d ap
‘

p ears
in th e fi n al p ro du u
c t, an d c o n s e q en tly th e co e f
fi cien t req ire u d is 2 52 2 520 .

195 . To fi n d th e co efi cien t of a n y a ss ign ed ter in th e m ex

p a n s io n Of a
( b c d wh ere
p i s a p o s itive in te er
g .

s
Th e e x p an io n is t h e p ro d c t o f p u
a ct o r ea c eq al t of s h u
a b c d an d e e r v y m
ter in t h e e x p an s io n is o r e d b y f m
t a k in g o n e le t t e r o u t o f e a c h Of t h e s e
p a c t o rs ; a n d t e re o re f h f
h
t e n umb e r Of w a s in y wh h
ic amn
y t e r a fi
a b c d y s
‘
ill a pp ea r w
fi u u
in t h e n al p ro d c t is e q al t o t h e n um b e r O f wa s Of a rran gin g y
p le t t e r s h
w e n a Of t e h mmu mu
st b e a , 8
,
s t b e b , y
s t b e e; mu
an d s o o n .T at is , h
s
th e fi c ie n
c o ef t Of a b c d
fl v
a

wh e re
 172 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

A n d, b y A rt 1 9 5, t h e ge n e ra l t e r
. m f th O e e x p a n s io n Of

3
( b x + cx + dx +

lfi 53
1 ml s x 3 + 2 7 + 35+

wh e re
,
8, y, 8 a re
p o s iti v e in t e ge rs wh o se su mi s
p .

H en ce t h e ge n e ra l ter mi n th e e x p a n s io n o f t h e gi v en ex

p re s s 1 0 n is

—l
n
( n
)( n — 2) ( n —
p + 1)
x 3 + 27 + 35+

lfi lx lfi
i - o

wh e re

197 Sin c e ( a + b m + cx
2
+ dx
3
+ my a be w itt
r en in t h e
f m
.

o r

a
a
1 + —
b x + — 2
x +
C d 3

a a a

it w
ill b e s ffi c ie n t t o u sid
co n er th e c ase in wh i h c th e fi rs t te rm
o f th e mu
lt in o ia l is m u i ty
n .

T hu s t h e gen e ra l ter mf o

( 1

n
( n 1) ( n — 2) ( n —
p + 1)
[330d x B+ 2y + 33 +

wh e re

m
E x a p le . Fin d th e c o effic ie n t o f x 3 in th e e x p an s io n o f
2

)
2 3 3
(1 3x 2x 6x .

Th e gen eral ter mi s

m
2 2
—
p + 1
) c a we) —
3
e + 27 + 33

We hv b tain b y trial all th e p o s iti e in tegral

a e to o v v u al es o
m
f (3, 7
u
s atis fy th e e q atio n 8 1 2 7 1 3 6 2 3 ; an d t en p i s fo h ud fro th e
,

eq u atio n
m
- -
n

u d w
- -

,
19 = 3+
1 7 +6 Th e re q ire c o effi c ien t ill b e th e s u o f th e c o rre sp o n din g
u
.

val es o f th e e xpre s sio n

 M U LTI N O M IA L TH E OR E M . 173

I n fi n in g ,8 , d It ill b e b es t to co w mm b y givi g t 6 u cc es s i ev
dmi ib l I th
en ce n o s
0

v u
In tegral al e s b egi n n i n g W l th th e gre ate s t a ss e n e p re s en t c as e
v u
th e al es are fo n to b e ud .

fi = 0,
=2
p 3

= 3
p .

u
S b s tit tin g t u h v u
es e al es in 1 th
( ) e re q u d ire c o ef
fi c ie n t

(2
4 4 h t

w
i

3 3

198 So mt im
e es it is m o re ex
p e dit io u s to u se t h e B in o mi l a

m
.

T h e o re .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e c o ef
fi c ien t o f x 4 in th e e x p an s io n O f
(1 2x +

u d
Th e re q ire c o e ffi c ien t is fo ud n k
b y p ic in g o u t th e co e ffi c ien t o f x 4 fro m
w m
th e fi rs t fe te r s O f th e ex p an s io n o f ( 1 — 2 x — 3 x 2
)
3
b y th e B in o ial
‘

m
h mh
T e o re ; t m at is , fro

)
2 ? 2 4
6 (2 x 1 0 (2 x ) 1 5 ( 2x )
? 2
1 3 (2 x 3x 3x 3x ;

we s te p at h
t is te r mf o r all th e o t h er ter mi
s n v v o l e po w ers Of x h h ig er
t i
l an x
4
.

Th e req u d ire fi c ien

c o ef t= 6 9 10 3 3) 15

66 .

E XA M PLE S . XV .

Fi n d th e fi
c o e f c ie n t o f

lo
1 . a b c d
2 3 4 in t h e e x p an s io n Of ( a b o + d)

f —c 3
2 . a
2 5
b d in th e e x p an s io n o (a + b d) .

3 .
3 3
a b c in t h e e x p an s io n Of

4 . x
2 3z 4
y in th e e x pan s io n Of ( ax by + cz )
9 3
5 . x
3 in th e e x p an s io n o f ( 1 + 3x 2x ) .

6 . x
4 in th e e x pan s io n Of (1
e x p an s io n O f (
6
7 . x in th e 1
2
)
3 4
8 . x
8 in t h e e x p an s io n Of ( 1 2x + 3x 4x .
 1 74 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

Fi n d th e co e f
fi c ien t o f
2 4
9 . x
23
in th e e xpan s io n o f (1 2x + 3x x x
.

10 . x5 in th e e x p an s io n Of (1
l

in th e e x p an s io n f (1 2 4 x3 ?
11 . x
3 o 2x + 3x )
2 —2

; 5
5
12 . a3 in th e e xp an s io n o f 4 7 +

2
e x p an s io n
2
13 4
in th e Of ( 2 4 x + 3x )
-

. x
3
T
14 . x
6
in th e e x pan s io n o f ( 1 + 4x + 2
1 0x4 + 20x
0
)
1

exp an s io n Of
fi
(3
3 1
15 12
in th e 1 5x + 1 8 x )
-

. x

16 . E xpan d( 1 2x 2x ?
) 1 as far as x
2

17 . E xpan d( 1+ 3 222
6x 3
) ? as far as x5
.

18 . E x pan d( 8 9x 3
1 4 §
+ 8x ) as far as x 3
.

19 . If a x
np
,

pro ve t ht a

(l) a0 + a 1 + a2 +

1
(2) a1 + 2 a 2 + 3 a3 + + np a
m,

20 If ao , a 1 , a 2 , a 3 are th e co e ffic ie n ts in d
o r e r Of th e ex an s io n
p
v h
.

Of ( 1 p r o e t at

2 —l z 1
2 2 2_
a + a2 a
3 + a ti —1 an
1
Q
21 . I f th e e x p an s io n Of (1 + x + x )
2 n

be + a 2n x
2r
,

s hwh
e t at

a
0 + a +a
3 6
17 6 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

2 01 W h en it is n de rs to o d t at a pa rtic lar s s te Of u h u y m
ms m
.

lo ga rit h is in u s e , t h e s f x de n o t in g t h e b a s e is o it te d ufi
hus hm u h
.

T in a rit e tic a l c a lc la t io n s in w ic h 1 0 is t h e b a se , w e
u su y
a ll writ e lo g 2 , lo g 3, in st e a d Of lo gw2 , lo g 3, m
u mb migh t b t k
An y n th b f l g it h m
er d e a en as e as e O o ar s, a n

d
c o rre s
p i g t y
on u h b y m f ln
g it h ms f llo an s c ase a s ste O o ar O a

nu mb u ld b f u d B t b f di u i g t h l g ithmi
e rs c o e o n u e o re sc ss n e o ar c

y t ms mm ly u d w h ll p v m g l p p i i
.

s s e co on se e s a ro e so e e n e ra ro os t o n s

wh i h t u f ll l g it h m i d p d tly f y p ti ul
,

c a re r e or a o ar s n e en en O an ar c ar

b as e .

2 02 . The lo ga rith mf 1 i o s 0 .

Fo r a
°
l fo r a ll v lu a es Of a t h f e re o re 0, wh at e v er

th e b ase m a
y b e .

2 03 . Th e lo ga rith m f th o e b a se i ts e lf i s 1 .

Fo r a
1
a
~
t h f e re o re 10 C0 a
a 1 .

2 04 . To fi n d th e lo ga rith mf o a
p ro du c t .

L e t 11e b e t h e p ro d u ct 3 le t a b e t h e b ase o f th e s y m s te ,
an d
s u pp o se

f
f 3

so t h at a
”
N .

T hu s t h e p ro d u ct JUN a
"
x a
y

x +y
a

wh en c e , b y de fi n it io n ,
lo g M N a
x y
lo g M u
+ lo g N a
.

Si mil a rl y ,
lo g M N P a
lo g M a
+ lo g N a
le g l ; a
)

an d so o n fo r an
y n u mb e r Of f a c t o rs .

E x a p le m . lo g 4 2 : 10 g ( 2 x 3 x 7)
— lo 2
g + lo g 3 + lo g 7 .

2 05 . To fi n d th e lo ga rith mf o a f ra c ti o n .

M
117
b e th e f ra c t io n ,
an d s u pp o se

x lo g ilf, a y lo g N a

so t h at a
”
IV .
 L o G A R I TH M s . 17 7

Thu s the f ra c t io n
xv a

wh en ce, b y de fi n itio n , lo g “
x
y

lo g I ll “
lo g N ,
.

m
E x a p le . lo g lo g
30
7
—
lo g 3 0 — lo g 7
— lo
g7
lo g 2 + lo g 3 + lo g 5— lo g 7 .

2 06 . Tofi d th e lo ga ri th
n mf o a n u mb er ra is ed p o wer,
in tegra l o r fra c tio n a l .

"
L e t lo g ( 1 11 ) b e
a
re
q u i re d, a n d s u p po se

x = lo ga llf, so t h at a
”
:
M ;

211 ”

”
a ;
wh e n c e , b y de fi n itio n , lo g ( a
M "
) px ;
t h a t is , lo g ( M )
“
P
p lo
g“ hf

mil ly
1

i
i
Si ar ,
lo ga ( M ) lo g, 211 .

2 07 .f ll ws f mth
It o o ro e re s u lts w e ha v e
p ro ve d th at

( )
l t h l g i hem f p o ar t O a ro du c t is eq u a l to th e su m f th O e

l g it h m
o ar s f it f t O s ac o rs

( )
2 t h l g i hem f f o q u lart t h t l g it h m O f a ra c t io n is e a o e o ar O

th e n u m t dimi i h d b y t h l g ith m f t h d mi t
e ra o r n s e e o ar O e en o n a or

( )
3 t h l g iteh m f t h p p w
o f u
ar mb i p t im sOt h e
th
o er O a n er s e e

lo ga rith m f th o e n umbe r5

( )
4 t h e lo ga rit h m f th o e r
th
ro o t Of a n u mb e r is eq u a l to
1
g
ph

o f t h e lo ga rit h Of t h e n b er m um .

A ls o we s e e th at b y t h e u s e Of lo ga rit t h e o p e ra t io n o f h ms s
m ul t i lic a t io n a n d di is io n
p a
y b e re
p l v
a c ed b
y t o s e O f m
a ddit io n h
u
an d s b t ra c t io n a n d t h e O e ra t io n s O f in
p o l t io n a n d e o l tio n v u v u
b y t h o e Of s mu
ltiplica tio n an d divis io n .

H . 11 . A .
17 8 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E x a p le 1 m . E xp re ss th e lo garit hm o f in m
te r s o f lo g a , lo g b an d

lo g 0 .

,g a/ s a

5 2
lo g 5 2
c b C 1
)

lo g a 5
3
lo g ( c 5b 2 )

2 lo g a (lo g 0
5
+ 10g

3
lo g a — 5lo g c — 2 10 g b .

E x a p le 2 m . Fin d a: fro mth e u

e q atio n a
x

Takin g lo garit hm s o fb o t h d s i es , we hv a e

x lo g a lo g lo g b ;

x (l o ga
— 2 10 c — 3 10 b = lo b
g g g ; )
lo g b
'
lo g a — 2 lo g c — 3 10 g b

E XA M PLE S . XVI . a .

Fi n d t h e lo garit hm s o f

1 . 1 6 t o b as e an d 1 7 2 8 t o b as e 2 J3 .

2 1 2 5 t o b ase 5N /5, d 2 5 t o b as e 4
°

.
an .

1
t o b as e 2 J 2, an d 3 t o b as e 9
'
.

2 56

4 . 0 6 2 5 to b as e 2 , an d 1 000 t o b as e 01 ‘

5 .
“

0001 t o b as e 0 01 , an d 1 t o b as e 9
°

J3 .

a
5 to b as e a .

7 . Fi n d th e v lua e o f
1 1
10 8 8 1 2 8 , lo g6 10 8 57 lo g343 4 g
51
°

2 16

E xp res s th e f ll wi g v
o o n se en lo garit hm i s n t er m s o f lo ga , lo gb , an d
lo go .

8 . lo g( Ja b 2 3 6
) . 9 . lo g( f
/a .
z
x 10.
9
lo g( x/a
1 80 HI G H E R AL G EBR A .

06 an d

lo g 06 ‘

2 a f ra c t o n i .

2 09 D E I ITI O F N N
Th e in t egral pa rt o f a lo ga rit h mi s c a lle d

m m t iss
. .

th e s
c h arac t eri t ic , a n d t h e dec i al
p a rt is c alle d t h e an a .

Th e c h i i o f t h e lo ga rit
a ra c t e r s t c o f an
y hm n umbe r to th e
b as e 1 0 c an be w
writte n do n b y in s p ec tio n , a s we sh all n o w s h ew .

2 10 To deter in e th e m ch a ra c teris ti c o f th e lo ga rith mf o an y

m
.

n u b er grea ter tha n u n ity .

Sin c e

f
it o llo ws t a t a n h
b er um w h
it t wo digit s in its in t e gra l p a rt lie s
w l 2
b et e en l 0 an d 1 0 ; a n b er um w h h
it t re e digit in it s in t egra l s
p a rt lies b e t e en 1 0 w
an d 10
3
; a n d so o n H e n c e a n b er . um
h
wit n digits in its in te gra l p a rt lie s b e t we en an d 1 0
"

Let N b e a n u mb er wh o se in t egra l p a rt co n t ain s n digit s ;

t h en

(n —l ) + a frac tio n
N : 10 ,

lo g N :
( n 1) a f ra c t io n .

h
H en c e t h e c a ra c t e ris tic is n 13 t h atis , th e ch a ra cteristic of
th e lo ga rith m
of a n u m
b er grea ter th a n u n i ty is less b
y o th an
m
n e

th e n u b er of digi ts in i ts in tegra l p a rt, a n d is p o s itive .

2 11 To deter mine th e c ha ra cteris tic of th e lo ga rith mof a

m
.

dec i a lfra c tio n .

S in c e
 LO G A R ITH M S . 181

f w h
it o llo s t a t a de c i a l m w h
it o n e c ip e r i e dia te l a te r t h e h mm y f
m
de c i a l p o in t , s c as u h
0 3 24 , b e in g grea t e r t an 0 1 a n d le s s h
t anh 1 , lie s b e t e e n wan d a n b e r it t wo c ip e rs um w h h
f
a te r t h e de c i al
p m
o in t lie s b e t ee n a n d 10
2
w
; an d s o o n
-

m f w h h mm f
.

H e n c e a de c i a l rac t io n it n c ip e rs i e dia t e lv a t e r t h e

m
de c i a l p o in t lie s b e t e e n an dw
Let D b e a de c i ml ba e
gin n in
g w it h n ci
p h e rs t h en

a fract io n
D 10

lo g D ( n 1) a f ra c t io n .

h
H e n c e t h e c a ra c t e ris t ic is ( n 1 ) t a t is , th e c h a ra c teris tic h
of th e lo ga rith of a dec im a l fra c tio n is m
rea ter b y u i t th th
m
g n n
y a e

n u b er of c ip h ers i mm
edia tely after th e dec i a l p o i n t, a n d is m
n ega tive .

212 Th e lo ga rit h ms
t o b a se 1 0 o f a ll in t ege r ro 1 to sf m
m
.

v f
2 00000 h a e b ee n o n d a n d t ab la t e d in u o s t Ta b le u
t e a re s hy
g i ve v
n t o s e e n p la c es o f de c i als T is is t h e s m
t e in
p ra c t ic a l
. h ys m
u s e , a n d it h a s t wo gre a t a dvan t a e s
g

( )
1 F o mt h
r e re s ults y
d p ro e d it is e ide n t t a t t h e
alre a v v h
c h a ra c t e r s t ic
i s c an w
b e writt e n do n b y in s p e c tio n , s o t a t o n l h y
th e m an t is sa
e hv a e s
t o b e re gi t e re d in t h e Tab le s .

( )
2 T h e m an t is s ae a re smf
th e a e or t h e lo ga rit hm s o f a ll
n um b e rs icwh h h v a e th e sa m ig ifi
e s n c an t digit s ; s o t ht a it is
s ufi f c ie n t t o t a b ul at e th e m an t is s ae o f t h e lo ga rit h ms o f i n tegers .

s
Th i p ro p o s it io n we p ro c e e d t o p ro ve .

213 Le t N
b e an y n b e r, t e n in c e umltipl in g o r h s mu y
m y
.

v w
di idin g b y a po e r o f 1 0 e re l a lt e r t h e p o s it io n o f t h e s
m w hu
de c i a l p o in t it o t c h a n gin g t h e e q e n c e o f g re s , it o llo ws s u fi u f
h
t at N x 10 an d N
”
h
w e re p a n d q a re a n y in t ege rs , a re
n um w
b e rs fi s
h o s e s ign i c a n t digit a re t h e s a e a s t h o e o f N m s .

Now lo g ( N x = lo g N +p lo g 1 0

A ga in , lo g ( N lo g N lo
g g 10
lo g N g

( )
In1 an in te e r is a dde d t o lo
g g N a n d in
( )
2 an in te ge r is
f m m m
,

u
s b t ra c t e d ro lo g N ; t a t is , t h e h
a n t is sa o r de c i al
p o rt io n

o f t h e lo a rit
g re hm m
a in s n a lt e re d u .
 1 82 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

h s d h t h p di g ti l s th m ti h
In t i an t e ree re c e n ar c e e an s s ae a ve

b ee n u pp d p itiv I
s o se d t os u th dv t g s f
e n or er o sec re e a an a e o

y t mw
.

B igg
r s
’
s g
s e w k e l w
a rran
y k p e h our or so as a a s to ee t e

m i p ii m ti m
,

an t s sa t h t wh os th t ve, so f y la
g it h en e an ss a o an o ar

h as b t k
e en f mt h T b l th h t i ti i p fi d
a en ro e a es e c a ra c e r s c s re xe

wi h i t ts
pp p i t a ig di
ro g t t h
r a e s u l s l d y
n
g i va cc o r n o e r e a re a en .

214 I th . f n g t i v l eg it h m
c as e t h m io u s a ig i
n e a e o ar e n s n s

w itt
r en h h o ver i i td e ct b f it t i di t t h t
a ra c ter s t c , an n o e o re ,
o n ca e a

t h h t i t i l i g t i v d t t h wh l p i
e c a ra c e r s c a on e s n e a e , an n o e o e ex re s s o n .

Thu 4 3 01 03 t h l g i h m f 0 002 i q u iv l t t
s e o ar t4 3 0103 o s e a en o —

dm u t b di ti gui h d f m 4 3 0103
, , ,

an s e s n
p s i ei w h i
ro h a n ex re ss o n n c

d t h d iml
,

b th th i t g
o e n e er an g t i v I w e ki g w
ec i h a a re n e a e n or n t
m m m m
.

n e
g t i va l g it he o i h t
ar i l t ifi s w il
anl t iar tb e ca ar ce so e es e

n ec e s sa r y i d t mk h m ti p itiv F i t
n o r er o a e t e an s sa os e . or n s a n c e,

a sult u h
re s c i wh i h t h wh l p i i
as n c e o e ex re s s o n s

n e
g i vat m y b
e, t f m da b y u b et t i 1
ra n s o r
g f m t h e s ra c n ro e

c h t i ti d ddi g 1 t h m ti
a ra c e r s c an a Thu n o t e an ss a . s

3 69897 s 4 4 3 0103 .

Ot h er c a s es w ill b ti d i th E mpl e n o ce n e xa es .

m
E x a p le 1 . R u eqd i h m 0 00
ire th e lo gar t o f 24 3 2 .

I n th e Tab les w
e fi n d t at 38 59 6 3 6 is th e h m tis s a f lo g 2 43 2 ( th e
m
an
m d)
o
w
deCI al p o in t as ell as th e c arac teris tic b e in g o h itte ; an d, b y A rt 2 1 1 ,
h
th e c arac teris tic o f th e lo garit o f th e gi en n hm v um b er i s 4
.

lo g

E xa m
pl e 2 . Fin d th e v u al e o f f/000001 6 5
-
, gi v en

lo g 1 6 5: 2 2 1 7 4 8 3 9 , lo g 6 9 7 4 2 4 : 58 4 3 4 9 6 8 .

L et xd en o te th e v u al e re q u d h
ire ; t en

lo g a: z 10 g
2 lo g ( 0 00001 6 5)

1
5
th e m a n ti s s a o f lo g 000001 6 5 b e in g th e
‘
sa m e as t h at o f lo g 1 6 5
c h a ra c teri s tic b ein g p re fi x e b y th e r le d u .

1
( 6 2 1 7 4 8 3 9) ( 10+ 4 2 1 7 483 9)
-

2 84 34 9 6 8
1 84 HI G HE R AL G E BR A .

T is h re s ult my a a ls o b e p ro v ed dire c tl y f ll w as o o s

L et x lo g b ,a
so t h at a
”
b

t h en b y t a k in g lo ga rit h ms t o b a s e b , we hv a e

x lo gb a lo gb b

10 n x lo gb a l .

2 18 Th e o llo in g e x a ples f w ill ill s t ra t e t h e t ilitm w

of u u y
h ms hm
.

lo ga rit in a c ilit a t in
g f
a rit e t ic a l c alc la tio n ; b u t fo r in u
f m
o r a t io n as t o t h e u s e o f L o ga rit ic Tab le s t h e re a de r is hm
f
re e rre d t o w
o rk s o n Trigo n o et r m y .

m
5

E xa p le 1 v. Gi en lo g fi n d lo g x

4 81 5
Th e req u dv u
ire al e = 3 10 g
27
I0 g
lo g
1 00 1
4
lo g 9 0

l
3 ( og3 3
( g
lo 3 4 —
2 ) —
Z ( l 2
o g3 4 1) -

16 5 8 5

97
— lo g 3 5437
10

58 5

2 7 7 8 07 6 6 .

Th e stu d en sh uld
t o n o t ic e t h at t h e lo ga rit hm f 5 o an d its
po we r s c an a lw ys b
a bt e o i
a n e d f m ro lo g 2 t s hu
1Q
lo g 5= lo g — lo g 10 — lo g 2 = l — lo g 2
§
.

m
E x a p le 2 . Fin d th e n um d
b er o f igits in 8 7 5 16
, gi v en

lo g 2 8 01 0300, lo g 7 2 8 4 509 80 .

lo g (8 7 5
16
) 1 6 lo g ( 7 x 1 2 5)
1 6 (lo g 7 3 lo g 5)
— 1 6 lo — 3 lo 2
( g g )
16 x 2 9 4 2008 0

h en ce th e n umb er o d
f igi ts is 4 8 .
[ A rt
 LO G A R ITH M S .
185

E x a p le 3 m G iv lo g 2 d lo g 3 , fi n d to t wo p lac e s f d ec i ml
mth
en an th e
v u u o a s
.

al e o f x fro e e q atio n

3 — 4x
6 4 x +5
8 .

k
Ta in g lo garit hm s o fb o t h d si es , we hv
a e

( 3 lo g 6 8;

(3 -
4 x ) ( lo g 2 + lo g 3 ) ( x + 5) 2 lo g lo g 2 ;

— 4 lo 2 — 3 lo 2
x
( g g 3 lo g 3 l 0 10 g 2 ;

1 0 10 g 2 + 3 lo g 3
2 lo g 2 4 lo g 3

4 44 16 639
2 51 054 52

EXA M PLES . XVI b . .

1 . Fin d, b y in s p e ctio n , th e c h arac teris tic s of t h e lo garit hm s o f

2 1 7 3 5, 2 3 8 3 50, 0 3 5, 2 , 8 7 , 8 7 5
-
.
,

2 . m
Th e an t is s a o flo g7 6 2 3 is 8 8 2 1 2 59 ; write dw o n t h e lo garit hm s
o f 7 6 23 7 6 2 3 0 07 6 2 3 7 6 2 3 00 0 0000 7 6 2 3
, , , , .

3 H ow m y digit
an s are t h e re in th e in tegral p art o f th e umb
hm
n e rs

wh v
.

o se lo garit s are res

p ec ti ely

4 3 01 03 , 1 4 7 7 1 2 1 3, 3 6 9 89 7 , 5 6 51 5 ?

4 Gi v e th e p o s itio n o f th e fi rs t s ign i fi c an t fig u re in t h e n u mb e rs

h hm
.

w o se lo garit s are

2 7 7 8 1 51 3 , 0 9 1 08 1 5, 54 8 7 13 8 4 .

Gi v en lo g 2 8 01 0300, lo g 3 4 7 7 1 2 1 3 , lo g 7 8 4509 8 0, fi n d t h e
v lu
a e o f

lo gs/I2 . 12 . lo g 13 . lo gi/0 1 05 .

Fi n d th e s even t h ro o t o f 0 0324 , h vi g giv th

a n en at

lo g 4 4 09 2 3 88 7 6 44 3 6 3 6 .

Gi v en lo g 1 9 4 8 4 4 5 2 2 8 9 6 8 8 3 , fi n d th e e le v h en t ro o t o f
 86 HIGHER AL GEBR A .

16 Fi n d t h e p ro du ct o f 3 7 2 03 , 3 7 2 03 , 0 03 7 203 , 3 7 2 030, h vi g
a n
v h
.

gi en t at

lo g 1 5 7 057 8 0, an d 10 g 1 9 1 56 3 1 = 6L2 8 2 3 l 2 0 .

17 . Gi v en lo g 2 an d lo g 3 , fi n d lo g

18 . Gi v en lo g 2 an d lo g 3 , fi n d lo g ( 3 48 x 1 08 3

19 . u
C alc lat e t o s ix d iml pl
ec a a c es th e v lu a e o f

gi v en lo g 2 , lo g 3 , lo g 7 ; als o lo g

20 . u
C alc lat e t o s ix p lac es o f d iml
ec a s th e v lu a e o f

22 x 7 0 ;

gi v en lo g 2 , lo g 3 , lo g 7 ; als o

lo g 1 1 = 1 04 13 9 2 7 ,'
an d

21 . Fin d th e n umb er o d
f igits in 3 12
x 28 .

l
22 . S hwh e t at
g
f )
is greate r t h an 1 00 .

23 . m
D e ter in e h o w my an ci
p h e rs t h e re
1 00 0
are b et w ee n th e de c i ml a

p o in t an d th e fi rs t s ign ifi c an t d igi t in

So l v e th e fo llo wi g q u n e atio n s , h vi g giv

a n en lo g 2 , lo g 3 , an d lo g 7 .

5—3x _ 2
24 , 3 x
25 . 26 . 5 2 x +

—2 2x 1 —x
27 . 28 .
~

2 x
. 6 x = 5 . 7

1 — v= 4
—
29 2 x + y = 6y 30 3 x y
~

. .

296 — 1 _ 3y
2 3

31 . li v en 10 g10 2 = 8 01 03 , fi n d 10 g252 00 .

32 G iv 10 g1 0 2 8 01 03 , lo g10 7 = 8 4 509 , fi n d 10 g7 J 2 an d 10 g,/2 7

“

. en .
1 88 HIG HE R AL GE BR A .

h en c e th e se rie s
( )
1 is th e 93
"
1
p o w e r O f t h e s e rie s
( )
2 t h at is ,

O
[

I
3

an hs
d t i is t r e h o e e r gre a t u wv n my a b e . If t h f
e re o re n

fi y
in de n it e l in c re a s e d w e a e hv
2 4
cc x 1 1 1
l + x + 7 -
+ f
~
e — 4 ~

M E L ?
L IE
Th e s e rie s

L
3 13?
is u s u lly d
a en o ted b y e h en c e
3
?
w
4
x 33
é z l + x + + + +
B E | 4

W rit e 096 fo r x, t h en

2 9 3 3
0 90 0 90

l2
| 3

N o w le t ‘
e = a, so t h at c z lo g a ; e
by s ub s t it uti n
g fo r c we
o b t a in

1 lo g a
”
a = + x ,

h
T is is t h e E xp o n en tial Th eo re m .

C OR . W h en n is in fi n it e , t h e li mit o f 1 + 1

[S ee A r t 2 6 6 .
]
Al s o as in t h e pre c e din g in v e t igat io n , it s my b a e sh e wn t h at
wh e n n fi
is in de n it e l in c re as e d, y
2 3 ‘
x x x

1 3 6 4
1
 E X PON E N TI A L A N D LO G A R ITH M IC S E R IE S . 1 89

t h at is , wh en n is in fi n ite , t h e li mit O f 1

1
By p tt in g u 7
7 1.
we hv a e

— m r
.

Now mi i fi s n n it e wh en n is in fi n ite ;

lim
w
th us th e it f o z
H en ce t h e li mit o f

221 . I n t h e p rec e din g a rt ic e l n o re s t ric t io n is pla c e d up on

1
th e v lu
a e o f 23 ; a ls o in c e s h u ity th p i w
n
Is le s s t an n , e ex an s o n s e

ha v e u s ed
gi v e res u lts it h mt i lly i t lligib l
ar
[
eA t 1 8
ca3 ] n e e . r

Bu t t h e re is th
an o
p i t i t
er h f g i o n
g p f wh i h n e o re o n ro o c

de s v
e r es n o t ice . W h v e ssu md t h t w h
a e i i fi it
a e a en n s n n e

f o r a ll va lu es o f r.

Le t us de n o te t h e v a lue o f

S in c e n is in fi n it e , we h a v e

th
u x
,
at is , u
,
u r

mit mit
It I S c le a r t h at t h e li o f u
2
is
;a h en c e t h e li O f 2 03 is

t h at o fu is
m an d ge n e ra ll t h a t y Of u is
 90 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

22 2 . Th e s e rie s

1 1
— —

L L li 1

wh i h w h v d t d b y i v y imp t t it i th b
c e a e en o e e, s er o r an as s e a se

t owh i h l g i h m fi t l u l d L g i h m t t h i
c o ar t s a re rs ca c at e o ar t s o s

y t m md ft N pi
.

b ase k w
a re t h N pi i
n o n as e a er an s s e so n a e a er a er

l l g i hm s f mth
,

th i i ve r t n Th y en l o rll d e a re a so ca e n a tu ra o ar t ro e

f t t h t t h y t h fi t l g ith m whi h tu lly m i t

.

ac a e a re e rs o ar s c n a ra co e n o

co n sid ti i lg b
e ra i l i v t ig t i
on n a e ra c a n es a on s .

Wh l g ith m
ens u d i th ti l w k it i t b
o ar a re se n e o re ca or s o e

remmb d t h t t h b
e e re i lw y u d a t d ju t e i ase e s a a s n e rs o o s as n

it h mti l w k t h b 1 0 i i v i b ly m
,

ar e ca or p l y d e ase s n ar a e o e .

F mt h s i t h pp imt v lu f
ro e e r es b d t m i d e a ro x a e a e O e c an e e er n e

t o yan
qu i d d re
g f u yre t 1 0 p l e f d im l
re e O it i acc ra c o aces O ec a s s

f u dt b
o n o e

m F d
E x a p le 1 m i . in th e su O f th e n fi n ite s erie s

1 1 1
—
+
l_

We h ave
l .
I
3
I
4

an d u
b y p ttin g x 1 in th e s e rie s fo r e
x
,

1 = 1 —1 +
‘

h en ce th e su m th e s e ries is
1
Q

E xa m
pl e 2 . Fin d th e "
c o effic ie n t o f x in th e e xp an s io n O f

( 1 2
)
x
‘

ax x e

2 3
— ax — x
1 ) rx r
( 1 +
192 H IGH E R AL G EB R A .

22 4 E x c ept en a o is er swh v y m
a ll t h e s e rie s fo r lo
g( 1 + x
)
um
.
e

is o f lit t le u s e fo r n u
e ric a l c a lc la t io n s W e c an , o e e r, hwv
f m
.

u
de d c e ro h
it o t e r s e rie s b y t h e aid o f w ic h Ta b les o f L o ga r h
mm
it h s a
y b e c o n s t r c t ed u .

B y wrl tl n g
l
ii
fo r mw e o b t a i n lo g, 5 h e n ce

I 1 1
lo ge ( ri 1) lo ge ri
it 2a

B y wrl t mg 7 7.
1
fo r a
c we o b t ai n
n 1
5h e n ce, b
y c h an in
g g

si
g n s on bot h s ide s o f th e e
q u a t io n ,

1
lo ge n lo ge ( ri l)
E

F m( 1 )
ro an d ( 2) b y ad ditio n ,

1 1 1
lo ge ( n + 1 ) — lo ge ( ri
77 , 571 .

F mt h is
ro f mu l
b y p t t in g n = 3 we o b t a in lo ge 4 — lo ge 2 ,
or a u
t h a t is lo ge 2 an d b
y e fe c t in
g t h e c f
a lc la t io n we fi n d t a t t h e u h
u
v a l e o f lo g6 2 6 9 3 1 47 18 wh e n c e lo ge 8 is k n o n
°
w .

A ga in b y p t t in g u rt 9 we o b ta in lo g6 1 0 lo ge 8 wh en c e we
fi n d lo g3 1 0

Tov t N pi i l g ith ms i t l g ith m t b s 1 0

co n er a e r an o ar n o o ar s o a e

w m h i h i th md l
1
u ltiply b y
e w [A t 2 1 6 ] f t’
h c s e o u u s r o e
l g 10 o 6

comm y t m d v lu
on s s e
1
, 4 3 4 2 9 4 48
an i ts a e 1s o r
2 3 02 58 509
w h ll d t th is mdulu s b y p
e s a en o e o .

I n t h e Pro ceedin gs of th e R o y a l S o ciety of Lo n do n , V o l XXV I I

m
.

f v v us
.

a e 8 8, Pro e s s o r J 0 A d h i t h l o f e, ,u ,
p g a s a s g e n e a e

m m
. .

lo g,3 2 , lo g, 3 , lo g, 5 t o o re t an 260 pla c e o f dec i als h s .

2 25 I f we mu y
lt ipl t h e a b o e e rie s t ro gh o t b y p , we v s h u u
f mu mm m
.

o b t a in or lae a dapt e d t o t h e c alc lat io n o f co o n lo ga ri th s u .

Th usro f m a g, (
lo n 1 ) p ge lo n
n
M
2 7 1:
L
372
3
.
,
 E X PO N N E T IA L AND LO G A R ITH M IC SE R IE S . 19 3

t h at is ,
M e 14
lo g ( M D -
10 8 “
n
“

. 2 73
+
3 71
3

Si mil ly f m
ar ro

— lo —1 M u
e
lo g ( )
,
ri
go n + +
7 2 a
2n 3n
,
70

F m it h
ro e er o f th e ul ab o v e re s t s we see ht at if t h e lo ga rit hm
of one o f t wo c o n sec u iv u mb t e n e rs b e kn o w n t h e lo ga rit hm f o

h my b f l g it h m
,

th e o t er a e f u d d th u
o n ,
b an s a t a b le o o ar s c an e

t u t d
co n s r c e .

I t h u ld b s m k d t h t h b v f mu l
o e re ar ly
e d d a t e a o e or ae a re o n n ee e

to l u l t t h l g it h m f p im u m
ca c a e e ob f ar h l g i hm s o r e n e rs , o r t e o ar t
of a mp i
co u m b m
os
y b teb t in d b y dd i er
g t g t h h a e o a n e a n o e er t e

l g it h m
o ar s f i mp t f t o ts co o n en a c o rs .

I d t
n l u l t t h l g it h m f
o r er o ca c
y f
a e t h m ll e o ar o an on e o e s a er

p im
r u mb
e n w d t u u lly
e rs ,u b t it uet t h ou m b
n o i i h s a s s e e n er n e t er

of th f m e ul ( 1) or b t w a
e d v u t fi d o r m v lu u e en ea o r o n so e a e

of b y wh i h div i i
n my b c ily p f md s on d u h h t a e eas er o r e an s c t a

u mb
,

eit h 1
er n —l t i s t h giv
or n co n f t W a n e en n er a s a ac or e

h fi d l g ( 1 ) l g ( 1 ) d d du t h l g it h m f
.

t en n o n + or o n an e ce e o ar o

th giv e u mb en n er .

m
E x a p le u . v
Calc late lo g 2 an d lo g 3 , gi en n = 4 3 4 29 448
~
.

u
B y p ttin g n w h v v u
: 1 0 in hu e a e th e al e o f lo g 1 0 lo g 9 ; t s

1 2 lo g 3 0 4 3 4 29 44 8 0 02 1 7 1 4 7 2 0 001 4 4 7 6 5 0 0001 08 57

0 000008 6 8 0 0000007 2 0 00000006

1 2 lo g 3 : 0 4 57 57 4 8 8 ,

lo g 3 : 4 7 7 1 2 1 2 56 .

u
P ttin g n : 8 0 in we ob tain lo g 8 1 lo g 8 0 ; t hu s

4 lo g 3 3 lo g 2 1 0 054 2 8 6 8 1 0 00033 9 29 0 000002 8 3 0 00000003 ;

3 lo g 2 0 08 4 8 5024 0 053 9 503 2 ,

lo g 2 3 01 029 9 9 7 .

In th e n ex t i l
a rt c e we s g i e an o t e r h
s e 1 ie s fo 1a ll v h
lo g (n + l ) — lo g n wh h ic is o t e n se f
l in t h e c o n s t r c t io n o fu fu u
L o ga rit hm
ic Ta b les fu h
Fo r rt e r in o r a t io n o n t h e s b e c t t h e f m uj
m
.

f
re a de r 1 8 re e rre d t o h
M r G la is e r s a rt ic le o n Lo ga ri th s in t h e
’

E n cy c lo p cedia B ri ta n n ic a .
1 94 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

226 . I n A rt 2 2 3 w e . hv a e
p ro v ed t h at

g
g $
x — —
3

c h an i
g g
n a: in t o a, we hv a e

—w
) =

By s ub t ra c t io n ,

so t h at as we t hu s o b t a in

1 1 1
lo ge ( n + 1 ) — 10 ge n : 2 J
r
5( 2 n - -
1 1)

N OTE T is h s eries c o n v erge s v e ry rap i d ly , b u t in p rac tic e is n o t w

al ay s
v
.

so co n e n ie n t as th e s erie s in A rt 2 24 . .

227 . Th e f ll w i
o o n
g ex a mpl es ill ut s ra t e th e s ub j ect o f th e
c h a
p t er .

m
E x a p le 1 . If a,
B are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n s hw
e

t h at 10 g ( a
a
2
+B
2
2
x
2
+
a
3
+fl
3
3
x
3

Sin c e a + ,8
°
1

9
we hv a e

—bx
fl }
2
a a
{ +
1 x + a x

a ( l + ax)
2 = lo g a + lo g ( 1 +
lo g ( a b x + cx ) ax ) lo g ( 1 + 7323)

3 3 2 2 3 3
—+ fi
%
c x
_ lo g a + ax +
9
i —
'

3 3

E xa m
pl e 2 . Pro v h e t at th e c o ef
fi c ien t o f x
" in th e e x p an s io n

lo g ( 1 + x + x 2 ) is —
?L
or 1 acc o r
71
d in g as n is or is n o t a multipl e o f3 .

—
1 x 3
lo g ( 1 + x + x 2 ) = lo g lo g ( 1 x3 ) lo g ( 1 x
)
l — x

x
6
x 9
x
2
x
3
x
"
x +
3
196 HI GH ER AL GE B R A .

3 . S hwh
e t at

lo g, ( n a
) = 2

2 3 4
x 2 x
4 . If

s h w th
e at
I2 B
5 . S hw h
e t at

a — b 1 a — b
lo g, a lo g o
Q
.

a a

6 .
Fi n d th e N ap ie rian lo ga rit hm c o rre c t to S ix t ee n p lac es

o f d iml
ec a s .

7 . Pro v h e t at e

8 . Pro v h e t at

—x
lo g(
e
l ) = 2

9 . Fin d th e v lu
a e o f
1 1
— 2 —
( )+ (x
2 — 4 4 G
g + x
y
f
. e
| Z

10 Fin th e n erical d al es um v u o f th e co mm on lo garit hm f 7 s o

v ,
.

an d 1 3 ; gi e n p = 4 3 4 2 9 44 8 , lo g
°

Sh w th hl u
5
?
11 . e at if ax an d 2
are e ac es s n ity

2 3
a a
— lo 2
1 + ax + a + 2
+ g
2 5 .

12 . Pro v h
e t at

2 3 4
5 9 6

g 5
.

—
+

an d fi n d th e gen e ral t e r m f th o e s e rie s .

13 . Pro v h e t at

4
l + 3x 6 513
10 g‘
1 2x 2 3 4

an d fin d t h e ge n e ral ter m f th o e s e rie s .

m mg p w
t
a
14 . E x p an d 33;
a s e ri e s o f as c e n d o e rs o fx .

6
 E X PO N E N TI A L A N D LO G A R ITH M I C S E R IE S . 1 97

15 . E x pres s in as c e n di g p w n o e rs o fx, wh e re i= J 1 .

16 . S hw h
e t at

4
[1
l0 g ( U + 2k)
e
’
2 10 b 0
e ( 3; /l ) _ 1 .

0 b0 e ( I)
2
+ 10 2 (x fl ) 4
3(7 ; /l ) 6

17 . Ifa an d B b e th e ro o ts o f x —p x + g= 0,
2
S hw he t at

2 Z 3 3
0 +B (1 4 -
3
10 s ( 1
. + B) x x
3
2 3

18 . If x < 1 , fi n d th e su m f th o e s e rie s

1 2
2 3 4
3 4 5
+ + +
.
a 3 3,
. .

2 .

2 3 4 5

19 . S h w th
e at

1 l 1
+ 1)
2
2 ( n 2 . 3 (n l)

1
20 . I f lo g ,
l -
x +x
2 -
a
s
be ex
p an dd e in a s e ries o f as c en di g n

pow e rs o f x, s hw h e t at th e c o e f c ien fi t o f x
" is If n be o dd, o r o f

th e f m m+
or 4 2, an d
2 if n b e o f th e fo r m4 m .

21 Sh w h
. e t at

23 3 3
4 3
1+

22 . Pro v h
e t at

1 1 1
2 lo ge n — lo
ge (n +
152 3

1 1 1
23 . Sh e w t h at

l 1 1
2
n 2n

9 81
24 . I f lo g,
10
a, lo g. —
24
25
I) , lo g,
80
c, s hw h
e t at

lo g 2 = 7 a — 2 b
, + 3 c, lo ge 3 = 1 1 a 3 b + 5c, lo g, 5= 1 6 a

d c alc ul at e lo g. 2 , lo g. 3 , lo g, 5 t o 8 p lac es o f dec i ml a s .

 C H A PTE R X VI I I .

I N TE R E ST AN D ANN U ITI E S .

229 h
I N t is c h a pt e r we s a ll e x pla in h h o w t h e s o l tio n u of
u m m
.

q u
e s t io n s c o n n e c t e d wit I h
n t e re s t a n d D is c o n t a
y b e si
p li fi ed

b y t h e u s e o f alge b ra ic a l o r lae f mu .

We s h a ll u se mI
D is co u n t, Pres en t Va lu e in
th e ter s n teres t,
t h e ir o rdin a r a rit y hm
e t ic a l s e n s e b u t in s t e a d o f t ak in g a s t h e
rat e o f in t e re s t t h e in t e re s t o n £ 100 fo r o n e e a r, w e s a ll fi n d it y h
m v
o re c o n e n ien t t o t a k e t h e in t e re s t o n £ 1 fo r o n e ea r y .

230 To fi d th
n e in teres t an d a m oun t f
o a
given su mi n a

m m
.

gi ven ti e a t si
p le i n teres t .

Le t P b e t h e p rin c ip a l in p o n ds , r t h e in t e re s t o f £ 1 u f o ro n s

y e a r, n t h e n um y
b e r o f e a rs , I t h e in t e re s t , an d M t h e a o mu n t .

Th e in te re s t o f P fo r one y ea r is Pr, an dt h f e re o re fo r n y e a rs

is Pn r t at is , h
( )
1

A ls o M : P I ;

t h at is , ( )
2

F m( 1 )
ro an d ( 2) w e s ee ht at if o f t h e q u an t itie s P, n r, I,
f u h my b f u
,

or P, n ,
r, M, an
y t h ree be giv en t h e o rt a e o n d .

231 To fi n d th e p res en t va lu e a n d dis co u n t f

o a gi ven su m
m m
.

du e in a given ti e, a llo win g s i p le i n teres t .

L e t P b e t h e gi e n s u , v m V th e p re s e n t v lua e, D t h e dis c o u n t,
r t h e in t e re s t o f £ 1 fo r o n e y e a r, n th e n u mb er y
o f e a rs .
200 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

mu
Th e a o n t o fP a t t h e e n d o f t h e rs t e a r is PR a n d, s in c e fi y
h
t is is t h e p rin c ipa l fo r t h e s e c o n d y e a r, t h e a o n t a t t h e e n d o f mu
t h e se co n d y
e a r is PR x R o r PI3
2
Si ila rl t h e a o n t a t t h e m y mu
mu
.

e n d o f t h e t ird h
e a r is PI3 , a n d s o o n ;
3
y e n c e th e a o n t in h
n y
e a rs is PR
"
t at is , h
M PR
"

"
I P (R

N OTE . If r d en o te th e in teres t on £ 1 fo r one y e ar, we hv a e

R 1 r .

233 u
I n b s in e s s t ra n s a c t io n s wh th im en e t e co n t a in s a

w imp l i t
.

f ra c t io n of a y
e a r it is s al t o a llo uu s e n e re s t fo r t h e
f ra c t io n o f th e ear y
T s th e a . hu mu t f £ 1 i o n o n y e a r is

re c k o n e d 1 +
2 ; an d th e mu t f P i 4 gy
a o n o n e a rs at c o mp u o n d

in t e re s t is PR “
r Simil ly t h mu ar e a o n t o f P in

1
n
m
—y e a rs is PR 1 +

I f t h e in t e res t is p a ab le o re t a n o n ce a y
e a r t e re is a m h y h
w m
dis t in c t io n b et e e n t h e n o in a l a n n u a l ra te o f in t e re s t an d t a t h
u y
a c t all re c e i ed, wh ic avy b hm
e c alle d t h e tru e a n n u a l ra te t s hu
if t h e in t e re s t is pa ab le t ic e a y
e a r, an d if r is t h e n o wi n al y m
an n u al ra t e o f in t e re s t , th e a mu o n t o f £ 1 in h a l f y a ear is 1 Z
2
3

an d t h f
e re o re in th e wh o le y e ar th e a mu o n t o f £ 1 is

or 1 + r+ so t h at th e tru e an n u al ra t e o f in t e re s t

r
,

1:

2 34 I f t h e in t e res t is pa ab le y q t im es a y e a r, an d if r

m
.

th e n o u
in al a n n a l rat e , t h e in t e re s t on £ 1 fo r eac h in t e r v al

r
,
an dt h f e re o re th e a mu o n t o f P in n y e a rs , o r qn in t e r v a ls ,
9

I n t is h c ase t h e in t e re s t is s a id to b e
“
co n v e rt e d in t o p rin c ipa l
9 ti m es a y ear .
 I N T ERE S T AND A NN U ITI E S . 2 01

I f t h e in te re s t is c o n e rt ib le in t o p rin c ip a l e e r v v y mm t o en

m mu t
,

h
t en q
b e c o e s in n ite l gre a t fi y
To fi n d t h e a l e o f t h e . v u a o n ,

1
p ut
r
s o t at
5 q rx ; t h s z hu
6
,

mu 1
ru r x u r
,
7
th e a o n t P l P 1

Pe [A rt 2 20,

s in c e a: is in fi n it e wh en qi s in fi n it e .

2 65 To fin d th e p res en t va lu e a n d dis co u n t o

f a gi ven su m
m m
.

du e in a given ti e, a llo win g co p o u n d i n teres t .

Le t P b e t h e gi e n s u , v m V th e p re s e n t v lua e, D t h e dis c o u n t,
mu
R t h e a o n t o f £ 1 fo r o n e y e a r, n th e n u mb er of y
e a rs .

S in c e V is t h e s u mwh i h c
p t u o ut t o in t e re s t at t h e p re s e n t
mw mu
,

ti e, ill in n e a rs a y o n t t o P, w e hv a e

"
P :
VR ;

V — fi z p ze

D = P (1

E m
pl v u
Th e pres en t al e o f £ 6 7 2 du e in a c e rtain ti mi £126 ;
mp u m
xa e e s
d wd hv v
. .

co o n in tere s t at 4 7, p er c en t b e allo e , fi n d th e ti e ;
1
. a in g gi en

lo g 2 '
3 01 03 , lo g 3 ‘
47 7 12 .

4 %
1 25
H e re —— an dR
fl
.
,
1 00 24

Let n b e th e n um b er o f y e ars ; t h en

25

)
12.

67 2 1 26
51
25 67 2
10 g "
?
2 126

16
19 0 .

96 3

n ( lo g 1 00 lo g 9 6 ) = lo g 1 6 lo g 3 ,

4 lo g 2 lo g 3
2 — 5 10 g 2 — lo g 3
‘

.
7 2 7 00
01 7 7 3
4 1, v e ry n e arly

t hu s th e ti mi e s ve ry n e a rly 4 1 y ears .
2 02 HI GHER AL GE BR A .

E XA M PLE S . XVIII . a.

W h e n re qu ire d th e fo llo wi n lo
g g a rit hm my b u s a e s ed .

lo g 2 30103 00, lo g 3 4 7 7 12 13,

‘ °

lo g 7 8 4 509 8 0, lo g1 1 1 0 4 1 39 2 7 .

1 Fi d
n th e a mu t o f £ 1 00 in 50 y ears ,
o n at 5 pe r c en t co mp u d o n

v
.
.

in t eres t ; gi en lo g1 1 4 6 7 4 2 059 4 6 50 .

2 m
A t s i ple in teres t th e in te re s t o n a c e rtain s u m fm y i o one s

d u m m m m d t th
.

£9 0, an d th e is c o n t o n th e s a e s u fo r th e s a e ti
‘

e an a e

sa m
e rat e is £8 0 fin d th e s u m .

3 In h o w myy an ears will mf m a su o o n ey d ub l o e it s e l f at 5 per

mp u di
.

c en t . co o n n t e res t

4 Fi d f
c o rrec t
a rt in g t h etop re s en t a h v lu a e o f £ 1 0000 du e
mu
n

h , ,

d v
.

8 y ears en ce at 5 p er c e n t c o p o n in t e res t ; .
gi en

lo g 6 7 6 8 3 9 4 4 8 304 8 56 .

5 In h o w an
y y ears m will £ 1000 b e c o m £2 500 e at 1 0 p er c en t
mp u
d
. .

co o n in te res t ?

Sh w h im d u h h mi
.

6 p l i h i i lf th
t at at s e t e res t t e t ar

m b w h md
. e n sco n s a e on c

ean d h i
et i
e en t e su u e an t e n t eres t o n t .

7 Sh w h m y will i m h hu d df ld i
t at n c re as e t
mp u d i t
e on e o re an a n re o n
uy p
.

a c en t r at 5 e r c en t . co o n n e re s t .

8 Wh mfm y 6 p t mp u d i t t will
at su o one at er c en co o n n ere s

mu v
.
.

a £
o i y
n ? Gi
t to 1000 n 12 e ars en

lo g1 06 2 02 53059 , lo g 4 9 6 9 7 4 6 9 63 2 9 2 .

9 A m
£6 00 froan a b o rro
o n ey le n w
er, an d th e b ill is
s m m d
mw
-

wd v h wh
.

ren e e e e ry a lf y ear at a n in c re as e o f 1 8 p e r c e n t
-
at t i e ill
h v
.

e lap s e b e fo re it re ac e s £6 000 ? Gi en lo g 1 1 8 = 2 07 1 88 2 .

1 0 W h t i th mu a s e a o n t f a ar
o n f th i g i
n 2 00 y e ars at 6
p er c e n t
mp u d i t Z Giv
. .

l g t ere s 1 06 2 02 53 059 , lo g 1 1 5 02 7 0 2 06 1 1 8 00
‘

co o n n en o .

NN U A I TI E S .

2 36 A u ity i fi d mp id p i di lly u d
n an n s a xe su a er o ca n er

m m m
.

t i
c er a n t t d di i ; t h
s a e p y t y b
co n d i t h t on s e a en a e a e e er o n ce

a
y t m
e ar o r a f q u t i t v l U l it i
o re t h wi re en n er a s n es s s o er se

h ll u pp th p ym t u l
.

t t d w
s a e e s a s o se e a en s an n a .

A u it y t i i
n an n ui y p y b l f fi d t m f
c er a n s an an n t a a e or a xe er o

y s i d p d t f y ti g y ; lif
ea r n e en en u it y i o an co n n en c a e an n s an

an n u ity wh i h i p y b l du i g h lif im f p
c s a O f a e r n t e et e o a e rs o n r o

u v iv f mb f p
,

th e s r o r o a n u er o e rs o n s .
2 04 H IG H E R AL G E BR A .

2 39 fi
din g t h e p re s e n t a l e o f an n it ie it is a lwa
In n v u u s ys
u my mu
.

c s to ar t o re ck o n c o p o n d in t e re s t ; t h e re s lt s o b t a in e d u
h m
w e n s i p le in t e re s t is re c k o n e d b e in g c o n t ra dic t o r a n d u n y
u w hy
t r s t o rt On t is p o in t an d fo r h rt e r in o r a t io n o n t h e fu h f m
m
.

uj
s b ec t o f an n it ie s t h e re a de r u a
y c o n s lt J o n e o n t h e Va lu e u s
of A n n u ities a n d R evers i o n a/ry Pa y en ts , a n d t h e a rt ic le A n n u ities m
in t h e E n cy clo p aedia B ri ta n n ica .

240 To fi n d the p resen t va lu e of a n a n n u i ty to co n tin u e

f or

m m
.

a
given n u b er of y ea rs , a llo win g co p o u n d i n teres t .

L e t A b e t h e a n n it , R t h e a o n t o f £ 1 in u y mu o n e y e a r, n

th e n um y
b e r o f e a rs , V t h e re q ire d p re s e n t a l e u v u .

Th e p re s e n t v lu f A
a e O du e in 1 y ea r is A R “

t h e p re se n t v lu f A d
a e o ue in 2 y e a rs is A R
"
2

t h e p re se n t v lu f A d
a e o ue in 3 y e a rs is A R 3
;

an d so on .
[A rt

N ow V is t h e su m o f t h e p re s e n t v lua es o f t h e diffe re n t
p a ym t en s ;
V= A R
“
l
AR
“

+ AR
“
3
+ to n ter m s

l —R
”

fl
,

l —R ”

"
l —R
A
R
.
— 1

N O TE T is re s lt h u m ay als o be Ob tain e d by dvd

i i in g th e v u al e o f M,
gi evn in A rt 2
.

3 8 , b y R
" . .
[A rt .

COR I f we
. mk a e n in fi n it e we Ob t a in fo r t h e p re s e n t v lu
a e

o fa r etu it
p p
e y

241 If mA i st h e p re s e n t v lu a e o f an an n ui y A
t th e an n ui yt
w hm
,
.

s a id t o b e o rt y e ar p
’
s urc h as e .

In the ca se o f a
p er
p t ue a l an n u i y mA
t h en c e

1 00
ra t e e r c en t
p .
 I N TE R E ST A N D A N N U ITI E S . 2 05

t h is , t h e n
at um
b e r o f y e a rs p rc a s e o f a p e rp e t
’
u h u a l an n ui y i t s

v
O b t ain e d b y di idin g 1 00 b y t h e ra t e
p e r c en t .

in s ta n c e s o f p e rpe t a l a n n it ie s w e
A s a
y e n t io n t h u u m m
f m v m
e

m
in c o e a ris in g ro uh
in e s t e n t s in irre de e a b le Sto c k s s c as m
my v m
an u wy
G o e rn e n t Se c ritie s , C o rp o ra tio n St o c k s , a n d R a il a
u
D eb e n t re s v m
A go o d t e s t O f t h e c re dit o f a G o e rn en t is fu r
um
.

n is h e d byy tu h
h e n b hu
er o f e a rs
’

p rc a s e o f it s St o c k s
; t s t h e

.w h y . u h y
2 2} p c C o n s o ls a t 9 6 4 a re
1
o rt 3 5 e a rs p rc a se ; E g p t ia n
’

u h wh u ’
4 p 0 S to c k a t 9 6 is wo rt h 2 4 y e a rs p rc a s e ;
. . ile A s t ria n
. yw . y u h
5 p 0 S t o c k a t 8 0 is o n l o rt h 1 6 e a rs
’

p rc a s e .

24 2 f in d th e
p To
res e nt va lu e f
o a deferred an n u ity to
mm
.

co en ce a t th e en d of p y ea rs an d to co n tin u e
f or n
y ea rs , a llo w

m
in g c o p o u n d i n teres t .

L et A b e th e an n ui y t ,
R th e a mu o n t o f£1 1 11 o n e y e a r, V th e
p re s e n t al e v u .

Th e fi t
rs
p y m
a t en is md a e at th e en d o f ( p 1 )
+ y e a rs .

[A rt

H en c e t h e p re s e n t v lu a es o f th e fi rs t , seco n d, t ird h p y a

mt en s a re re s e c t i e l
p v y
(p H ) +3)
AR uz
“ -

,
i

V : A ft to n ter m s

l R
”
—
( PH )
AR
l — R
fl

"
AR
' "
P
AR
"
P

R 1 R 1

C OR Th e p re s e n t a l e v u o f a deferred p erp etu i ty t o co mm en c e

f y v f mu
.

a te r p e a rs is gi e n b y t h e or la
AR ?
“

V R — l
'

24 3 A freeh o ld e t at e is a n e st a t e w ic h ie ld a p e rp e t s h y s u al

u y hu v u ul
.

an n it c a lle d t h e ren t ; an d t s th e a l e o f t h e e s t a t e is e q a

v u u y u
t o t h e p re s en t al e O f a p e rpet it e q al t o t h e re n t .

It f ll w f m A t 2 4 1 h t if w k w t h u mb f y t a e n o e n er o e a rs
’

m
o o s ro r

u h h y f
.

t t t t i d t b y h i w b i a s n o r er o u s ar e O ta n
p rc as e p a a en a n ,

h t t p
e ra e t w h i h i e r c eni k t d b yad iv idi g 1 0 0 c n t e re s t s re c on e n

u mb f y p u h
.

’
by h t e n er o e a rs rc a se .
 6 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

E x a p le m v
Th e re ers io n aft e r 6 y e ars o f a free o l h d e s t at e umh
is b o g t fo r
£ 2 0000 ; wh
at ren t o
.

g t th e p rc a s e uh
u h
r t o re c ei e , v k rec o n in g co po n ud
in tere s t at 5 p er c en t ? i e n lo g Gv 0 2 1 1 8 9 3, lo g 1 2 7 1 358 .

Th e t is u al u v u
to th e an n al al e o u d
f th e p e rp et ity , e ferre d fo r 6
w hm
re n eq

y e ars , hi c ay u h d
be p rc as e fo r £2 0000 .

L e t £ A b e th e v u al u h
e o f th e an n ity ; t en s in c e R = 1 05, we °

hv
a e

2 0000
A x
°
05

A x 1 000 ;

lo g A 6 lo g l 05 °
z 3,

lo g A 3 1 2 7 1 3 58 = lo g

A = 1 3 4 0 09 6 ,'
an d th e ren t is £ 1 3 4 0 l s l l d
. . .

244 u h
S pp o s e t at a t e n an t b y p a in g do n a c e rt ain s u
. y w m
h a s o b t a in e d a le a s e o f a n e s t at e fo r p g e a rs , a n d t a t w e n y h h
g y v
e a rs h a e e la p s e d h e wis e s t o re n e w t h e le a se fo r a t e r h m
p + n y
e a rs ; t h e s u t at h e st a
p y mh
is c a lle d t h e fi n e fo r mu
re n e w
in g n y
e a rs o f t h e le as e .

u v u
L et A b e t h e a n n a l a l e o f t h e e s ta t e ; t h en s in c e th e
t e n a n t h a s p a id fo r p o f t h e p + n e a rs , t h e fi n e y mu t b s e e
q u a l
t o t h e p re s en t v u
a l e o f a de e rre d a n n f it A , t o c o u y mm en c e a f ter

p ye a rs a n d t o c o n t in e fo r n e a rs ut y
a t is , h
AR ?
AR
”

th e fin e
R — l R — l [ A rt 2 4 2 .

E XA M PLE S . XVIII b . .

Th e in te res t is s upp d mp u d u
o se co o n n le s s th e co n trary is s tat e d .

1 A p ers o n b w £7 b 6 2 to e re p ai di 5 y e ars b y an n al in u
m
o rro s n
k m
.

s t al e n ts o f £ 12 0 fi d hn fi t e rat e o n te re s t , rec o n in g s i le in te res t

p .

2 Fi d th e mu t f i y t Of £ 1 00 in 2 0 y ears , allo wi g
mp u
n a o n o an an n u n
di v
.

co o n n t e res t at p G i er c e n t . en

lo g 1 6 4 5 0 19 1 1 6 3 , lo g2 4 1 1 7 1 3 8 232 60 .

3 A f h ld i b u gh t f £ 7
re e o e s t at e 2 50 ; at wh
at ren t s h uld i t
h h w my iv p
s o or o
u h m
.

b e le t so t at t e o n er a re c e e 4 er c e n t o n t h e
.
p rc as e one
y?
4 . A f h ld w h£ 0 y i
ree o e s t at e o rt 12 a ear s so d f r£ 000
l o 4 fi nd t h e
rat e o f in teres t .
 C H A PTE R XI X .

IN E Q U A L I TI E S .

245 A N Y q a n t it a is s a id u y to b e gre at e r t an an o t e r h h
u y wh v hu h
.

a t it 6 — b is p o s it i e ; t s 2 is re a t e r t an —3
q n e n a g ,

u
b eca se 2 o r 5 is p o s it i e v . A ls o b is s aid t o b e le s s
h h
t an a w e n b — a is n e ga t i e ; t s v hu — 5 is le s s h
t an —2 , b e c a s e u
5 o r 3 is n e ga t i e v .

In acco r dan ce w it h th i d fi iti s mu e n on ,

z e ro st be re
gar de d as

g re a t e r t h an an
y n e
g i v q u
at t it ye an .

I n t h e p re se n t h pt w h ll u pp ( u l
c a er e s a s o se n es s th e co n t ra ry
is dire c tl s t at e y d) t h t h l tt
at elw y d et e rs a a s en o e re a l an d po s it iv e

q u
a n t it ie s .

24 6 . If a b, t h en it is e vid en t t h at

a — c > b —c ;

ac be ;

a b
c c

t h at i n equ a li ty will s till h o ld after ea ch

is , an

in crea s ed, di in is h ed, m

u lti lied, o r divided b y th e
p m
u a n tit
q y .

24 7 . If a c b,
by a ddin g 6 to e ac h s ide ,

a> ) l c ;
wh i h h ws t h
c s e at in an in equ a lity an y ter mmy a b e tra n sp o s ed
fro mo n e s ide to th e o th er if i ts s ign b e c h an ge d .

If a b, t h en e v ide n tl y b a ;
t h is, if th e sides of a n i n equ a lity b e tra n sp o s ed, th e
at s ign f
o

in equ a li ty m
u s t b e revers ed .
 IN E Q U A LITI E S .
2 09

If a b, t h en b is p o s iti e ,
a — v an d b — a is n e
g at i v e

a b ) is v
n e a t i e , a n d t e re
g h f o re

a b

h of a ll th e term
en ce, if th e s of
s ign s an i n equ a li ty b e
th e s ign of i n equ a lity mu s t b e reversed .

A ga in , if a b, t h en a b, an dt h fe re o re

ac be

if ides of a n i n e qu a li ty b e
th e s mltip li d u bye sa m e

qu a n tit , th e s i n o
y g f i n eq u a li ty mtb us e reversed .

If a, > b a
2
> b a
3
> b a
m > b it

d a a
I 2 s
a
m b l bz b 3 b

24 9 . If a > b, an d if p , q a re
p o s it i v e in t e ge rs , t h en
1 1 p 1)

o r a
”
b ?
d t
an h f e re o re a
" b 7
t h at is , a b
"
,
wh e re n is an
y
p v u
o s it i e
q a n t it y .

1 1
Fu h rt e r, < 5 t h at 1 s a
a
n
g 7

2 50 . Th e s
q u a re o f e v e ry re a l
q u an t it y
is p o s it i v e, an d
t h f e re o re
g re a t e r h t an z e ro . T hus ( a b)
2
is p o s it i e ; v
a
2
— 2a b + b
2
> 0;
2 2
( 77 b 2a b .

Si mil ar ly a:
j
A
)
y
zz”
Ja
t h at is , th e a ri th eti c ea n m m o f two p o s i ti ve qu an ti ties i s grea ter
th a n th eir geo etric ea n m m .

Th e in e q u lit yab m ec o es an e
q u litay wh en th e q u an t itie s a re

e u aL
q

2 51 u
Th e res lt s o f t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le ill b e
. w fu
o n d er v y
u fuse y
l, e s pe c ia ll in t h e c a s e o f in e q alit ie s in w ic u h h th e le tte rs
a re v v
in o l e d s e t ric a ll y mm y .

H . H . A .
 210 H I GH ER G
A L E BR A .

m
E x a p le 1 . I f a, b , c d en o te p o s iti v ue q an titie s , p ro v h
e t at

2 2 2b c
b c

2 2
c a 26 a ;
2 2
a b 2a b

wh en c e by a dd itio n a
2
b 2
C
2
bc ca ab .

It my b a e no tice dh h t at t is re s u lt is tr u e fo r an
y real v u
al es o f a, b , 0 .

A gain , fro m( 1) b
‘
be c
2
be
3
b + c > b c (b +
3 c
)
By w ritin g dw
o n th e two si mil ar in eq u alitie s an d a dd i n g, we Ob tain

2 ( b + c ) + ca (c + a) + ab (a + b ) .

It s h d o ul vd h
b e Ob s er e t at ( 3) is Ob tain e fro ( 2 ) b y in tro c in g th e d m du
fac to r b + c , h h
an d t at if t is fac to r b e n egati e th e in e q ality ( 3 ) ill n o v u w
lo n ger o l h d .

3
E x a p le 2
2
m . If a: my a hv a e an y real v ual e fin d wh h ic is th e greater,
x + 1 or x +x .

3
( 477 )
2
x 1 + 33

N o w (a: is p o siti v h e, en c e

3 2
x + 1 or x +x

ac co r d in g as at + 1 i s p o s iti v e o r n egati e v h ; t at is , acc o r d in g a s a: or 1 .

I f a: 1 , th e in eq u ality b eco m u e s an e q ality .

L e t a an d b b e t wo p o siti e q a n t it ie s ,
2 52 v u S th e ir s u m
h f m
.

an h
d P t eir p ro d c t ; t en ro t h e ide n t it u y
(
2 2
4 ab ( a b) a b) ,

we hv a e

4P = S ( —b 4P + (
2 2 2
-
a
) ,
an d S : a

H e n ce , if is gi S v en ,
P is gre a t e s t wh en a = b an d if P is
gi v en , S is le as t en wh
a = b;

t h at is , if th e su mof tw o p o s i ti ve
q ti ti
u anes is gi ven ,
th eir p ro du c t
i s grea tes t wh en th ey a re equ a l an d
if th e p ro du ct f two
o p os itive
q u a n ti ti es i s
gi ven , t h eir su mi s lea s t wh en th ey a re e u a l.
q
21 2 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

2 54 d th e grea tes t va lu e of
m " "
wh en
To fi n a b c a b c

m
. .

is c o n s ta n t; ,
n , b ein gp o s itive in tegers .

Sin c e m ,
n ,
a re c o n s t an t s, t h e ex
p re s s io n w ill
b e g re a t e s t wh en is gre at e s t . . h
B u t t is la st

ex
p s
re s io n is t h e p ro d u ct o f m n p f a c t o rs wh mi o se su s

o r a + b + c + an d th f e re o re c o n

m
s ta n t . H en c e a b
n
c
”
. will b e gre a t e s t wh en th e f t a c o rs

a b c

m n 3
p
7

a re a l l e
q u a l, t h at is , wh en

a b c

m n p

T hu s t h e gre ate s t v lu
a e is

m mn n

p
”

E x a p le m Fin d th e greates t v u al e o f ( ) ( 3 —x
) 4
fo r real v u
al e

um +
a x a an y
h
.

o fx n erically le s s t an a .

— (D
Th e gi v en e x pres sio n is gre ate s t wh en
61,
1s greates t ; b u t

th e su m f th O e fac to rs Of h
t is ex p ress io n i or 2a ;

h en c e (a x ) (
3
a x )
‘
is greates t wh en

63 4
T hu s th e greates t v u al e I S
8

2 55Th e de t e r in a tio n o f ax i m u an d in i u al es m mm m mmv u

m m my
.

a
y O te n b e f o re s i
p l e ffe c ted b
y t h e s o l t io n o f a q a d u u
ra t io ue
q a t io n t an b y t h e o re o in
g g eht o ds I n s t an c e s of f mh .

t ish hv a e a lre a d o c c rre d in y

C ap 1 x ; w e a dd a u rth e r u h . . f
u
ill s t ra t io n .

E x a p le m Div d i e an Odd in teger in to two in tegral p arts wh du ct

m imum p ro
. o se
is a ax .

D en o te th e in te ger b y 2 n + 1 ; th e two p arts b y x an d 2n + 1 —x ; an d

th e p ro du c t b y y ; t en ( 2 n + 1 ) x h x
2=
y ; en c e wh
 INE Q UA L I TI E S . 213

b u t th e q u an tity ud n er th e ra d ic al mu t b s e p o s iti v e , an dt h e re fo re y c an n o t

b e greater t h an
1
4
or
1
an d s m ce y 18 mt g e ral 1 te gre ate s t
v u mu
al e st be 71
2
4 -
71 ; in wh h ic cas e x = n + 1, or n ; t hu s th e two p arts are n
an d 71 + 1 .

2 56 . So mtim e es we my a u se t h e fo llo w mg mt h e o d .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e mi imumv lu
n a e o f

Pu t e + x = y ; t h en

(a C y) (b e y)
th e ex p res s io n

N/y + a —6 +b —c+2
s /( a -
C
H b — C
) ‘

H en c e th e e x p re s s io n is a mi imumwh n en th e sq u are te r mi s z ero h

; t at

T hu s th e mi imumv n al eu is

an d th e c o rres p o n d v u in g al e O f x is r /( a e ) (b e
)

E XA M PLE S . XI X . a .

1 . Prov h e t at ( ab m
y) ( ax by ) 4 a b ay ‘
.

2 . P v th
ro e at ( b c ) (c a ) (a b) 8abc .

3 Sh w h
e t at th e su mf o an
y real p o s it i e v qu an tity an d
v h
.

re c i ro ca
p li s n e er les s t an 2 .

4 ,
If a
2
+b
2=
l, an d x
2
+y
2=
l, s hw h e t at ax + by < 1 .

5 . If an d s hw he t at

ax

h w th iii
)
b b
If a 5, s e at a
a
b a b “
,
an d
;

Sh w th t ( y y
e a x
2 2
z
2
2 x )( cit
y
2
y e
?
2x
2
)
F i d wh i h i h g
n c s t e rea te r 3a b z
or a
3 2b 3
.

9 . P v ro h b b e t at a
3
a
3
a
4
b 4
.

10 . P v ro h 6 b b (b
e t at a c e c ) ea ( c a ) a b ( a b) .

11 . Sh w h
e b t at 2 2
0
2 2
0 a a
2 2
b a bc (a b c
) .
21 4 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

12 . W hi h i h g c s t e reate r x
3
or x
2
+ x + 2 fo r p o s iti v v lu
e a es o fx?

13 . Sh w h te t a x
3 2
1 3a x 3
5ax + 9 a 3
,
if x a .

14 Fi d h gn v lu t e re ate s t a e o f x in d h
o r er t at 7 x
2
+ 11 my a be
h
.

3
grea te r t an x +

15 Fi d h mn i imumv lu t e n a e o f x2 1 2 x + 4 0, an d th e m imum
ax

v lu
.

2
a e o f 24 x 8 9x .

16 . S h w h t ( In)
e t a
2
n
”
,
an d 2 4 ( n +

17 . Sh w h t (
e y t a x +z) 3
2 7 xy z ,

18 . Sh w th e at n
”
1 3

19 . If b p ni iv e a os t e in teger greater t h an 2, s hw h
e t at

2” 1 +n V

20 . S hw he t at
( |Z) t 3
n
"

21 . S h e w th at
—z
( )
1 ) .

—z
( )
2 ) .

22 . Fi n d th e m mu mv
ax i al u e o f (7 x
4
) (2 + x ) 5 wh en x b et w ee n
7 an d 2 .

23 . Fi n d th e mi imu mv lu
n a e 0f
1 x

*
2 57 To p ro ve tha t if a an d b a re
p o s itive an d u ne u a
q l,
m m
.

a + b

2
ex c ep t wh en m is a
p o s i ti ve
p rop er fra c ti o n .

We hv a e a + b
'
"

a b i s le s s t h an we my a ex d h f t h
2
p an e ac o e se

ex
p re s s io n s in a s c en din g p o w e rs o f
2 [ A rt

m( m 1) a b
l 2 2
21 6 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

H e n c e s o lo n g a s a n y t wo o f t h e q a n t ities a , b , a re n e
q al u u u
t h e e x p re s s io n a
"
b
”
c
"
16 c a n b e di in is e d wit h o t
“’ ’ ’
m h u
alt e rin
g t h e a l e Of a bv uc h an d t e re o re t h e al e h f v u
Of a
"
b
'
”
’
c
"
76 will b e le a t w e n all t h e q a n t it ie
“ ’
s h u s
a, b, a re e
q al I n t i u c a se ea c Of t h e
.
q an t it ies is e
q alhs h u u
n
an d th e v lua e Of a
"
’
b
’" ’
c
"
h
"
’
t h en b eco m es

H en ce wh en a, b, a re u n e
q u a l,

717

If m
lie s b e twe en 0 a n d 1 we a
y in a si ilar an n e r
p ro m m m v e

h
t at t h e s ign o f in e q alit in t h e ab o e re s lt u y
s t b e re e rs e d v u mu v .

Th e p ro po s it io n my b t t d v a e s a e e rb all y f as o llo ws
Th e ar i th mti m f th m p
th
o wers o f n
p o s i tive q u an ti ti es
mti m
e c ea n o e

is grea ter th anth m p w feth i th

o er o e r a ri th e c ean in al l c a s es

ex c ep t wh en mli es b etween 0 an d 1 .

* 2 59 . If a an db a re p o si tive in tegers , an d a> b, an d if x be a

p o si tive u an ti ty ,
q

1 + x + 1

th e s e rie s c o n s is t in
g f ao 1 t er m; s an d
2

1 + x + — l i
9
+ 1
b 6
I
E
th e s e rie s co n sisti n
g fb o + 1 ter ms .

f
A te r
t he m h sm eco n d t er , eac t e r of
( )
1 is
g re a t e r t a n t h e h
c o rre s o n
p d gt m
ln m v er o f 2) o re o e r t h e n b e r o f t e r s in ( 1 ) um m
is gre a t e r th th uman m e n b e r o f t e r s in ( 2 ) e n c e t h e p ro p o s it io n h
is e s t a b lis h ed .
 l N E Q U A L ITIE S .
217

1 +
y
*
26 0 . To p ro ve th a t
l —y
’

if x an d y a re
p ro
p er f
ra c tio n s a n d p o s i tive, an d x
y .

> OI ’
<

a cc o r din g as o r

2 1 +

1 + y
2 1 +
1 —
2

l + x 1
1— x y

an dt hu s t h e p ro p o s it io n is
p ro v ed .

* 26 1 To p ro ve th a t —x
.

( l ) > 1, if x < l, an d to

dedu ce th a t a b
’s‘ b

D en o te ( 1 x
) ( 1 by P; t h en

(C

H en ce lo g P is p o s it i v e, an dt h f e re o re P> 1

( 1 + 1 .
218 H I GH E R AL GEBR A .

I n t is h re s ul t pu t x wh e re u > z t h en

( u z
) ( u

N o w pu t u +z : a, u — z z z b, so t h at u

b
a
a
b

E XA M PLE S . XI X b . .

hw h
S e t at 27 ( a
4
b 4
0
4
) ( a b c )
4
.

Sh w h e t at n ( n + 8 (1 3
2 3 3
3 + +n
3
) .

Sh w t h e at th e m f th m p e
‘11
o w e rs o f th e fi rs t i t e v en n u m
if m 1
su O

g h
reat e r t an n ( n + .

If a an d B are p o s iti v que an t itie s , an d a B, s hw h

e t at

H en ce s hw he t at if n > 1 th e v lua e o f 1+
11.

lie s b et w ee n 2 an d

5 . If a, b, c a re in des c en in g o r d d er o f mg a n it de , u s hwh
e t at

6 . S h e wt h at

7 . Pro v h é
e t at
m
lo g ( 1 + a )
' 1
7
7.
lo g ( 1 if m n .

8 . If n is a p o s iti e v in tege r an d x 1, s hw h e t at

1 — x
n “
l — x
"

u +1
 C H APT E R XX .

L IMI T I N G V AL U E S AND VA N I SHI N G FR A C TI O S N .

26 2 . IF a b e a co n st an t fi
y th f ti
n it e q u an t it ,
e ra c on c an

be md a e as s mll a as w pl
e b y uffi i t ly i
ea se i g x th t s c en n c re a s n a

i s, we c an mk a e
a

a:
a
pp m t
ro x i t a e ly w pl o z e ro as n ea r as e e as e

b y t a k in g so la rge en o u gh t h i i u u lly b b vi t d b y yi g
s s s a a re a e sa n ,

wh en
0

a: i s i n
O

fi n i te
O

t h e li
0

mt0

i o f
a

as
0

i s z e ro .

A ga in , t h e f ra c t io n in c re as e s as a
c de c re a se s ,
an d by mki a n
g

a: a s s mll a as we ple a s e we c an mk a e
a

a:
as la rge as we ple a s e ;

t hu s w h en 90 i s
O

z e ro
a
h as n o fi 0

n i te li
O

mt 5 t hO

i
0

is
0

is uus a ll y ex

p re s s e d by yi sa n
g ,
wh en x is z e ro t h e li mit o f
g fi is in n it e .

26 3 en we s a
yWh t at a
q an t it h u yi n c rea ses with o u t li i t m
m h s h qu yt m
.

o r i s in
fi n i te, we e a n t at w e c a n s pp o u e t e an t it o b eco e

g re at e r t a n a n
y q h
a n t it w e c an n a e u y m .

m y wh w y t h t qu tit y d
Si ila rl wi tb t en e sa a a an ecrea ses ou

m
li it, we m th t w upp t h q u tit y t b m
ean a e c an s o se e an o ec o e

sm h
a lle r t a n
y q u t it y w m an an e c an n a e .

Th ymb l i u d t d t th v lu f y qu tity
e s o 00 s se o en o e e a e o an an

wh i h i i d fi it ly i
c s d d th
n ymb l 0 i u d t
e n e n c re a se an e s o s se o

v lu f y qu tity wh i h i i d fi it ly dimi
,

d t
en oth e e a e o an an c s n e n e

h is h ed .
 L IMI TI N G VA LUE S . 221

26 4 Th e t wo s ta t e m en ts o f A rt 2 6 2 my a n o w be w ritt e n

ym
. .

s b o lic a ll a s o llo s y f w
if a: is co t h en

h if a; is 0 , t en 1s 00 .

B u t in a n u se o mki g f u h s c c o n c is e md o es o fp ex re s s io n it
mu mmb d th t t h y
,

s t b e re e e re a e a re on l y co n v e n ie n t a b b re ia t io n v s

o f fu v
lle r e rb a l s ta t e e n t s m .

Th e s t de n t
265 u w hv
ill a e h a d n o dif c lt in n de rs t a n din g fiu y u
m wh v y m y
.

th e u s e o f th e o rd li i t, e re e r we w
a e a lre a d e p lo e d it hv
b u t a s a c le a r c o n c e p t io n o f t h e ide a s c o n e y e d b y t h e o rds v w
m m
li it a n d li i ti n g va lu e is n e c e s s a r in t h e ig e r b ran c e o f y h h hs
hm
M a t e a t ic s we p ro c e e d t o e x pla in o re
p re c is e l t e ir u s e a n d m y h
m e an in g .

266 D E FIN I TI O N ( )
If y d if e
'

f
n a; a
pp a
ro a c e an wh hs a

m
z
.
,
.

v lu th e n c t io n fu f( a ) c a n b e a de t o di fe r b y a s little f
m
°
a e a, as

w pl e ea se f m fi
ro a x ed
q a n t it 6 ,
u
t y
e n 6 is c a lle d t h e li i t h o f
y wh en 90 a .

Fo r in t a n c e , if s S de n o te t h e su mf o n te r m s o f th e s e rie s
1 l 1 l
1 -

2
+
9 34
“
t h en S Z 2 [A ft

H e re Si s a fu n ct o n
0
i o f n ,
an d
1
c an be md a e as s mll a

as w e ple a s e b y in c re a s in g n ; t h at is , t h e li mit o f S i 2 wh
s en

n is in n itefi .

267 W e s a ll o te n a h f hv e o c c a s io n de a l it e x p re s s io n s
to w h
m
.

c o n s is t in g o f a s e rie s o f t e r s a rra n
ge d a c c o rdin
g t o
p o e rs o f w
so m mm
e co o n le tt e r, s c as uh
2 3
a
o
a pe a a:
g
+ a x

w h e re th e co e ffi i c en ts a a a a a re fi n it e q u an t it ie s
in de p e n de n t o f x, an d th e
o ,

n u mb
, , 2 ,

er o f ter m my s a b e li mit ed o r

u m
n li ite d .

It w ill h f t e re o re v
b e c o n e n ie n t t o dis c s s u so mp e ro
p o s it io n s

c o n n e c te d wi h h t t e m
li it in g al e s o f s c v u uh ex
p re s s io n s u n de r
c e rta in co n ditio n s .
 22 2 HI HER G AL G E BR A .

26 8 . Th e li mit f
o th e s eri es

2 s
a a x
,
a x a x
o 2 3

wh en x i s in defin itely di m i n is he d is a
c
.

u
S pp o s e t h at th e s e rie s c o n s is t s o f an i n fi n i te n u mb er o f t er m s .

L e t b b e t h e gre at e s t o f t h e c o e c ie n t s ffi a a
2 ,
a

le t u s de n o t e t h e gi e n s e rie s b y a o S ; t en v h
bx
an d if a
s l , we hv
a e
1 x
T hu wh s en a: is in de n it e l fi y dimi i h n s e d, S c an b e md a e as

s m a ll as w e ple a s e h e n c e t h e li mit o f t h e gi v en s e ries is a

o
.

I f t h e s e rie s c o n s is t s o f a fi n ite u mb
n er o f te r m s, Si s les s
h
t a n in t h e c a s e w e a hv e c o n s ide re d h ,
en c e a
f o rtio r i t h e p ro
p o s it io n is t r e u .

26 9 . I n th e s eries

2
a
0
+ a x + a x
1 2
+ a x

b y takin g x s a ll en o u gh we m
ay a ke a n
y ter m m as la m
r
ge a s we
p lea s e co p a red wm i th th e su m
of a ll th a t fo llo w i t ; a n d by

x la rge en o u gh we ay a ke a n y ter m m m
as la rge a s we
p l a se

m
e

co m
p a red wi th th e s u of a ll t h a t p rec ede i t .

t m m f ll t h t f w
"
Th e ra tio o f th e t th er a x o e su o a a o llo
u

it is
"
a x
n + 1
'
(I;
n +1
a + 0 613

Wh e n a:is in de fi n it e l y mll th s a e de n o mi n a to r c an be md a e

as s mll
a as we ple a se t h t i th f
a s, e ra c t io n c an be md a e as la rge
as We ple a s e .

A ga in , t h e ra t io o f t h e t er m a x
u
"
to th e su m o f a ll t h at

re c e de it is
p

—2
a eff + a
y + a
2 2 44 HIGHER AL GE B R A .

V A N I SH I N G FR A C TI ON S .

27 1 .
u
S pp o s e it is re
q u i re d t o fi n d t h e li m
it o f
2
2a
2
x ax
2 2
5
6 a

w h en a
c a .

I f w e p u t a: a h , t he n it w ill a
pp ro a c h th e v lua e z e ro a s a:

a
pp ro a c e t h e al e a hs v u .

u
S b s t it t in g u a h fo r a,
'

x
2
+ ax — 2a 2
3ah + h
2
3a + h 0

v
a
g
—a 2
2a h + h
2
2a + h
’

an d wh en h is in de fi n it e l y mll th s a e li mit o f t i hs ex
p re ss io n

3
2

T h e re is hwv
o e e r an o t h er wa y o f re ga rdin g t h e q u e s t io n ; fo r

m m g
+ a — 2a 2
( c
c —a
)( m 2 + a
) x + 2a
x
Q
— a 2
( ac m + a
’

an d if we n ow
put w= a th e v lua e o f th e e x p re s s o n i is
3
f
.

as be o re
5
.

I f in t h e gi v en ex
p re s s io n we p u t cc z a b efo re

Si mpl fi i c a ti o n it W l ll b e fu o n d t h at it a ss u ms e th e f m6
o r
0
’
th e

v lu f wh i h i i d t mi t ; l w
a e o c t h t it h
s n t hise er n a e a so e s ee a as

f mio r
q u f t
n h f t
c o n se
pp i i
en c e
g b t h o e ac o r x — a a ea r n n o

n u m t d d mi t N w w
e ra o r an t div id b y
en o n a o r . o e c an n o e a z ero

f b t
ac to r, l g i u t b lu t
as ly q u l
on t t h f
as t a; s n o a so e e a o a e ac o r

x my b
— a mv d d w h fi d t h t t h
a e re o e ,
an e t en n a e n e a re r a:

a
pp h t t h
ro a c v lu t h
es do s t h v lu
e f t
a h e a, e n ea re r oe e a e o e

f ti pp imt t £3 i
9

ra c on a dro x w ith th d fi iti f

a e o
d
,
or n ac c o r an c e e e n on o

A rt 2 6 6 , .

w h en so a, t h e li mit o f
 VA N I SHI N G FR A C TI O N S . 22 5

27 2 If f( i
) an d a t ( x ) a re t wo n c t io n s fu o f so , e a c h f wh i h
o c

m m
.

b ec o es eq u a l to z e ro fo r s o e p a rt ic la r u v u al e a o f x, th e

f ra c t io n
f( ) a
take s the f m90
or ’
an d is c a lle d a V an i h in g s
a( )
s a

Frac t io n .

m
E x a p le 1 . If x = 3 , fi n d th e li mit o f

x
3 — 5x 2 + 7 x — 3

x
3 —x — 5x — 3
’
~

Wh en x = 3 , th e ex p re s s io n du re ces to th e in d e ter mi t f m0? b

n a e or ut by

re mvi
o n g th e fac to r x — 3 fro m um n erato r an d d en o mi t th f n a o r, e rac tio n

x
2 2x + 1
-

W h en x h i du
=3 t s re c es to
i wh h , ic is t h erefo re th e

re q u d
ire li mit .

m J 3x _
m wh
8
a
E x a p le 2 . Th e frac tio n b eco es en x =a ,

To fi n d its li mit multiply n um erato r an d d en o mi n ato r b y th e s ud r co n

m
,

ju gate to /
N 3x a
J ar a ; th e fractio n t h en b ec o es

—a
( 3 x )

wh en ce b y p ttin g u m z a we fi n d t h at th e li mit i s

m Jr m 90 wh
3
1
E x a p le 3 Th e fracti o n b eco es en x : 1
“;
. .
5
1 N

To fi n d its li mit p u t l +h an d e xp an d b y th e B in o mi l a T h m e o re
T hu s th e fra ctio n
, .

1 1
1 1+ h h2
3 9

-
O O O O O O

3 9
1 2
+ h
5 §5

No w h =0 wh en x =1 ; h en c e th e re q u d ire li mit i s
;
27 3 So mtim e es th e ro o ts o f an e
qu a t io n a ss um e an in
m f mi m
.

de t e r in a t e or n co n se
q u en c e o f so e re la t io n ub
s s is t in
g
w
b et e en th e fi
c o e f c ie n ts o f th e e
q u i
at o n .

H . H . A .
22 6 HIGH R E AL GEBR A .

Fo r ex a mpl e, if aa
c b = cx d,

( a —c
) c=
a d —b ,

a — c

B u t if c = a, t h en 90 b eco m es
O
o r 00 t h at is , t h e ro o t o f

a si mpl e e
qu a t io n is in de fi n it e l yg re a t if t h e fi
c o e f c ie n t o f x is
in de fi n it el y mll s a .

27 4 . Th e so u
l t io n o f th e eq u a tio n s

' ' ’ '

bc b c ca c a
’ ' y '
'— '
a b a b ab a b

If a b
’
-
a
'
b 0, t h e n a: an d y a re b o t h in fi n it e . I n t is h c a se

2 3
6
m u pp s o se ; by s ub s t it u ti n
g fo r a
’

,
b
’

,
th e s ec o n d

q
e u i at o n b e co m es ax by

If
i is n o t e
qu al to c, t h e t wo e
q u a tio n s ax by c z0 an d

0 diffe r on y i th
l n e ir ab s o u
l te te r m s, an d b e in g

in co n s is ten t c an n o t be sa ti fi d b y
s e an
y fi n it e v a l u es o f a: an dy .

If
C

E
is e
q u al to c, we hv a e an d t h e t wo eq u a tio n s
a re n o w ide n t ic a l .

H e re , si n ce bc
’
b
’
c 0 an d ca
’
c a
'
O th e va l e u s o f x an dy

e ac u m th f m6"
h as s s luti i i d t mi
e e I
or
0
an d th e o on s n e er n a te . n

f t i th p s t
ac n w hv lly
e ly u
re e n
q t i c a se e a e rea on on e e a on

i v lv i g w u k w d u h m s fi
,

n o n tqu t i
o
y bn t i n od n s, an s c an e a on a e a s e

by u limit d u m
an b f v lu s
n
[A t e n er o a e . r .

Th d wh i e q u i t d w i
re a h A ly tierl G m t y will
o s ac a n e t na ca eo e r

h v diffi u l y i i t p i g t h
a e n o u lt i
c t ti wi hn n e r re t n es e re s s n co n n ec on t
t h g mt y f h
e eo t igh t li e r o t e s ra n e .
2 28 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

E XA M PLE S . XX .

Fi n d t h e li mit s o f t h e fo llo wi gn e x p re s s io n s ,

( )
1 wh en x = oo , ( )
2 w h en x = O .

—3 — 5x 2
(2x ) ( 3 ) 2
( 3x
7x 2 — 6 a'+ 4 x
4
+9

( 3 + 2 x )( ) 3 cs — 5 ( Jo — 3 )( )2 — 5a'
(3 m
+ 1) -

—9 1 + x —
)( ( x D
3 3
( 4 56 ) 2

1 ?
1— ( 3 —
) 7x)
2
x 7 x -

2 5 —I 2x (7x
Fin d th limi e ts o f

gti ,
wh en x ,
wh en a = o .

_x
e
x _ e
wh en x
—
O wh m en _ a .

5 22
Jx 2 2a
? : x
+
, wh en x = 2a .

lo g
3x 2
( 1 — 2x
)
wh m en = o .

1:322i ; wh g
en x = 1 .

( a
2
(a x )

(a
3
e >+ (
2
ca— x x

wh en n = oo .

17 . n lo g wh en n = a;

wh en i
.
'
O.
 CH A PTE R XX I .

R GE N C Y A N D DV I ER GE N C Y O F SE R I E S .

s s
is c a lle d a erie ; if t h e s e ries t e r mi t n a e at

it is c a lle d a fi n it e s eri e ; if t h e n s u mb er o f
it is c a lle d a n in fi n it e s erie s .

we s h al l u u lly
s a de n o t e a s e rie s by

+ u +

27 7 u hv
S pp o se t h a t w e a e a e rie c o n s is t in g o f n te r s s s m
m
. .

Th e s u o f th e e ries will b e a s n c t io n o f n ; if n fu
in c re a s e s
fi
in de n it el , t h e s u y m h
e it e r t e n ds t o b e c o e e q a l t o a c e rt a in m u
fi n it e li m ms fi
i t, o r e ls e it b e c o e in n it e l gre at y .

fi s
A n in n it e s e rie is s a id t o b e co n v ergen t wh en th e su m
o f th e rs t n fi
ter s c an n o t n m
e ric a ll e x c ee d um y smfio e n it e
q u
a n t it h o w y
e er
g re a t n a
y b v
e m .

A n in fi n it e s e rie s is s a id t o b e div ergen t wh en th e su mf o

th e fi rs t n ter m s c an be md u m i
a e n e r c a ll yg re a te r t h an an
y fi n ite
q u an t it y by t a kin
g n s uffi ic en tlyg re a t .

27 8 I f we
fi n d th e s u o f th e
c an rs t n t e r m
o f a gi e n fi ms v
m
.

s e rie s , wewh ha
y v
as c e rt a in e t e r it is c o n e r e n t o r di e rge n t
g v
m wh h
b y e x a in in g s m fi
e t e r t h e s e rie re a in s n it e , o r b e c o e s in m
fi wh m
n it e , fi y
e n n is a de in de n it e l
g re a t .

F mpl t h m f t h fi t t m
o r ex a e, e su o e rs n er s o f th e s e rie s

"
l —x
l — a
'
230 HIGHER AL GE BR A .

If a: is n u m i lly l t h
er c a ess an 1 , th e su m a
p
fi n it e li mit 1
1
a:
an d th e s e ries is t h f e re o re c o n v
If x is n u m i lly er c a g re a t e r t h an 1 , th e su m
a
o 1
s
an d b y t a kin g nu ffi i tly
s c en
g r

be md a e g re a t e r t h an an
y fi n it e q u t it yan
;
di v e rge n t .

If th e su m f th fi o e rs t n ter mi s s n ,

s e rie s is di e r e n t
g v .

I f a; 1 , th e s e ri e s b eco m es

1 —1 +

Th e mfsu o an e v en nu mb er o f ter ms i
o f an o dd u mb n f t er
er o s 1 ms i
b e twee n th e v u
al e s 0 a n d 1 T
my b
.

wh ic h a e c alle d o scilla tin g o r

p eri o

27 9 Th e re a re an c a s e s in my w
m m
.

o f fi
n din
g t h e su o f t h e rs t n t e r s fi
h f
t e re o re t o in e s tigat e r le v
b y wh i u s
v y
e rge n c o r di e rge n c of a
g i envse y v
s u mmt io a n .

2 80 fi
A n i n n i te s eries i n wh ich th e ter s m a re a ltern a tely

mi mi
.

p o si ti ve f
a n d n ega tive i s c o n vergen t i eac h ter s n u er c a ll
y
less tha n the p recedin g ter m .

Let th e s e rie s b e de n o t e d b y

u -
u
,
+ u 3
u
4
u
5
l

wh e re

Th e gi v en s e rie s my a be w itt r en in eac h o f th e f ll wi

o o n
g
f m or s :

u
) ( a
s
u
, ) ( u
5

u
s ) ( u
4
u
5 ) ( a
s

F m( 1 ) ro we s ee t h at th e su m o f
y an n u mb f t m i er o er s s

a
p o it iv
s e q u an t it y; an d f m( 2) h
ro t at t h e s u m f y umb o an n er

o f te r ms i s le ss t h an u h then c e e s e rie s is c o n v g t er e n .
232 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

2 84 fi
A n i n n ite s eri es is c o n vergen t if fro f
a n d a ter s o e m m
m m m m
.

fi x d ter th e ra ti o of ea ch ter to th e p recedin g ter is n u eric a lly

m m
e

les s th a n s o e qu a n tity which is i ts elf n u eri ca lly les s th a n u n i ty .

L e t th e s e rie s b egin n in g f mh fi
ro t e x ed te r mb e de n o t e d b y

T h en

it 26 26
3

“ 26
I ]

< u
1

t h at is , s in c e r 1 .

H en c e t h e gi v en s e rie s is co n v e r en
g t .

i
'

285 I n t h e e n u n c ia t io n o f t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le t h e s t u de n t
‘

f m
.

shu o ld n o t ic e t h e s ign i c an c e o f t h e o rds

“
firo a n d a te r a w f
fi x e d te r
”
m .

C o n s ide r t h e s e rie s

+ na

n a; 1
H e re
n — l n — l

an d b y t akin g n s f c ie n t l la rge w e c an ufi y
a k e t is ra t io a
p m h
p ro x i m
a t e t o x a s n e a rl a s w e p le y
a s e , a n d t h e ra t io o f e ac h t e r m
t o t h e p re c e din g t e r will lti a t e l b e x m u m
H e n c e if x < 1 t h e y .

s e rie s is c o n v e r e n t
g .

Bu t th e ra t io w ill n o t b e le s s t h an 1, u n t il

t h at is, u n t il n
1 x

H e re we h a v
f a c o n e rge n t se rie s in
e a c as e o ic t h e t e r s v wh h m
m a
y in c re a s e u
p t o a c e rt a in p o in t a n d t e n b egin t o de c re a s e h .

Fo r e x a ple , if x m 99
t en — l h
1 00, a n d t h e t e r s do n o t m “

1 00 1
m m
x

u
b egin t o dec reas e n t il a t e r t h e l o 0 t e r f .
 C O N VE R G E N G Y A N D D IVER GE N C Y O F S ER I E S . 233

28 6 A n infin i te s eri es in whic h a ll th e ter s a re Q/ th e s a e m m

m mfi m
.

s ign i s divergen t iffro a n d after s o e x ed ter th e ra tio of ea c h

ter m
to the p recedi n g ter m
is grea ter th an u n i ty , o r e qu a l to u n i ty .

Let th e fi d ter xe e e n o te d b mb d
y 1“ I f t h e ra t io is e
q a l t o u
ms m
°

u iyn t ea c h o f t h e s c c ee din g t e r uis e q a l t o “ n a n d t h e s u u

m
,

o f n te r s is e q a l to n u u e n c e t h e s e ries is di e r e n t
g h v .

I f th e ra t io is gre a t e r th an u
it , e a c
n y h o m
f t h e t e r s a t e r th e f
fi x e d ter mi s
great e r t h an u an d th e su m o f n t e r s is
g m
re a t e r

th a n n u h en c e th e s e rie s is v
di e rge n t .

287 I n t h e p ra c t ic a l a pp lic at io n o f t h ese t e s ts, to a v o id

m ft ht m
.

hv
a in
g t o a sc e rt a in t h e p a rt ic la r t e r u a er wh i h c eac er is
gre a t e r o r les t h an t h e
p s
re c e din
g t e r
‘

m it ,
is co nv en ie n t t o fi n d

t h e li mit o f
it
u
"
wh en n is in de fi n it e l yi n c re a s e d ; le t t is li h mit
” -
1

b e de n o te d b y A
If A 1 , th e s e rie s is co n v e r en
g t .

[A rt 2 8 4 ]
If A 1 , th e s e rie s is di v e r en
g t .
[A rt

I f A = l , t h e s e rie s a
y b e e it e r c o n er en t
g m h v o r di v e rge n t,
an d a fu h
rt e r t e s t ill b e re q ire d 5 fo r it a
y w u m h pp t h t a en a

i t lim
u
1 bu t co n tin u a lly a
pp ro a ch in g to 1 as s it wh i en n s
u

m y fi t
—l

in
n

defin i tely i n creas ed . I n t i s c as e we h can n o t n a e an ni e

q u
a n t it r y wh i h c is f
its e l le ss t h a n 1 an d y e t gre a te r t h an A .

H en c e t h e te st o f A rt 2 8 4 . f a ils . I f, hwv o e e r,
it
26
> 1 but co n

mit
—I

t in u a ll
y pp a ro a c hi n
g t o 1 as it s li ,
th e s e rie s
n

is di v er en
g t by
A rt . 28 6 .

We s h a ll u se
“
Li m as an ab b re v ia t io n o f th e w o rds

n —l

t h e li mit o f wh en n is in fi n it e .

n
—l

m
E x a p le 1 . Fin d wh h et er th e s erie s wh o se n
‘h
ter mi s is co n

v ergen t o r di v erge n t .

H ere
u“ ( n + 1)
a
“

3
u
23 4 HI HER G AL GE B R A .

h en c e if x < l th e s erie s is co n v erge n t;

if x > 1 th e s eries is dv i ergen t .

If x : 1 , t h en Li mJ “it
1, an d a f u h rt er tes t is re q u d
ire .

m
E x a p le 2 . I s th e s erie s

2 2 2 ?
1 2 x 3 x

co n v erge n t or div erge n t?

H ere J
2 _2
( 1) n
n —l
u n x

H e n ce if x 1 th e s e rie s is co n v ergen t;

if x > 1 th e s erie s is div ergen t .

If x 1 th e seri es b ec o m es 1 2
2 2
3 2
4 2
an d is o b iov u dv s ly i erge n t .

E xa m
pl e 3 . I n th e s erie s

n —l d)

Li m u
un
Li m a + ( n — 1) d

n
-
l

thu s if r < 1 th e s e rie s is co n v e rgen t, an d th e su mi s fi n ite .

[ See A rt . 6 0, Co r ]
.

2 88If there a re two i n n i te s eri es in ea ch of wh ic h a ll th e fi

m m
.

ter s a re p o si tive, a n d if th e ra ti o of th e co rresp o n di n g ter s in

th e two s eries is a lwa y s gfi
n i te, the two s eries a re b o th co n ver en t,

o r b o th divergen t .

L e t t h e t w o in fi n it e s e rie s b e de n o t e d b y

v + v + v + v
l 2 3 4

Th e v lua e o f th e f ra c t io n

u + u + u
, 2 3

v v
l 2

lie s b e t w e en t h e gre a t e st an dl o f th e f ra c tio n s

“ “
n E E‘
s

v v v"
l
J ,

an d is t h f e re o re a fi n i te q u an t it y ,
L sa
y
u
,
+ u
2
+ u
3
+ - - l v
2
+ v3 + + v
n ) .

H en c e if o n e s e ries is fi n it e in v al e , u so is t h e o t h er if
s e ries is fi
in n ite in al e, v u s o is t h e o t h e r; ic wh h p ro v es

p ro
p o st
i io n .
236 HIGHER AL GE B R A .

E xa m
pl e. Pro v h
e t at th e s eri e s

2 3 4

is di ve rgen t .

Co mp are th e gi ven s e ri e s Wi t h 1 1 1

T hu
s if a n an d vn d en o te th e n
th
ter m s o f th e gi v en s erie s

a u xiliary s eri es re s p ec ti ely , v we hv a e

u +1 1 n + 1
2
71 n n

h en c e Li m u ,,
_

vn
1, an dt h ere fo re th e two serie s are bot h co n vergen t or bot h
di verge n t B u t th e a u x iliary s eri e s is dv i erge n t, t h erefo re als o th e gi v
en
v
.

s erie s is di ergen t .

T ish co mpl t e es th e so l u tio n o f E xa mp l e 1 . A rt 2 8 7 .

291 . I n th e a
pp lic a t io n o f A rt 2 8 8 it is . n e c e s sa r y th at th e

li mit o fi
i h u ld b sfi it ; t h is
o e n e W ill b e t h e c a se if w e fi n d our

s m
n

au x fli a r
y h
s e ri ef ll w g w in t e o o a
y

Ta k e u th e n
th
ter m f th o e
gi v en s e rie s an d re ta in on
y l th e
lim
“,

h igh t p w f es o e rs o n . D e n o te t h e re s u lt by v
n ; t h en th e it f o

i fi i my t m f
Z 2 7 0, th
by A t d b e t ak e n th e
”
s n te r . an v
n
a as n er o

th
n

l y
e a u x i i ar s e ri e s .

E xa p le 1 m S hw he t at th e s e rie s wh o se n
th
ter mi s
f/
.

3n 3 + 2 n + 5
dv i ergen t .

As n in c re as e s , a
n
ap p ro xi mt a es t o th e v u
al e

z/es
‘

w or
w
H e n ce , i f vn we hv
a e Li m w h hi c is a fi n i te q u an ti ty ;
i

th erefo re th e s erie s wh o se n
th
t er mi s "
1
?
my a b e ta k en as th e a u xiliary

12
72
serie s
dv i
.

e rgen
B u t t is
t .
h se rie s is dv
i ergen t [A rt . t h erefo re th e gi v en s erie s is
 CO NV ER GE N C Y A N D E I V E R GE N C Y o r S E R I E S . 237

E xa m
pl e 2 . Fin d wh h et er th e s erie s in wh h ic
3
u
" J ii
s
+ 1 71

v dv
.

is co n erge n t o r i e rge n t .

_L6
9a

1 1
2 5
3n 9n

I f we ta k e vn we hv a e

B u t th e a u x iliary s erie s

1 1 1
— — "

3
‘

2 2 2
1 2 23

is co n v erge n t, t h ere fo re th e gi v en serie s is co n v ergen t .

292 To s h ew th a t the exp an s i o n o f ( 1 + x )

n
b y th e B in o mi l a

mi
.

Theo re s co n vergen t when x 1

m
.

Le t u u re re s e n
p t th e r an d ( r + ter m
s o f th e ex

h + 1
,

p a n SI On t en

u n —r + 1
” ,
x .

‘
u 7

f mt h i
r

W h en h
1 , t is ra t io is n e ga t i e ; t a t is ,
r > n + v h ro s

p o in t th e t er m
s a re a lt e rn a t e l
p o y
s it i e a n d n ega t i v v wh e en x

v wy
is p o s it i e , an d a l a s o f t h e s a e S ig n m
e n x is wh g i v n e at e .

N ow wh en r fi t
is in L m
n i e, u m lly ; h f i
u
x n e ri c a t e re o re

m s r

s in c e x 1 th e s er e s s i i g t i f ll t h t
c o n ve r e n f h a e er a re o t e

sa m e Sign a n d t e re o re h f f i i it i v g wh m f a o rt o r s co n er en t en so e o

th e t e r m s a re
p os i iv
t d m
e an
g t i v [A t 2 8
so3 ] e n e a e . r .

29 3 To s he w th a t th e exp a n s io n
. o f a
x
in a scen din g p o wers
of g f
x i s c o n ver en t o r ever
y va lu e o
f x .

H e re
u
u x 10 D0
;
a
an d t h f e re o re Li m u

u
l wh a t e ve r be
—l n —l
the v lu
a e o
n

fx; h en c e th e s e rie s is co n v er en
g t
n

.
23 8 HIGHER AL GE B R A .

294 To s h ew th a t th e exp an s i o n of lo g ( 1 + x ) in a seen

m
.

o wers of x is c o n vergen t wh en x is n u eri c a ll

y less th an 1
p .

H e re th e n um e ri c al v lu a e o f
u
u

—l
“
n

n
1
x, wh h ic in t h e li mt i

is eq u al to x h en c e th e s e rie s is
n

co n v e rge n t w h en x is le s s t h an 1 .

If x = 1, th e s e rie s b ec o m es l —l
2
i
- -
l
3 4
1
l an d is co n

v e rge n t .
[A rt .

If x — l
,
t h e ezrie s b e c o e s — 1
1
—
2
l
3
1
4
s an d i s m
dive rge n t [A rt T is s ews t h at t h e lo ga rit h o f z ero is h h m
f m
.

fi v w v u
.

in n it e an d n e ga t i e , a s is o t h e r is e e iden t ro t h e e q at io n

295 . u
Th e re s lt s o f t h e t wo o llo in g e x a ple a re i po rt an t , f w m s m
an u
d will b e re q ire d in t h e c o rs e o f t h e p re s e n t c h a pt e r u .

m
E x a p le 1 . Fin d th e li mit o f
lo g x
x
wh en x is in fi n ite .

Pu t x c” ; th en

lo g x
y y
x ell
l +y + + +
y
—
2

2 3
l [
1
1
2
o
y 1
+1 ”f
+
y t | 3

als o wh en x is in fi n ite y is in fi n ite ; h en ce th e v u al e o f th e frac tio n is z ero .

E xa m p le 2 . S h w h wh
e t at en n is in fin ite th e li i t m o f ux ” = o, wh en x 1 .

L et x 1
y
, so t h at y>1

als o let y ”
z , so t h at n lo gy
lo g z ; t en h
n l lo g z 1 lo g e
— '
" [ lo lo g y z
y gy

Now wh en n is in fi n ite z is in fi n ite, an d

lo g z
0;
z also lo g y is fi n ite ;

t h erefo re Li
'
m nx
“
0 .

29 6 I t is s o e t i m ms e n e c es s a r y to det e r in e w m h th e er th e
u mb
.

p ro d c t u o f an in n it e n fi er o f f ac t o rs fi
is n it e o r n o t .

u
S ppo s e t h e p ro d u ct to c o n s is t o fn f a c t o rs an d t o b e den o t e d b y
u u u u
” ”

t h if a s n in c reas e s in de n it el
en fi y 1 , t h e pro d c t will lt i u u
m yate l b e z e ro , an d if u ” 1 t h e p ro d u c t will b e in n it e fi
e n c e in h
o rde r t a t t h e hp ro d c t a
y b e n it e , u m fi u
”
mu
s t t e n d t o t h e li it 1 m .
24 0 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

Fo r ex a mpl e, if w e ex
p an d ( l —x
)
"
2
b y t h e B in o mi l Th a e o re m ,

we fin d

( l

B u t if w e o b t a in t h e s u m o f n ter m s o f t is h s e rie s as ex

p la in e d in A rt . 6 0, it a pp e a rs t h at

"
1 — x II
n x
2 "' 1
1 + 2x + 3x + + nx
— l —x
2 ’
x
)
wh en c e

l x n x
g
l + 2x + 3x + + '
2
—
)
2
( 1 — x
) x l — x

By mki a n
g n in fii n te, we see t h at
—
1
2
c an o n ly b e re
( 1 x
)
ga rde d as t h e tr u e e
qu i v a le n t o f t h e in fi n it e s e rie s

wh en
C
B
9
1
v i h
72 93
an s es .

( 1 x
) x

If n is i fi it
n t h i qu
n ti y b
e, m i fi it wh s an t ec o es n n e en x l,
d dim
:

or 1,
x > an i i h i d fi i ly wh
n s l [A es n e n te en x < ,
rt . so

h
t a t i t is on ly wh 1 th t w
en t th t
x < a e c an as s e r a

1
t o in f ; .

)
9
( 1 -
x

an d we s h u ld b l d
o e e to e rro n e o u s c o n cl ui
s on s if we w e re to u se

th e e x p an s o n i f (1 ) o x
'
2
b y t h e B in o ial T eo re a s if it m e re h m w
tr u fo r a
e a es ll v lu f o x . I n o t er h w
o rds , w e c a n in t ro d c e t h e u
fi
in n it e s e r e s i 1 2 3 x x
2
in t o o u r re a s o n in g wit o t e rro r hu
if t h e s e r es s c o n i i v g er en t , b u t w e c an n o t do s o e n t h e s e ries wh
v
is di e rge n t .

u v
Th e diffi c l tie s o f di e rge n t s e rie s a e c o p e lle d a dis tin c t io n hv m
to b e ma de b e t w
e e n a s e ries an d it s a lgeb ra i c a l eq u iva len t Fo r
m
.

ex a
p le , if w e di ide l b
y ( 1 w e c anval a s o b t a in as wy
m an t ery as w e ms
p le a s e o f t h e s e rie s

w htv
a e er x my a b e, an d so in a c e rt a in s en s e
1
my a be

c alle d it s a lgeb ra ic a l eq u i va len t ; y e t , a s we hv a e s ee n th e e

q u i
v y wh
,

a le n c e do es n o t re all e x is t e x c e t e th e s e ries is
p n co n
 C ON VE R G E N C Y AND DV I ER GE N CY o r SE R I E S . 24 1

v e rge n t . I t is t h f e re o re m o re a
pp ro
p ria te to s
p e ak o f

as t h e gen era tin g f u n c tio n o f th e s e rie s

2
1 2x 3x

b e in g t a t h fu i wh i h wh d v l p d n ct o n c en e e o e by o rdin a r y
b ra ic a l r le u s w ill giv t h i i qu ti e e s e r es n es on .

Th e u s e o f t h e t e r mg en e ra tin gf u n c tio n w ill b m e o re

e x la in e d in t h e c a p t e r
p h on R ec u rrin
g S e ries .

E XA M PL E S . XXI . a .

Fi n d wh h et er t h e fo llo wi g n s e ries a re c o n v e rge n t d iv e rge n t ,

1 1 1 1
1' + +
x x +a x + 2a x + 3a
an d a b e in g p o s it i v que an tit ie s .

1 1 1 l

b e in g p o s iti v que an titie s .

3 4
x v2 x x

2 3 x
4
v x x

z g 2
3 l
6 —
+ + i— +
ii I
E Ij:
‘

3
7 .

21 +

8 .

2 3 4 5
—
+ +
p 15
2 3
x x x
10 .

3 s 15
2 3 4
11 l + v +
.
f 31
,

x ‘ ‘
Z
- -

g
.

l 17

H . H . A .
24 2 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

2 6 2
14 l
3
12
-
n
+ x + m + x
.

fi
.

1 l . 1 1
—
+ +
1p 3 p

14 . 2x +

2 3 4
1 2 3 4
16 .

17 . Te s t th e s erie s wh o se ge n eral t e r m s are

N/ J
—
(I) u
z
l l —n
-
.
( 2) n
4
+ 1 —
J it
4 —1 .

18 . Tes t t h e s e ries

1 1
( )
1 1+ 1
x x +1 x +2 x +3
l 1 1 1 l
(2 ) x x —l x +1 x — 2 x +2

x b e in g a p o s iti v f e rac tio n .

19 . Sh w t h
e th at e s e ries

2p 3p 4”
1 4“—
7
3
I 4

is co n v e rge n t fo r all v lu
a es o fp .

20 . S hw ht
e t a t h e in fi n ite s e ries

is co n v e rge n t or d iv e rge n t ac c o r di g n as Li mQ/ u n

is 1, or 1 .

21 . S hw ht
e t a th e p ro d ut
c

2 2 4 4 6 2n — 2 2n — 2 2n
'
2n — 3
°

2n — 1 2n — 1

is fi n ite wh i i fi i
en n s n n te .

22 Sh w h
e wh t at en x = 1, n o t er mi th e p an s io n f is
um i
n ex o

p wh v h u
.

in fi n i t e, ex c e t en n i s n e ga ti e a n d n e r c ally gre ate r t an n ity .

24 4 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

t h at is , ( vl v
2
v
3
1

H e n c e, if t h e v s e rie s
-
is dive rge n t th e u s e rie s
-
is a ls o di
v e rge n t .

300 96
v s
W e h a e een in A rt 2 8 7 t at a s erie is c o n e rgen t h s v
m m
. .

v
o r di e rge n t a c c o rdin g a s t h e li it o f t h e ra t io o f t h e n th
ter
t o t h e p rec edi n g t e r m
is le s t a n 1 , o r gre at e r t an 1 I n the s h h
m m
.

re a in de r o f t h e c a p t e r w e s all fi n d it h
o re c o n e n ie n t t o u s e h v
hs
t i t e s t in t h e e q i alen t o r uv f m
A s e rie s v g
is c o n e r e n o r t div e rge n din g a s th e li
t ac co r mit of
th e ra tio o f th e n
th
t er to th e m su cceedin g t e r is gre a t e r t m h an 1,

o r le s s th an 1 t h at is , acc o r din g a s Li m u
> 1, or < 1 .

+ 1

mil ly m my
n

Si ar th e t h eo re o f th e p re c e din g a rt ic le a be
en u n c a te d
i
Th es i s w ill b u -
er e e co n v e r en
g t w h en th e v -
s e rie s is co n v e rge n t

p ro vid d h t Lime t a
u
u
.
> Li m ”n
v
.
an d th e w s e rie s w ill b e di
i l +1

w s v v id d t h
--
n

v er e n
g t h t h en e v -
e rie s is di e rge n t p ro e at

Li m ”
U
7)

*
3 01 . Th e s erie s who s e gen eral ter mi s un is c o n vergen t o r di

vergen t a c co rdin g a s Li m 1 > 1, o r < 1 .

L et us co mp a re t h e gi v en s e rie s wit h th e a u x ilia r ys e rie s

wh o se ge n e ra l t er m v
“
is
1

W h en p > 1 th e a u x il a r i y s e rie s is co n v e rge n t, an d in t is h

c a se t h e gi v s
en e rie is s co n v e r en
g t if
p
u
"
1 +
“n + n
1

t h at is , if
n 2n
2

1 >p +

t h at is , if
 C ON VE R GE N C Y AND DV I ER GEN C Y o r SER IE S . 24 5

Bu t th e a u y
x ilia r s e rie s is co n v e rge n t if p is gre at e r t an 1 h
fi
b y a n it e q v s mll ; h
u tity h
an fis owe er a en c e t h e r t
p a rt o f t h e

ro
p p o s it io n is b lis h
e s ta ed .

Wh enp 1 t h u ili y i s i di v g t d by p
e a x ar ser e s e r en an ro ce e d
w my p v t h
,

in g a s b f e o re d p t f h p p si i
e a ro e e s eco n ar o t e ro o t on .

m Fi d wh h
E x a p le . n et er th e s erie s

is co n v ergen t or div ergen t .

H ere Li mi [
i
u 1
; 2;
h en c e i f x < 1
O

th e
0

seri e s i s c o n
0

v erge n t, an d
0

if x > l

th e s eries is di v n+1
ergen t .

If x : 1 , L i m u“

“n + 1
=1 . In t is h c as e

—3
u
( 2 n ) '
1
2 —2 —1
( n ) 2 n

n u
2n ( 2n + 1)
“n
+1 ( 2 n 1) a n

n fi
( n 1)
1
(2 n
Li m n
“n
u“

2
+1

h en ce 1 th e s erie s is co n v ergen t .

*
302 . The s eries wh o se gen era l ter mi u s ,
is co n vergen t
u
vergen t, acc o rdi n g as Li m n lo g
ii
1, or 1 ,

Le t u s co mp a re t h e gi v en s e rie s w it h the s e ries wh o se

ge n e ra l

ter m is
1
it
p

W h en p > l th e a u x il a r i ys e rie s is co n v er en
g t, an d in t is h
c ase t h e gi v en s e rie s is co n v er en
g t if

[A rt 300.

t h at is , if p lo
g 1 l
2 46 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

t h at is , if I/t
'
m lo g

H en c e th e fi rs t
p f h e p ro p o s it io n is e s t ab lis h e d
a rt o
t .

W h en
p 1 w e p ro c e e d in a i il ar an n e r in t i sm m hs c ase

a u x ilia r y s e rie s is di e rge n tv .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d wh h et er th e s eries

4 5
[
3
I I
is co n v
erge n t or dvi erge n t .

n n
n x

[ it

[A rt . 2 20

H en ce if x <
é th e series is co n v ergen t, if x > 1 th e s eries
e
is div ergen t .

)
1
lo g e — n lo g —
z

— 1 —n

m
(
N"
Li n lo g
“n + 1

h en ce wh en x th e series is div erge n t .

*
3 03 . I f Li m “
— 1
,
an d a ls o Li m
t e st s giv en in A rt s 3 00
.
n + 1

,
3 01 a re n o t a
pp lic a b le .

To dis c o v er a fu th r er t e s t we s h ll mk
a a e u se o f th e a u y
x ilia r

s e rie s wh o se ge n e ra l ter mi s
1
In o rde r to e s ta b li h s
)
”
n l
( g
o n

th e co nv e r en c
g y or di v e rge n c y of t i hss e rie s we n e ed th e t h e o re m
p ro ve d in th e n ex t a rt ic le .
 24 8 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

*
3 05 Th e series wh o s e gen era l ter mi s
1
is co n vergen t
( g )
l
.

n o Ii p

if p 1, an d divergen t if p = 1, or p < 1 .

B y t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le t h e s e rie ill b e sw co n v e r en

g t or

v
di e rge n t fo r t h e s a e al e s o f p a s t h e s e rie mv u s wh o se
g e n e ra l

te r ism

Th e c o n s tan t f a c to r
1
is co mm on to e v y t m; h
er er t e re
( g )
l ?
o a

f h giv
o re i
t w e en s e r es ill b e c o n v e r en
g t or di v e rge n t fo r t h e sa m e

v lu f p th
a es o as e s e ri es wh o se g e n e ra l ter m is
n
1
?
H en c e th e

re
q u i d u lt f ll
re w re s o o s .
[A rt .

*
3 06 . Th e s eries wh o s e gen era l ter mi s u n
is c o n vergen t or di

ver en
g t a cco r din g as Li m > 1, o r 1 .

Le t u s co mp a re t h e gi v en s e rie s wit h th e s e rie s wh o se

ge n e ra l

t er m is
n
1

W h en p > 1 th e a u i
x il a r y s e rie s
is c o n ve rge n t , an d in t is h
c ase t h e gi v en s e rie s is co n v e rge n t b
y A rt 2 9 9 , if .

( n 1 ) {lo g ( n

( g )
l ”
n o n

N o w wh en n is v yl er a r e,
g

lo g ( n 1) = lo g n lo g 1 + 1 n e a rly ;

H en ce th e co n dit io n ( )
1 b ec o m es

t h at is ,

t ha t is ,
 C ON VE R G E N C Y AND DV I ER GE N C Y o r S E R IE S . 24 9

l 1

b gn > p .

H en c e th e fi rs t
p f
art t h e
p
o ro o s it io n is e s t a b lis e d
p T h e h
my b m
.

d p a rt a e ro ve d in t h e a n n e r in dic a t e d in A rt 3 01
s ec o n p . .

m
E x a p le . I s th e s eries

22

co n ve rge n t or dvi ergen t?

( n+ 1
un 2
1 1 '

“n +1 2
( 10
5
n 4n

1, an d we p ro cee d to th e n ex t tes t .

F ro m —1 = 1+

1, an d we p as s to th e n ex t te s t .

m
Fro
{ n 1
) 1 lo g n

1
) 1 lo g n
J
s in c e Li m 0 [A rt . h en ce th e gi ven s erie s dv
is i e rge n t
.

96
307 hv h
W e a e s e wn in A rt 1 8 3 t at t h e u s e o f di e rge n t h v
mh m m
.

u u
.

s e rie s in at e a t ic a l re aso n in g le a d t o e rro n e o e s lt s

a
y s r .

B u t e en v wh fi
e n t h e in n it e s e rie s a re c o n v
e r e n t it is n e c e s s a r t o
g y
u u
e x e rc is e c a t io n in s in
g t h e m .

Fo r in s ta n c e , t h e s e rie s

x
3
x “
x
5

l —x +
3 5

is co n v er en
g t w h en x : 1 .
[A rt B u t if w e
. mu lt iply the
s e rie s b y it se l f ,
th e co e ffi c ie n t o f x
“
in t h e p ro d c t is u
2 50 HI GH ER AL GE B R A .

D en o te t i b y hs a
,"
t h sien n ce

1 1
> o r

f/ r f 2 /
n —r (U ) 7?

a an d is t h e re f o re in fi n it e w h en n is in fi n it e .

If x = l , t h e pro d ut c b ec o m es

a — a + ag + a2
o l n +2

an d s in c e t h e t e r ms a a a
m a re in fi n it e , t h e s e rie sh as

hm m mg
gn , , "+ 1 , “
n o a rit e t ic a l ea n .

T is le a ds h us to qu i en re u n de r wh at co n dit io n s th e p ro d ut
c

o f t w o in n it e fi co n v g ts
e r en e rie s is a ls o co n v e r en
g t .

*
308 . L et us de n o t e t h e two in fi n it e s e rie s

2 3 2”
a
0
+ a x + a2x + a3x + + a x
,

3 2"
n bs x b
2
60 + b ,x + + + x +

by A an dB sp tiv ly
re ec e .

I f we multiply t h s s e e e rie s t o ge t h e r we o b t ain a re s ult o f

th e f m or

( c ,) ( b c ,)
2
a b
o 0
a b
, o
a b x a
g 0
“ 9
1 1
a b x

u s hs s s
S ppo e t i e rie fi
t o b e c o n tin u ed to in n ity an d le t u s
h hv m u wh
de n o t e it b y C t e n w e a e t o e x a in e n de r at c o n dit io n s

C m a
y b g u hm
e re a rde d a s t h e t r e a rit uv e t ic al e
q i a le n t o f t h e

p u
ro d c t A B .

F i t su pp s t h t ll t h t m i A d B
rs o pe it i v a a e er s n an a re os e .

L t A B 0 d
e t th i f md b y t ki g th fi t en o e e s er e s or e a n e rs

1 t m
2 ",

2 n s f A B 0 p ti ly
er o , ,
res ec ve .

If w m u ltiply t g t h th tw i A B th fii i t
e o e er e o ser es
2 ",
e co e c en

of h p w f i t h'i p du t i qu l t h ffi i t f
e ac o er o x n e r ro c s e a o t e co e c en o

th lik p w
e f i C
e fo th m
er o b t i A E x n as ar as e t er x u n

th t m t i i g p w h igh t h wh il t M “
f 2”
e re a re er s co n a n n o e rs o x er an x ,
s

i t h h igh t p w h
2”
x s f i 0
e es o er o x n
2"
en c e

A B2 11

I f we o r f m
t h e p ro d c t A a t h e la s t t e r is u m b a x
”
; b u t
u m u m th m
‘
73 l

0 2 " in c l de s a ll t h e t e r s in t h e p ro d c t an d s o e o er te r s

b e s ide s en c e h
C >A B
2 52 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

*
E XA M PLE S . XXI b . .

Fin d wh h et er th e f ll wi
o o n g s e ries are c o n v e r en
g t or div e rge n t
2
1 x x4 a
s
1 °

3
2

2
3 H
” '

2 2 3 3 4 4
2x 3 x 4 x 5x '
—
4 . l+ +
2 is l
l__ li_ I5

5
3
1
—
.

x
2 L
3 . B
2

2
i

—a
7 . 1 +
a ( 1 — a
) ( 2 )
2 2 2
1 1 2

2 2
1 2 3
a b e in g a p ro p er frac tio n .

a +x ( a i- -
2x) 2
( a + 3x ) 3

2
1
I
d ( a + l l is (13 4 1 ) -

9 ° 1+

1 2 . 3 .

4
10 . x
2
l
( g
o x
3 l
( g
o x l
( g
o

" An k 1
Bn k z
a 3
wh v
‘ ‘ '

an n
12 ere la is a p o s iti e
m1
°

u
hw h
.

in teger, s e t at th e s eries u1 u u3 is co n ve rgen t if

A a v
1 is p o s it i e , an d d iv erge n t if A
2
a 1 is n e at i
g v e o r z e ro .
 C H A PTE R XX II .

UN D E TE RM IN E D C OE FFI C I E N TS .

3 09 I n A rt 23 0 o f t h e E le en ta ry A lgeb ra , it wa s p ro e d
. . m v
h
t a t if a n y ra t io n al in t e gra l n c t io n o f x van is e s en x = a , fu h wh
v
it is di i s ib le b y x a
[ S e e a ls o A rt 51 4 .C on
] . .

6
Le t / ’
Y p ox
"
+ p
m
fl

be a i rat o n a l
p e’ io
in t egral ; f n t n of x
‘
o fn di e n s io n s , wh i h c

v i h s wh
an s e en x is e u al t o ea eh no f t h e
q u n e
q al
,

q u u an t itie s

a a2 ,
“ .
3 , n

D en o t e th e fu n ct o n i by f( ) x t h en si n ce
f( ) x v
is di is ib le
by x a we a hv e

(p
th e q u o tie n t b e in g o fn 1 di m e n s io n s .

Si mil ly ar , si nc e f (x ) v
is di is ib le b y x a
z ,
we h a ve

( ) (p
“ 2
x a,

th e q u o tien t b e in g o fn 2 di m en si on s an d

( ) (p
“ 2 f
-
3
p ox x a
3 o
o

Pro c e e din g in t is wa y , we h s h a ll fi n a ll y o b t a in a f te r n di
vis io n s
— Cl
f( ) x =
p0 ( CC
) ( IE — (l
a ) ( CU

3 10 If a ra tio n a l in tegra l f un c tio n of n d i en s io n s va n is h es m

m
.

for o re th a n n va lu es of th e va ria b le, th e c o e ic ien t o

fi f ea ch p o wer
of th e va ria b le mtb us e z ero .

L e t th e fu n ct o n i b e de n o t e d b y f( ) x wh e re

+p x
2 54 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

an d su pp o se t h at f( ) x v an is h es wh e n x is e
qu al to e ac h o f th e
u n e
qu l
a v a l ues a , a
2,
a
3
t h en

—
f( ) x po ( x a
2
a
s ) ( x a
) .

L et c b e an o t h e r va l u e o f x w h i h mk s f (c a e x ) va n is h ; th en

s in c e f( ) c z 0, we h a v e

—a — —a
Po ( 0
2 )( c a
, ) ( c ) = 0

an d t h f e re o re p0 0, s in c e , b y h po t es i , n o n e y h s o f th e o th e r
f a cto r s i qu s e a l to z e ro . H en c e f (x ) re d c e s t o u
-
l
pl a; +p x
2

y h
B y h p o t e s is t is h e x p re s s io n v an is h s f m th
e or o re an n v al ues
h f
o f x , an d t e re o re p 1 0 .

In a s i mil m ar an n er we my h w t h
a s e a t e ac h o f th e fi
c o e f c ie n t s
p 2 , p mu t b”
s e e
qu al to z e ro .

T ish re s u lt my l a a so be en u n c ia t e d as f o llo ws

If a i n tegra l f
ra tio n a l
u n c tio n of 11 di i m en s o n s va n is h es f or

m o re th an n va lu es Qf th e va ria b le, i t m u s t va n i sh
f o r ever
y va lu e

Qf the va riab le .

C OR I f t h e f un c tio n f (x ) v an is h es fo r m o re t h an n v a u
l e s
m
.

o f x, th e equ a tio n f x
( ) 0 h as o re th an n ro o t s .

H en c e a ls o ,
if a n equ a ti o n f
o 11 di m en s io n s h as m o re th an n

ro o ts it is an iden ti ty .

E xa p le m . Pro v h e t at

i
x —b
<
> x <
> -
c x —a
) ix a < b)
> x

(a —b
>
( — a c ) < ><
b — b c -
a i (c a >( c —b
)
h
T is e q u atio n is Of two dim en s io n s , an d it is e vid en tly satisfi e d by eac h
o f th e t h ree v u al e s a , b, c h en c e it is an d
i en tity .

If two ra tio n a l
in tegra l fu n c tio n s of 11 di en s io n s a re m
equ a l f or m o re th an n va lu es of th e va ria b le, th ey wre e u a l fo r
q
e very va lu e o f th e va ria ble .

u s
S pp o e t h at t h e t wo fu n c t io n s

" n —l "“
2
po x + p x + p 2x + p
" "' 2
x q, x
qo q2 x
q
a re e
q u a l fo r m o re t h an n v al e s o u f x ; t h en th e ex p res sion
—2
(p _
)
n
x + + Q
2 56 H I H ERG AL GE BR A .

H en ce th e su m A
2 71
-

3
,

n
2
1
5
To fi n d A , p u t 1 ; th e s eries t h en re du ce s t o its fi rs t ter m , an d
2 A 2, or A 0

H en c e

N OTE I t ill b e s een fro w mthi mpl

h wh m t at en th e n m
ter th
is a
m
s ex a e
u u u
.

ra tio n al in tegral f n c tio n e fo r th e s u

u
f n c tio n o f n ic
of n
is o f o n e wh h
it i
dim , s

e n s io n
ffi c ien t to
s
h h h
ig er t
as s

an th e ri m m
ter
a
o f th e
s erl e s .

E x a p le 2 m . F d in th e co n di i t ons th at x
3
+px
2
qx + r my ba e dv i isib le b y
2
x ax b .

A ss um e

Eq u atin g th e c o e ffi c ie n ts o f th e li k w
p o ers o f as, we
e hv a e

k+ a =p , a k + b = q, kb z r .

mth u h u u
’
7
Fro e la s t eq atio n k en c e by s b s tit tio n we o b tain
5
r ar
+ a_ p an d +b_ q
b
,
b
th at is , r= b (p —a
) , an d ar = b (q — b ) ;

wh h ic a re th e co n di tio n s req u d ire .

E XA M PLE S . XXII . a .

Fi n d b y th m h d f U d t mi d C ffi i
e et o o n e er ne oe c en ts t h e su mf o

1 . n t er m s .

0
5

9
5 1 2
2 4 2 -
5 + 2
n te r m s .

5
2 n t er m s .

9 n ter m s .

6 d h di i h
Fi t co n t t at x 3 3p x + 2 q my be divi ib l by
f h f m +
. n e on a s e a

fac to r O t e or x
2
2 ax a
2
.

7 . Fi d h di i t h t
n t e co n t ons a ax 3 bx 2
car d my b a e a pe rfec t c ub e .

8 Fi d h ndi i h t e co n t ons t at
2 4
a x + b x + cx + dx
3 2
f 2
my a be a

qu
.

perfec t s are .

9 P
p
ve t h at a
z
+ 2 b xy + cy + 2 dx + 2 ey
2
f is a p erfe c t sq u are,

p= fi
.

2= é =
1f 6
‘
‘

ac , a j
a , e c
 U N D E TE R M I N E D C O E FFI C I E N TS . 2 57

10 . I f aa + b x + cx + d is
3 2 d ivi ib l s e by x
2
h p v
2
h ,
ro e t at a d be.

11 . If x
5
5qx + 4 r is d ivi ib ls e by ( x c )
2
,
s hw h q e t at
5 4
r

12 . Pro v e th e i d en titie s

—c —a x — a — b)
b 2
( x )( x ) 0
2
( )( x

c) ( b a ) (c )
a (c

(. v—b )( x — c ) (x ( ) d) x — a

( at — b ) ( a —c
) d) ( b — a )
— —
(.v — d)( x — a ) ( v — b ) ( x a ) ( x b ) (
. x — c
)

13 . Fi n d th e co n d i i n th
t o at

ax
2
+ 2 hxy by + 2gx 2fy + c 2

my b a e th e p ro du c t Of t wo fac to rs o f th e fo r m
’ ’

p H zy H
f .

14 If { ml x n g——
l lz , an d if t h e
m
z - -

sa u i
e eq
.

a t o n s a re tr u fo r
e v lu f
all a es o x, y, z wh en
5)r , 5a re in t e r

c h g d wi h
an e t x,
y, 3 re s p e c t i v ly h w h
e ,
s e t at
,

l +22 m n = l, m+ 2
2 ln = 0, n
2
+ 2l m0 = .

15 S hw he t at th e su m f tho e p ro du c ts n r to ge t h er o f th e n
u
.

2 3
an titie s a, a a is
q , ,

( a
r t- l
1) ( a
r +2
1) m ( a
n
1) %( 1t —r
) ( n —r + 1l .

a
2
( a 1) ( a l)

313 . If th e i n fi n i te s eri es a
o
a x
,
a x
2
2
a x
3
3
is equ a l

to z ero f o r e ver
y fi n i te va lu e qf x
f or wh i ch th e s eri es is c o n ver
gen t,
th en ea c h c o e fii c i en t m u st b e equ a l to z ero iden ti ca lly .

L e t t h e s e rie s b e de n o t e d b y S , a n d le t S l s t a n d fo r t h e e x
p re s s io n a d x a x
2
t en a x S ,
a n d t e re o re , h S h f
by hy h
p
l 2

o t e s is , a
3

xS, O fo r a ll f in it e
0

al e s o f x B u t s in ce v u S
mfi m h f
.

v 0

is c o n e rge n t , S , c a n n o t e x c e e d s o e n it e li it ; t e re o re b y
m uh m
t a kin g x s all e n o g xS a
y b e a de a s s a ll a s we
p le a se m m
h m S S h f
.
l

I n t is c a s e t h e li it o f is “0 3 b u t is a lwa y s z e ro , t e re o re
a
o
mu st b e eu q y
al t o z e ro ide n t ic a ll .

R mv i g t h
e m w h v S O f ll fi it v lu f
o n e ter a
o ,
e a e x ,
o r a n e a es o

x ; t h t i a v i
s, a h s f l
ll fi it v lu f
d x
2
a x
d
z
an s e or a n e a es O x .

Sim il ly w my p v i su
ar i th t
,
h f he a ro e n cc ess o n a eac o t e

co e ffi i c en i q u l
ts i
a d t i l ly a a s e a to z e ro en ca .

H . H . A .
2 58 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

314 . If two in fin ite l to o n e a n o th er fo r everys eries a re equ a

r wh ich b o th s eri es a re c o n ver en t, th e

fin ite v a lu e of th e va ri a b le fo
g
c o efl ici en ts of like p o wers of th e va ria ble i n th e two s eries a re equ a l .

u s th
S pp o e at th e tw o s e ries a re de n o t e d b y
3
a d x a x d x
0 , z 3

2 3
an d AO A ,x A 2x A gx

t h en th e e x p re s s io n

—A
)
3
a
o ( a
3 S
x +

v h
is e s fo r all al
an v us e o f x w it h i n th e a s si
g n e d li mit s ; t h f
e re o re

b y t h e la s t a rtic le

a -
Ao z o, al — Al = 0, a —A = O, a —A = O,
O Q 2 3 3

t h a t is , a
O
= A a l a
z
z A a z A

wh i h p v
c ro es t h e p ro p o it io n s .

m
E x a p le 1 E p . x an d In a s erie s o d
f as c en in g p o w e rs o fx as far

as th e t mi v lvi g
er n o n x
5
.

2+ x
— a0 + a x + a x + a x3 +
1 2 3
l+ v—x
.

wh ere a o , a1 , ( 12 , are c o n s tan ts wh v u o se al es are to b e d md h e ter in e ; t en

— x2
)

h
I n t is e q atio n we u
ay e q ate th e c o e f u m
fi c ien ts o f li e p o ers o f x o n k w
e ac h d
si e i
On th e r g t a n s i e th e c o e fi
f c ien thh d d
o f x
“
is a n + an _ 1 — an _2 ,
-

h h h w v u
.

a n d t ere fo re , s in ce x is th e ig es t p o er o f x o n th e left , fo r all al es o f

2

n > 2 we a e hv
an + an —1 0;

t ish w u ill s ffi c e t o fi n d th e s c ces s i e c o e ffi cien ts after th e u v th

m
ree
b e en Ob tain e d d
To e ter in e t es e we a e th e e q atio n s
. h hv u
a0 = 2, a + a = 0, a + a —a = l
1 0 2 l o ;

a
3+
a
2
—a
l
z o, wh en c e a s

a4 + a
3
—a
z
z o, wh en c e a 4 = 12 ;

a 5+ a 4 —a = o
3 , wh en c e a
5 19 ;

— 2 3 4 —
2 2 x + 5x 7x + 1 2 x l 5
9x +
 26 0 HI GH ER AL G E BR A .

E XA M PLES . XXII b . .

E x p an
3
d t h e fo llo wi g n ex
p re s s io n s in as c e n di g p wn o e rs o f x as far
as x .

1 .

—
°
2 — 3
l + ax ax x

6 . Fi n d a an d b so t h at th e n
th
ter mi n th e ex
p a n s io n O f

my ba e ( 3 n 2) x " ‘
1

7 . Fi n d a, b, c so t h at th e c o ef c ien fi t o f x
"
in t h e e xp an s io n o f
2
—
a
y be n +1 .

(1 x)
3

8 . s hw he t at o n e v lu a e o f y is
—
t r+ %
2 4
« x
T g % x +

9 .
3
If cx + a x —
y = 0, s hw he t at o n e v lua e o f x is
3 z 5 3 7
y c
y y 3e 1 2c y
-
F
15
'
“
(fl
1 )
a a

H t at hw h x = 0 09 9 9 9 9 9 is an a r i mt so l ui
t f th e
my
en c e s e pp o x a e

ml
on o
u
e q at io n
3
x + 1 00x — 1= O TO h o w an
p lac es o f dec i a s is t h e
u
.

res lt co rre c t 2

10 I n th e e xp an s io n o f ( l + x ) ( l + a x ) ( l + a 2x ) ( l + a 3x ) th e
umb hw h
.

n e r o f fac t o rs b e in g in fi n it e , an d a 1, s e t at t h e c o e ffi c ie n t o f
1
a
§ r wn
—

( 1 —a ) ( 1 —a z
)( l—a 3
) ( 1 — r
)
’

11 . W h en a 1 , fin d th e c o effi c ie n t o f x " in t h e e x p an s io n o f
l

) (1
2
( 1 ax ) (1 a x d x
3
) t o in f .

12 . I f n is a p o s it i e v in t eger, s hw h
e t at

— n
( )
+1
l ( ( —
%
n
u u n n n + 1;

— l l) —2
(2) n
n
( n - -

( n
)
n

E
th e s erie s in eac h cas e b ein g e x ten dd e to n t er m s an d
—1
)3
(3) 1 “

z
n

—n
( )
4 ( n +p

th e s e rie s in th e las t t wo c as e s b ein g e x t e n dd e to n + 1 te r m s .

 C H A PTE R XXI I I .

PA R TI A L FR A C TI O N S .

3 15 m y
I n e le e n ta r A lge b ra , a gro p o f ra c tio n s c o n n e c t e d u f
m
.

b y t h e s ign s o f a dditio n a n d s b t ra c t io n is re d c e d t o a u o re u
si m f m
p l e o r b y b e in
g c o l le c t e d in t o o n e s in
g l e ra c t io n o se f wh
m
de n o in a t o r is t h e lo e t c o ws on mm
de n o in a t o r o f t h e gi e n m v
f ra c t io n s v
B u t t h e c o n e rs e p ro c es s o f s e p a ra t in g a rac t io n in t o f
m
.

a
g ro u
p o f si
p le r,
o r
p a r ti a l,
r ac t io n s is O t f
e n re
q i re d F o r f u .

ex a m
p le ,
I f we \ v1 s h t o e x a n d
p
1
3 5x
4x + 3x
I n a s e ri e O f as c e n d 2 s
in g p o we rs o f x , w e mh ig t u s e t h e mh
e t o d o f A rt 3 1 4 , E x 1 , an d
my m
. .

s o O b t a in a s an t e r s as we p le as e B u t if w e is t o fin d t h e w h
m h mh
.

e n e ra l te r o f t h e s e rie s t is t d is in a
pp lic a b le , a n d it is
g e o

si m p le r to e x re s
p t h e
g is e n r a c t io n iv
n t h e f e
q i a le n t or uv f m
1 2
l — x 1 3x
h
E a c O f t h e e x p re s s io n s ( l x )
"
an d
( l 3 x
)
"

c an n o w b e e x p a n de d b y t h e B in o m
ia l T e o re , a n d t h e ge n e ra l h m
ter mbt o i
a n e d.

3 16 h
I n t h e p re s e n t c a p t e r we s a ll gi e s o e e x a p les h v m m
m
.

u
ill s t rat in g t h e de c o p o s it io n o f a ra t io n a l ra c t io n in t o p a rt ial f
fra c t io n s Fo r a . fu u
lle r dis c s s io n o f t h e s b e c t t h e rea de r is uj
f
re e rre d t o Se rre t s C o u rs d A l eb re S u é rieu re, o r t o t re a t is e s o n
’ ’

g p
t h e I n t e gra l C a lc l s uu
I n t es e h
o rk s it is p ro e d t a t a n y w v h
m
.

ra t io n a l ra c t io nf a
y b e v
re s o l e d in t o a s e rie s o f p a rt ia l rac t io n s ; f
h
a n d t a t t o an
y li n ea r a c to r x a i f
n t h e den o in a t o r t e re c o r
-
m h
re
pso n d a
p sa rt l al ra c t i o n off t h e o r
A
t o an
y li n ea r f m x a

f ac to r x b o cc u rrin
g twi ce in t h e de n o mi n ato r t h e re c o rre s p o n d
Bl B2
two p a rt ia l f ra c t io n s ,
an d If x 6 o cc u r s tIwee
(
2
x b x b)

ti m es, t h e re is an a dditio n al f ra c t io n an d so on . To
26 2 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

an y q u a dratic f a cto r x
2
+ px + q t h e re c o rre s
p on ds a
p a rtia l
Px Q
f ra c t io n o f th e f m or
x
2
px
+

q
if th e f a ct o r x
2
+ p x +
'

q o cc u rs

P1 x Q1
t wic e , t h e re is a seco n d p a rt i a l f ra c t i o n an d so on .

(
2
x
p x q)

H e re t h e q a n t it ie s A u B B B P, Q , P Q l
a re a ll

in de p e n de n t o f x .

We s h a ll mk a e u se o f t h ese re s u lt s in th e ex a mpl es t h at

f ll w
o o .

E xa p le 1 m . Sep arate
5x 11
6
in to p artial frac tio n s .

Sin ce th e d m en o in ato r 2 x 2
x 6 ( x 2 ) (2 x we as s um e

5x 11 A B
+
2x + x — 6 2x — 3
’
2
x +2

wh A an d B are q u an tities in d ep e n d t f wh v u h v al to b e
m
e re en o x o se es a e
d e te r in e d .

Clearin g o f fractio n s ,
5x 1 1 = A ( 2x 3) + B

Sin c e t is e q h u atio n is i d en tic ally tr u e, we my a eq u fi c ie n

ate c o e f ts o f li k e

pow ers o f x ; t hu s
2 A + B = 5, 11 ;

wh en ce A = 3, B
5x 11 3 1
'
2x + x — 6
2
x +2 2x — 3

m v )2 )
u

i
n
E x a p le 2 . R e so l e
( ?
x + b
in to p artial fractio n s .

A ss um e
m x
—
n A B

( x x

—a
)
We migh t w eq u ate c o e ffi c ien ts d fi n d th e v u al fA d B , b u t it
m
n o an es o
mp l
an
is si er to p ro c ee d in th e fo llo w in g an n er.

Sin ce A an dB are in d ep en d en t o f x , we
,
my giv
a e to x an y v u
al e we p lease .

In ( ) pu t
1 x a z o, or x = a ; t en h
A
m+ a n

a +b

u mb — n
p ttin g x b 0, orx
a +b

a +n n M—n
x +b
 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

3 24x 2 + 4 8x
E xa m
pl e . R eso l ve
9x

( x (
x + 1)
in to p arti al frac ti o n s .

um
2
9 x
3 2 4x + 4 8x A f (x )
A ss e
( x x +1 ( x

wh A is s o m e c o n s tan t, an d f ( x) a f u n c tio n f wh v u al e re mi to
d md
e re o x o se a n s
be e ter in e .

9x 3 2 4 x 2 + 4 8x = A ( x
( x +

L et x 1, t h en A

u u
S b s tit tin g fo r A an d tran s p o s in g,

(x + 1 ) f ( )
3
x = (x 9 x 1 6x + 1 6 ;

f( ) x x
3 16 .

To d e te r mi ne th e p artial frac tio n s c o rre s p o n d in g to pu t x

(x
3 2
x
3
+ 16 2 + 6z + 1 2z + 2 4
4 4
(U
. 2 z

1 6 12 24
z 2
2
Z
3 Z
4

1 6 12 24
—2
+
x (x (x (x
9x 3 4 8 3:

318 I n all t h e p re c e din g e x a p le s t h e n e ra t o r h as b e e n m um

m m
.

o f lo w
e r di e n s io n s t an t h e de n o h
in a t o r ; if t is is n o t t h e c a se , h
v
w e di ide t h e n um
e ra t o r b y t h e de n o in a to r n t il a re a in de r is m u m
O b ta in e d w ic h h w
is O f lo e r di e n s io n s t h a n t h e de n o in a t o r m m .

m v 22I21: 3 2
7
E xa pl e. R es o l e
2
in t o p artial frac tio n s .

v
B y di is io n ,

2x 3

5 1
—
3x 1 let 1

x i1
319 We s h al
p l
la in hn o
o w w ex res o l t io n u in t o p a rtia l

m
.

f ra c t io n s a
y b e sed t o u
a c ilit at e t h e f e x p an s io n of a ra t io n a l

f ra ct io n in a sc en din
gp o w e rs o f x .
 PA R TI A L FR A C TI O N S . 26 5

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e gen eral ter mf o wh en e xp an dd e in a

s eries o f a s c en d in g p o w e rs o fx .

By E x 4 , A rt 3 1 6 , we
. . hv a e

3x 2 + x — 2 1 5 4
_
2x ) — 2x x _
(
2
( x -
) 3 ( 2) x _ 2)

1 5 4
—x —x 2
— 2 33) ) ( 2 )
w
(
2
1 5
( )
_1 x
‘l "
2x ’ + 1 ‘ ‘
1
é 6 2 5
H e n c e th e ge n eral te r m f th O e ex p an s io n is

2" 5 1
F 6 2 r

E xa m
pl e 2 .
'
E x p an d ( 1 + x)
7 +x
in as c e n d in g p o w ers o f x an d fin d

th e ge n e ral te r m .

A ss um e
7 +x
l +x
A
_
+
Bx + C
1 +x 2
‘

-
l

Le t 1 + x = 0, th e n A = 3 ;

eq u atin g th e ab s o u
l te ter m s, 7 : A C, wh en c e C: 4 ;

eq u atin g th e fi c ien
co ef ts o f x9 , O= A + B , wh en c e B 3 .

7 4 -
11: 3 4 — 3x

( +
1 x ) 1+x 1+x 2

'
3 3x ) ( l + x
— x + x2

— 3x —
) {
2 4
1 x + x

To fi n d th e fi c ien
c o ef t o fx "

( )
1 If r is e env , th e fi c ien t
c o ef of x
" in th e s ec o n d s eries is 4

h
t ere fo re in th e ex p an sio n th e co e f
"
fi cien t o f x i s 3 + 4 1) 5 .

( )
2 If r is o dd, th e co e f
"
fi c ien t o f x in th e s ec o n d s e rie s is — 3 ( I) ?
r+l

an d th e re q u d ire fi c ien
c o ef t is 3 1) 2
3 .

E XA M PLE S . XXIII .

R es o l v e in to part ial frac tio n s

7x l 46 l 3x 1 3 m
+2 x
2
26 6 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

z
13 2x3 2 —x — 3
x + x
2 — 5x
( x 1) ( x + 6) x ( x

9 x
4 — 3 x3 — 3x 2 + 1 0

< x (m
u se —3
)
2
2x 1 1x + 5

( x

2 3 2
3 x3 ~
8x + 1 0 5x + 6x + 5x

( x ( x
2
1) ( x +

Fi n d th g e e n eral te r m f th o e fo llo win g e xpre s s io n s wh en ex p a n de d

as ce n di g p w
n o ers o fx .

2
x + 7x +3
2
1 l 1 x + 2 8x

2x —4 4 + 3 x l 2x - - 2

— 2
16 .
— —
(1 x ) (1 2x ) ( 1 x ) ( 1 + x 2x )
2

2
3 2x x 4 + 7x
‘

(1 + x) ( 1 4x) 2
( + 3x )
2 (1 + ) x
2

2x + 1 1—x —
—
l 2x
2

(x 1) WH Y ( l — x
3
)
2
I 3 2x
— — bx —
)
2 2
( 1 ax ) ( 1 ) ( l ex (2 3x + x )
23 . Fin d th e su mf o n t er m s o f th e s e rie s

( )
1

x ( 1 ax ) ax
(1 a z
x )
( )
2

24 . W h en x 1 , fi n d th e su m f th o e in fi n ite s eries

2 4
1 x x

< 1— x ) < l — w 3
<
> 1 — x6
< >
> 1 — x7
+

25 . Su mt o n te r m ths e s eries w h o se
p
“1
t er mi s

x 20
(1 1
)
— xp — xp
( 1 ) ( 1 ( 1 +2
)
26 Pro v th e at th e m f th h mg u d u c ts o f n di m
md
su o e o o e n eo s p ro en
h h hi pw
.

Si o n s w ic can
-
b e fo r e o f th e letters a, b, c an dt e r o e rs is
2 68 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

t er m kn w
f p ro c e d re is t h e s a e A s th e mth e o d o u m
m
s a re o n

h wv my m
.

te r s t h e s c a le o f relat io n a c o n s is t o f, t h e
o e er an y
f u
o llo win g ill s t ra t io n will b e s f c ie n t ufi .

i'
l — p x — qx —
z
If rx

is t h e s c a le o f re la tio n o f th e s e rie s

2 3
a d x a x a x
o l 2 3

we hv a e

n 2 n —2 3 n —3
_
a x
u
_
p x . a _ x
n 1
+ qx . a — x
n 2
+ rx . a
n
-
3
x

a = a a _ ra
o r
n p q n 2
t hu s an
y co e ffi i c en t can be o nd fu wh en th e c o e ffi c ie n t s o f th e
t h re e p re c e din g t e r m s a re k n o wn .

32 3 Co n v e rs e l y if a s u ffi i c en t n u mb er o f th e te r m s o f a

my b f u
.
,

s e rie s b e gi e n v ,
th e s c a le o f re la t io n a e o n d .

E x a p le m . Fin d th e s cale o f relatio n o f th e rec u rrin g serie s

L et th e s c ale o f relatio n b e 1 — p x z
qx ; t h en to o b tain p an d q we hv a e

th e eq u atio n s 13 5p 2 g= 0, an d 35 1 3p 5q O;
wh en c e p = 5, an d q = 6, t hu s th e sc ale o f relatio n is
2
1 5x 6x

3 24 I f t h e s c ale o f re la t io n c o n s is t s O f 3 t e r s it in o l e s m v v
m
-
.

hv u
.

2 c o n st a n t s , p an d q ; a n d w e u st a e 2 e
q a t io n s t o de

m
t e r in e p a n d q To o b t a in t h e rs t o f t e s e we s t kn o fi h mu w
m
.

a t le a s t 3 t e r s O f t h e s e rie s , a n d t o O b t a in t h e s ec o n d we
mu h v m m v
-

st a e on e o re t e r gi en T s t o o b t a in a s c a le o f hu
mu h v m
.

re la t io n v v
in o l in g t w o c o n s t a n t s w e st a e a t le a s t 4 t e r s

g v i en .

re la t io n
g
I f th e s c ale Of b e 1 fi n d th e to
q px x rx

s w mu h v
,

3 c o n s tan u t fi e st a e 3 e
q a t io n s T o o b t a in t h e rs t O f

w m m
.

th ese utk e s n o w a t le a s t 4 t e r s o f t h e s e rie s , a n d t o o b t ain

th h t w w mu h v
e o t er m m v h o e st a e t wo o re t e r s
g i e n ; e n c e to fi n d

a l f
s ca e l ti v o re a m on in o lvi n g 3 c o n s t a n t s , a t le a s t 6 t e r s o f t h e
i s m
s er e u t b giv s e en .

G lly t fi d s l f l ti i v lvi g m t t
e n e ra o n a ca e o re a on n o n c o n s an s,

w m u t k w t l t 2m u tiv t m
,

e s n o a eas c o n sec e er s .

C v ly if 2m uti t m giv w my um
on e rs e ,
co n sec ve er s a re en ,
e a a ss e

f th s l
or f l tie ca e o re a on

2 3
1 pl x
p gx p ax
 R EC UR R IN G S E R IE S . 269

3 25 . To fi n d th e su mf o n ter mf s o a rec u rri n

g s eries .

Th e mt h e o d o fi
f n din g t h e s u mi t h s e sa m wh e at e v er b e th e
s c a le O f re la t io n ; fo r s i p lic it we m y s h al l s u pp o se it t o co n t a in
onl yt wo c o n s t an ts .

L et th e s e rie s be
2 3
a
0
+ a x + a x
1 2
+ a x
3 ( )
1

an d le t t h e s u mb e S ; le t t h e s c a le o f re la t io n be —
l p x —q r;2

h
S O t a t fo r e e r v yv u al e O f n
g re a t e r t h an 1, we hv a e

N o w S = a
0
+ d x
l
+ a

2 "
p x S p a x
o p a x
l pa r l
x ,

” 2
q x S q a x
o q a x q a
r l
x

"
( ) S ( —
) (p )
g
l —
p x
q x a
0
a
1 p a
o
x a a
q n _2 x
q a

fo r t h e c o e f c ie n t fi o fe v y h er o t er p o w er o f x is z e ro in c o n se
q u en c e

o f t h e re la t io n

a _
p a —
l g a —2
al 0 °

m
n n

S
a
O ( “I _ 2 )a
0 ) x (p a
n —l a —
g it 2 ) x Q (L

—
l p x — qx —
l px — 2
qx

T hu s th e su mf o a re c u rrin
g s e ries is a f ra c t io n wh o se de
n o mi n a to r is t h e s c a le o f re la t io n .

3 26 I f th e s e c o n d f ra c t io n in t h e re s lt o f t h e las t u a rt ic le

m
.

de c re as e s fi
in de n it e l a s y n in c re a s e s in de n it e l , t h e s u fi y o f an

1 — —
p x
q x ,

v h f
I f we de e lo p t is ra c t io n in a s c e n din g p o e rs o f x a s w
e x la in e d in
p A rt 3 1 4 ,
w e s a ll O b t a in a s a n
y t e r s O f t h e h m m
h
.

o rigin a l s e rie s a s w e p le a s e fo r t is re a s o n t h e e x p re s s io n
a’
o
2
1 px qx
is c a lle d t h e gen era tin gf u n c ti o n o f th e s e rie s .

3 27 . F mt h e
ro res u lt o f A rt 32 5, we . o b t a in
“
0
+ ( a
1
_
pa 0 ) x
a + a x + a 2x
2
+ + a x
"“
2 1
l p x qx
0

2
l px q x
270 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

f mwh i h w t h lt h u gh th n e ra t in fu n c t io n

mm
e se e at a o e e
ro c g g
a
s ( 05
. ) 96

l p x q x

my a be u se d b t a in a s
to o an my
t e r s o f t h e s e rie s a s we plea s e , m
it c an be re a rde d a s t h e t r e e
g q iv a le n t o f t h e in u
n it e s e rie s u fi
2
a
0
+ a x + a x +
1 2

o n l y if th e re mi a n de r
" “
(p a
. an .) x a s at
2
1 p x qx

v i h wh
an s i i d fi it ly i
es en n s n e n e n c re a s e d in o t h w
er o rds on y
l
wh th i i v g t
en e s e r es s co n e r en .

3 28 Wh th g i gf en e en era t n u n c ti o n c an be ex
p re ss e d as a

m
.

g u
ro
p f p i l f o i t h g a rt a ra c t o n s e e n e ra l t er Of a re c u rrin
g s e rie s

my b a ily f u d
e Thu
eas u pp o n s, s o se th e g e n e ra t in
g fu n c t io n

mp d i t th p i l f
.

b d
c an e ec o o se n o e a rt a ra c t io n s

A B O
’

— cx
°

l — ax )
2
l + bx ( l

T h en t h e gen e ra l t e r mi s
' ' ' '
{A l) Bb ( 1 ) Cc }
”
a r + x .

h
I n t is c a s e t h e s u mf o n t er ms my b a e f o u n d wi h ut u i
t o s n
g
th e mh
e t o d O f A rt 3 2 5 . .

m
E x a p le Fin th e gen eratin g fd u n c tio n th e gen eral t er m d th e m
m
an su
to n ter
.

s o f th e rec rrin g s erie s u , ,

— —
1 7x x 2 —
4 3 x3

L e t th e s c ale o f relatio n b e 1 -

px qx ; t
2
h en

1 + 7p — q = 0,

wh en c e p 1 , q: 6 ; an d th e s c ale o f relatio n is
2
1 x 6x .

L et S d en o te th e s u m f th O e s eries ; t en h
S = 1 —7x x
2 — 4 3x 3
2 3
xS x 7x x

3
6x 8 2
6x 2
4 2x
—
(1 x — 6 x
2
) S = 1 — 8x ,

wh h ic is th e ge n e ratin g f u n c tio n .
27 2 HI GH ER AL G E BRA .

E XA M PLE S . XXI V .

.
Fin d t h e ge n e ratin g f u n c tio n an d th e gen eral te r m f th o e fo llo wi g n
s e ri e s :

2 — x 2
7x 3
1 . . 2 + 5x -
+

3 . 4 . 7

5 .

Fin d th e n
th
te r m an d th e su mt o n ter m s o f t h e fo llo wi gn s e rie s

6 . 7 .

8 .

9 , l

11 . S hw h
e t at th e s e rie s

2
+ 71 ,

3
+n ,

a re re c u rrin g s e ries , an d fin d t hi
e r s c ales o f re lat io n .

12 S e hw
h o w to d due ce th e su m f tho e fi rs t n te r m s o f th e re

u
.

c rrin g s e ries
2 3
a a x a 2x a x
o l 3

fro mth e su mt o in fi n ity .

13 . Fin d th e su m f2 o n + 1 t er m s o f th e s e rie s

3 — 53 +

14 . Th e s c ale s o f th e re c u rrin g s eries

b0 bl x b z xz b 3 x3

1 + p x + qx 2
1 + rx + sx
2
res p ec t i e ly v S h e w t h at th e s eries w h o se

m
are ;
gen e ral t er is
,

( an -
i
" s a
x i re c
,

u rrin g s e rie s wh o se s c ale is

1 5 If a s eries b e fo r e a in g fo r its md h v th
ter mth m f t m
f m
n e su o n er s
v u hw h will u ig
.

o f a gi e n re c rrin g s e ries , s e t at it l
a so or a rec rr n
s e ries wh
o s e s c ale o f relatio n ill c o n s is t w o f one m t mth th t
o re er an a

o f th e give n s eries .
 CH A PTE R XXV .

C O N TI N UE D FR A C TI O N S .

331 . A n e x p re ss io n o f th e f m
or a
I
c;
is c a lle d a

c o n t in u ed h
frac t io n ; ere t h e let t e rs a , b , 0 , my ade n o t e a n y
q u
an t itie s w v
h a te e r, b u t fo r t h e
p re s en t w e sh a ll o n l y
c o n s ide r

m f m
th e S i ple r o r a
l
1
1
w e re a , , a ,
2
h a a re
p o s i t i ve

Z+
in t ege rs . hs
T i will b e u su lly a w ittr en in t h e mo re co mp act f m or

1 1
a a3
2

3 32 W en th e n h um
b e r o f qu o tien ts a ] , a 2 , a is n it e t h e fi
u f m m
.

c o n tin ed ra c t io n is s a id t o b e ter in a tin g ; if t h e n u b e r o f '

q u
o t ie n t s is n li it ed th e u m f
ra c t io n is c alle d an in n ite c o n tin u ed fi
fra c tio n .

I t is p o s s ib le t o re d c e e u v y t mi ti g
er er n a n co n tin u ed f ra c t io n

t o a n o rdin a r rac t io n b y s i yf mplifyi g t h f ti n e ra c ons i su

n s
c c e s io n

b egin n in g ro t h e lo e s tf m w .

333 . To c o n vert a gi ven f ra cti o n in to a co n tin u ed frac tio n .

Let
ni
—
n
b e t h e gi v fen ra c t io n ; di ide v mb y n ,
le t a
l
b e th e

q u o t ie n t an d p th e re mia n de r t hu s

2 ?

d . H A .
27 4 HI G H ER AL G E BR A .

di idev n by p, th e q u o t ie n t an d q th e re mi a n de r

n 1

1 ) 17
q
v
di ide p b y q , th e q u o t ie n t an d 7
°
th e re mi a n de r ; an d SO

on T s
. hu

If mi s le s s t h an n ,
the fi rs t
q u o t ie n t is z e ro ,
an d we p u t
m 1
n n

an d p ro c e e d as be f o re .

It w ill b e O b se r vp e dt
is t h e s ah eat th e
a s t at a bo v e ro c e s s m h
o f fi
n din
g t h e
gre a t e s t c o on e a s re O f an d n h mm m
e n c e if u m m
an d n a re c o mm
en s u ra b le w e s a ll a t le n gt h a rri e a t a s ta e
g h v
wh v
e re t h e di is io n is e x a c t a n d t h e p ro c e s s t e r i na t e s T s m hu
um m
.

v yf
e er ra c tio n w o se n h
e ra t o r a n d de n o in a t o r a re p o s it i e v
s v
in t ege r c an b e c o n e rt e d in t o a t e r in at in g c o n tin e d rac tio n m u f .

E xa m
pl e. Re du ce
2 51
78 2
to a co n tin ud e fractio n .

d
Fin in g th e greates t co mm on m u e as re o f 2 51 an d 8 02 b y th e uu s al

p ro c e s s , we hv a e

5 2 51 8 02 3
6 6 49 8
1

an d th e s u v u
c c es s i e q o tien ts are 3 , 5, 8 , 6 ; h en c e

2 51 1 1 1 1
°

8 02 3+ 5+ 8+ 6

3 34 f
Th e ra c tio n s o b ta in e d b y s t o p p in g a t t h e rs t, s e c o n d,
. fi
h
t ird, q u
o t ie n t s o f a c o n t in ed ra c t io n a re c a lle d t h e rs t , u f fi
s ec o n d, t ird, h c o n vergen t , b e c a s e a s will b e s e n in s u hw
m
.
,

u v
A rt 3 3 9 , e ac h s c c e s s i e c o n e rge n t is a n e a re r app ro x i a t io n
. v
u u
t o t h e t r e va l e o f t h e c o n tin e d ra c t io n t a n an y o f t h e u f h
p re c e din
g co n er en t s
g v .
27 6 H IGHE R A L E BR A G .

Th e ( n + co n v e r en
g t di fe rs f f mth
ro e n
1311
on ly in h avi n
g
1
th e q uo tie n t a
n
in t h e pla c e o f a h en c e t h e ( n + 1) th
co n

v e rgen t

( a
n q n -
l g it - 2 ) g n —l
n

a rt + p n —I
by s u pp o s itio n .

“ q” g
n +1

I f t h e re f o re we pu t
an p + p n —1 ’ q “n g + q
p +l 1t n +1 +1 rc n

we see t h at t h e n ume ra t o r a n m
d de n o in a t o r o f t h e ( n 1) co n th

v e rge n t f ll w th
olaw ic o e wh h u wa s s pp o s e d t o o ld in th e c a s e o f h
th e n th
B u t t h e la w do e
. sh o ld in t h e c a se o f t h e t ird c o n h
v e rge n t , h e n c e it h o ld fo r s fu h t h e o rt , an d s o o n t e re o re it h f
h o ld sun ive r all s y .

3 37 . I t will b e c o n v en ie n t to c a ll a n th e n
th
p a rtia l q o t ien t ; u
th e co m
p l t q u e e o t ien t at t i h s st a
ge b e in g an
au
1 1
+ an

We sh al l u su a ll yd en o t e th e co mpl t qu e e o tie n t at an
+i

y s ta
+2

ge by k .

We h ave s ee n t h at

p “71 29 + pn—
er 2

gr ;
an g —ln g —2
it

let t h e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n b e de n o te d b y x ; t h en a: f
di fe rs f m
ro

on yi
l n t ak in g t h e co mpl t e e q u o t ie n t k in s te a d o f t h e p a rt ial
9 1.
q uo t ie nt an 3 t hu s

k9 71 —1 qn -
Z

If 2 b e th e th
f
9
3 38 . n c o n ver en
g t to a co n tin u ed ra c tio n ,
th en
qn
pn q n - l p qn
Le t t h e co n t in u ed f ra ct io n b e den o t e d b y
 CO N TI NU E D FR A C TI ON S . 27 7

p ic -
4 9" + p n —2 ) q n —l
—
p (
(bq q —2
ua )
1 ) (p ,.

—
(p n 2 g it — 3 p n
—3 g it
-
Q ) ,
S ilh ilarlY’

—
2% 92 )

Bu t p e q,
h e n ce p g a n —l
_
p n —l 9 11
l > n
'

W h en th e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n is less t h an n it u y th is ul w ill
,
res t
s t ill h o ld if we s u pp o s e t h at a =
,
O, an d t at t h e h fi st v g t
r co n er en

is z e ro .

N OTE W h we are calc u latin g t h e um e ric al v u al e o f th e u v

cc e s s i e
v h mu h
en n s
v u
.

co n ergen ts , th e ab o e t e o re f rn is es an e as y te s t o f th e ac c racy o f th e
w k or .

C OR 1 E ac h c o n v e rgen t is in it s lo we t t e r s m s fo r ifp ” an d
mm
. .

g” h a d a co o n di is o r it wo ld di i de p” v u v q” o r n it u y
m
,

h
wh ic is i po s s ib le .

C OR 2 Th e diffe re n ce b et w ee n t wo s u ssi cc e ve c o n v e rge n t s is

um
. .

a f ra c tio n wh o se n e ra t o r is u n it y 5f or

p 9
“ J

n —l n —1 71

gr gn
; - l

E XA M PLE S . XXV . a .

Calc late t h e u s u c c es s i e c o nv v e rge n t s to

1 1 1 1 1
1 . 2+ ‘

6+ 1+ 1+ 11 + 2

1 1 1 1 1 l 1
°

2+ 2+ 3 + 1+ 4+ 2+ 6

1 1 1 1 -

1 1
3 . 3+ °

3+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+ 9

E x pres s th e fo llo wi n gq u an tities as c o n t in u dfe rac tio n s an d fin d

fo u h rt co n v e rgen t to ea c h .

253 8 32
4 . . 5 . .

179 1 59

8 37 9 1 1 39
“

. . . .
27 8 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

12 A mt is 3 9 3 7 07 9 in c h h w by th e t h f tin ud
m
e re es , s e eo ry o co n e
frac tio n s t
.

h ul
at 3 2 y d
etres is n early eq a to 3 5 ar s .

13 Fi d i ff i n v gi g h
a s er es o rac t o n s c o n er n to 2 4 22 6 , t e e x c es s in
d y f th
a s o u pi l y v
.

e d y
tr e tro ca ear o er 365 a s .

14 A k il m
. i v y ly q u l 6
o mil h w h
e tre s er n ear e a to ‘
2 138 es ; s e t at

th f te rac l o n s
é 7
6
u v 5
p p m m h
18
—
29
23
3 1 03
4
are s cc es s i e a ro ati o n s to t e

ratio o f a kilo mt e re to a mil e .

15 Two s c ale s Of e q u ll a en gt h are d ivid d i e to 1 6 2 an d 2 09 e q al

n u
p arts
.

re s p e c ti ely v ; if t e r z e ro p o in t hi
s b e c o in c i e n t s e d t at t h e hw h
31 “ v
di is io n o f o n e n early c o in c i es wit th e d h 4o th
dv
i is io n o f th e o t er h .

4 2 —1
1 6 ' If
+n +n + 1 n
n
3
+
2
n
is c o n vert e d in t o a co n tin udf e rac tio n , s hw
e

h
t at t h e q o t ie n t s u
are n — l an d n +1 altern at el
y, an d fi n d th e su c
c e s s ive c o n ergen t s v .

17 . Sh w t h
e at

_ —1
gn +1 gn gn
+ 2
( )
2 1 1

18 . If
9
is th e n
th
co n v g e r en t to a co n tin udfe rac t io n

c o rres p o n di gq u
n o tie n t, s h w th
e at

Pn + 2 Qn —2 pn 2 9n + 2 an + an +
~
2 1
- ° °

339 . E a ch co n vergen t is n ea rer to th e co n tin u ed frac ti o n th a n

an
y o f th e p recedin g c o n vergen ts .

L et a: de n o t e t h e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n
,
an d 8 "
p
9 (
1
t h re e c o n s ec u t iv e co n v e r en
g ts ; t h en se di fe r f sf m ro
p“ ?

o mp l 9 "+ 2
t k g th ete
( qu t i en t t h e p la c e f
a in e co n o '
In o a

th i b y h ; t hu
s s

k (p a ) k
av g , a -
p q n n -
H

q" q" ( kg n 'l' l q n (a ''

l l 9 11 )
1
q ( qn t
k ’
1 q ”)
2 80 HI GH E R A LGEB R A .

t h e re f o re , an y c o n vergen t wh ich i mmdi e a tel

y p recedes a large
qu o ti en t i s a n ea r app ro x i mti a on to th e co n tin u ed fra ctio n .

A ga in , s m th l th ee t f ll w s t h t
e e rro r 1 s es s an
l
i o o a In o rde r
9
t o fin d v g t wh i h will diff f mth ti u d f
a co n er en c er
1.

ro e co n n e ra c t io n

1
b y les s th g q u
an t t y 5
w h
a v ly t
1v e n l u l t an i ’
e a e on o ca c a e th e

s uc c es s iv v g ts p t
e co n
71
wh q i ger en th u o e re s re a t e r an a .

g r;

3 42 s
Th e pro pe rt ie o f c o n tin e d ra c t io n s e n ab le to fin d u f us
sm m
.

t wo all in t e e r
g o s wh
s e ra t io c lo s e l a
pp ro x i a t e s t o t at o f y h
t wo in c o en mm su
ra b le
q an t it ie s , o r t o t u
a t o f t wo q an t it ie h u s
wh o s e e x a c t ra tio c a n o n l y
b e e x pre s e d b y la rge in t e ge rs s .

E xa p le m d
Fin a series o f frac tio n s ap pro x i atin g to 3 1 4 1 59 m
mm m
. .

I n th e p ro ces s o f fi n in g th e gre at e s t c o on d
ea s re o f 1 4 159 u an d
u v u
1 00000, th e s ccessi e q o tien ts are 7 , 1 5, 1 , 2 5, 1 , 7 , 4 T s . hu
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 °

7 + 1 5+ 1 + 2 5+ 1 + 7 + 4

Th e s u ccessi e co n v v ergen ts are

3 22 3 33 3 55
’ ’ ’ ’
1 7 1 06 113

h
t is las t co n v ergen t wh h ic prece d es th e large q u o tien t 2 5 is a v ery n ear

appro xi mt a io n , th e erro r b ei n g les s t h an

1
2 5x
an d t h ere fo re le s s t h an

1
or 0 00004
x
.

25

34 3 A n y c o n vergen t is n earer to th e c o n tin u ed fra c tio n th an

m
.

an y o th er fra c tio n wh o s e den o in a to r is less th a n th a t of th e

c o n vergen t .

Le t x b e th e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n ,
21
q
?
t wo c o n s ec u tiv e
q n —l

c o n ve r en
g t s a f ra c t io n wh o se de n o mi n at o r s is le s s t h an

I f po ss ib le , le t Z be n e a re r to so t h an mu t s be
3 q”
h 2
n eare r to
;so
[A t 3 3 9 ]
an d
n —l
rt . an s in ce so lie s b e twe e n

it f ll ws t h t : m u t li b t w 7 zi
o o a s e e e en an d m

3
Q
 C ON TI N UED FR A C TI ON S . 28 1

H en c e

t h at is
u —l

s
S )
0

n —l ] n
—l
q

th i at s, an in t e ge r le s s t h an a f ra c t io n ; wh i h c is i mp o s s ib le

Th f e re o re mu t b s e n e a re r t o th e co n tl n ue d f ra c t i o n t h an
r

3
°

l b e two
344 . If
i
2l , c o n s ecu tive co n ver
g en ts to a co n tin u ed

f ra c tio n th en
32 is grea ter less th a n a c co rdin
2
x or as
, ,
x , g

grea ter o r les s th a n R

‘
1

Le t h b e th e co mpl t e e
qu o t i en t c o rre s p o n din g t o t h e co n

v er en
g t 1 mmd e 1a t e l
y t h en x :
hp
kq
,
+
p
q q
1
q W
l l 2

{pp k
’ 2 I
k + q)
_
99 +
9)
l 2
W ( g
k +

( rq
k
g ’ ’

m) (m M ) ’

ed ( M

Th e fI
a c to r hp q
e ''
pg is p o s it i v e , s in c e
p
'
p, q
’

g, an d 75 > 1

h en c e
72 3
,
o r 5
5
2
,
a c co r din g as
pg
’
—
p g is p o s it i
’
v e o r n e ga t i v e

29
I

P P
th at is , acc o r din g a s
(
o r
q
I

COR It f ll w f mth
o o s ro e ab o v e in v e s t iga t io n h t at th e ex

hv m
.

'
— g
— '
2
th e
’ ’ 2 2 2 ’g
re s s io n s — az p a e sa e
p pg p q, p p 7 9
g 5
c , q
si n
g .

E XA M PLES . XXV b . .

1 . Fi n d limi h ts t o t e erro r In ta k in g 3
173
22
y ar s as e q d uv li a en t to

a mt e re , g iv en h mt t at a e re is e
q u lat o 1 0 9 3 6 y ar d s .
28 2 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

2
.
Fi n d an ap p ro x i mti a on to

1 1 1 1 1
-
1+
3 5 7 9 11

wh i h d iff f m h u v lu
c e rs ro t e tr e a e b y less t h an 0 00 1 .

3 Sh w b y h th
.
y f e t e eo r o co n tin u dfe rac tio n s t
;
h g
at d iff e rs fro m
1
1 4 1421 by qu y l h a an ti t es s t an
1 1 8 30

3 2
+ 6 a + 1 3 a + 10
4 . E x press
a
4
a

+ 6a +
3
1 5a + 7
as a co n ti n ude frac t i o n , an d

h d v
fi n d th e t ir co n e rge n t .

5 Sh w h h d iff e t at t e ere n c e b et w ee n t h e fi rs t an d n
th
co n v e rgen ts
um i lly qu l t
.

is n er c a e a o

1 l 1

9 19 2 9 29 3 9 394

6 . S hw h
e t at if a n is th e q u o tie n t c o rre s o n
p di g n to

1 1 1
( In —
1 + “i i — 2 + “rt — +
3

l 1 1

9n —1 Ch i —
1 + “ at — 2 + an —
s
'
l
‘

1 1
7 . I n th e co n tin u df e rac tio n
a + a + a
1
+ a
1
+
s h e wt h at

N W
?
( )
1 “ 1
=
pn

( )
2 pn
z
g n —l '

8 . I f 2 is t h e
3
1‘
n
th
co n v erge n t t o th e co n tin u df
e rac t io n

1 1 1 1 1 1
a + b+ a + b + a + b+

a
Sh e w th at 9 211.
=
p 2n + 1 ) g2n -
1
= _
p 2n °

9 . I n th e co n tin u dfe ra c tio n

1 l 1 1
a b a b+

—2 0) gn +2 ga l gu
' '
—2
 C H A PTE R XXVI .

IN D E TE R M I N A TE EQ U A TI ON S O F TH E FI R S T D E GR EE .

34 5 h
I n C ap X w e h a e s e wn h o w t o o b t a in t h e p o s it i e v h v
m w h um
. . .

u
in t e gra l s o l t io n s o f in de t e r in a te e q a t io n s it n e ric a l c o u
e ffi c ie n t s h y
w e s a ll n o w a ppl t h e p ro p e rt ies o f c o n t in e d ra c t io n s u f
s u
t o Ob t a in t h e ge n e ral o l t io n o f a n y in de t e r in at e e q at io n o f m u
fi
t h e rs t degree .

3 46 y A n f t
e h e
q u rs t de re e in
a t io n
g oo l in
g t w o fiu n v v
f m
.

k ws
n o n ac a n d y c an b e re d c e d t o t h e or 4=b
a cc =
y u i c W e r e z h
m u m
,

a , b , c a re
p o s it i e in t e e rs
g v T i s e
q a t io n a d it s o f an h
n li it ed u
um m u
.

n b e r o f s o lu t io n s b u t if t h e c o n ditio n s o f t h e p ro b le re
q i re

ac a n d y t o b e
p o s it i e in t e ge rs , t h e nv b e r o f s o l t io n s a
y b e um u m
m
li it e d .

I t is c le a r t a t t h e e q at io n a x h by u c h as n o
p o s it i v e

u
in t e gra l s o l t io n an d t a t t h e e q at io n ax h u by c is e q i ale n t u v
t o by a cc 0 h
e n c e it u
ill b e s ffic ie n t t oid w s co n s er t h e e q at io n u
a mi by
If a an f t mwh i h d
db h v a e at div id f
ac o r c o es n o e c, n e it h er o

t he e
q u t i a b y b
o n s ax + t i fi d b y i t g
:
l v lu f0 c an e sa s e n e ra a es o a
c

an dy f b y i div i ib l b y m wh
o r a ge d : s i t s e ,
e re a s 0 s n o .

If b h v
a, mm f t it
e a e a cob m d b y divi i ; on ac o r c an e re o ve s on

mm f t
,

so th t w a h ll u pp e s b a t h s o se d a, c o a ve n o co on ac o r, a n

h t d b p im t h h
,

t a a an a re r e o eac o t er .

34 7 . To fin d th e
gen eral s o lu tio n in p o s itive in tegers f
o th e
equ a ti o n ax by c .

ued f
L et
g be c o n ve rt e d in t o a co n tin ra c tio n ,
an d le t
? de n o t e

th e c o n ve r e n
g t ju t p s re c e din
g;
5 h t en aq bp i1 .
[A rt .
 IN D ETE R M I N A TE EQ U A TIO N S O F TH E FI R sT DG E R EE . 285

I . I f aq bp l , t h e gi v en e
q u a t io n my ba e w ittr en

a w— b y ( q = 0 a — bp ) ;
a
( x —c
q)
= b
( y
—cp) .

N o w s in c e a an d b hv a e no co mm f on a c t o r, w — cq mu t s be
v
di is ib le b y b h e n c e a: cq b t, wh e re t is an in te ge r,

se — cq

b
t h at is , x = b t + cq , y = at + c
p i

f mwh i h p
ro c o s it i v e in t e gral o l tio n s a
y b s u
e o b t a in e d b
y gi in
g m v
to t an
y p o s it i v e v u
in te gra l a l e , o r an y n e ga t i e in t e gra l a l e v v u
n um i e r c a ll y smll a er t h an t h e les s o f t h e t wo q u an t it ie s
cq c
p .

b
my b
a

a sol t a e z e ro ; t h u s th e n umb er o u
f s o l t io n si s u lim
nit ed .

II . I f a q — bp z — l we
,
hv a e

—C —b
dx -
by =
( aq r) ;

x y
2
Cg 029
— t, an 1n t e ge r
“

h en c e w z b t — c q, y = at — c
p ;

f mwh i h p
ro c o s iti v in t e gra l s o l t io n s
e u my b a e o b t a in e d b y gi in g v
to t an
y p o s iti v e in te gra l a l e v u
ic wh h d ex c ee s t h e gre a te r o f t h e

t wo q u an t itie s
cq cp
t hus th e n u mb e r o f so u
l t io n s is u limited
n .

b a

III . If e it h er a o r b is u n it y th f
, e ra c t io n 1
(

b
c an n o t be co n

v tdi t
er e ti u d f n tio a co nit um t s d th
n e ra c on w ith u n n e ra o r an e

my b
,

i v tig t i
n es f il I t h a on a s h lu i n e s e c a s es, hw o e ve r, t e so t ons a e

w itt d w b y i p ti ; t hu if b 1 th qu ti b m
.

r en o n n s ec on s = e e a on eco es

m
,

ar
r —
y ; wh y
: c d t h lu t
en c e i s y b f u
= axd b y c, an e so on a e o n

asc rib i g t y p n it iv i t l v
o so an
g lu g t t h os e n e ra a e re a e r an
c

N I h u d v d h v lu m
mi
OTE . b t s o l b e o ser e d t at th e s eries o f a es fo r a: an y for

tw o arith r i wh h mm d
t cal p ro gres s o n s in ic th e co on ifferen ces are b an d a
resp v ec ti ely .
28 6 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E x a p lem . Fin d th e ge n e ral s o u l tio n in p o siti v e in tegers o f 29x 4 2y = 5 .

In v
co n
gg ertin g
— in to a co n tin ud e frac tio n th e co n v ergen t j u st b e fo re
33
w h v h
e a e t erefo re

29 x 13 —42 x 9 — 1
;

29 x 6 5— 4 2 x 45 — 5
;

co mb i n in h
g t is wi t h th e gi v en eq u atio n ,
we o b tain

29 (y
x + 65 y + 45
t, an in te ger
42 29
h e n ce th e gen eral s o u
l tio n is

x = 42t 6 5, y = 2 9 t 45 .

3 48 . Given one s o lu tio n i n p o sitive in tegers of th e e

q i
u at o n

by c, to fi n d th e gen era l s o lu tio n .

L et h , h b e a so u
l tio n o f ax — b y z c t h en ah — bh z c .

ax — by z a h — bh ;
“
( x

x — h —h
y
t, an in te ge r ;
b a

x : h + b t, y = le + a t
;
wh i h i
c s t h e ge n e ra l s o u
l t io n .

349 To fi n d th e gen era l so lu tio n in p o s i tive in tegers

z
.

equ a tio n ax by G .

Let
; be co n v e rt e d in t o a co n t in u ed f ra c t io n , an d le t z
3

c o n ve r e n
g t ju t p
s re c e din
g
a

5 3 th en aq bp l= 1
= .

I . I f a q — bp = l , we ha v e

ax + by = c
<q a — bp ) ;

a
( c
q
cq — x + cp
y
t, an 1n t e ge r
b a

x z bq — b t y ,
z at —c
p ;
28 8 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

I . Le t aq bp 1 t h en t h e ge n e ra l s o lutio n is

x cq b t, y at cp .
[A rt 3 4 9 .
]
Po s iti v e in t e gra l so u
l tio n s w ill be t a in e d b y gi in g t o t
Ob v
p o s it i v e in t e gral v lu s
a e n o t g re a t e r t an h09
’
an d n ot
b
le ss
t h an

()
i S ppu o se t h at 2 a n d __ a re
a
c

b
n o t in t e ge rs .

sq
Let f; z n g,

h m
w e re p it iv i t g n a re os e n e e rs an dj , g p ro p e r f ra c t io n s
;
h v i m
,

v lu
t h e le as t a e t c an a e s + 1, an d t h e gre a t e s t v lua e

th f th u mb f lu i
e re o re e n er o so t on s is

n — m q——
%
7
+ f —
g —
d
c

b
+ f g .

N o w t is is h an i t ege r,
n an d my b w a e ritt e n 1 a f ra c t io n , or
a b
0

ab
a f ra c t i o n
,
ac c o r i n d g as
f IS
g re a t e r o r le s s t h an
g . Th us th e

u mb s lu ti 0
n er o f o ons is t h e in t ege r n e a res t to gre a t e r o r le s s
7
(t
,

ac co r din g a s f or g is th e
gre a t e r .

( ) 11 u
S pp o s e t h a t
b
is an in t ege r .

I n t is h c as e
g O, an d on e v lua e o f a; is z e ro . If we in c l de u
h
t is , t h e n u mb er of u
s o l t io n s is
b
i
a
j , wh+i h m u t b c s e an in

t e ge r . H en c e th e n u mb er o f so lu t i s i t h g
on t t i t g
s e re a e s n e er in

lu d lu t
c c
1 or ac c o r dI n g a s we In c lu d t h
e o r ex c e e z e ro s o ion .

a b ab

( )
iii u
S pp o s e t h t 2i a s an in t e ge r .

I n t is c a s e h f 0, an d o n e v lu
a e of y is z e ro I f we in c l de u
m
.

h
t is , t h e le a s t v u a l e o f t is an d t h e gre at e t is n ; e n c e s h
th e n u mb er o f so l u tio n s is n m + 1, or
db
C
_
g+ 1' Th u s th e
 IN D E TE R M I N A TE EQ U A TI ON S O F TH E FIR S T D E GR E E . 28 9

n umb er o f so u
l tio n s IS t h e gre a t e s t in t e ge r In
0
+ 1 o r
ab

c o rdin
g as we in c l de u o r e x cl ud e th e z e ro so u
l t io n .

( )
i v u
S pp o s e t h t 2 d?
a an a re bot hi n t e ge rs .

I n t is c a s e h f
0 an d g = O, a n d b o t h a: a n d y hv a e a z e ro

v al e u u h
I f we in c l de t e s e , t h e le a s t a l e t c a n a v u hv i m e s an d
um m
.
,

t h e gre a t e s t is n en ce th e n h
b e r o f s o l t io n s is n u 1, o r

c
1 . I f we ex c lu d t h e e z e ro v lu a es th e n u mb er o f so u
l tio n s is
a b
6

ab

II . I f aq bp l , t h e ge n e ra l s o l t io n is u
x = bt — c , = c — at
q y p ,

an d si mil a r re s ul w ts ill b e o b t a in e d .

3 52 To fi n d t h e s o l t io n s in p o s it i e in t e ge rs u v o f th e eq u a

m
.

t io n ax by ex cl, w e a
y p ro c e e d a s o llo ws f .

B y t ra n s p o s it io n a s: b y d — cx ; : f mwh i h b y giv i g t
ro c n o z

u
in s c c e s s io n t h e a l es 0, l , 2 , 3 , v u w bt i qu i e o a n e at o n s o f
th e o r f m ax by = c ,
’
ic a
y b e so lwh h m v d l dy pl i d
e a s a re a ex a n e .

3 53 . I f we h v t w imu lt
a e o S an eo u q u ti
s e a on s
’ ’
by by
’ ’
ax + + cz = d, a x + c z z
d,
m
b y e li in at in g o n e o f t h e u kn o n s,
n w zs a , w e o b t a in a n
y
o f th e o r Ax f mBy 0 :
. u h
S pp o s e t a t x j , y = g is a z

h
t e n t h e ge n e ral s o l t io n u can b e w
rit t en

x f l'
'
B S) y :
g
_ A S)
wh e re s is an in t ege r .

u u
S b s t it t in g t es e a l e s h v u o f x an d y in e it h er o f t h e gi v en

u
e q a t io n s , we Ob t a in an e
q u a t io n o f th e f m
or Fs + Gz = H , o f
wh hic t h e ge n e ra l s o l t io n is u
s = h + Gt, z = le — Ft sa
y .

u
S b s t it t in g fo r u s, we o b ta in
— A h — A Gt
or f + Bh + B Gt, y g ;
an d th e v lu a es o f x, y ,
z a re o b t a in e d b y gi in g t o t v s u it ab le
in t e gra l v lu a es .

H . H . A .
 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

3 54 . If o n e so u
l t io n in p o s it i ve in t e ge rs o f th e e
qu a t io n s

' '
ax + by + cz z d, c z z d,

c an b e fu o n d, t h e ge n e ra l so u
l t io n my b a e o b t a in e d as f ll w
o o s .

Le t j ,g h b ,
e t h e p a rt ic la r u so u
l tio n t h en

' '
f f
f bg h d
’

a + bg ch d, a + c .

By su b t ra c t io n ,

» w—f
0
< > (IV
b + —
9) + c
< z

' ' —
f)
’
a
( fr — + b (y g) o
( s

wh en c e

—
x — f y g z — h t
' ' ' ' ’
Ic
’
b
’
bc b c ca c a ab a

wh e re t is an in t e ge r a n d h is t h e H C F o f t h e de n o . . mi n a t o rs

hu u
.

' ’ ’
a b T s t h e ge n e ra l s o l t io n is
’
a, a b
’ ’
bc b c, c a c .

' ' t
—c a — ’

f + ( b c
) lc
— a b)

E XA M PLE S . XXVI .

Fi n d th e gen eral so u
l t io n an d th e le as t p o s iti v e in tegral so l u ti on o f

1 . 7 7 5x 7 1 1y = 1 . 2 . 4 55x 51 9y = 1 . 3 . 4 36x 39 3y = 5.

4 . In h o w mywy an a s c an £1 1 9 3 6 d b e p ai
. . . di n flo rin s an d h lfa

c ro wn s

5 . Fi n d th e n u mb er o u
f s o l tio n s in p o s iti v e in tegers o f
1 1 x + 1 5y = 1 03 1 .

6 d w f i h vi g 7 d f th i d mi t
Fi n t o d rac t o n s a n an 9 or e r
u h th h i mi 3g
. en o n a o rs , an
s c at t e r su s 1—
,
.

7 Fi d w p p f i i h i l w
. n t mh i g
o ro er rac t o n s n t e r o es t t er s av n 12

an d f th i d
8 mi t
or d u h h t t h i d iff
e r i en o n a o rs an s c t a e r e ren c e s
24
1

8 A i m i t f p u d y h illi g d i i h lf
c ert a n su co n s s s o x o n t
hilli g fi d h m
s s n s , an s a
fy p u d
.

o o n s x s n s ; n t e su .

S lv i p i iv i
o
g e n os t e n te ers

10 . 1 2 v — 1 1y + 4 z
. = 22
— 4x 17
+ 5y + z =
 C H A PTE R XXVII .

REC UR R IN G C ON TI N UE D FR A C TI O N S .

3 55 . hv We i C h p X XV
a h t mi i g
e s een n a . . t a a ter n at n co n

f ti wi h ti l qu ti t
t in u e d ra c on b
t du d t
ra on a o en s c an e re ce o an

y f ti w ith i t g l um t d d mi t
.

o rdin a r ra c on n e ra n e ra o r an en o n a o r, a n d
th f
e re o re t b u l
c an n o
q t u d b w e h ll
e
p v tah o a s r u t e s a ro e at a

q uad t
rai u d c sb r
p d i fi
c an i i
e exu d f ire s se as an n n te co n t n e ra c t o n

wh qu ti t u W h ll fi t
o se o en s id
re c r um i e S a rs co n s er a n e r c al

mpl
.

ex a e .

m
E x a p le E xp re s s ,JI Q as a co n tin ud
e frac tio n an d fin d a s e ri e s
m v u
. ,

frac tio n s ap p ro x i at in g to its al e .

—2 5
3 3

—3
J 1 9 + 2 2

J
’
5 5 I Q + 3

/ —3
J 1 9 + 3 N
1 9 5
2 2

— 2 3
5 5

—4
J 1 9 1
’

N/
3 3 1 9 + 4

after h
t is th e q u o tien ts 2 , 1 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 8 re c u h
r; en c e

I 1 1 1 1 1
J 1 9 =4 +
2 §C 1 + 3 + 1 + 27 5 8 +
It w d h
ill b e n o tice t at u u
th e q o tie n t s rec r a s s o o n a s we c o e to m
quo tien t i cwh h d u
i s o b le o f th e fi rs t I n A rt 3 6 1 we S all p ro e t at t is h v h h
w
. .

al ay s th e c as e .
 R EC UR R I N G C O N TI NU D E FR A CTI ON S . 293

[ E xp la n a tio n In e ac h o f th e lin e s ab o e e p e rfo r v w mth e sa me s e rie s o f

o p e ratio n s . Fo r e xa mp l e, d
c o n s i er th e s e co n lin e d we fi rs t fi n d th e

greates t in tege r in “ H
i
-
F4
h
; t is is 2 , an d th e re mi a n d er i s
J 1€
3
3
+4
2, t hat

s
J1
2 h m
—2
u . We t en ltip ly n um e rato r a n d d m en o in ato r b y th e s ud
r

co n uj J
gate h to 19 2, so t at a fter v
in ertin g th e res u lt
5
—
2
we b egin a

n e w wh
lin e d it a ratio n al en o mi n ato r .
]
v v
Th e fi rs t se en c o n e rgen ts fo r md e as e x p la in e d in A rt 33 6 . are

4 4s 61
9 13 170 1 421
‘

326

Th e e rro r k
in ta in g th e las t o ft h e se is le s s t h an an d is t h ere fo re

les s th an
1
or
1 02 4 00
1
an d a fo rtio ri les s t h an
‘
00001 . T hu s th e

se v h v
en t co n ergen v
t gi e s th e v u
al e to at lea s t fo u r p laces o f d imec als .

3 56 . E very p erio dic co n tin u e d frac tio n is equ a l to one of th e

u a dra ti c e u a tio n of wh i c h th e c o e ic ien ts a re
ro o ts o fa q q fi ra ti o n a l .

L e t x de n o t e t h e co n t in u df
e ra c t io n ,
an d y t h e p e rio dic p a rt ,
an d s
pp o s eut at h
1 1 1
’
h + lc + y

1 1 1
’
u + v + y

wh e re a , b, h, m , p o s it i v e in t e ge rs .

Le t
p
,
p
,
be th e co n v e rge n ts to a: c o rre s p o n din g t o t h e
9 9
q u o t ie n t s h , h re s
p e c t i v ly ; th
e en s in c e i
y s th e co mpl t e e qu o tie n t ,

we hva e
+

+
1 7
; wh y e n ce z
p
,
q
—
x

9 y 9 q x
p

2,
be th e co n v e r en
g ts to y c o rre s
p on din g t o the
'

q u o t ie n t s u ,
v re s e c t i
p v lye t h en y
r

s
y
'
r

8
.

u u
S b s t it t in g fo r y in t e r s o f m x an d Si mplify i n
g w e o b t a in a

q u
a dra t ic o f ic t h e co e wh h
c ie n t s ffi a re ra t io n a l .
29 4 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

Th e e q a t io n s y u
( s r
) y r O,
ic
g i e s th e
'
al e o f wh h v v u
y, h a s it s r o o t s re a l a n d o f o
pp o s it e s ign s i f t h e
p o s it i e al e o f v v u
b e s b s t it ut e d i n a:
M u p
o n ra t io n a lis in t h e de n o in at o r m
g g ’

9s q

v u
t h e a l e o f x is o f t h e o r
A + JB
f m
e re A , B , G a re i n t e e rs ,
g
C
!
wh
B b e in g p o s it i v e s in c e t h v lu
e a e o f
y i s re al .

E m
pl E x pres s
1 1 1 1
as s u rd
a
xa e. .

3+ 2+ 3+

L et x b e th e v u al e o f th e co n tin ud
e fractio n ; t h en x 1
2
1
3
1

(x 1)
wh en c e 2x + 2 x2
7=0
ud u v h u
.

Th e c o n tin e frac tio n i s eq al t o th e p o s iti e ro o t o f t is eq atio n ,

an d

is t h ere fo re e q al touN/1 5 1
2

E XA M PL E S . XXV I I . a .

E x p re s s t h e fo llo wi g u dn s r s as co n t in ud e frac tio n s , an d fin d th e

s ix t h co n v e rgen t to e ach
1 .
J3 . 2 .
J5 . 3 .
J6 .

5 .
J11 . 6 .
J 13 . 7 .
J 14 .

9 . 2 J3 . 10 . 4 J2 . 11 . 3 J5 .

1 1
13 . 14 . 15 .

J21
17 . Fi n d limi ts o f th e e rro r wh en
26g
65
— is ta k en fo r ,J 1 7 .

18 d limi
. Fi n ts o f th e e rro r wh en
m
9 16 .

is ta k en fo r J 2 3 .

19 Fi d h fi n t e rs t c o n vergen t to t h at is c o rrec t t o fi ve plac es

o fd ml eC I a s .

20 F i d th fi rs t co n v g er e n t to J 15 t h at is c o rre c t t o fi ve p lac es
ml
n e
ofd e ci a s .

E p x res s as a co n tin udf

e rac t io n th e p o s iti v e ro o t Of eac h o f th e
f ll wi g q u i
o o n e at o n s :

21 . x
2
+ 2x —1 = O . 22 . x
2 — 4x 23 . 7 x — 8x
2

24 . E x pres s h
eac ro o t o f x
2 5x 3 O as a co n tin u dfe rac tio n .

1 1 1
25 . Fi d n th e v lu
a e o f3 +

1 1 1
26 . Fi d n th e v lu
a e of
 29 6 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

We S h a ll c a ll th e s e ries o fq u o t ie n t s

J 1 V+ al
J N + a
J N + as
J N 2
’
7

t he fi rs t , s e c o n d, t ird, h f u th
o r co mpl t e e
q u o t ie n t s .

*
3 58 . F mt h e p
ro re c e din
g a rt ic le it a
pp e a rs tht a th e q u an

t it ie s a , , r, , b , , b2, b 3 a re
p o s it i v e in t e ge rs ; w e s h ll a n o w p ro e v
t h at th e q u
a n t itie s a ,
2
a a
4,
r
2,
r
3,
a ls o
p o s it i e in v
t e ge rs .

p p
,

p
h u t iv v
Le t b t ts t o JM d
.

e re e c o n se c e co n e r en
g an
q
’
q q
le t
13
;
b e th e co n v e rge n t c o rres
p o n din g t o t h e p a rt ia l q u o t ie n t b ” .

mpl t qu J Z
h Z
+ a
Th e co e e o t ien t at t is s ta
g i se h en c e

J N + a,
' '
r"
p J N + an p r,p

J q J
’
N
’
a
.
N a
n as
0
7 fl

C le a rin g o f f ra c t io n s an d e
q u at n i g rat io n a l a n d irrat io n al
p a rt s , we a hv e
’

p ;
wh en ce a
( rd —
Rs) =
pp
’
—
99 N
’
,
N9 “

4 9

B u t re — p e
f d n an d i) r— 19 s. pit — M M N a
'
—
p ha v e

m
,

th e sa e S i gn
[A rt . h
e n c e a a n d r a re
p o s it i
n ,
,

v e in t ege rs .

S in c e t wo co n v e r en
g t s p re c e de th e co mpl t e e
qu o ti en t
J 1V + a

r2
2

h
t is in v e s t iga t io n h o lds fo r a ll v lu
a es o f n gre at e r t h an 1 .

*
3 59 . To p ro ve th a t th e co m
p l t e e an d p a rtia l qu o tien ts re c u r .

I n A rt 3 57 we a e p ro e d t a t r r ; l hv
N a v h
A ls o r” a n d
z

mu
. .

r _ l a re
p o s it i e i n t e e rs
g v
en c e a " s t b e le s s t a n
J N ,
t hs
fl n n

h hu
n

a " c an n o t b e
g re a t e r t an a , , a n d t e re o re it c a n n o t h
a e an
y h f hv
v u
a l es e x c e t 1 , 2 3 ,
p ,
t a t is , th e n u b
'
er of difieren t va lu es ofh m
a c a n n o t ex ceed a ,
Ill
.

A ga in , au
+1
bn — a
rm th t i b a s ru = a + a
n + 1,
an h f
d t e re o re

ru b ” c an n o t b e gre a te r h 2 l b i
t an a a so
n n
'
s a
p o s iti v i g e n te er ;
h en ce r” c a n n o t b e
g re a e r t th 2 Thu an a
n

s r” c an n o hv t a e an
y
mb
.

v lu
a es ex c e
pt 1 ,
2 , th t i h a s,
,

t e nu er o f dizfi ren t va lu es

e 11
c an n o t ex c eed 2a , .
 R EC U R R IN G C O N TIN UE D FR A C T I O N S . 297

T hu t h mpl
s e co e te
qu o t ie n t
JN
r”
+ a,
c an n o t hv ma e o re t h an

2a ,
”
diff
e re n t v lua es ; t hat is , s o e o n e m co m
p l t e e q u o tien t, an d
fo re a ll s u b s equ en t o n es , u s t recu r
th ere m .

A ls o 6" is t h e gre a t e s t in t e ge r in JN + a it
h en ce th e p a rtial

q uo ti en ts mt us a sol rec u r, a n d th e n u mb er o
fp a rt a i l qu o tien ts in
ea ch c l b e grea ter 2
y c e ca n n o t tha n 2a l .

*
360 . To p ro ve th a t a
l
a
u
rn .

We ha v e a l
+ an z b n — r
l n — l

a n — l + a ,, o r > i

s in c e a
p o s it i v e in t e ge r

J N r
f
a “ ,
”

N — af rti rn —
1 ;

J N — an <i '

a, —a < r

wh i h p v
c ro es t h e p ro p o s it io n .

*
36 1 To s h ew th a t th e p erio d b egin s with th e s eco n d p a rtia l
m
.

q u o ti en t an d ter i n a tes wi th a
p a rti al
qu o ti en t do u b le of th e rs t fi .

Sin c e , a s we h a e v s e en in A rt 3 59 , a re c u rre n c e mu t s ta ke
mpl t
.

p la c e , le t u s s pp o s e t u h at t h e
( n 1 )
th
co e e q u o t ie n t re c u rs a t

th e (s t en h
an d b ,
b

we s h a ll p ro v e t h at

( b —l
a

We hv a e

e — a z N — 2 —
r3 —
1 3 8
z a
u z
r — r
n l n
_ r
.

n
— l
r
8 )

u
—l n l ,
a —l
J
+ a8 z b8 — 1 7 8 —1 8 —1 n
—l ,

a —
n l
r —
n l ( b n
—l

z e ro ,
o r an in t e ge r .
29 8 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

B u t , b y A rt 3 6 0, . al — a —
n l
an d al ra—
l )
t h at i s

r h f
t e re o re a _
n l
h en ce is le s s

t h u ity
an n ,
an d th f e re o re mu t b s e z e ro .

Thu s a, _ 1 = an d a sol b b n —l
'

H if t h e ( n + I )
en c e
“h
co mpl t e e q u o t ie n t re c u rs , th e n
th
co m
p le t e
q o t ieun t s t a ls o mu re c u r; t h f e re o re th e ( n — 1
)
th
co mpl t e e

q u
o t ie n t mu
s t a ls o re c r ; u an d so on .

Th is p ro o fh o lds as lo n g a s n is n o t le s s t a n 2 [A rt h
mpl t
.

h en c e th e u
co e e
q u
o t ie n t s re c r, b e in n in
g g w it h t h e s ec o n d

J N
q u t io t en I t f ll w t h f t h t t
a1
h u o o s e re o re a e re c rre n c e

b gie w i h th
n s d p ti l qu i t b ; w
t h ll w h w
e seco n ar a o t en e s a n o S e

h t it mi t w i h p ti l qu ti t 2
,

t a ter n a es t a ar a o en a, .

J N
b th mpl t q u ti t wh i h ju p d th
+ a
e e co e e o en c st re c e es e
‘
7 1C

N N
s eco n d mpl t qu ti t
co
J wh t u ; t h M
e e o en
rl
+ a,
en i re c rs en
r

an d J N
tw s u tiv mpl qu ti t t h f
+ a,
a re o co n ec e co ete o en s e re o re

a + a s r b — a
n u ,

bu t N a,
”
r h e n c e rn = 1 .

Ag i a n , a
,
an r t h at is 1 h en c e a
l
—a
,,
0, t h at is

a .
l

A ls o r b = b h en c e b" : 2a wh i h c e s t ab lis hs e th e

p ro o s it io n
p .

*
36 2 To d t h e p a rti a l qu o tien ts equ i
sh e w th a t in ri o
y an p e

m
.

dis ta n t fro th e b egin n in g a n d en d a re equ a l, th e la s t p a rtia l

o ti en t b ein g exc lu ded
qu .

L e t t h e la s t co mpl t q u e e o t ie n t b e de n o t e d b y
JN + a
.
7 1!

r“ :
1, an a b" : 2a
,
.

We S h a ll p ro v h e t at

—1

’
7 —2
70
3 00 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

an d is t h f e re o re e q u al to a
l J IV h en c e

( a
JN M?
J N ,

( 3 1 + 9 09
1 . a .

C le a rin g o f f ra c t io n s an d eq u at n i g ra t io n a l an d i rra tio n al

a rt s , w e o b t a in
p
a, p "+ p Nq n ,
al q” ,
=
p

f m Ii 2
can be o b t a in e d ro
q n
an d
; n —I
b y t a k in g fo r t h e

l 1
61 62

wh ic hi s e
q u a l to a
l

f m
ro

g n —l

I n like m an n er we my p v t h
a ro e at if is t h e p en u ltimta e
q
co n v e r en
g t in t h e c "
11
re c u rrin
gp e rio d,

a]
pe n .
+ p cn —l Na ’
Cb , g en q cn -
l

an d by ui s n
g t h es e e q u a ti o n s , we my a o b t a in su c

c e s s iv e l
y .

It Sh u ld b
o e n o t ic e d t h at eq u a t io n
( )
2 h lds f o o r a ll multipl es

o fn t hu s

1? 1

9 2m 2 p en

t h e p ro o fb e in g simil ar to t h a t a lre a d y giv en .

*
365 In A r
. t 3 56 , w e a e s e e n
. hv th at a
p e rio
di c c o n t in edu
f ra c tio n c an b e e x p re s s e d a s t h e ro o t o f a
qu u
a dra t ic e q a t io n

w h it ra t io n al c o ef c ien t s fi .
 N NU D
R EC UR R IN G N 3 01 CO TI E FR A C TIO S .

C v only w m igh p v b y h mt h d f A
e rs e ,
e 3 57 t h t ro e t e e o o rt . at

an
p i
ex f t h f
re s s o n m A
C
J B
o wh A B G
e
p i
o r i v +
e re , ,
a re os t e

i t g
n e d B
e rs , t an
p f q u n ob v ad i e r ec t s a re , can e co n e rt e n to a

u i g i u d f i I thi
re c rr n co n t n eth p i di
ra c t o n
p w ill . n s c ase e er o c a rt

n o u lly b gi w i h h
t us a e d p i l qu ti
n t w ill t e s ec o n a rt a o en t, n o r

th l p
e t i
as t l q u i art b d u b
a l h fi t o t en e o e t e rs .

F fu h o r i f mi rt erh u b j t f u i g ti u d
n o r at o n o n t e s ec o re c rr n co n n e

f i w f th u d t S
ra c t o n s e re e r C d A lgeb
e S pe
st en t o e rre t s
’
o u rs
’
re u

i d
r e u re , a n p m p h l t toT h Ea
p i a
f Q d i S e d on e x ress o n o a u a ra t c u r

as a C i d F on i
t n ue b y Th m M u i M A ra c t o n ,
o as r, . .
,

*
E XA M PLE S . XXVI I b . .

E x p re s s th e fo llo wi g u d
n s r s as co n tin ud e fra c t io n s , an d fi n d th e
fo u h
rt co n v e rge n t to each
1 .
Ja 2
+l . 2 .
J — a . 3 .
N h i e—
1 .

7 . Pro v he t at

1 1 1 1
2 a + 6 a + 2a + 6 a +
an d fi n d th e fi ft h co n v e rge n t .

8 . Sh w h e t at

2 1 1 1 1
1+ p + 1+ p + 1+

S hw h e t at

1 1 1 1 1 1

+ + a + + a + 0 +
r9 a2 a
s rq i ( 66
1 2 r 3 9 3

10 . If J a
2
1 b e e x p re s s e d as a c o n tin u dfe rac t io n ,
S hw h e t at

—1 + p n + l a
2p n =
gn

1 1 1 1
11 . If
d
l+
a
2 +
d
l +
a2 +

1 l 1 1
2 a 1 + 2 a 2 + 2 a 1 + 2 a2 +

1 1 1 1
2 _
3 a l + 3 a 2 + 3 a 1 + 3 a2 +

s hw h
e t at (31 2 — 2
2
) + 2y ( 3
2
x
2
) + 33 ( x
2 —
y
2
) = 0 .
 O2 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

12 . Pro v he t at

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-

b + a + b+ a + b+ a + b+ a +

1 1 I 1
13 If x = a +
b+ b+
.

a + a +

1 1 1 1
a = b+
a + a + 6+ 6+
s hw h
e t at x b 2
.

b e th e n
th
co n v e rge n t to Ja z
+ 1, S hw h
e t at

9n 9n 91 92
"

+ i + 2

15 . Sh e w th at
l l 1 1 1 1
b+ 0 + b+ a + 0+

5+ 1
If j
? ‘
1
de n o te th e r
‘h
co n v erge n t to
“

2
S hw h e t at

_
2m
+ + + = —1
P3 P5 m P2n 1 P2 n
— P2 : 9 3 l 9 5+ 92 92
“ ' '
-
n

Pro v h e t at th e d iff ere n c e o f th e in fi n it e co n t in u dfe rac tio n s

1 1 l 1 1 1
a + b + 0+ b+ a + c +

a — b
i s eq ul a to
1 + ab

18 I f JN is co n erte in to v d tin udf rac tio n d if is t h e

um
a co n e an n
u d hw h ,
.

n b er o f q o tien t s in th e p erio ,
s e t at

g%
= 2p n 9 n a P2 n
= 2p n + 2
( ” n + 1
.

19 If J N b e c o n ert e in to a v d co n u dftin e rac tio n d if th e p en

an

m v d u
.
,

u lt i ate c o n erge n ts in t h e fi rs t , s e co n re c rrin g pe rio ds b e

d en o t e d
b y u ,, res p e c ti el ,
y v s hw he t
,

at

nk +JN _
n k — JN
3 04 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

h u
le s s t is e q a t io n c an b e s o l e d in p o s it i e in t e ge rs , t h e
U n v v
o rigin a l e q a t io n do e s n o t a duit O f a p o s it i e in t e gral s o l t io n m v u .

h u
W e s all ret rn t o t is p o in t in A rt 3 7 4 h . .

I f a , b , h a re a ll p o s it i e , it is c le a r t a t t h e n b er o f v h um
u
s o l t io n s is li m
it e d, b e c a s e fo r la rge al e s o f x an d y t h e S ign u v u
’
o f t h e e x p re s s io n o n t h e le t de p e n ds u p o n t a t o f a x + 2 h x y by f
"
h
[ A rt . an d t s c a n n o t b e z e ro f hu
o r la r e
g p o s it i e in t e ra l
g v
v u
a l e s Of x a n d
y .

A ga in , if h g
2
a b is n e a t i e , t h e c o e f c ie n t o f
y in
( )
1 is v fi ’2

n e a t i e, a n d b
g y v Si ila r re a s o n in
g w e s e e t m
at t h e n b er o f h um
u
s o l t io n s is li it e d m .

E x a p le m . So l v e in p o s iti v e in tegers th e e q u atio n

2
x 4xy 2x 2 0g 29 .

v
So l in g as a q uda ratic in x, we hv a e

x =2 +14
y J3 0 + 2 4y
B u t 2 0 2 4g 2 y = 1 02 2 (y e n ce y
(
2
c an n o t b e greate r t an h h
51 B y tri al we fi n d t at th e e x p res s io n h
n er th e ra ic al b e c o es a ud d m
p e rfec
.

t s q are en (y u wh o r 4 9 ; t s th e p o s iti e in tegral al es o f y hu v v u

are 5, 7 , 1 3 .

W h en y = 5, x = 21 or 1; wh en y = 7, or 5; wh en y = 13,

We hv a e s ee n t h at th e so u
l t io n in p o s iti v e in t ege rs
o f th e e
qu a t io n
e 2
ax 2h x y by 2gx 2fy c 0

c an be md a e to de p e n d up on th e so l u ti on o f an e
q u a t io n o f th e
f m or

x
2
i Ny 2
=
k a
,

wh e re N an d a a re p o s it i v e in t e ge rs .

Th e q u
e t i a on x
2
+ Ny
’
— ah as n o re a l ro o h
t s , w ils t t h e
e
q u
a t io n x Ny
2
+
2
= a h as a m
li it e d n u mb er o f so u
l t io n s , w ic h h
m a
y b e f u d by
o n t rial ; w e h
s a ll t e re h f o re co n fi n e o u r a t t e n t io n

to eq u a t io n s o f th e f m
or x
2
Ny
2
as a .

36 9 To s h ew th a t th e
* 2 ’
equ a ti o n x Ny = 1 ca n a lwa s be
.
y
so lved in p o s i tive in tegers .

L et JN be co n v e rt e d in t o a co n t in udf e ra c t io n ,
an d le t

th v v u pp h
1 9
p 23
’ ; be an
y re e c o n s ec u ti e co n e rge n ts ; s o se t at

q q q
 i N D E TE R M I N A T E E Q U A TI O N S O F TH E S E CO ND D E GR EE . 3 05

is t h e co mpl t e e
q u o t ie n t c o rre s
p o n din g t o

en “—
vs% fl a —r
r

iz =

Bu t r, 1 a t th e en d o f a n y p e rio d [A rt .

'
2 '
2 ’ '
p ZVq p q pq i

ul m
I

I b ein
g t h e
p en ti ate c o n v er
g en t o f an y re c u rri n
gp e ri o d .

I f th e n u mb er o fq u o ti e n ts in t h e p e ri o d is e v en ,
A
Is an v e en
9
co n v e r en
g t, an d is t h f e re o re g re a t e r t h an
N /N ,
an d t h f e re o re

g h
re a t e r t an
2
t hu s
p q
'
pq
'
In t h is c ase
p Nq 1,
9
and th f e re o re x zp '
, y q is
'
a so u
l ti o n o f th e e
q u a ti o n x
2
Ny 2
1 .

Sin c e
2
is th e p en u l im t v g ate co n e r en t o f an
y re c u rrin
g
9
p e rio d, t h e n u mb e r Of s o lu ti i u limit d
on s s n e .

I f th e n u mb er o fq u
dd, t h e p e n lt i a te
o t ie n t s in t h e p e rio d is o u m
v
co n fi
e rge n t i n th e rs t
p e rio d is a n o dd co n e r e n t, b u t t h e
g v
p u
en m vlt i a te c o n e rge n t in t h e s e c o n d p e rio d is a n even c o n e rge n t v
Thu u w u
.

'
s in t e ra l s o l t io n s ill b e o b t a in e d b i
’

g
'
y p t t n
g x =
p , y q,

wh L h p ul m
I

e re
J
,
is t e en ti a te co n v e rge n t i ii th e sec o n d, fu ho rt ,

9
i h
S xt u i gp d re c rr n e ri o s H e n c e a ls o in t h i s c a se th e n u mb er

i u lim
.
,

o f lu iso i d t on s s n te .

37 0 f th e equ a ti o n
*
. To o b ta in a so lu ti o n i n p o s i ti ve i n tege rs o
2
x Ny 1 .

A S in t h e p re c e din g a rt c e i l we hv a e

”
Ah rh
—
rr
—
r

I f th e n u mb er o f q u o t ie n t s in t h e p e rio d is o dd, an d if
?
1

'
9

i s an o dd p e n ul m ti a te c o n v er en
g t in an
y re c u rri n
gp e ri o d, p p
7
(
9
an d t h f e re o re
p q
’

pq
'

I hi
n t s c a se
p
’2
— Nq 1 , a n d in t e gra l s o l t io n s o f t h e
-
u
e
q u t i a on x
2
— Ny
.
2
-
1 w '
ill b e O b t a in e d b y p t tin g x = p , y q,
'
u r:

wh 2 i
e re 7
s t h e pe n u ltim a te co n v er en
g t in t h e fi rs t , h
t ird,
9
re cu i gp rr n e rio ds .

l ld we can G l S U U Vb
pp tj l i v i i ct b
‘
i

H . H . A .
5)
3 06 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E xa m
pl e . v So l e in p o s iti v e in tegers x
2
l 3y 2 z -
I=1 .

We c an s hw he t at

H e re th e n um b er o f q u tie n ts in th e p e rio i s o dd ; th e p e n lti

o d u mt a e co n

verge n t in th e fi rs t p e rio d 18
is — h
en c e x = 1 8 , y = 5 is a s o l tio n o f
-
u
2 2
x 1 3g

B y A rt 3 6 4 , th e p en lti
. u mt a e co n v e rgen t in th e s ec o n d u re c rrin g p erio d is

2 3
, t h at 1 s ,
649
-

i 86
- —
,

h e n ce x = 64 9 , y = 1 8 0 is a s o l tio n o f x 2 u l 3y 2 z 1 .

m
B y fo r i n g th e s c c e s s i u v u m lti at e v ts f th e u rri n
um
e pen co n e rgen o rec g
p e rio s w edc an o b ta in a n y n u b er o f s o l tio n s o f th e eq u atio n s

2 2
x
2
l 3y z l, an d x l 3y2 z +1 .

37 1
*
h lu ti i p i iv i t g
W f Ny 1
en o n e so on n os t e n e e rs o x
2 ”

f u d w my b i m y w pl b y t h
.

h a s b een o n e a O ta n as an as e e a se e

f w mh d
,

o llo in g et o .

S u pp th t h y h i lu t i
o se i d I b i g p i iv
a x ,
z
s a so on ,
t an t e n os t e

in
g te
; t h ( h
e rs 1 wh i en
y p i i v i g
f
,
e re n s an os t e n te er .

Thu s

( yJ N ) ( J
— le
x + x N )
Pu t x
y JN
z
( h x
gy N ( h
"
2x ( h k yN ) ( h

2y J N ( h ky N ) (h
”
:

Th e a l e s o f v u x d y so
an fu o n d a re
p v i o s it i e n t e ge rs , an d by
a s c rib in
g t o n th e v u al e s 1 , 2, as m y lu ti
an so o n s as we p le a se

c a n b e o b t a in e d .

Si mil a rl
y if x = h, y is a s ohl t ion o f th e u e
q u a t io n

x
2
Ny 2
1, an d if n is a n y o dd p o s it i e in t e ge r, v
2
Ny (
2 2
x h

T hu s th e v lu a es o f x a n d y are t h e sa m e a s a lre a d yf u o n d, b u t
u is re s t ric t e d to th e v u
al e s 1 , 3 ,

*
37 2 B y p t tin g x u ax
’
y a
y
’
th e eq u at i o n s as
2
Np
?
4 a
“

m
. Z
,

b eco e x
’2
I
r ’2
y 1 wh i h c we ha v e a re a l d y she w n h o w to
s v
,

ol e .
3 08 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

p v
o s it ii t g l e lu i f
n t h eq u i s
ra soN y t wh on o e e at o n x
2 2
= =
E a en a

b v m ti mi t
,

i t
s n o f th on e o d d e a hu w ily
o e en on e en o na o rs t s e e as

fi d t h t th u i i fi d 2
n
q t
a i e e t b
a y y on 2 9 x s sa s e x =

f u d y u mb f
:
, .

Wh en lu t i i i t g
on e h so b on n n e e rs as ee n o n an n er o

my b b t i d
,

solu t i on s p l
a i d i he o t t i l
a n e as ex a n e n t e n ex ar c e .

37 6 S u pp
*
th t
.
] ,y g i l u i
o se f h q u i
a x z : s a so t on o t e e at o n

x Ny dl
2
h y kb
a ; yan l u i f t h
et x
q u i ,
e an so t o n o e e at o n

1 ; th
2 2
x Ny = en

W (f W )
;

)
2
x N9

— —
N (f g )
h
2
h l=

B y p t t in g u x
t i= N
=
gle,
y
=
fh h
g ,

an d a s c rib in g t o h , 75 t h i v lu f u
e r a es o n d a s ex
p la in e d i n

we m a
y Ob t a in an y n u mb f lu i er o so t on s .

*
37 7 . h H it e rt o it h a s b e e n s p p o s e d t a t u
is n o t a p e r e c t ! h N f
s
q u a re if h w v o e e r, N f
is a p e r e c t s q a re t h e e q a t io n t a k e s t h e u u
f m m
,

or y wh
x h
2
’
n
"
’ 2
a, ic a
y b e re a dil s o l ed as o llo s y v f w .

S u pp h t b wh o se t a a e, e re b an d c a re t wo p i i v
o s i t e n t e ge rs ,
of wh i h b i t h g ct th s e re a e r en

( x n
y) ( x n
y) bc .

Pu t
+ y b x — xn
y c ; if
n t h =
e al es o f x an d
y o nd v u fu
f mh
z
,

ro ut es e e q a t io n s a re in t e ge rs w e a e O b t a in e d o n e s o l t io n hv u
u
o f t h e e q a t io n ; t h e re a in in
g s o l t io n s a
y b m
e o b t a in e d b
y u m
s
a c rib in
g t o b a n d c a ll t e ir
p o s s ib le al es h v u .

E x a p le m Fin d two p o s iti v e in tegers th e d wh ifferen c e o f o se s q u are s is

u
.

e q al t o 6 0 .

L et x, y b e th e two in tege rs ; t h en x
2
y
2 : 60; t h at is

N o w 60 is th e p ro du ct o f an y o f th e p air o f fac to rs
1 , 60; 2, 30; 3, 20 ; 4 , 1 5; 5, 1 2 ; 6, 1 0;

an d th e v u al e s re q u d ire are O b tain e d m fro th e eq u a tio n s

x + y = 3 0, x + y = 1 0,
(ll — y 2; (1) — 6
y
: :

th e h o t er e q u atio n s v
gi in g frac tio n al v u al es o fx an dy .

Thu s th e n um b ers are 16 , 14 ; or 8, 2 .

 I ND E TE R M I N A TE EQ U A TI O N S O F TH E SE C O N DD E GR E E . 3 09

C OR . I n li k m e an n e r we my a o b t a in t h e so lu i t o n in p o s it i v e

in t e ge rs o f
e
2hx y by 2fy
2
ax 2gx c = h,
if t h e le t f h -
an d mmb e er c an b e re s o l v ed in t o t w o ra t io n a l lin e a r
f a c t o rs .

37 8
*
I f in t h e ge n e ra l e q u i b at o n a, o r o r bot h a re z e ro

m m h d pl i d i
.
,

y
, ,

in s t e a d o f e plo in g t h e et o ex a n e n A rt 3 6 7 it is
m f w i g mpl
.

Si l er to ro c e e d a s in t h e o llo n ex a
p p e .

E xa m
pl e . So l v e in p o s iti ve in tegers
2
2x y 4x 1 2x 5y 11 .

E x p res s in g y i n te r m s o f x , we hv a e

2
4x l 2x + 1 1
2x — 5

In o r er d h t at y my b a e an in te ge r
2x —5
mu t b s e an in te ge r ; h e n ce 2x 5

mu t b s e eq u al to 4 1, or 4 2, or 4 3, or 4 6 .

Th e c as e s 4 2, + 6 my c le arly be j
re e c te d h th e dm is s ib le v u
al

m2
a ; en c e a es
O f x are O b tain e d fro x — 5: 4 1 , 2 x — 5: 4 3;

wh e n ce th e v u al es o fx are 3 , 2, 4 , 1 .

k
Ta in g t h v ues e al es in s u cc es s io n we o b tain th e so u
l tio n s

x : 3, y = 1 1 ; x = 2,
y
— 3; x = 4, y : 9; x = 1, y

an dt h ere fo re th e a dm is s ib le so u
l tio n s are

x : 3, y = 11 ; x = 4,
y = 9 .

*
Th e p rin c ip le s a lre a d e x p la in e d e n a b le u s t o dis c o v e r
37 9 . y
fo r at wh al e s o f th e v u
a ria b le s
gi en l in ear o r
q a dra t icv v u
fu n c t io n s o f x a n d
y b e c o e p e r ect s
q a re s P ro b le m
s o f t is f u m h
m m m
.

kin d a re s o e t i e s c a lle d D io p h a n tin e Pro b le s b e c a s e t e y u h

w e re rs t in fi v
e s t i a t e d b y t h e G re e k
g at e a t ic ia n D io
p an t s mh m h u
ab o u
t th e m
iddle o f t h e o rt h c e n t r fu uy .

E 1 m
pl Fin th e gen eral e x p re s s io n d s fo r two p o s iti e in te ge rs ic v wh h
k m m
xa e
uh h h du h u
.

a re s c t at if t e ir p ro c t i s t a en fro th e s u o f t e ir s q are s t h e

d iffe re n c e is a p e rfe c t s q are u .

D en o te th e in tegers b y x an dy; t h en

x
2
xy y
?
zz u s pp o se ;
2 —
y)
2
x —
x
( = 2
y .

T is h eq u atio n is s a tis fi e d b y th e s u p p o s itio n s

m= x n n ( r
.
—
y) = m( z
y) ,
wh e re m an d n a re p o s iti v e in tege rs .
310 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

H en c e m x n
y nz 0, nx
(m n
)y m 2 : 0 .

Fro mth e se e q u atio n s we Ob tain b y c ro s s multipli catio n

x y z
2 m n n m n

an d s in c e th e gi v en eq u atio n is hm
o o ge n e o u s we my t k f a a e or th e ge n eral
u
s o l tio n
x =2 m n —n2
, y = m 2
z z m— m+ n u

H ere m
an d n y two p o s iti v in te ge rs , mb i g th g re ate r ; t hu if
m
are an e e n e s
= 7 , n = 4 , we hv a e
= 33,
y

m
E x a p le 2 Fin th e ge n e ral e x p re s s io n fo d t h p o s iti v in te gers in
mf
r ree e
hm uh h v
.

arit e tic p ro gre s s io n , an d s c t at t h e s u o e ery t wo is a p erfec t

sq u are .

D en o te th e in tegers b y x y, x, x + y ; an d let
2 2
2x — =
y p ,
2 x = q , 2 x + y = r

?
p 2 q2 ,
— 92
1 .

T is h eq u a tio n is satis fi e d b y th e s u p p o s itio n s,

m( '
I a =n
) (q n
( r
q) = m( 4
wh e re m d an n are p o s iti v e in te ge rs .

Fro mth e s e eq u atio n s we o b tain b y c ro s s multipli c atio n

H en ce we my t a ake fo r th e ge n eral so u
l tio n

p n
2
2 m m q m+n
g
,
2
11
2
, r m 2m 2
n

wh en c e x ( in 2
n
2 2
) , y 4 m (m n

an d th e t h ree in t e ge rs c an b e fo ud n .

Fro mth v ue al f it is c le ar t at h m d are e it h b hv

t bot h
mu
e o x an n er o
O dd ; als o t h v u
e ir al es st b e s c t at uh h x is greate r t h an y, t h e

at
en o r
is ,

( m 2
8 m( m n

m(m S 3
n
)
’
-

n 8m2
n
3
n
“
0;

wh h d ic co n itio n i s s atis fi e d if mS n .

If m9 n = 1, t h en 3 3 6 2, y m
d th e n u b e i s are 4 8 2 , 33 6 2,
um
: x : an
h h h
:
,

6 2 42 Th e s s o f t e s e tak en i n p aii s are 3 8 4 4 , 6 7 2 4 , 9 604 , w ic are th e

u .

s q a re s o f 6 2 , re s p ec ti e ly v .
 C H A PTE R XX I X .

S U M M A TI O N OF SE R I E S .

3 80 u mm i f i i h v u d
E xa mpl es o fs at o n o c e rt a n se r e s a e o cc rre

v u h w v h v
.

i ire p t o ; it
s i llc b a i t
e rs t g i e co n en en e re o e a
p
y p i f th m h d f u mmti wh i h h v l dy b
n

s n o s s o e et o s o s a on c a e a re a een

ex
p l i d
a n e .

()i A i h m t i l P r g ti C h p e I V ca ro res s o n ,
a . .

( )
ii G m t i l P g
eo i C h p
e r ca V ro re s s o n a

m
.
, .

( )
ii i S i wh i h er esp ly i h i l c d p ly a re
g a rt ar t et c a an a rt eo

mt i l A 6 0
e r ca rt

l N um
. .
,

( )
i vS u m f th p w f h N
s O u eb d o lli d e rs o t e at ra e rs a n a e

S i er es, A t 68 t 7 5 r s o

fU d t m
. .

v( ) Su mm i b y m at o n i d C ffi i ean s o n e er n e oe c en ts,
A 312
rt . .

( ) i vR u i g S i ec C h p X X I
rr n V er e s, a . .

W w p e n od t di u mh d fg t g
ro c e e o lit y sc ss et o s o re a e r e n e ra

b u it hn u f th p
t e co h p it w ill b
rs e o h m
e re s e n t c a te r e s een t at s o e

o f h f t e g i g m o reh d m y
o ill
n b u fu ll yet mp l y
o d s a st e se e o e .

I f t h e r te r
381 p
th
o f a s e rie s c an b e e x re s s e d a s t h e dif m
m fu
.

fe re n c e o f t wo q a n t it ie s o n e o f u
ic is t h e s a e n c t io n o f r wh h
h
t a t t h e o t e r is o f r l , th e su h o f t h e s e rie s a
y b e re a dil m m y
fu o n d .

Fo r le t t h e s e rie s b e de n o t e d b y

u + u + u
l 2 3

an d it s su mb y S an d s u pp o se t h at an
y t e r m a can b e p u t in
th e f m
o r v, —v t h en
r

v —v
S n
=
( v,
( s 2 ) + _ v

v — v .
0
 S U M M A TI O N O F SE R I E S . 313

E x a p lem . Su mt o n ter m th s e s e rie s

1 1 1

( + x)
1 ( 1 + 2 x)
( 1 + 2 x
) ( 1 + 3x)
I f we d en o te th e s e rie s by
u
1 +u2+ u
3 +

we hv a e

1 1
1
x 1+ n + 1 . x

by a dd itio n ,
l
x l +x
1

1 +n + 1
1

. x

382 m m
So e t i e s a s it ab le t ra n s o r a t io n u f m my b a e o b t a in e d
f mt h d
.

b y s e pa ra t in g u in t o p a rt ia l ra c t io n s b y t h e e o s e x la in e d
p
h
in C a p X X I I I . .

E xa m
pl e . Fin d th e su mf o

1
m
2
a a
to n te r s .

(l + x ) ( +
l ax ) x
)
m
n -
l
a
‘h
Th e n ter

l
n
l (1
n
) B (1
n
)
‘ ‘

a a x a x .

u
B y p t tin g 1 a
"“
x, 1 + a "x eq u al to z ero in s u cce s s io n ,
we Ob ta in
rt —1 n
a a
'
1 —a
’
l —a

H en ce I
m a

ml
2

(
1 a a
Si i arly , “2 —
2
l a 1 ax 1 a x
31 4 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

83 To fin d th e s u o
f n ter s of a s er i es e a c hmter o
f wh i ch m m
m m
.

i s c o p o s e d of r fa c to rs i n a ri th etica l p ro gres s i o n , th e rs t fac to rs fi

o
f t h e s evera l ter s b ein g i n th e s am e a ri th etic a l
p ro gres s io n m m .

L et t h e s e rie s b e de n o t e d b y u 1 u 2 u 3

wh e re
_

b) ( a + n + r— I b) . .

R e p la c in g n by u 1 , we hva e

b) —2
u =
( a + n — 1 ( a + n b) ( a + n + r b) ;

( a + n — 1 . b) u v sa
y .

R e p lac in g n b y n 1 we hv
a e

t h f e re o re , by s ub t ra c t io n ,

“ 7. 2 9
m i

Si mil ar ly , ( r 1) b “ 11 - 1
4

( r 1) b u 2

( r 1) b u 1

By a ddit io n , ( r 1) b Sn 2 i t,
“

—
t h at is ,
”n +1

1) b
v1

( r +

b) u "
G, sa
y ;
( r + 1) b

wh e re G is a
q u an t it yi de p e n de n t o f n
n wh i h my b f
c a e o un d by
m
,

a s c rib in g t o n so e
p a rt ic la r al e u v u .

Th e a bo v e re s u l giv t es u s t h f ll w i
e o o n
g co n v e n ie n t r ul e

Write
do wn th e n ter , afi x th e n ex t fa c to r a t th e
th
m en d, d ivide
m
b y th e n u b er qffa c to rs th u s i n crea s ed a n d b y th e c o mm o n difxr
en c e, a n d a dd a c o n s ta n t .

It my a b e n o t ic e d t h at G
v, a
Q6 it is
( r l) b ( r l) 6
hwv o eb e tt e r
er n o t to q u o t e t is h re s ul t, b u t to o b t a in 0 as ab o v e

in dic a t e d .
316 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

3 86 To fi n d th e s u of n ter m
s of a s eri es e a ch ter of wh i c h m m
m
.

is co p o s ed of th e recip ro c a l of th e p ro du c t of r fa c to rs i n a ri th
m e ti ca l
p ro gress io n , th e rs t fa c to rs qf th e s evera l ter fi s b ein
g i n m
m m
the sa e a ri th e ti c a l p ro gres s io n .

L et t h e s e rie s b e de n o te d b y u l u . as

wh e re

1 : ( a + n + r —l b) .

R e pla c in g n by n 1,

1
“ 3 — 2 - b s >
a + n + r 1 b) 1 b)

R e pla c in g n by n l , we hv a e

( a +n b) u n

t h f
e re o re , by s ub t ra c t io n ,

( r 1) b u n

Si mil a rl y ( r 1) b 4 vn _1

( r

( r

By ad ditio n , ( r 1) b Sn z vl

— v
th ti
a s
vl n +1

—1 b
( r
) ( r — 1) b

wh e re G is a
q u an t it yi
de p e n de n t
n o fn wh i h c f o u n d
m
,

a s c rib in
g t o n so e
p a rt ic la r u
al e v u .

T hu s S ,, G

H en c e th e su mmy a be f o u n d b y th e f o llo win g ru le

Wri te
do wn th e n ter , s tri ke of a fa cto r fro th
th e b egi n m m n i n g,
m
divide b y th e n u b er offa cto rs s o di in is h ed a n d b y th e co m mm on

dif eren c e, cha n ge th e sign a n d add a c o n s ta n t .

b
Th e v al u e o fG
a T

e ac h c as e t o de t e r mi n e 0 by a s c rib in g t o n so mp e a rt ic u la r v lu
a e .
 S U M M A TI ON OF SE R I E S . 317

m
E x a p le 1 . Fin d th e su mf o n te r m s o f th e s e rie s

1 1 1

Th e n
th
te l m lb
1

h e n ce , b y th e r u le , we hv a e

1
Sa z C _
3 (n + 1) ( n + 2) (n + 3)

Pu t n = 1, t h en
1
wh en ce C

1 1
“

18

By mki a n g n in d efi n itely great, we o b tain S c ,

1
18

m
E x a p le 2 . Fin d th e su mt o n t er m s o f th e s erie s

3 4 5

H e re th e r le is n o t u d ire c tly app lic ab le , b e c a s e alt o g 1 , 2 , 3 , u huh

th e fi rs t fac to rs o f th e s e v d e ral m
in a t o rs , a re in a rit e t ic al p ro gre s s io n , hm
h m m
en o
th e fac to rs o f a n y o n e d m en o in ato r are n o t I n t is e x a p le we ay
d w
.

p ro cee a s fo llo s

n +2 (n + 2)
n ( u + 1) ( n + 3) n ( n + 1) ( n + 2) ( n + 3)

n ( n + 1 ) + 3n + 4
-

1 3 4
(u + 1) ( n + 2) (n + 3) n (n + 1 )

h
E ac o hu
f t e se exp re s s io n s my a n o w b e ta k en as th e n
th
ter mf O a s erie s
wh h
ic th e r le is applic ab le .

1 3 4
T —

n +3 2 (n + 2) (n + 3) 3 ( n + 1) (n + 2) ( n + 3)

p u t n = 1 t h en

3 1 3 4
Wh en ce c
4

29 1 3 4
36 n +3 2 3 (u + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3)
31 8 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

387 I n c a s e s w e re t h e h
e t o ds o f A rt s 3 8 3 , 3 8 6 a re direc tly mh
m
.

u u y f
.

lic a b le , in s t e a d o f q o t in g t h e r le s w e a lwa s e fe c t t h e
a
y
pp
m m
a

su mm a t io n in t h e o llo in g w a y , f w
ic is s o e t i e s c alle d t h e‘
wh h
h
M e t o d o f S b t ra c t io n
’
u .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e su mf o n te r m s o f th e s e rie s

2 14 +

Th e arit hm e tic a l p ro gres s io n in t is h c ase is

2 , 5, 8 , 1 1 ,

I n e ac te r h m
o f th e gi e n s e rie s in tro v du c e as a n e w fac to r th e n e xt t e r m
o f th e arit hm
e tic al p ro gre s s io n ; en o te t is d h s erie s b y S , an d th e gi en s e rie s
’
v
b y S ; t en h
S
’
z 2 . 5 . 14 + + ( 3n

S
'
( n — l te r
) m s .

By s u b trac tio n ,

14+ —1 t e r
) m] s
(3 n
2 5 .
—2 . 5] — ( 3 n

9 S = (3 n ( 3 a + 5) 5 9,
.

S= n

388 W h en th e n
th
te r m
f a s e rie s is a ra t io n a l in t e gra l
o

f mwh h w
.

fu n c t io n o f n it c an b e e x p re s s e d in a o r ic ill e n a b le u s
re a dil yt o a
pp l y th e m et ho d
gi e n in A rt 3 8 3 v . .

F or s u pp o se 1)
< ( )
n is a ra t io n a l in t e gra l fu n c t io n o f n o fp
di m .

e n s i o n s , an d ass um e

wh A B C De re u d mi d p 1 i a re n e te r n e c o n s ta n ts + n

u mb
, , , ,

n er .

Th i id t i y b i g su f ll v lu f w my qu
en t e n tr e o r a a es o n e a e ate

1 im
,

h
t ffi i
e co e f lik p w f ; w th u
c en b i p ts p l o e o e rs O n e s o ta n + S e

e
q u i t d m
at o n s i h p 1 o et er n e t e c o n s ta n ts .

m F d
E xa m m
p le wh
. m in th e su o f n te r s o f th e s e rie s o se ge n e ral te r is
4
n 5n
A um ss e

it is at o n c e o b
io s t at A 0, E 0, E v u h : 1; an u
d b y p ttin g i t 2, n = 3
u v hu
:

s cc e s s i e ly , we o b tain C 6, D = 0 T : . s

4 3 2
n + 6n + 5n n (u + 1) ( n + 2) ( n + 3) 6n
3 20 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

392 fi d t h e n Tote r a n d th e s u
n of n ter s of
th
m m m th e r"11

m
.

o rder qffi gu ra te n u b e rs
m m
.

Th e n th
ter o f th e rs t o rde r is l ; th e n '
h
“
te r fi
o f th e

s e c o n d o rde r is n ; t h e n
th
ter o f t h e t ird o rde r is En , t a t is m h h
(
m 1 ) fu h h
i2
n n
th
o f th e o rde r is 2
n
( n t h e n t er o rt t a t is

n ( u + 1) ( n + 2)
,
t h e n
th
ter m f th o
‘
'
e i i ft ii o rde r i S E
(
n n + 1) ( n + 2)

2
t h at
7
an d so o n .

T hu s it is eas y to see t h at th e n
th
te r m f th o e r
th
o rde r is

n + r —2

— l
) r

A ga in ,
th e su mf o n ter m s o f th e r
th
o rde r is
n
( u + 1) ( n + 2) ( n + r— 1)

wh i h i c s th e n
th
ter m f th o e
( r 1) th
o rde r .

N O TE u
I n ap p ly in g th e r le o f A rt 3 83 t o fi n d th e s u o f n te r m m f
d um w ud h w s o
. .

an y o r er o f fi gu ra te n b ers , it ill b e fo n t at th e c o n s tan t is al ay s

Z CI O
’

39 3 p f
Th efi gu ra te n ro
u
p e rt ie s o mb ers a re hi t
s o ric a ll y
u m hm
.

in t e re s t in g o n a c c o n t o f t h e u s e a de o f t e b y Pas c a l in
h is Tra i té da tri a n gle a ri th é tiqu e, p b lis m u h e d in 1 6 6 5 .

Th e f ll w i
o o n
g t a b le ex h ib it s t h e A ri th mti e ca l Tria n gle in it s
si m p le st f m
o r
 S U M MA TI ON O F SE R I E S . 32 1

Pa s c a l c o n s tr u c t ed th e n u mb er si n t h e t ria n gle b y t h e f ll w
o o

in g ul
r e

E a ch n u b er is th e s u m mf o th a t i mmdi e a tely a b o ve it d th a t
mm
an

i edia tely to th e left o

f ;
i t

th u s

F mt h mde
ro e o u
f c o n s t r c t io n , it o llo w t h a t t h e n
o b e rs in f s um
th e su iv h i
c cess e o r z o n t a l ro w , o r e rtic a l c o l s v
n s , a re t h e fi u ra t e
g um
n u mb e rs o f th e fi rs t , s e c o n d, t ird, o rde rs h .

w
A lin e dra n s o a s t o c u t O ff a n e q al n b e r o f n it s ro u um u f m
t h e t o p ro w a n d t h e le t h an d c o l n f
is c a lle d a b a s e, a n d t h e um
um f m
-

b a se s a re n b e re d b egin n in g ro t h e t o p le t— a n d c o rn e r f h
um
.

u
Th s t h e 6 t h b a s e is a lin e dra wn t h ro gh t h e n b e rs 1 , 5, 1 0, u
1 0, 5, 1 an d it will b e o b er e d t h at t e re a re Six o f t h e s e n u s v h m
s hy
b e r , a n d t h at t e a re t h e c o ef c ien t o f t h e te r in t h e e x fi s ms
p (
a n s io n o f 1

Th e p ro p e rt ie o f t e se n b e rs s h
e re dis c s s e d b y Pa s c a l um w u
w hit gre a t s k ill : in pa rtic la r h e s e d h is A rith eti c a l Tria n gle u u m
v
t o de e lo p t h e t h e o r o f Co y
b in at io n , a n d t o e s t a b lis so e m s h m
in t e re s tin g p ro p o s it io n s in Pro b ab ilit Th e s b e c t is ll y . uj fu y
t re ate d in To d n ter
’
hu s
H is to ry of Pro b a b i li ty , C h apte r I I .

39 4 s t th u mb f t ms
W h ere n o a mb igu ity e x is t as o e n er o er

y mb l 2 t i di t u mm i ;
.

in a i s w h v u d h
ser e e a e se t e s o o n ca e s at o n

m h f ll w i g mdifi d
,

b t i
u n so t ti
e c a s es w h i h i di t
t e o o n o e n o a on c n c a es

t h lim w hi h th u mmti i t b ff t d w ill b

,

ei b tw ts e ee n c e s a on s o e e ec e e

f u dm
,

o n i t o re c o n v e n e n .

m
f h s m
xz

L t l( ) b ey u t i f
c) t x 2 4( ) d e t t
anh n c on o x, en ) x en o e e su

O f th i f t m b t i d f mI ( ) b y giv i g t
e s e r es o er ll p i s O a n e ro ( ) x n o x a os

t iv i t g l v lu
e n f ml t mi lu iv
e ra a es ro o n c s e .

F i t u pp i i qu i d t fi d th m f ll th
o r n s an c e, s o se t s re re o n e su o a e

t m er s f th i s b t i d f mth p i
o e ser e O a n e ro e ex re s s o n

—1 —r
(p ) (p -
(r )

b y gi in g t o p v al l in t e gral v lu f m
a es ro r 1 t o p in c l u ivs e .

H . H . A .
3 22 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

Writ in g t h e f a c t o rs o f th e n um e ra t o r in a scen din g o rde r,

— —1
m (r ) (r 1) ( )
— r +
th e re q ui re d su 2
r
r
e

| r

1
{ L — r
) (p
_

1I

1 (r r
)( r
— r + 1 > (p 1) p
r 1 [A rt 3 8 3
.
]
r(
— 1
)<
r
— 2) —
r
)
1
i r +

S in c e t h e gi v en ex
p re s s io n is z e ro fo r a ll a l v u es o fp f om1 t
r o

r u v
in c l s i e , we my w a rit e t h e re s u lt in t h e o r f m
—r
(r — l ) ( v— 2 ) ( 1) — r
) 1)
(r — 1) ( r — 2) (r )
r + 1
|

E XA M PLE S . XXI X . a .

Su mth e fo llo wi g n s eries to n ter m s

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

Su mth e fo llo wi g n s erie s to n t er m s an d t o in fin ity

1 1 1
6 —
1 . 2 2 3 3 4

1 1 1
+
4 7 7 10

1 1
L
’
9

1 1
4 .

4 5 6

1 2 3

1 3 5 7
1
3 24 HIGH E R AL GE BR A .

F mt h i
ro s s e rie s we a
y p m
ro c e e d t o o r t h e s eries of th e f m
third, f o u rt h,
'
o rders of difieren ees , t h e ge n e ra l t e r s of m
t h e s e s e rie s b e in g re s e c ti e l
p v y .

F mt h
ro e la w o f f mti
or a on o f th e s e rie s

u ] ,

Au ] ,
Au g, A u 3, Au 4, Au

A gu l ,
A 2u 2, A 2u 3 , A ou 4,

A su l a A 31 52 , A 3u s7

it a
pp e a rs t h at
y t e r
an in an
y s e m
rie s is e
q ul a to the
i mm e dia t e l y p re c e din
g it a dde d t o t h e t e r b e lo m w it on th e

T hu s u 1 Au l ,
an d Au2 Au l A zu ] .

By a ddit io n ,
s in c e u Au2 u
3
we h a v e

‘
u 1 . ZA u 1 A gu 1

In an e x a c tl y imil m s ar an n er by ui s n
g t h e s e c o n d, t ird, a n d h
fu o rt h s e ries in p l f t h
ac e o fi e rs t , s e c o n h
d, a n d t ird, w e o b t ain

Au3 Aul 2 A 2u l A 3u l .

By a ddit io n , s in c e u 3 Au g u 4, we hv a e

u
l
3A u l 3 A 2u 1 A 3u l .

S o fa r a s we a e p ro c ee de d, t h e n hve ric a l c o e f c ie n t s o llo um fi f w

m
t h e s a e la w a s t h o s e o f t h e Bin o ial t eo re W e s all n o w m h m . h
p ro e b vy in d c t io n t a t t is u ill a l a s b e t h e h
c a s e F o rh w
s u p wy .

o s e t h at
p
— l
u u1 u Au
n
( u
) ”
CrA ru l A nu 1 5
n +1 l
1 o

th en by u s in g t h e sec o n d to th e (n s e rie s in t h e pla c e o f th e

fi rs t to th e ( n s erie s , we a e hv
An n Aul n A 2u ]
c o o n
0r_1 A ru 1 o 0 o A n +1u 1 o
By a ddit io n , s in c e u n +1
A u n +1 u
m g, we o b ta in
"
u n +2
u 1
( n l) A u l ( Or Ann ul .
 S U MM A TI O N o r SE R IE S . 32 5

Bu t "
Cr 1 x "
C x ”
C,

( n + l) rz
( u l) ( 72 + 1 — r
+ 1)
— 1
1 . 2 . 3 ( r
) r

H en c e if t h e la w o f o r a t io n f m h olds fo r u n + 1 it a ls o o lds fo r h
u
f
n ” ,
u
b u t it is t r e in t h e c a s e o f u ,, h
t e re fo re it o lds fo r u 5, a n d h
t h f e re o re u
n i e rs a llv H en c e y .

( u l) ( 2
u 1
( n 1) A u 1
1 g A 2261

396 . To fi n d t h e su mf o n te r m s o f th e s e rie s

u
s,

in t e r m s o f t h e di fe re n c e sf o fu , .

u
S ppo s e t h e s e rie s u l ,
u g, is t h e fi rs t o rde r o f
f di fe ren c es
o f t h e s e ries

t h en
+1
M ) ( ”n T
in - 1 ) 71 1
) ”I ide n tic a ll 3 y
u ,+ 1 u n u 2 u1 111 .

H e n ce in t h e s e rie s
“I ,

Au A u 2, Aug

t h e la w o f f mti
o r a on is t h e sa m e as in t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le ;

n
( u — 1)
0 4-
1 q +
1 2
A nu l ;

t h at is , n

—l
n u1 +
n
( u — l) )( ri — 2)
A -
l
2 3
[ I
f mu
Th e o r h lae o f t is a n d t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le a
y b e ex m
p y f
re s s e d in a s li h tl
g d i fe re n t o r , as o llo s : if a is t h e rs t f m f w fi
ter m v
o f a gi e n s e rie s , dl , d2 , d3 th e rs t t e r s o f th e su c fi m
c e s s iv e o rde rs o f diffe re n c e s , t h e n th
ter o f t h e gi e n s e rie s is m v
f m f mu
o b t a in e d ro th e o r la
3 26 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

an d the su m fn t mi o er s s

u ( n — l
)( n — 2) n ( u — l ) (n — 2 ) ( u —
3)

I3

E xa m
p l e. Fin d th e gen eral ter m an d th e su m fn t m
o er s o f th e s e rie s

Th e s u v d
c c e s s i e o r ers o d
f i ffere n ce are

2 8 , 50, 7 8 , 1 1 2 , 1 52 ,

22 28 3 4 4 0,

H e n ce th e n
th
ter m 12 z : 28 ( n 1)

6 11 .

Th e s u o f n ter m m my w b e fo ud by w ritin dw
g o n th e al v u f
my
s a n o

mul
n e o

2 71 + 52 n + 6 2 7 u
3 2 Or we a u se th e fo r a o f th e p res en t artic le an d
2 8 71 (n 1) 2 2 71 .
(n 1) (n 2) 6n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3)
ob tain S ,, 1 2 11
L
2 4

2 6 11 69n

n (u + 1)

397 h mh w
I t ill b e s e en t a t t is u mm w y
et o d o f s a t io n h
ill o n l
f m
.

u h
s c c eed w e n uh h
t h e s e rie s is s c t a t in or in g t h e o rde rs o f
v u y m h h m
diffe re n c e s w e e e n t all c o e t o a s e rie s in w ic a ll t h e t e r s
a re e uq al h w wy
T i s .ill al m
a s b e t h e c a s e if t h e n
th
t er o f th e

fu
s e rie s is a ra t io n a l in t e gra l n c t io n o f u .

F imp li
or S i y w w ill id fu t i cf ht dim i ; e co n s er a n c on o t re e en s o n s

t h mt h d f p
e e f h w v i p f ly g l
o o ro o ,
o e e r, s e r ect e n e ra .

L e t th e s e rie s be

u l + u
2
+ u 3
+ + 21; + 36u +1
0 0 0 0 0 0

wh e re u An
s
a Cu D,

an d le t 1) w", de n o t e t h e z n
n
th
ter m o f th e fi rs t, se c o n d, t irdh
o rde rs o f dif
fe re n c e s ;
328 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

H en c e it f ll w h
o o s t at a f t e r th e u iv mu ltipli ti s b y
s c c e ss e ca on

1 — x, th e c o effi c ie n ts o f x
"
in t h e fi t rs d thi d d
s ec o n
p u r ro cts

mi
, , ,

a re
ge n e ral t er s n th e fi rs t , s e c o n d t hi d
,
d f diff
r ,
o r e rs o e re n c es

o f th e c o e f c ienfi ts .

hyp t h is i
By ti l i t g l fu t i
o es an s a ra on a n e ra f n ofp
n c on o

dim i ; t h f
en s o n s f p mu lt ip li i b 1
ere o re
y a ter c at o n s x w e S a ll h
iv
a rr t i s t h t m f wh i h w it h h
e a a s er e e er s o c , t e e x c ep t io n o f p
t m t t h b gi
er s a i g dp t m e th e d f h n n n an er s at e en o t e s e rie s , o r f m
m m
,

a
g t i l
eo p g i
e r ca h f wh ffi i t
ro re s s o n ,
eac o o se c o e c e n s is t h e s a e .

[A rt 3 9 7 .
]
T hu s S (l
wh e re h is a c o n s t an t, an d f (x ) ds fo r t h e p t e r
s t an m s at

t h e b e gin n in g an d p ter ms at th e e n d o f t h e p ro d c t u .

“
I
)
S< ii i
x
1w "
e
)

t h at i s ,
t ( l
— P“
( 1 x
)
t hu s th e s e rie s is a re c u rrin
g s e rie s wh o se s c a le o f re la t io n is
( 1 [A rt 32 5
] .

I f t h e ge n e ra l t e r is n o t gi e n , t h e di e n s io n m v m s o f a a re

yf mh
n

re a dil o n d b
y t h u
e e t o d e x p la in e d in A rt 3 9 7 . .

E xa m
pl e . Fin d th e gen eratin g f u n c tio n o f th e s erie s

2
3 5x + 9x 1 5x 3 2 3x 4 + 3 3 x 5 +

m
Fo r in g th e s u v d
cc e s s i e o r ers o f d ifferen ces o f th e c o e ffi c ien ts , we hv a e
th e s erie s
2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0,

t hu s m
th e ter s in th e s ec o n o r er o f d d d iffere n ce s are e q al , en c e u h is
ratio n al in te gral f n c tio n o f n o f two u dm i e n s io n s ; an d t ere fo re t h h an

e s c ale
a

o f relatio n i s ( 1 x
)
3
We a e . hv
S = 3 + 5x +
2 3 4
3x 8 9x 1 5x 27x -
4 5x
2 4 5
3x 3 27 x 4 542
3 3 5
"
5
3 3 “

3x 5x 4
9x

By a dd itio n , (1 — 4 x + 3x 2 ;

—
3 4x + 3x 2

—x 3
( 1 )
 S U MM A TI O N o r SE R IE S . 3 29

39 9 hv
W e a e s ee n in C a p XX I V t a t t h e ge n e ra tin g h h
m
. . .

fu u
n c t io n o f a re c rrin g s e rie s is a ra t io n a l ra c t io n o s e de n o i f wh
n a t o r is t h e s c a le o f re la t io n S pp o s e t a t t is de n o in a t o r c a n
. u h h m
v
b e re s o l e d in t o t h e a c t o rs ( 1 a x ) ( l f
bx) ( l ex
) t e n th e h
g e n e ra t in
g fu
n c t io n c a n b e s e a ra t e d in t o
p p a rt ia l rac t io n s o f t h e f
A 0
f m
or
l — dx
B
l — bx l — cx

E h f th
ac f o es e ra c t io n s can b e e x p an de d b y t h e B in o ia l T e o re m h m
in h f mf
t e or
g o a eo m e t ric a l s e ries ; h
e n c e in t is c a s e t h e re h
u ig i
c rr n s e r e s c an be s
e x p re s e d a s t h e s u of a n b er o f m um
geo m
e t ric a l s e rie s .

If ho w e ve ro f re l
th e
a t io n c o n a i
s c ale
t n s a n
y a c t o r l — d x f
m h
o re t a n o n c e , c o rre s o n din
p g t o t is re e a t e d a c t o r t e re
p ill b e h f h w
A3
p a rt ia l rac t io n sf o f t h e o r
A3
f m ic wh h
( )
3
( 1 ax
) l ax

h
w e n e x pa n de d b y t h e B in o ia l T e o re m
do n o t o r geo e t ric a l h m f m m
s e rie s ; h h s
e n c e in t is c a e t h e re c rrin
g s e rie s c a n n o t b e e x p res s e du
as th e s u ofa n m um
b e r o f ge o e t ric a l s e rie s m .

4 00 . Th u ive s c c es s e o rde rs o f
f di fe re n c e s o f t h e ge o mt e ric a l

re s s io n
p ro
g
g 3 4
a, a r, ar ,
ar ar ( 67

( l ), ( l ) r, ( l)r (
2 s
a r a r a r ,
a r l) r ,

— I —l
( f ( ) (
2 2
1)
2
a r , a r r, a r — r ,

wh i h c a re t h m lv
e se es m
ge o et ric al p ro gre s s io n s h vi g sa m
mm
a n e

co on ra t i o r as th e o ri in a l s e rie s
g .

4 01 . Le t us c o n s ide r th e s e ries in wh i h c

9 (
5 n
) ,

w h q( ) s
5e re
n i a ra t io n a l
in t e gra l n c t io n o f n o f p di fu
e n s io n s , m
an d ro f
t is mh s e rie s le t u s o r f m u v
t h e s c c e ss i e o rde rs o f diffe re n c e s
m m
.

E ac te r h in an
y o f t e s e o rde rs is t h e s u h o f t wo
p a rts , o n e

a ris in
g ro f m ms
t e r o f t h e o r f m
an d t h e o t e r ro h f m m
te r s o f
th e o r f m
¢ ( n ) in t h e o rigin al s e rie s
N o w s in c e g6 ( n ) is o f 79
m f mM w
.

di e n s io n s , t h e p a rt a ris in g ro ( n
) ill b (
e z e ro in t h e p

u
an d s cc e e din
g o rde rs o f dif h f h
fe re n c e s , an d t e re o re t e s e s e rie s
w m
ill b e ge o e t ric a l p ro gre s s io n s h o se c o w mm
o n ra t io is r .

[A rt .
3 30 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

H fi m
if t h e rs t fe w t e r s o f a s e rie s a re gi e n , a n d if t h e
en c e v
p
"h
o f
rde r o f di fe re n c e s o f t e s e t e r s or a
g eo e h
t ric a l
p ro mf m m
g re s s io n W o s e c o h mm
o n ra t io is r, t e n w e a
y ass e t at t h e h m um h
g e n e ra l t e r o f th e
g m
i e n s e rie s is a r
'
H
v
f ( )
n , e re
f ( )
n is a wh
ra t io n a l in t e gra l fu
n c t io n o f n o f p 1 di e n s io n s m .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e n
th
t er m f th o e s erie s

1 0, 2 3 , 6 0, 1 6 9 , 4 9 4 ,

Th e s u v d
c c e s s i e o r e rs o f di fferen ces are

1 3 , 3 7 , 1 09 , 3 35,

24 , 7 2 , 2 1 6,

T hu th e d d d
f ifferen c es is m
geo etric al p ro gre s s io n in wh hic
my um m
s s ec o n o r er o a

th e co mm o n ratio is 3 ; h en c e we a as s e fo r th e gen e ral t er

u n
z a bn + e .

To d e ter mi n e th e c o n s tan ts a, b, 0, mk a e 71 e q . u al to 1 , 2, 3 s u v
c ce s s i ely ;

th en a + b

wh en ce a = 6,

T hu s

4 02 I n e a c h o f t h e e x a p les o n re c rrin g s e ries t a t we m u h

h v ju v f m u v
.

a e st
g i en , o n o r in
g t h e s c c e s s i e o rde rs o f dif fe re n c e s

v
w e h a e o b t a in e d a s e rie s t h e la w o f w ic is o b io s o n in s p e c h h v u
t io n , an d w e a e t h v hu
s b e e n e n a b le d t o fin d a
g e n e ra l e x res s io n
p
th
m
fo r t h e n t e r o f t h e o rigin a l s e rie s .

I f, hwv o e e r, th e re c u rrin
g s e ries is e
q u al to th e su m o f a

n um b er wh
o mm m
f ge o e t ric a l p ro gre ss io n s o s e co on ra t io s a re

a , b , c, m f m
it s ge n e ra l t e r is o f t h e o r
m
.

an d h f u v
t e re o re t h e ge n e ra l t e r in t h e s c c e ss i e o rde rs o f
mf m h f
diffe re n c e s is o f t h e s a e o r ; t a t is , a ll t h e o rde rs o f di fe r
e n cesf w o llom h
t h e s a e la w a s t h e o rigin a l s e ries I n t is c a s e t o
m mu h v
.

fi n d t h e ge n e ral t e r u
o f t h e s e rie s w e st a e re c o rs e t o t h e

m mh
o re ge n e ra l h wh
et o d e x pla in e d in C a p XX I V Bu t en th e .

fi fu w hu
.

c o e f c ie n t s a re la rge t h e s c a le o f re la t io n is n o t o n d it o t
hm u h
c o n s ide ra b le a rit y
e tic a l lab o h r; en ce it is ge n e ra ll wo rt
wh w
ile t o w rit e do n a fe w o f t h e o rde rs o f dif fe re n c e s t o s e e
wh h h v h m
e t e r w e S a ll a rri e a t a s e rie s t h e la w o f w o s e t e r s is

v
e ide n t .

4 03 W dd m mp l i fu h illu t i f h
. e a so e ex a es n rt er s ra t o n o t e

re c e din rin c i les

p gp p .
3 32 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

H en ce (n + 1) ( n + 2) { 2 n
(n + 3) + 1 }
2n (u + 1) (n + 2) (n + (u + 1 )
—
n ( u + 1) ( n + 2) (n + 3) ( n + 2) (
n 3
+ ) 2 .

E xa m
pl e 4 . Fin d th e su mf o n ter m s o f th e s erie s

2 32 +

I n th e s erie s 2 , 6 , 1 2 , 2 0, 3 0, th e n
th
ter mi s n
2
+n ;

h en c e u
n
= ( 71 2 n )
A ss um e + 71 ) ( A n + B 2
n + C) 2
”
{A ( n 1) + B
2
( n 1) C} 2 n -
1
;

dvd i i in g o u t b y 2 n ‘

1
an d equ atin g c o effi c ien ts o f li k w
e po ers o f n , we hv a e

2 = A , 2 = 2 A + B , O= C — A + B ;

wh en ce A = 2, B : — 2,

— 2n + 4 2 74 — 1
{ 2 (n
2
( 2 n )
“
2 (n 1) + 4 } 2

Su z
( 2u
2 —2n + 4 ) 2 n -
4= ( n
2 —4 .

E XA M PLE S . XXI X b . .

Fin d th e n
th
te r m an d th e su mf o n ter m s o f th e s e rie s

1 . 4 , 1 4 , 3 0, 52 , 8 0, 1 1 4 ,

2 . 8 , 2 6 , 54 , 9 2 , 1 4 0, 1 9 8 ,

3 . 2 , 1 2 , 3 6 , 8 0, 1 50, 2 52 ,

4 . 8 , 1 6 , O, — 64, —2 00 — 432 ,
,

5 . 3 0, 1 4 4 , 4 2 0, 9 6 0, 1 8 9 0, 3 3 6 0,

Fin d t h e gen eratin g f u n c t io n s o f th e s e rie s

6 .

2
7 . 1 2x 9x 3 5x 4

8 .

9 . 1 — 3 x + 5x 2 — 7 x3 + 9 x 4 — l 1x + 5

4 4
10 . 1 2 x 5x 4 31

Fin d th e su m f th o e in fi n ite s e rie s

-
1

m . v
2 2
3 2
4 2
52
6 2
 S U M M A TI O N o r S E R IE S . 3 33

Fi n d t h e ge n e ral te r m an d th e su mf o n te r m s o f th e s e rie s

13 . 9 , 1 6 , 2 9 , 54 ,

14 .
— 3 1, 1 1, 3 9 , 8 9 , 1 6 7 ,
,

15 . 2 , 5, 1 2 , 3 1 , 8 6 ,

16 . 1 , 0, 1 , 8 , 2 9 , 80, 1 9 3 ,

17 . 4 , 1 3 , 3 5, 9 4 , 2 6 2 , 7 55

Fin d th e su mf o n m
te r s o f th e s e rie s :

18 . 1 2x 3x 2
4x3
5x 3

19 . 1 3x + 6 x 2

3 1 4 1 5 1 6
°
+ + +
l . 2 2

2 2
l 2 3 4

22 .

23 .

24 .

1 2 3 4
1 3 5 1 3 l 3 5 7 9

24
+
,
3
I4
, 5 6

27 .

28 .

2 5 10 17
1 2 3 4

4
1+ 5 1 6 1
2 3
2 3 4 3 5 3

1
'

[3
| 4
| 5
E s
 3 34 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

4 04 T e re a re an h s e rie s t h e s a t io n o f my u mm
ic c a n b e wh h
m fu m
.

uh u
b ro g t n de r n o ge n e ra l r le u
I n s o e c a s e s a s kil l o difi
mh m
.

c a t io n o f t h e o re o in
g g e t o ds f a
y b e n e c es s ar in o t e rs it y h
w fu
ill b e o n d t a t t h e s h
a t io n de e n ds o n
p t h eu mm
p pro e rt ie s o f
c e rt a in k n o w n e x p an s io n , s c a s t o s e o b t a in e d b
y t h e B in o s uhia l, h m
L o ga rit hm
ic , an d E x p o n e n t ial T eo re s h m .

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e su m f th o e in fi n ite s eries

2 12 28 50 78
+
L 13 L .
5

a
“
te r m f th o e s erie s 2 , 1 2 , 2 8 , 50, i s 3n + n
‘
3
2; h en ce

2
3 7t + u 2 3n ( n 1) + 4 n — 2

I
n n

3 4 2
+ ’

—l
n — 2
) n
l
n

Pu t n eq u al to 1 , 2 , 3 , in s u c c ess io n ; t h en we hv a e

2
’ ”2
_
3 3
_
4 2 ,

’
1
, [1
| 2
; 3

an d so o n .

W h en c e S! = 3 e + 4 e — 2 (e

E xa m
pl e 2 . If (1 00 0 x
1
0 x
2
"
c n x , fi n d th e v u al e o f
3
1 0
1
2 202 3 2
03

A s in A rt 3 9 8 we . my a e as ily s hw he t at

—2 ’1 —
A ls o n 1
(
”
on . cz x el x c ox 1 x )
“

u
M ltip ly to get h h er t es e two res u lts ; t h en th e gi v en se rie s is eq u al to

mt ( + x) n +l
1
tl1 8 c o 6 ffi
'
en 0f x
”4
In
°

( 1 —x 3
)
th at i s
,
in (2 _x

x 3
)
)
n +l

Th e on ly te r m s co n t ain in g x
n —l
in t is h e xp an s io n aris e fro m
u +1 (n + 1 ) n n —1
2 ( 1 ) 3
( 1
+ ) 2 n
( 1 )
—1
-

x
. n x 2 (1 x
.
) ;

th e gi v en s erie s 2 n +1 n
(n 1) 2 » 7

7 34
n ( n 1
+ ) 2 .
33 6 HI GHER AL G E BR A .

4 05 To fin d th e su mf th o e r
th
p o wers f
o th e fi rs t n n a tu ra l
m
.

nu b ers .

L et t h e su mb e de n o t e d b y S "; t h en

'
S 1 3
’
= +
n

A ss um h e t at

+ A r
u + A ( ),
l

wh e re A O, A A A a re
q u an t itie s wh o se v lu h v
a es a e to b e

de t e r m in e d .

W rit e u 1 in t h e p la c e o fu an d s ub t ra c t
; t hu s

'
( n AO {( u Al {( n u
}
"
{( 1) A3 {( 1)
2
A2 n + u + u
}
E x p an d ( u + 1 ) ( u
( n + 1) an d e
q u ate th e co

e ffi
c ie n t o f lik e
p o s w s er o f u . By e
q u at n i g th e c o ef
fi c ie n ts o fu
'

we h a e v ,

1 = A0 so t h at Ao

By eq u at in g t h e fi
c o e f c ie n t s o fu we h a v e

A0 ( r + 1) H
2
r
A r w h en c e AI I

u
E q a t e t h e c o e ffic ie n t s o f s ub s t it ut e fo r A O an d A an d
mu y h
lt ip l b o t s ide s o f t h e e
q u a t io n by

we t hus o b t a in

—l — 1
1
+
1
+ A2 13
+ A3
r (p ) + f14
r (r ) (p
r r — 1
p + 1 2 r r r — 1
( ) ( )( r

In ( )
1 w it r e u 1 in th e p lac e o fu an d s ub t ra c t ; t hu s

—1 " ”
1)
—
( ) } Al { ( { (
’
u + n rt n u

Eq u at e th e c o effi c ie n ts o f an d s ub st u
it t e fo r A A t hu s

—2
1 1
+ A2 —A r p ( 1)
+
)
r r— l
1 2 ( )
g
3
p + 7
 MI C ELLA N E O U ME TH O D
S S S o r S U M M A T IO N . 3 37

F m( 3)
ro an d by a ddit io n an d s ub t ra c t io n ,

1 1 r (2 Z)
J —
A2 +
— l —2
2 l ( )( )
4
t

p + 7 r r r

p < p
—l
) r p(— 1
) (p —2
) (p — 3)

w
0
< >
>
J
”
r (r — 2 r — 3

By a s c rib
in g t o p in s c c e s s io n t h e u v lua es 2 4, 6
f m
ro
( )
6 t at eac h
o f th e c o e f c ie n t s h fi A A A
t o z e ro ; an d ro ( )
5 w f m
e o b t a in

—2
1
.
r ( r -
1) ( r
)
30
( 4

6
(
By e
q u a t in
g t h e ab s lu t
o e ter mi s n we o b t a in
+ A

an d b y p t tin g n u = 1 in eq u a t io n we hv a e

+ A r
+ A

A O .

4 06 Th e re s lt u o f t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le is mt os co n v en y
ie n t l
f mu
.

e x re s s e d b t h or la ,
p y e

r -i- l
7Z 1 r r
( r 1 ) (r 2)
—n ’
+ B — u" ‘
—B u
1 2
[4
3
r +

Wh e eB
r :
_
— 1
ea
“ Ba at
l
,
Bs —
fi
1
’ By —
x
1
m Bg —
e ew
5

u
Th e q a n t itie s B l B S , B 5 , a re k n o n a s B ern o u lli s N u b ers ; w ’
m
fo r ex a p lm
e s o f t e ir a
pp lic a t io n t o t h h
e s a t io n o f o t e r s e rie s u mm h
th e v
a d a n c e d s t de n t a
y c u
o n s lt B o o le
’
F i m
n i te D iferen c es u s .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e v u al e o f 15 2 5
35 71
5 .

u“
5
72 5
We h ave + + B1 71 4 _ B
3
u
2
+ c
w
,
6 2 2 4

?
n

e
’
2 12 12
th e c o n s tan t b ein g z e ro .

H . H . A .
338 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

E XA M PLE S . XXIX . 0 .

Fin d th e su m f th o e fo llo win g s eries

2 3
x
3
x
5 x7 x x

x +
x
5
+
x
9
+
1 L 2
.
3
L .

15 tg

2 —1
2
x
2 3 2 — 1 x
3 4 —12

1 + 2x + . +
3

r —l
—2 —S
m
r r 2 r 3
p
+
p g
+
p 9—
_ p 9— + to r + 1 te r s

M ) — 1
.

‘
7 1 IT
“
? 3

—l
n ( 1 + x ) n ( u ) 1 + 2x
l+ ux
'
2

u —l n —
n ( )( 2) 1 + 3x
to n te r m s

i__ 3 ( +
l )
3
.

ux

8 . 1 +3 to nt m er s .

m
2
01
2
1 2
) 71 1 2) 2 2
)
2 2
to u + 1 t er s
2 2 2
.

1 . 2 1 0 2 . 3

10 .
(1 1
( a
0
( s )
10 e2 3 +

| 1
l
?
E E i}
f

4
2x 2
x3 7x l au 6
1
f
I If [ f
I?
W it hu o t as s umi g n t h e fo r mul a, fi n d th e su m fth o e s e rie s

( )
6
( )
1 + 71 . 2
340 HI G HER AL GE BR A .

24 . I f A , is th e "
c o effi c ie n t o f x in th e e x p an s io n o f

0 0 0 0 0

1 07 2
p ro ve t h at
2 T
an d A4
3 15

25 . I f u is a multipl e o f6, s h w th
e at eac h o f th e s erie s

n ( u — l ) ( n —2 ) n ( u — l ) (n — 2 ) ( n — 3 ) (u — 4)

E L 5

—l n — 2) u — l ) ( n — 2 ) (u — 3 ) ( u — 4 )
n ( u )( 1
+
n ( 0
1
ooo o
3 2
lg lg
o o o

is eq u al to z ero .

26 . If ni s a p o s itive in teger, s h w th
e at

— 2 n —
)
é
3)
—
( n
PQ
n 1 _ n +1

is e qu al to p q
P ?
“

—r —r n — r+
27 . If )( n +2 ) ( p
-
l),

(H g
s h ew th at
—1+ +
P1 Q 1 + P2 Q 2 + P3 Q 3 + + Pn 1Q n —1
LL
9 L 0
2 n
p q
7 ?
-

28 . I f n is a multipl e o f 3, s h w th t
e a

u — 4 ) ( u — 5) —5 —6 —
77. — 3 (_ ‘
( u )( n )( u 7)
2
H e

3
u
is eq al t o — or
7 2’
ac c o r di gn as u is o dd o r e v en .

29 . If x is a p ro p er frac tio n ,
s hwh
e t at

3
x x x5 3
x5
m
x x
+
1 — x2 1 — x6 l — x 1 + x2 1+x 6
 C H A PTE R XXX .

T HE O R Y OF N UM B E R S .

4 07 h h
I n t is c a p te r we s a ll u s e t h e h w o rd n u mb er a s e
q u i
m
.

v a enl t in e a n in g t o p o s iti ve in teger .

A n u mb
wh i h i t er ly div i ib l b yc
y s u m
n ob ex a c t s e an n er

ex ce p t it lf d u se it y i ll
an d p i m nm b p sim ca e a r e n u er, or a r e ; a

n u mb w h i h i divi ib l b y h u mb b id i lf d
er c s s e o t er n e rs es es ts e an

u ity i ll d
n s cam p i e m b ; t hu 53 i
a co p im
os u mteb n u er s s a r e n e r,

an d 35 i mp it u mb
s a co Tw u mb wh i h h v
os e n er o n e rs c a e n o

mm f t m
.

co on p t u i y
ac o r ex c e i d t b p i t n h h
t ; a re s a o e r e o eac o t er

t hu 2 4 i p im t 7 7
s s r e o

4 08 W h ll mk f qu t e s a f t h f ll w i g l m t y
a e re en u se o e o o n e e en ar

m
.

p p ro it i
os f wh
o n s, soi h i e ot u lly t f t h d cfi it i ar s e s o n a ra ou O e e n on

o f p im t h t t h y my b
a r e a
g d d e i m a e re ar e as a x o s .

()
i I f u m b d
a i v id
n s p d u t b
er a d i p im t O e a ro c e an s r e o n e

f t b it mu t divid t h th f t
ac o r ,
s e e o er ac o r 0 .

F i div id
o r s n ce ( t b v yf t f i f u di b ; b t es e, e er ac o r o a s o n n e u

i
s n ce a i p im t b s r f t f i f u d i 6 ; t h f ll
e o ,
n o ac or o a. s o n n e re o re a

t h f t e f
a c o rs O f u d i ; t h t i divid
a a re o n n e a s, u es e .

( )
ii I f p im u ma b d i vrid p e d u n i m u
er a es a ro ct t st

div id e f thon e f t s f t h t p du t ; d t h f if
o e ac o r O a ro c an e re o re a

p i
r m eu m b n d i v id b er aw h i y p i t i v es i t g
"
i e re n s an os e n e e r, t
mu t divid 6
,

s e .

( )
iii I f i p im a h fs t h u mrb 6 e d toi t i p i
ea cm o e n e rs an c, s r e

t o h p du t b
t e ro F c f t f e div id b or n o h ac o r o a can e or e t e re

f h p du t b i t div i ib l b y y f hti
.

o re t e ro c e f
s n o s e an ac t o r o a, t a s, u

i p im t b
s r e C v ly if i p im t b i i p im
o e on e rs e h a s r e o e, t s r e to eac

um
.

o f h t b
e n b d e rs an e

i p im t
.

Al if so a. h f th u mb b l it i
s r e o eac o e n e rs 0, c s

m m
, ,

p i
r t teh p d
o u t b d e dro v lyc if i p
e i t y an co n e rs e a s r e o an

u mb it i p im v y f f th t um
”

n e r, s r e b to e er a cto r o a n er .
34 2 HI GHER AL GE B R A .

( )
iv d b a re p ri
If a an m e to eac h h v yp
o t e r, e er o s it i v e

in t egral p o we r O f a is p ri e t o m v yp t e er os i iv i t g l p w
e n e ra o er o fb
h f s f m
.

T is o llo w at On c e ro ( )
iii .

m
n

v( ) I f i a s
p i
r t b t hef t i s
o
5 ,
e ra c on
Cb
a re in t h e ir

l w t t m
o es er s, n an d mb e in
g an
y p o s it i v e in t e ge rs . A ls o if 3
2 an d

el
a re a n
y t w o e
q u l
a f t i
ra c o n s, an d
g is in it s lo w tt es er m h s, t en

0 an d cl mtb
us e e q u im u lt ip l es o fa an db re s e c
p t iv ly e .

409 . Th e n u mb er o fp ri m es is

Fo r if n o t , le t p
b e t h e gre at e s t p ri e n b e r ; t en t h e m um h
p ro d c t 2 u 3 5 7 in ich eac ac t o r is a
p ri e n u wh hf m m
h v
b e r, is di i s ib le b y e a c o f t h e a c t o rs 2 , 3 , a n d t e re o re f h f
th e n um f m b e r o r e d b y a ddin g n it t o t e ir p ro d c t is n o t u y h u
v h
di is ib le b y a n y o f t es e a c t o rs ; en c e it is e it e r a p ri f e h h m
n um f v
b e r it s el o r is di i s ib le b y s o e p ri e n b e r gre a t e r t a n m m um h
p : i h
n e it e r c a s e
p i s n o t t h e grea tes t
p r i e n b e r a n d t e re m um h
um m m
,

f o re t h e n b e r o f p ri e s is n o t li it e d .

4 10 No ra tio n a l a l e ra i ca l
g b fo rmu la can rep res en t p ri m e

m
.

n u b ers o n ly .

I f p o s s ib le , le t t h e o r la a bx f mu 0x
2
dx
3
re
p re se n t

p ri m
e n b um
e rs o n l , a n d s pp o s e t a t y u h wh en x = mt h v lu e a e Of

t h e e x p re s s io n is p , s o t a t h
p :

wh en x m n
p t h e e x p re ss io n b ec o m es

a m p ) (m p ) d ( m
b( + n e + n
2
+ np )
3

h bm m lm mu ltipl
2 ”
t at is , a e e a e o fp ,

o r p mu lt ip l f p a e o ,

t hu t h
s e e x p re s s io n v
is di is ib le b y p , an d is t h f e re o re n o t a
p ri m e

n u mb er .

411 . A n u mb er ca n be res o lved i n to p ri mf e a eto rs ,

in on ly on e

wa y .

L et N de n o t e th eu pp n u mb er s o se N w e re h
a, b, 0, cl, a re
p imru mb S
e nu pp e rs o se a ls o h t at N = a8 3
, y

m m
.

wh e re a ,
)8, y , 8,
th i
a re o
p u b er r e n e rs . Th en

a b eel .
344 HIGHE R AL G E BR A .

4 14 To fi d t
nh e n u b er m o f w y
a s i n wh i c h a co m o site

mt
p
m
.

n u b er ca n b e reso lved in to two fa cto rs which a re p ri e o ea ch

o th er .

A f l t th u mb N a
s be o re , e Of h t w f t s e n er
q
c
'
t e o ac o r

on e mu t t i sf t h wis t h
co n w u ld b
a n a mp w f
”
o r o er e e re o e so e o er o

f t d m p w f i th t h f t
,

a i n on e ac o r an so d th u e o er o a n e o er a c o r, a n s

th t w f t s w u ld
e o t b p
ac o r im t h t h o S im il ly 6 n o e r e o eac o er ar
7

mu t u i
.

s o cc f th f r ly ;
n don e H
o th e a c t o rs on an so on en c e e

m m
.

re
q u i d u b
re i qu l t n t h u b ferw y is w h i h
e t h a o e n er o a s n c e

p d
ro u t c b lv d i t t w f t
c an s ; t h t i t h
e re s o e n o o ac o r a s, e

n u mb fw y i
er o a s s wh i or e re n s

th e n u mb f difi p im f t i N er o
'
eren t r e a c o rs n .

4 15 . To fi n d the su mf th o e divis o rs o fa n u mb er .

L et t h e n b er b um e de n o t e d b y as b f
e o re T h en e ac h
m
.

ter o f th e
p ro d c t u
2 z
( 1 + a + a + + o + e +

is di is o r,
a v dt
an h f e re o re th e su m f th o e v
di is o rs is e
q u a l t o t is h
p ro d c t ; tu h at i s ,

th e su m qu re i re d
a 1 b 1 c 1
1

E x a p le 1 m . C o n si d er th e n um b er 2 1 6 00 .

Sin c e 3 3
2 2
3 3
5, 2

th e n umb er o dv
f i is o rs (5 1) ( 3 1 ) (2 1) 72

m f th dv 26 1 34 — 1 —1
— 53
th e su o e i is o rs '
3 —1
°

2 — 1 5— 1

63 x <3 1
40 >

7 8 120 .

A ls o 2 1 6 00 c an be res o l e vd in to two fac to rs p ri mt e o e ac h h o t er

or 4 w ay s .

E xa m
pl e 2 . I f n is o dd s hw he t at n (n
2
1 ) is dv i is ib le b y 24 .

We hv a e n ( n
2
l) = n (n 1) (n +
Sin ce is o dd, n 1 an d n + 1 are two c o n s e c ti u v v um h b ers ;
h m dv
77. e e en n en ce
on e o ft e is i is ib le b y 2 an d th e o t er b y 4 h .

A gain n 1 , n , n + 1 are t h re e c o n s ec u v um h ti hm e n b ers ; en c e o n e o ft e

IS dv
i i s ib le b y 3 T
h
3 , an d 4 , t at is , b y 2 4
s t h e gi . hu v en e x p res s io n v du is di is ib le b y th e p ro ct o f 2,
.
 T HE O RY OF N U MBE R S . 345

m
E xa p le 3 . Fin d th e h h ig es t po w er o f3 wh h i ic s co n tain e d in
( 1 00
.

Of th e fi rs t 1 00 in tegers , as i is ib le b y 3 as th e n m b er o f dv um
m h
an y are
d
ti e s t at 3 is c o n tain e in 1 00, t at i s , 3 3 an d th e in te gers are 3 , 6 , h
h m
Of t es e , s o e c o n tain th e fac to r 3 again , n a ely 9 , 1 8 , an d t eir m h
um u
b er i s th e q o tie n t o f 1 00 i i e by 9 dvd d
So e again o f t e s e las t m h
h d m m um
n .

in tege rs c o n tain th e fac to r 3 a t ir ti e n a ely 2 7 54 8 1 th e n b er o f

hm
t e u
b ein g th e q o tien t o f 1 00 b y 2 7 On e n b e r o n ly , 8 1 , c o n tain s th e
,

um , ,

u m
.

fac to r 3 fo r ti e s
h h w u d
.

H en c e th e i g es t p o er req ire = 3 3 1 1 3 1 = 48
m mi
.

h
T i s exa p le is a p art ic lar cas e o f th e t eo re u h n v e s tigate d in th e n ex t
artic le .

416 To
.
fi nd th e h igh es t p o wer f
o a
p ri m mb e n u er a wh ich is
co n ta in e d i n n .

L e t t h e gre a te s t in t e ge r co n t a in e d in re s
p v y
e c ti e l

b e de n o t ed b y I T h en a m on
g t h en u mb e rs

n ,
t h e re a re I wh i h c co n t a in a at le a s t o n c e, n a mly e

th e n u mb e rs a, 2a, 3a , 4 a , Si mil a rl
y t h e re a re I wh i h c

co n ta in a
2
at le a s t o n ce, an dI wh i h c co n t a in a
3
at le a s t o n ce ;

an d so o n . H en c e t h e h ig h est
p o w er o fa co n t a in e d in
I n is

417 I n t h e re mi d a n er o h h
f t is c ap t e r we s a ll fi n d it h co n

mu ltipl ym
.

v e n ie n t t o e x re s s a
p e o f n b y th e s b o l M (n ) .

4 18 To p ro ve th a t th e p ro du c t
. o
f r c o n s ec u ti ve i n tegers is
divis ib le b y I
LL .

Le t P" s t a n d fo r t h e p ro d u ct o f r c o n s ec u iv
t e in t ege rs , t h e
le a s t o f wh
ic h is n t en h
( n + 2) ( n +r

PH I
—
( n + 1) ( n + 2) ( n + 3) ( n + r ; )
P a + rP
’
fi ”

P n

r ti m es t h e p ro d u ct o fr 1 c o n se c u iv t e in t e ge rs .
346 H IGHER AL GE B R A .

H en c e if t h e p ro d u ct o f r — 1 c o n se c u iv t e in t ege rs is di is ib le b y v
r 1, we a e hv
P = rM 1)
u (| r

N ow | r, a n d t I h f h f
e re o re P2 is a mu lt ipl e o f r t e re o re

l
a so P P 3 ,
mu ltipl f [ W h v hu p v d t h t if
4,
a re es o r
_
. e a e t s ro e a

t h p du t f
e ro 1 c u tiv i t g i di i ib l b y | 1 t h
o r c o n s ec e n e e rs s v s e r ,
e

p du
ro t f c u i
o v i g
r i div i
c o n s ec ib l b y E t ; b t t
e h n te e rs s s e u e

p du
ro t f cv y t w o e u t i v
eri t g i di v i
o ib l b y l
c o n sec
g ; e n e e rs s s e

th f h p du t f v y t h
e re o re t e ro u tiv i t g i di i ib l
c o e er ree c o n s e c e n e e rs s v s e

by
3
L d g
an lly so on e n e ra .

Th i p p iti s my l b p v d hu
ro o s on a a so e ro e t s

By m f A t 416 w
e an s o h w t h t v y p im f
r .
,
e c an s o a e er r e ac to r

is co nt i d i I
a n e f n l ni i t i
r as o d i
L:
t en at ea s t a s t s co n a n e n n r

Th i w l v s e i eat th tud t
e a s an e x e rc s e o e s en .

419 . If p is a p ri m mb e n u efi er, f th e in
co c ien t o every ter m
th e exp a n s io n of ( a ex c ep t th e firs t a n d la s t, is di vis ib le b
y p .

W it h th e e x c e p t io n o f th e fi rs t a n d la s t , e v y t mh
er er as a c o

e ffi i c en t o f th e f m or

— l — 2
r(r ) ( r ) ( tr
If
wh my h v v u
'

e re r y i
an t e ra l
g a a l e n o t e x c e e din
e an
gp 1 N o w
‘

m
.

this e x re s s io n is a n in t e ge r ; a ls o s in c e p is p ri f
p e n o ac to r o f
( r

v
is a di is o r o f it , a n d s in c e p is gre a t e r t a n r it c a n n o t di ide h v
an
y f
acto r o f r ; t a t is ,
( p I1 ) ( p h( p r + 1 ).
s t b e mu
v
di is ib le b y I I H e n c e e e ry c o e f c ie n t e x c e t t h e
.
p rs t a n d v fi fi
t h e la s t is di is ib le b y p v .

4 20 . If p is a
p ri m e n u mb er, to p ro ve th a t

W rit e B fo r b + c + . t h en b y t h e p re c e din g a rt c e i l

s u pp o se ;

B y p ro c ee din g in t is way we h my a e s ta b lis h th e re

q u i re d re s ul t .
34 8 HI G HER AL GE BR A .

E XA M PL E S . X XX . a .

1 . Fi n d th e lea s t multipli e rs o f th e n u mb e rs

3 6 7 5, 4 3 7 4 , 1 83 7 5, 7 4 08 8
re s p e c ti ely , v wh i h will mk h c a e t e
p ro du c ts p e rfe c t s
q u are s .

2 .
Fi n d h l mul ipli
t e eas t t e rs o f th e n u mb e rs

7 6 2 3 , 1 09 3 50, 539 539

res p e c ti e ly , v wh i h will mk c a e th e p ro du c ts p e rfec t c ub es .

3 I f x an d y are p o s it i v e in t egers , an d if x y is e v en s hw h e t at

dv ,
.

z —
i is ib le b y 4
2
x y is .

4 Sh w h e t at th e diffe ren c e b et w e en an y n u mb e r an d it s sq u are

v
.

is e en .

5 I f 4x y is a multipl e o f 3, s hw he t at
2
4 x + 7 xy 2y 2
is d i i ib l
v s e

6 . Fi n d th e n u mb er o dv
f i is o rs o f 8 06 4 .

7 In h o w
. my wan ay s c an th e n umb er 7 056 b e re s o l vd e in to
t wo fac to rs ?

8 v h
. i d ivi ib l b y
Pro e t at 2 4n
1 s s e 15 .

9 P v . h t ( ) ( ) i mul ipl f
ro e t a n n +1 n +5 s a t e o 6 .

10 S h w th t v y um b d it ub wh d ivid d b y l v 6
m mi d
. e a e er n e r an s c e en e ea e
th e sa e re a n er .

11 If i. v hwht ( n s e ) i d iv i ib
enl b,y s e t a n n
2
+ 20 s s e 48 .

12 S h w th t
.
( )( e ) i d iv i ib l ab y n n
2
1 3n + 2 s s e 24 .

13 If .i g t h hw h
n s rea e r i di i ib l b yt an 2, s e t at n
5—
5n + 4 u 3
s vs e ,

14 . Pro v h
e t at 3 2n
multipl
+ 7 is a e o f8 .

1 5 I f n is p im u mb h hw ht 2
r t er re a e r t 3, t 1 is
m
. a g e n an s e a n
a u l tiple o f 2 4 .

16 S . h w th
e at n
5— n is d i i ib l
v s e b y 3 0 fo r all v lu a es o f n ,
an d by
2 4 0 if n is o dd .

17 S e w t at t h e h h
iffe ren c e o f t h e d sq u ares o f an y t wo p ri me
um h dv
.

n b e rs greater t an 6 is i is ib le b y 2 4 .

18 . Sh w th t qu umb i
e a n o s are n er s o f th e fo r m3 77. 1 .

19 . Sh w h t v y u b
e u mb i
t a e er c e n er s o f th e f m9or n or 9n i L .
 T HE O RY OF N UMBE R S . 3 49

.
20 . S hw h e t at if a c u b umb e n er is d ivid d e b y 7 , th e re mi a n d er
is 0, l or 6 .

21 If a n b er is b o t um h qu s are an d c ub h w he, s e t at it is f th e
f m
. o
or 7 77 o r 7 n + l . .

22 . S hwh e t at n o t rian g lar u n umb er c an be o f th e fo r m3 a 1 .

23 I f 2 n + 1 is im u mb hw h t at 1 2
2 2
wh
d iff t mi
p
a r e n er, s e en
vd v d , ,
.

di i ed b y 2 n + I lea e e ren re a n e rs .

24 S h w th e at a
x
a an d a
”
6
a are al w y v wh t v
a s e en a e e r a an d
m
. , x

ay b e .

25 Pro v h t at e v e ry e v en p o w er o f e v ery o dd n u mb is f th e
f m
. e er o

or 8r + l .

26 . Pro v h
e t at th e po w er O f an y n u mb er is o f th e fo r m1 3 77.
or 1 3n + 1 .

27 . Pro v th
e at th e 8 “
p o wer o f an y n u mb er is o f th e fo r ml 7 n

or 1 7 7t h 1 .

28 I f n is a p ri m e n umb er greater t h an 5, s hw he t at n
4 — 1 is
dv
.

i is ib le b y 2 4 0

29 If n is an y p ri m u mbe n er great er t h an 3, e xc e
p 7,
t s h w th
e at
v
.

l is di is ib le b y 1 6 8 .

30 . S h w th o at n
36
1 is d i i ib l
v s e b y 3 3 7 4 4 if n is p ri mt e o 2, 3 , 1 9
an d 3 7 .

l W h d 2p + 1 bot h
i m umb hw h t at

mt
en an a re
p r e n e rs , s e
x QP —l is d ivi s1 le b y if x is pri e o 2, p + 1 , an d
2p + l .

32 I f p is a p ri m e, a n d x p ri mt e o p, s h w th
e at xp
“

P
r
— 1 is
v
.

di is ib le b y p "

33 If mi s a p ri m umbe n e r, an d a, b t wo nu mb e rs les s t h m an
v th ,
.

e at
p ro

a
i
m M a m-
3
b +a m 4 2
6 +
-

+b m 2 -

is a multipl e o f m .

4 23 I f a is a n y n b e r, t e n a n y o t e r n b er N um a
y h h um m
f m
.

b e e x p re s s e d in t h e o r N a
g + r e re is t h e i n t e ra l
g
: wh q
m
,

q o u
t ie n t wh
e n N I s di ide d b
y a , a n d r is a re v
a in de r le s s t a n a h
um ic t h e o t lie r 1 re e rre d, is s o e ti e s c a lle d
wh h s f m m
.

Th e n b er a, to
the m
o du lu s , an d t o an
y g i en o d l s a t e re a re a dif fe re n t v muu h
3 50 HIGHER G AL E BR A .

f m
or f s u m bo N ha f m n p d i g t
er diff t e ac or c o rre s on n o a e ren

v lu f Thu t mdu lu s 3 w h v u mb f th f m
,

a e o r s o o e a e n e rs o e or

m imply 3 g 3g l i 3g 2 i
.
,

3g 3 9 1 3g 2 ; + + o r, o re s i s n ce + s

m m m
, , ,

e
q u l
,

t a3 ( g 1 ) o1 I lik,

t du lu 5 y u b n e an n e r o o s an n e
r

f m 5g 5g 1 5g 2
.

w ill b f th fi
e on e o e ve or s ,
4
,
4 .
.

4 24 If 6 w i t g wh i h wh di id d b y
e a re t o n e e rs , c en v e a

m mi d t h y
.

.
,

l v th
ea e e sa id e b re t w it h
a n e r, e a re sa to e co n gru en
re s
p t t h
ec m du lu oI t hti b e i mo u ltipl f s ad n s case c s a e o a, an

f ll wi g h t ti f G u w h ll mtim p
.

o o n t e n o a on hi o a ss e s a so e es ex re s s t s

as f ll w o o s

6 E e ( md o . a
) ,
or b c E 0 ( md o . a
) .

E it h er o ft h ese f mu l
o r a
e is c a lle d a c o n gru en c e .

4 25 If b , c a re co n gru en t with resp ec t to

. md o u lu s a, th en
b a n d p c a re c o n gru en t, p b ein g a n y in teger
p .

Fo r, b y s u pp o s it io n ,
b c n a, w e re n is s o h m e in t e ge r
t h f e re o re p b p c =
p n a
; w v
h ic h p ro es t h e p ro p o s itio n .

4 26 . If a is p ri mt e o b, an d the qu an tities

a, 2a , 3 a , ( b 1) a

a re divi ded b y b , the re mi a n ders a re a ll diferen t .

Fo r if p o s sib le , s u ppo se t h at t wo f t h e q an t it ie
o u sm a an d
m '
a wh en v
di ide d b y b le a v e th e sa m m e re a in de r r, s o t hta

m n I— a -
r,

t h en
(q g ) ; 6 ( m m) -
’
a : — '

th f b divid (m m) h it mu t di id m m i
e re o re es
’
a en c e s v e
'
s n ce

i i p im t ; b t t h is i im m m
,
'
t s r
p e ib l i
o a d hu s o ss e s n ce an a re eac
less th b an .

Thu t h mi d s s ll diff e t d i
re f h
a n er a re a e re n an s n ce none o t e

y v m m
,

q u it
ani i t t l di i ib
es l b y b t h
s i d
ex a cu t b h s e e re a n e rs s e t e

ms f th
,

ter i 1 2 3
o b 1 b t t
e s e r es s ily i t h i , , , ,
u n o n ec e s a r n s

o rde r .

C OR . If a is p ri mt e o b, an d c is an
y n umbe r, th e 6 ter m s

o f th e A . P .

c, c + a, c + 2a , c + ( b — l) a,
3 52 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

4 30 To . s h ew th a t if th e n u mb ers a , b, c, d, a re
p ri mt e o

ea ch o th er,

4 < a b cd

C o n s ide r t h e p ro d ut
c ab ; t h en th e fi rs t u mba b n e rs can

w rit t e n in b lin e s , e a c h li n e co n t a in in g a n u mb t hu e rs s

1, 2, k)

a + 1, a + 2, a + h, a + a,

2a + 1, 2a + 2, 2a h, 2a + a,

( b ( b ( b ( b

u m wh h h
Le t u s c o n s ide r t h e e rt ic al c o l n ic v b egin s wit Io if
m m h s um m
k is p ri e t o a all t h e t e r s o f t i c o l n will b e
p ri e t o a ;
v mm v um
b u t if k a n d a h a e a c o um
o n di is o r, n o n b e r in t h e c o l n

m fi
will b e p ri e t o a um
N o w t h e rs t ro w c o n ta in s qS ( a ) n b e rs
m um
.

p ri eh f h
t v h
o a ; t e re o re t e re a re qb ( a ) e rt ic a l c o l n s in e ac

h h
o f w ic y m me ve r ter u is p ri e t o a ; le t u s s pp o s e t h a t t h e
v u m wh h w h
e rt ic a l c o l n h um
ic b e gin s it h is o n e o f t e se Th is c o l n

m wh h h v m
.

v
is an A P , t h e t e r s o f ic w en di ide d b y b le a e re a in de rs
um
.

s
.

0, 1 , 2 , 3, b — l [A rt 4 2 6 C o r ] h e n c e t h e c o l n c o n t ain

m
. .

n t e e rs pri e to 6
(1
)
( )
b i g .

m y
Si ilarl , e a c o f t h e < 1( )
) a e h
r t ic a l c o l v u ms i n w ic e e r
n h h v y
ter m m
is p ri e t o a c o n t a in 4) ( b ) in t e ge rs p ri m e to b h e n ce in t h e
h
t ab le t e re a re 4) ( b ) in t ege r w ic s h h a re
p ri e t o m
a an d
s
a l o t o b , a n d t e re o re t o a b h f t at is h
l( )
<
> b 95( a )
a =

T h f
e re o re f(
( ) abc d q ( )
5 a 1:
< ( b ed

95 M ed

M d)

431 To fi n d th e nu mb er o
f p o s i tive in tegers less th a n a

m mt
.

i
g ven n u b er, a n d p ri e o it .

L et N de n o t e t h e nu mb d s u pp o s e t at N = a c
e r, an h ’ '

wh e re a, b, c, a re diff
e re n t p ri e n m um
b e rs , an d p , g, r

p o s it i vin t e ge rs
e C o n s ide r t h e a c t o r a ”
f
o f t h e n a t ra l u n u m
y s m
.

b e rs 1 , 2, 3, a
”
1 , a , t h e o n l o n e n o t p ri e t o a a re
”

—1
— 1
2 a , 3a , ) ( )
p
a, a, u a,
 T HE O RY OF N U M BE R S . 3 53

an d th e n u mb er o h i
ft ese s a
—
” 1
h en c e

4w z 1

Now a ll the f a c to rs a
”
,
"
b c
'
, ,
a re
p ri mt e o eac h h o t er ;
" '
1( ) 1(
< b ) ( )
p
i
( ) ( ) u )
1
( ) c

1
1
’
e

" '
a
”
b c

t h at is , 1

E m
pl Shw h t at th e mf all th e in tegers wh h ic le s s t h N
d p im t
xa e . e su o are an
an r e o it is § N ¢ (N ) .

If is y in teger les s t an N h d pri mt it , t h N is als o

m
x an an e o en x an
h
-

in teger le s s t an N an d p ri e to it .

D en o te th e in tegers b y 1 , p , q , r, an dt h eir s u mb y S ; t h en

+ (N

th e serie s co n s is tin g o f 95 (N ) ter m s.

Writin g th e s eries in th e v
re ers e o r er, d
S = (N

by a d ditio n , s (N
to a ) ter m; s

4 32 F mt h ro e s
la t a rt ic le it f ll ws t h
o o at th e n u mb er o f
mt
.

in t e ge r s whi h c a re s
le s t h an N an d n o t p ri e o it is

1
N N l

t h at is ,

H e re t h e ter ma g v N
i es th e n u mb er o f th e In t e ge rs

N
a, 2a , 3 a , . a
a

wh i h c co n t a in a as a f a c to r
; t h e te r m gi v es th e n u mb er o f

H . H . A .
3 54 HI H E R G AL GE BR A .

N
t h e in t e ge r s a b , 2a b , 3a b,
b a
a b, w ic h h co n t a in a b as a f a c t o r,

an d s o on rt e r, e ve r Fu h y
in t e ge r is re c k o n e d o n c e , an d o n c e
mu m
.

onl ; y t s, eac hhu lt iple o f a b will a pp e a r o n c e a o n g t h e

mu lt iple s o f a , o n c e a o n g t h e m
lt iple o f b , an d o n c e n e gat i e l mu s v y
am o n g th e mu
lt iple o f a b , a n d is t s
s re c k o n e d o n c e o n l hu y .

A ga in , e a c h mu
lt iple o f a b c will app e a r a o n g t h e
N
a
,
N
b
N
0
m
t er s m wh ic h a re mu
ltip les o f a , b , 0 re sp e c t i e l ; a o n g t h e v y m
a b
’
ao
’
be
ter m wh i h
s c a re mu ltipl es o f a b, ac
,
be re s e c t i
p v ly ;
e

an d am g th b mu ltipl
on e
a
N
c
es o f abc t h at is , s in c e 3 3 l 1,

eac h mu ltipl f b u e o a c o cc rs o n c e , a n d o n ce o n ly Si mil ar ly , o t h er

my b di u s d
.

c as e s a e sc se .

4 33 .
[W ilso n
’
s Th eo re m) . If p b e a
p ri m mb e n u er, 1
Ip 1
is divisib le b y p .

By E x 2, A rt 3 1 4 we
. . hv a e

Ip
— 1 =
< >
p
— 1

—2
) (p t er m; s

an d by F mt er a
’
s T h eo re m h ea c f th e
o ex
p re s s io n s
(p 1)
(p (p is o f th e f m or 1 t hu s

—2
1
m
-

1 —
(P
— l ter s

P"
M O) D U )
M (p ) 1, s in c e
p
— l is e v en .

Th f ere o re I
( p
— l

Th i t h
s e o re mi
y u w h p i p im F u pp p s on l tr e en s r e or s o se

q t h g i l t h p d mu di id ip l h
.

h as a f t ac or en s es s an an st v e en ce

I Ip 1 i t mu ltipl f g d t h f
s n o t ml ipl fp
a e o ,
an e re o re n o a u t e o .

W il Th m my l b p v d w it h u u i g th
so n s
’
e o re a a so e ro e o t s n e

resu lt qu t d f mA t 3 1 4 i th f ll w i g ti l
o e ro r .
,
as n e o o n ar c e .
3 56 HI G HER AL G E BR A .

4 35 . y h
M an t e o re s relat in g t o t h e p ro p e rt ie s m o f n u mb e rs

can v
b e p ro e d b y in d c t io n u .

E xa m
pl e 1 . I f p is a p ri m umbe n er, x 1
0
x is dv i is ib le b y p .

L et x7
0 x be d en o te d by f( x ); th en

— —x
f( x + 1) ( xp
)
—l
r (p ) m + 1”?

a multipl fp ifp i e o s p ri m [A e rt

multipl fp
.
,

f( x + 1) e o .

If t h e refo re f( ) x v
is di is ib le b y p , s o als o is f ( x + but
—2
f( )
2 = 2P ,

an h
d t is is a multipl fp eo wh
en p is p ri e [A rt m t h erefo re
f ( 3 ) is d ivis ib le
h dv hu u
.

i i i ib l b an d s o o n ; t th e p ro p o s itio n is t r e
b y p , t erefo re f( )
4 s s e y p s

u v
n i ers ally .
,

h u h
T is f rn is e s an o t er p ro o f o f Fer h mt a
’
s t h eo re mf or if x is pri mt o

mu
e p,
w h
it fo llo s t at x p l
1 is a ltip le o f p
‘

.
,

m
E x a p le 2 . Pro v he t at 5 2 W+2 2 4n 2 5 is dv i is ib le b y 57 6 .

Let 5 2’H ‘2 2 4n d d
25b e en o te by f (n ) ;
t h en f (n 5 27 “M 24 (n 1) 25
— 52 5 2 n +2
2 4n 49

f( n + 1) 2 5f (n ) = 2 5 ( 24 n + 2 5) 24 n 49

57 6 (n
h dv
T erefo re if f ( n ) is i is ib le b y 57 6 , s o als o is f (n + b u t b y trial we
s ee th at th e t e o re h m
is t r e u wh
en n : 1 , t e re fo re it is t r e en n = 2 , t ere h u wh h
fo re it is tr e en u whan d s o o n ; t s it is tr e n i ers ally hu u u v .

Th e ab o v u m
e re s lt ay als o b e pro vd e as fo llo w s

2 4n 25 25 n +1 2 4n 25
—2 — 2 4n
5 25
— 25 2 — 2 4 n —2 5
+ 5 . n

M ( 57 6 ) .

E XA M PLE S . XXX .

Shw e t h at 10 + 3 n
d ivi ib l b y is s e 9 .

Sh w e t h at 2 7 +3
n
5 n
i mu l ip l f
5 s a t e o 24 .

Sh w e t h at 4 6 " 1
wh divid d b y l v
en e 20 ea e s re mi a n d er 9 .

Sh w e t h at 8 7 " is o f t h e fo r m24 (2 r
 TH E OR Y o r N UM B E R S .
3 57

5 . I f p is p ri m e, s hw he t at 2 p
( 3 + 1 is a mu ltipl e o fp .

6 . Shw h e t at a
4b + 1 d ivi ib l
a is s e b y 30 .

7 . Sh w h o t at th e h igh p w es t o er o f 2 co n ta in e d in 2 "
1 is
2" -
r— 1 .

8 . Shwh e t at 3 4n + 2
+5
2n + 1
is a multipl e o f 14 .

9 . Sh w th o at 3 2n + 5
+ 1 6 0n
2
56 n 2 4 3 is d ivi ib l s e b y 51 2 .

10 P v h ro e t at th e su m f th o fi c ie n
e c o ef ts o f th e o dd p o we rs Of x
wh m u mb
.

in th e e x pan s io n o f (1 en n is a ri e n
p er

o t h h er t an v
5, is di is ib le b y n .

11 If n is a p ri m u mb
e n er gre a te r t h an 7, s hw h
e t at n
G—
l is
v
.

di is ib le b y 504 .

12 I f n is O dd u mb v h t at
6
+ 3 4
+7 2 —
11 is
mu p ro
. an n e r, e n n n a
ltiple o f 1 2 8 .

13 I f p is p ri e n m um
b e r, s e h w th at th e c o effi c ie n ts f th e t e r m
m ml
a o s
u h
.

of (1 are alte rn at ely great er an d les s b y n ity t an so e u

tip le o fp .

I f p is a p ri e , s ew t at th e s u
14 m h h m f th ( p 1 ) p w f ‘h

m
o e

wh i th mm d iff
o e rs

hm
. o

b i it t ic al p ro gre s s io n ,

h multipl fp
an n u e rs n a r e e re n e co on er
y p
e n ce is n o t dv
i is ib le b y p , is les s b y 1 t an a e o .

15 , S hwh
e t at a
“ b lz
is di is ib lev b y 9 1 if d b
, b t h p ima an are o r e

to 9 1 .

16 . I f p is a p ri m h e, s ew t htp | a 2r 2r 1 1 is d ivi ib l s e by p .

17 If—l n n + 1 are bo t h p im u m
r e b n greater t
e rs h an 5, s hw e
h d i i ib l
,
hw
.

t at
(n
Z—
4 ) is v s b y 1 2 0, an d 2 2
n ( n + 1 6 ) b y 7 20 A ls o
mu b f h f m
n e s e
h
.

t at n st e o t e or 3 0t or 30t + 12 .

18 Sh w h t th h igh t es t w fn wh i h i tain e di —1
I
f
. e a e
po er o c s co n n n

— n r+ r — 1
18 eq ul a to
n 1

19 If p is a p ri m
u mbe n e r, an p ri d a mt e p , a n d if a s q are
o u
um ud uh h dv h h
.

2—
n b e r c2 c an b e fo n s c t at 0 a is i is ib le b y p , s e w t at
loo 1)
d ivi ib l
-

a
2
1 is s e by p .

20 . Fi d h gn t e e n e ral s o u
l tio n o f th e c o n gr e n c eu
9 8x 1 5 0 ( md o .
3 58 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

21 S h w t h t t h m f th q u e su o e s ares o f all th e n u mb e rs les s t h an

u mb N d p im i i
e a

a gi evn n
.

er an r e to t s

— a — b
) ( 1 ) (1

an d th e su m f th o e c ub es is

N
— —a — b
)
4
) ( 1 ( 1

a, b, b ein g th e differen t p ri mf e ac t o rs o fN .

22 If p
.
an d q are an y t wo p o s it i v e in t ege rs , s h w th
e at
(p g is

v
di is ib le b y
(g an d by
|p .

h w th
23 S e at th e sq u are n u mb ers w ic h h are als o t rian g lar u are

v u ffi i w
.

i b ent h q e s are s of th e co e c en ts o f th e p o ers o f x in t h e ex

g y

p an s io n o f
6x + x 1 2 ’
an d t h at th e sq u are n u mb ers w ic h h are als o

p e n t ago n al b y th e c o ef fii
c en ts o f th e p o w ers o f x in th e e x pan s io n o f
1
'
1 — 1 0x + x 2

24 h
S e w t at th e s u h
o f th e fo u rth p o m w o f all th e u mb
m
ers n e rs
h
.

les s t an N an d pri e t o it is

A
?
3
—
<
i -
a
<
> 1 — b)

N
30
( 1 a
3
b 3
( 1

a, b, b ein g th e differen t p ri mf e a c t o rs o fN .

25 If <1 ( N ) i t h umb f in t e gers w ic h h les s t h N

mt
s er o
m
) e n are an
hw h
.

p ri e to it, an d if x is p ri e o N , s e t at

x
’ lN ’
d 1 E 0 ( md o . N) .

26 . I f dl , d2 , d3 , d en o te th e divi s o rs o fa nu mb er N, t h en

I
( )

S hw e als o t h at
3 5
x x x
3 60 GH E R GE B R A
m
HI AL .

u h
S pp o s e t a t t h e s c c e s s i e c o n e rge n t s a re o r e d in u v v f a

si m
ilar wa y ; le t t h e n e ra t o rs b e de n o t e d b y P p g, um
m
u
an d t h e de n o in a t o rs b y g, , q, , q
A ss u m t h t th l w
e a e a o f f mior at o n h o lds fo r t h e n
th
co n

v e r en
g t ; th t i u pp a s, s o se

p 11
2 a J —
Qn l b p n n —Q ’ g a
n q n ~
l
b 9 11
—2 .

Th e ( n + 1) "
h
co n v e r en
g t diffe rs f mth
ro e n
th
on l y in h vi a n
g
b
a
a
” “
in th e p la c e o fa h en c e

th e ( n co n v e r en
g t

p b” p a
—2
“ b
11 4 a +1 p n ~ -
l

b 9
a
11 + 1 9 71
+ 6 q u 1
g n 71
—2 n
—l

If t h f e re o re we pu t

a
r
t
b n + 1 p —l ’ n
q a
n +l q n
b it
‘
l' l q n -
l ’

we h t th um t d d mi t f th (
s ee t a e n e ra o r an en o na or o e n co n

v g t f ll w th l w wh i h w u pp d t h ld i
e r en o o f th e a c as s o se o o n case o e

n B t th l w d
th
. h ld i t h
u f th t hi d
e v g t;
a o es o n e c a se o e r co n e r en

h it h ld f
en c e th f u h; d o ; th sf it h ld or e o rt an so on e re o re o s

u iv lly
n e rs a .

439 I th
*
f th .ti u d f ti n e c a se o e co n n e ra c on

we my p v t h
a ro e at

p pu an -
I
b p n n —2 3 9 7; si g n —1 a n —2 ;

a re s u lt wh i h my b c a e de d u ced f mt h
ro at o f t h e p re c e din g a rtic le
by c h gi g t h ign
an n e s ofb

*
440 . I n th e co n t in u df e ra c t io n

251 b b3
a1 a a
2 s

we hv a e s e en t h at

p a
2 a
n p b p n n —2 ’ q n
“
n q n —l b u g'—2 s
°
 G EN E R A L T H E OR Y O F C O N TI NU D E FR A C TI O N S .

q n i l
''
q n

b n i l
''
q n
—l

9 n -
l

b n +lq n —l b n t l
-
Q —ln

an
+ l q ll
+ b n +l q n -
l

an d is t h f e re o re a
p ro
p e r f ra c t io n h en c e
11
q
is n um i e r c a ll
y
n 'i- l

h 1
55
les s t an
3
— 1 d is o f o ppo s it e Si
an
gn .

R n
—l

By in g a s in A rt 3 3 5, w e
re a s o n a
y s e w th a t e e r . co n m h v y
ve r e n t o f a n o dd o rde r is
g g re a t e r t a n t h e c o n t in u e d ra c t io n h f
v y v
an d e er co n e r e n t o f a n e e n o rde r is le s s t a n t h e c o n t in
g v ed
,

h u
f h v y
ra c t io n e n c e e er co n e r e n t o f an o dd o rde r is
g v g re a t e r t a n h
v y v
e er co n e rge n t o f a n e ve n o rde r .

is p o s it i v e an d les s t h an h en ce

2n + ] 2 7 1 —l

is p o s it i v e an d le s ths an h en ce

2 11 - 1

1) a —Q

q q2 n
—2

H en c e th e co n v e rge n ts o f an O dd o rde r a re a ll great e r t h an

th e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n but co n t in y u a ll de c re a s e , a n d t h e c o n
v e r en
g ts o f an ev en o rde r a re a ll l ss t h e a n t h e c o n t in u
e d rac t io n f
b ut co n tin u a ll yi n c re a s e .

u
S ppo s e n o w t h a t t h e n um
b e r o f c o p o n e n ts is in n it e , t e n m fi h
s
t h e c o n ve rgen t o f a n o dd o rde r s t ten d t o s o e n it e li it , mu mfi m
v
a n d t h e c o n ve r e n t s o f an
g e e n o r d e r t a ls o t en d to so e mus m
fi m h ms
n it e li u
it if t e s e li it a re e q a l t h e c o n t in e d rac tio n t e n ds u f
fi m y u
t o o n e de n it e li it ; if t h e a re n o t e q al, t h e o dd c o n e rge n t s v
m v v
t e n d t o o n e li it , an d t h e e e n c o n e rgen t s t e n d t o a diffe re n t
m u f m
li it, an d t h e c o n t in e d ra c t io n a
y b e s a id t o b e o s c illa ti n g; in

h u f ym
t is c a s e t h e c o n t in e d ra c t io n is t h e s b o lic a l re p re s e n ta tio n o f
u wh m
two q an t it ies , o n e o f ic h is t h e li it o f t h e Odd, a n d t h e o t h e r
v v
t h at o f t h e e e n c o n e rge n t s .
362 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

b b2 b3
f
1
*
441 . To s h ew th a t th e co n tin u e d ra c ti o n
a a a
l 2 3
a: 34 n
h as a de fi n i te va lu e if th e ll In l t
’ ’ '
f
o
b
“
wh en n is i
nfi n i te is
u + 1

grea ter th a n z ero .

Th e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n w ill h v a e a de fi n it e v lu wh a e en n is

in fi n it e if t h e di fe re n f ce o f t h e li mit s o f
p
q
n +l
an d p n

q u l t
Is e a o z e ro .

u +1 9 n

p 71 +1 Ii “ b n + 1 gn -
l

g +1n Q n gn Jrl -
Qn g n

wh en ce we o b t a in

p n +l £1 7 .

1)
n —l
b n -
Mg '
a -
I a n —2

g n H
-
q" . git H -
. g" .

b H I g —l
'
I -
n

“n
+1 q b
fl. n +l g n -
l

“n
+1 9 n
“n
+1 ( an
Q n -
I
" "
l b q n n -
z ) “n
+1

bn H
-
Qn -
l
b n H
-
Q n —l b u H
-
Q n —l

l
a so n e it h er o f t h ese ter m s c an be n e
g at i v;h e en c e if t h e li mit o f

b b n +I Q n —1
)

c ase t h e lI m It o f
ba e“ l .
Is le s s t h a n 1 ; an d t h f e re o re
r I 19

g +l q"
mit f th p du t f i fi it umb f
n .

m
t h e li o e ro c o an n n e n er o f p ro p e r ra c t io n s,

d mu t t h f b qu l t h d 23 t e n d t o
9
+1
an s ; t t i e re o re e e a o z e ro a s, an
Q n +1 gm
m limit wh i h p v t h p p iti
.

th e sa e c ro es e ro os on .

F mpl i t h ti u d f
o r ex a ti e, n e co n n e ra c on

2 2 2
1 2 3 2

3 + 5+ 7 +

( 2 n + 1 ) ( 2n + 3)

(
2
u + 1)

an dt h f e re o re th e co n t in u df e ra c t io n t e n ds t o a de fi n it e li mit .
3 64 HIGHER AL GEBR A .

C OR I f th e n u mb
f t h e c o p o n e n t s is in n it e , t h e c o n
er o m fi
f m fi
.

ver en t s
g or a n in n it e s e rie s o f ro
p p e r ra c t io n s in a s c e n din
g f
o rde r o f m u
a n it de
g h
a n d in t is c a s e t h e c o n t in e d ra c t io n st u f mu
fi m h
t en d t o a de n it e li it w ic h c a n n o t e x c ee d n it u y .

*
443 F mth f mu l
. ro e or a

p n n p a —1 b p —z
n n ’ 9 7:
“raga —
1
b q u n —z ?

we my wa
a al ys
de t e r in e in s c c es s io n a s m u my an o f th e co n

v e rgen t s a s w e p le as e I n c e rt a in c a s e s , o . hwv e e r, a
ge n e ra l

e x p re s s io n c an b e o n d fo r t h e n
th
fu
co n er en t
g v .

E x a p lem . To fi n d th e n
th
co n v ergen t to
6 6 6

We hv a e = 5p n 1 6p n _2 ; h en c e th e n um era to rs fo r m a rec u rrin g s erie s

m
pn
an y t h ree c o n s ec uv h

ti e ter s o f wh h ic are c o n n e cte d b y th e relatio n

Pu 5p n ~

1
(S
pu r -
2
°

2
S z
p 1 + 19 23: + p 3 x +

a:

30
B u t th e fi rs t two co n v erge n ts are
6
5 ,
19
6 18 12
1 — 2x
’
1 -
3 a:

wh en ce 18 3 71 - 1 12 2 71.- 1 : 6 (3
n

+ qn x
n ‘

1 —
l

’
5 6 az 9 4
S
1 — 3x 1 — 2x
“

1 — 5x + 6 x2

wh en ce q” : 9 3 n ‘
1 4 2 n ‘
1 m
2 “

6 (3 2 )
n n
pn
+1
Qn 3 n
2n +1

T i h s mt h d w ill ly
e o on s u c c ee d wh en a” an d b ” a re c o n s ta n t
fo r all v lu f Thu
a es o n . s in th e c a se o f th e c o n t in u f
e d ra c t io n

a
b b
a a
b
we my sh w t h
a e at th e n um e ra t o rs o f th e

s u c c ess i v e co n v e rge n ts a re th e c o ef c ien fi ts o f t h e p o we rs o f a

s in

th e e x pa n s io n o f
1 —dx
b
— b oc
an d th e den o m i n at o r s a re th e

co e ffi i t s
c en o f th e po w e rs o f xi n th e e x p a n s io n
 G E N ERAL TH E OR Y OF C O NT I NUE D F RA C T I O N S . 365

96
444 v
Fo r t h e in e s t igatio n o f t h e gen e ra a e s o an d
q "
l v lu fp
u f w
.

'
t h e s t de n t is re e rre d t o o rk s O n Fin i te D iferen c es ; it is o n l
y
h h v u
in s p e c ia l c a s es t a t t e s e a l e s c a n b e o n d b y A lgeb ra Th e fu
f w mh w m m fu fu
.

o llo in g et o d ill s o e t i e s b e o n d s e l u .

m F d v u
E xa p le . in th e al e o f
1
1
2
2
3
3

m w
Th em h dsa e la o f fo r atio n o l s fo r an d flu ; le t u s tak e 11 to d en o te
h hm h
e it er o ft e ; t en n
“
n u n _1 nun _ ,
2

01
‘

(n 1) un -
l (” n
—1 n un—
2 )
Si mil arly , u
n
_1 n un “
2 n 1 n u
_3 ) .

n
3
4u 2 ( u
2
3 11 1)

wh en ce by multipli c atio n , we o b tain

n u (n 2

Th e fi rs t two co n v ergen ts are

i i h "

; en c e

—1
( l" 1 ) p n n
I ( 1 ) gn —l 1)
n
Pn n Qn n
"
,

—1 —2
T hu s
pn
+1
p n —l l) n
q'n
+ 1
gn —l l)
+1
n

l n
n
I ln +
| n
I
n
l
n

—2
p n —l ‘

pn —2 l) n
Qn — l flu — 0
_
—1 n —l
L
n ‘
In
|__ 7i
| n
l L
n

1 Q2 41 1
’ ’
3 3 2 3
I I
1 q _
1
_l _ _
’

|
2
p 2

wh en c e , by a dd itio n

By mki a n g n in fi n ite , we o b tain

1
E .

(In c

wh h h ic is t e re fo re th e v u
al e o f th e gi v en e x p re s s io n .
366 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

.
x .

44 5 . If every co m
p o n en t of a
b 1

3
b2
+ 3
b3
+
23 a
p ro
p er

m mi
, 2 3

f ra c tio n with in tegra l n u era to r a n d den o n a to r, th e co n tin u ed

fra c ti o n i s in co mm en s u ra b le .

Fo r if p o s sib le , s u pp o se tht a th e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n is co m
m u en s ra b le an d eq u lta o
B
wh e re A an dB a re
p o s it i v e in t e ge rs

B b1
th en wh e re
j; den o t e s t h e in fi n it e co n t in u ed f ra c t io n
A a
l
J
-
r f l

b2 b3 A b — Ba 0
“ + “ +
h en c e
f ,
—
B B
s upp o se . N o w A , B, a, , 61

a re
2 3

in t ege rs an dj ; is p o s it i v e, t h f e re o re C is a
p o s it i v e in t ege r .

[
Si ilarlm y a isf wh e re j; de n o t es t h e in fi n it e co n t in ued
2 2

b3 b4 B b Q — Ca D
f ra c tio n
a a
h en c e j; C 0
su
pp o se an d as

be f o re , it f ll w t h
s

o o
4

s at D is a
p o s it i v e in t ege r an d so on .

B 0 D
’
A
’
B
’
C
’
a re
p ro
p e r f '
ra c t I o n S
'
fo r

C
w ic h h is a
p ro
p e r f ra c t io n ;
B
is le s s th an

63
ss t h
le an
a
; an d so on .

Thu A , B, C, D ,
s f m i fi i i s f p iti
or an n n te s er e o os ve in tegers
i d
n es c en din g o rde r o f mg it u d ; wh i h i b s u d H
a n e c s a r en c e th e

mm u b l
.

gi v enf ra c t io n c an n o t b e co en s ra e .

Th e ab o v e re s ult still h lds if m f h mp

o so e o t e co o n en ts a re

n o t p ro p e r ra c t io n s , f p v id d
ro t h t f m d
e ft fi a ro an a er a xe d co m
p o n e n t a ll t h e o t e rs h a re
p p f rot i er ra c on s .

Fo r s u pp o se t h at
d"
b”
an d a ll th e s ucc e e din
g co mp o n en t s a re

p ro
p e r f ra c t io n s ; t hus ,
as we h v ju t p
a e s ro ve d, t h e in fi n it e co n

t in ue d f ra c t io n b egin n in g wi t h
b
is in c o mm u en s rab le de n o t e

it b y h , t h en th e co mpl t e e
q u o t ie n t c o rres
p on din g t o
$
6

g n —l kgn — g
36 8 H GHER I AL G EB R A .

6 . S hw he t at

1 1 1 1
+
2a + 2a 2a

1 1 1 1
an d a +
2a + 2a + 2a 2a

7 . I n th e co n tin u df
e rac tio n

b b b
a + a + a +

S hw h
e t at p n + 1
= b gm b gn +1
— a
pn +1
= b gn —l
z
°

b b l) —
B
x “
c

8 . S hw ht
e t a
a + a + a +
b'
a
x t
a

l —
t
l ’

v b ein g t h u mb
e n er o f co mp o n en ts , an d a, B th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

h — a /c — b = 0
z
.

9 . Pro v he t at t h e p ro du ct o f th e co n tin udf e rac t io n s

l l 1 1 I 1 1 1
6+ 0 + d+ a + c + — b+ —a+

is eq ul a to — 1 .

Sh w h e t at

(w
e
I 4 9 64
10 °

n + (n + 1)
2
1 5 13 25 6

2 3 8
1 5 7

2 3 4
2 _ 4 _
1 + 1 + g+
L
1 1 2 3 _
e _ 1
1 3 4 5

2—
4 6 8 2 ( e 1)
2
1+ 2+ 3+ 6 4 I -

1+ 2+ 3+ 56 — 23

b +b
16 . If u1
a

b ’
u2
+ 2b +b
,
u
a
’
e ac h u
s c c es s i ev frac t io n

f md m mf
a a
b e in k
b y t a in g th e den o i n at o r an d th e s u th e um e rat o r

g m
or e n

um
o
an d en o in at o r o f t h e prec e in g frac t io n fo r its n d erato r an d de n o mi
1
n at o r re s
p ec t ively , s h w th
e at —
2
-
 C O N V ER SI O N OF S ERIE I NT O S C O NT I NU E D RA C TI O N
F S . 3 69

17 . Pro v th
e at th e u
‘h
v g co n e r en t t o th e co n t in u df
e rac t io n

r r r

r+ 1 r+ 1 r+ 1

13 . Fi n d th v lu e a e o f
“1 a? “3

a
1
a2 , b e in g p o s iti v e an d grea t e r t h u
an n ity .

19 . S hw he t at th e n
“
co n v e rge n t to 1 is eq u lta o

1 1
th e 1) th
co n v e rge n t to
1+ 2+ 1
1
2+
1

20 . S hw he t at th e co n v e rge n t to

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 2 1 5 2 1 5

1 2 3
21 Sh e w t h a t
4+
.

2+ 3+

h en c e S hw h e t at e lies b e t w ee n 2 3 an d Q TS—
i .

CO N V ER I O N S OF S ERI E I NT O S C O NT I N U E D FRA CT I O N S .

*
4 47 . I t w ill b e c o n v en i t h en e re t o writ e t h e s e rie s in t h e f m
or

1 1 1 1
26 16 it
] 3 "

( )(
'
u oe u u u i t,
r r r +1

H en ce

H . H . A .
87 0 HI GHER AL GEBR A .

Si mil ar ly ,
I 1 l l
“ “ u
I 3 l

1
u
1

so o n h en ce g e n e rall y
I 1 1
u 1 u u
g 3

E xa m
pl e 1 E x p res s as a c o n tin ud
e frac tio n th e s erie s

2
v
. x

“ca
l
“o a i a z

1
a
n

“n + 1 {I}

v
. 1 1 a
H en ce
“ca/1 a
o + yo “0 + “I ‘
m
1 1
A gain ,
3
‘

__ i
“0 d
o
“I a a
1 2

1 ao m
“o “I 3h a:

1 a x
o
a x
l

a
o a v a
1 2
.

2
a
: x
an d ge n erally 1)
“00 1

1 a ox

“0 + (L
I
“2

E xa m
pl e 2 . E xp res s lo g ( 1 + x) as a c o n tin ud e frac tio n .

We hva e lo g ( 1 + x )
2 3
3

;
4

Th e re q ireu de x p re s s io n is m t imply
os S d du d
e ce fro mth e co n tin u e
frac tio n uv
e q i alen t t o th e s erie s

{B a:

“ “2
I
372 H I G HER G
A L E BR A .

E XA M PLE S
'

*
. XX XI b . .

— 1)

a 0a a
1 2

a r
o

a
, + x

r+ l r+ 2

1 1
to n q u o tie n t s .

1 1 1 4 9
u +1 1 3 5 7

1 1 14
2
( u + 1) 1

a: 2x 3x
7 . 6
x :

_ _ _
x +2 x + 3 x +4

1 1 1 1 1 a b c
+ —
a ab a be a + b _ 1+ c — 1+ d— 1 +

1 1 1 1
9 .

a
1 a2 a
3
1 1 a1 a2

a
1 +
a2 + a
3 + 1+ a
1+ a2 + a
3 +

a b c a b c
11 If P
b+ (7 1 d+
.

a + 0+ 0+

S hw h
e t at

2 3
hw 1
ul
.
a L
.
" J“
12 . S e t h at is eq a to th e co n
91 9 192 9 2 93 g39 4
'

t i n u e d frac ti o n
1+
1 v
.

+
.

+
v a

+
wh e re
gl , Q 2, Q3 , are th e

m
a a2 a a

de n o i n ato rs o f th e s u c c es s 1 ve c o n
3 4
v e rge n ts .
 C H A PTE R X XX II .

PR OB A B I LI T Y .

449 . D EFI NI TI ON . I fan ve en t c an h pp i w ys d f il i

a en n a a an a n

b wy a s, an d eac h o f th es e wy
a s is e
q u lly l
aik ly t h p b b ilit y e , e ro a ,

o r th e c h an c e Of “

1 ts ll app e m n or
g
is
a +
a

b
d t h t f it f ili g i
’
an a o s a n s

b
°

a+ b

Fo r in s t an c e, if in
‘

a lo tt e r y th e re a re 7 p riz e s an d 2 5 b lan k s ,
7
th e ch an c e th at a
p e rs o n h o ldin g 1 t ic k e t will win a
p ri z e I S
,
32
25
an d h is c h an c e o f not wi n n in
g is
32
4 50 Th e re a s o n fo r t h e at h e a t ic a l de n it io n m m
o f p ro fi
m m
.

b ab ility a
y bfe a de c le a r b
y t h e o llo wi n
g c o n s ide ra t io n s

If v t h pp i w ys d f il t h pp i b
an e en c an a en n a a an a o a en n

w y d ll h s w y
a s , an q ua lly lik l
ty w e e h t
a t h s a re e a e ,
e c an a s s e rt t a e

c h f it h pp i g i t
an c e o h hs f it f ili g
a en n b s o t e c an c e o s a n as a to .

Thus if t h h f it h p p i g i
e c p d
an c e o b y h w h s a en n s re re s e n te a e re

u d mi d
,

h i s an t t th
n th
ete r h f i
n e f ili g c o n s an ,
en e c an c e o ts a n

will b p t d
e reb y h b re s e n e .

h f h pp i g c h an c e O f f ili g h ( b)
a en n c an c e o a n a

N w th
o v i t i t h pp e e en t f il t h
t f th m
s c er a n o a en or o a e re o re e su

o f th h e c f h pp i g d f ili g m
an c e s o ut p t i y a en n an a n s re re s e n cer ta n t .

I f th f w g t t k t i ty
e re o re e a u i w h vre e o a e c er a n as o u r n t, e a e

—
1
or [C ;
a - -
l b

th e c h an c e t h at th e e v en t will h a
pp en is

b
an d th e c h an c e t h at th e e v en t will n o t h a
pp e n is
a + b
°

C OR I f p is t h e p ro b ab ilit o f t h e a p p e n in g y h o f an e v en t,
y
.

th e ro b a b ilit o f it s n o t h a e n in is l
p pp g p .
374 HIGH ER AL GE BR A .

4 51 . I n s tead o f sa yi n
g t h at th e c h an c e o f th e h a
pp en in g o f

an e v en t is
a
a

b
it is so mtims e e s t at e d t h at th e o dds a re a to b

in f a vo u r o
f th e even t, o r b to a a
g a in s t th e even t .

4 52 Th e de n itio n o f p ro b ab ilit in A rt 4 4 9 fi a
y b e
gi e n y m v
f mwh h m m fu
. .

h y f
in a S lig t l di fe re n t o r ic is s o e t i es u s e l I f c is t h e
um
.

t o t al n s h
b e r o f c a s e , e a c b e in g e q all li el t o o c c r, an d o f u y k y u
fvu
t h es e a a re a o rab le t o t h e e en t , t h en t h e p ro b ab ilit t at t h e v y h
e v en t w ill h pp a en is
3 ,
an d th e pro b b ili y t
a h t it will t a n o t

h a
pp en is l
a

E x a p le 1 m W h at is th e h h w um h
f t ro in g b er greater t 4
um d m ?
c an ce o a n an
wh it an o rdin ary
.

die wh o se fac es are n b ere fro 1 to 6

T h ere are 6 p o s sib le ay s in w whi h d c h w th e ie c an fall , an d o f t e se t o

are fa vu o rab le t o th e e en t re qu i re v d ;

t h erefo re th e u d h
re q ire
6
c an ce
2 1
3

E x a p le 2 m Fro m a b ag co n wh
tain in g 4 k m ite an d 5 b lac b alls a an
d w ra s 3 at ran
.

d m wh
o ; at are th e odd h b
s again s tk t es e b ein g all lac ?

Th e to tal n er o f ay s in ic umb w
3 b alls c an b e wh h d w i ra n s
9
03 , d
um
an
th e n w d w
5
b er o f ay s o f ra in g 3 b lack alls is 0 3 ; t b h h e re fo re th e c an ce
d w
o f ra in g 3 b lac b alls k 5
03 5 4 . . 3 5
‘

9 . 8 . 7 42

T hu s th e o dd s again s t th e v
e en t are 3 7 to 5 .

E xa m
pl e 3 Fin d th e c h an ce o ft h wi ro n g at leas t one ac e in a S in gle
h ww h d
.

t ro it two ic e .

Th e p o s s ib le n um b er o f cases is 6 x 6, or 36 .

An ac e o n one die my ba e a s s o c ia te dw h it f th e 6 n um b ers o n th e

o h
t die , an d th e re ain in g 5 n
er m um b ers o n th e
an y o
fi rs t die ay m h e ac b e as s o
c iat e d wh
it th e ace o n th e s ec o n d die ; t s th e hu um n b e r o f fa vu o rab le cas e s
is 1 1 .

T h erefo re th e re q ui d h re c an ce is
11
36

Or we my a f ll w
re as o n as o o s

T h ere are 5 w wh h h
ay s I n ic e ac die c an be t h w ro n so as n o t t o gi v e an

ac e ; h en ce 25 t h w w d
ro w s o f th e t o ice ill e xc l e ud ace s . T h at is, th e c h an ce

o f no t t ro h w in g o n e or m o re ac e s is 2
36
?
so th at th e c h an c e o ft h w ro in g o n e

25 11
ac e at lea s t IS 1 — ’
36
37 6 HIGHER A LG E B R A .

t h at A w ill h a
pp e n is Si mil ly th har e c an c e t h at B

b
W i ll h a pp e n IS an d SO o n .

a b c

4 54 ro . F m
t h e e x a ple we a e
giv e n it will b e e e m s
n t h at hv s
u
t h e s o l t io n o f t h e e as ie r k in ds o f q es t io n s in Pro b ab ilit re q ires u y u
n o t in
gh m ho re t an a k n o le dge o f t h e d e n it io n o f P ro b a b w
ili t , fi y
an d t h e a p lic at io n o f t h e laws o f Pe r
p t at io n s a n d C o b in a mu m
t io n s.

E XA M PLE S . XXXI I . a .

1 In . a S in l
g t
e h w wi h tw d i
ro t o ce fi n d th e c h an c e s o ft h wiro n g
( )
1 fi ve , ( )
2 S ix .

2 F m ro a
p ac k f o 52 two
c ar s d are dra w n at ran d mfi
o ; n d th e
h h k v h u
.

c an ce t at o n e Is a na e an d th e o t er a een
q .

3 A b ag co n tain s 5 wh i te , 7 b lac , an d 4 re d b alls k fin d th e

dm
:
h h t h b ll d w wh
.

c an c e t a t ree a s ra n at ran o are all ite .

4 If f i d fi d th h t h h h l d b
o u r c o n s are t o ss e n e c an c e at t e re S ou e
w h d
.
,
t o d tw
ea s an il o ta s .

5 O f w v mu t h pp giv h t h h
n e o t o e f th
en ts s a en : en t a t e c an c e o e
i w hi d h f h h fi d h dd i f v u f h h
.

o n e s t o -
t r s t at o t e o t er, n t e o s n a o r o t e o t er .

6 If f m p k f u d d w fi d th h
ro a ac ht hy o r c ar s are ra t t
u f h m ui
n n e c an c e a e
h f u h
.
,
will b e t e o r on o rs o t e sa e s t .

7 Th i t p k h i pl t u d t b l h w t h t
r e en ers o n s ta e t e r ac es a a ro n a e, s e a
w p ti u l h
.
0

i t fi IS
g i
ve to o n e a a n st i i t o ar c ar ers o n s S tt to et
p g g n er .

8 Th th v A B0e re are f wh i h m u d
re e e ly en ts on e o c s t, an on
h dd
.
, , ,
o n e c an
pp h a
g i
en A ; t t ie OB fi d s are 8 to 3 a a n st 5 o 2 a a n st n
g :
t h dd g i t 0
e O
,

s a a ns .
,

9 C m p th h o f h wi g are w i h di w
e c i h tw an c e s o t ro n 4 t one e, 8 t o
wi h h d i
.
0

d d
l c e , an 12 t t ree ce .

10 I hu ffli g p k f n d sf u id n lly d pp d fi d
a ac ta
h h mi i g d h l d b
o c ar s , o r are ac c en ro e n

f m h ui
.
;
th he c an ce t at t e ss n c ar s S ou e one ro eac s t .

11 A h 3 h i l t y as i i g p S i d
ares b l k n a o te r c o n ta n n 3 r z es an 9 an
h i l y t i i g p i d b l k mp
.
s ;
B h as 2 S ares n a o tter co n a n n 2 r z es an 6 an s : co are
t h h ei r c f u an c e s o s c c es s .

12 Sh w th t h h e f h wi g i wi h a t d
e i c an c e s o t ro n S x t 4 , 3, o r 2 ce

p tiv ly
.

res ec 6 e are as 1 18 .
 R O B A B ILI T Y 37 7 P .

13 Th h w k i i g f v lu m
e re are f t ree o r s, o n e co n s st n 3 4,
h f v l m Th y p l d
o o es , o n e o
h lf dm
.

d h t t er 1 at ran
m
o u e e are ac e

m
an e o o o n a S e o ;
v h h h u w k h
.

p ro h e l f
t at t e h ll gc an c e t a t vo es o t e sa e o r s are a to et er

3
is
1 40

14 A an d B th ro w wi h t two di ce if A t h w 9 , fin d B
’
h
h h u mb
ro s s c an c e
h w
.

o ft ro in g a ig er n er .

1 5 Th e lett ers fo r in g th e or Clifto n are p lac e at ran m w d d d mi

m
o n
wh h h vw h
.

a ro w : at is th e c an c e t at th e two o e ls c o e t o ge t e r ?

16 h d wh i t wh t i
I n a an th t h ki g at s a s t h he c an c e a t e 4 n s are
h d fi d pl y ?
.

e l b y a s p ec i e a er

17 Th h illi g d h lf w pl d e re ared mi 4 S n s an 3 a c ro ns ace at ran

m i b i g b h h lf
-
o n

hw h h h
.

a li ne : f th S e t at t e c an c e o e e x t re e co n s e n o t a

c ro 1
w i 7 G li h i ul i h
ns s f m h illi g
. d en era ze t s re s t n t e c as e O S n s an

nh lf w a -
c ro ns .

4 55 W e h a e h it e rt o c o n ide red o n l t o s e o c c v h s y h u rre n c e s

m v t
.

wh h ic in t h e lan g a ge o f Pro b a b ilit a re c alle d Si p le u y e en s

m
.

W h e n t wo o r o re o f t es e o c c r in c o n n e c tio n it e a c h u w h h h o t e r,

j u
t h e o in t o c c rren c e is c a lle d a Co p o u n d e e n t m v .

Fo r ex a mpl
u pp w h v b g t i i g 5 wh it e, s o se e a e a a co n a n n e

an d 8 b l k b ll d tw d w i g
ac a h f th
s, anb ll o ra n s, eac o ree a s, a re

md f mit u
a e ro iv ly I f w wi h s t im
c c es s th h e . e s to es at e e c an ce

o f d w i g fi t 3 wh it
ra n d th 3 b l k b ll w
rs h u ld b e an en ac a s, e S o e

d li g wi h
ea n mp u d v t a co o n e en t .

I uh n sth c u l f th a d d wi g m
ca s e igh t
e re s t o e s eco n ra n o r

migh t b d p d t n o th eu lt f th fi e en I f h b ll
en t on e re s o e rs t . t e a s

a re n o
p l d t f b
re i g d w t
ac eh if h afi d
te r w i gg ive n ra n en t e rs t ra n es

h i b ll mi i g
,

3 wh i b ll t h te ti f h bl k
a s, h e ra o o t e ac to t e W te a s re a n n

i g s h if t h fi t d w i g h d t giv h wh i ;
re a t e r t an e rs ra n a n o en t ree te
t hus h h t f d wi g 3 b l k b ll
e c an c e th
o d ra i l n ac a s at e s ec o n tr a

i sff a d b y th
ec te u lt f t h fi t B if t h b ll e res o e rs . u t e a s a re re

p l d f
ac e b i g d
a w it
te r i l t h
e n t t h u lt f rah nd ,
s c ea r a e re s o t e seco n

d wi g i
ra i n
y w y ff
s n ot d b y t t h n u lt f
an t h fi a a ec e e re s o e rs t .

W t h u l d t t h f ll wi g d fi i i
e a re s e o e o o n e n t on

Ev t id t b
en d p d t
s a re s a i d p d t o di g e e en en or n e en en acco r n as

th u
e o cc f d
rre n c e od t ff th on eu f h o es o r o es n o a ect e o cc rre n c e O t e

o th D p d t
e rs . es mtims id t b
en en i g
e ven ts a re o e e sa o e co n t n en t .
37 8 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

4 56 . If th ere a re twoi n dep en den t even ts th e p esp ec tive p ro

b a b ili ties f
o wh ic h a re kn o wn , to fi n d th e p ro b ab ility th a t b o th will

u h fi v m h
S ppo s e t a t t h e rs t e e n t a
y ysa
pp f
e n in a wa an d a il

y h u y y
in 6 wa s, a ll t es e c a se s b e in g e q a ll like l u h an d s
p p o s e t a t
th e s v m
ec o n d e e n t a
y h a
ppwy
e n in a f '
y
a s an d a il in 6
'
w a s

h ys u y y m
,

a ll t es e wa b e in g e q all lik el E ac h o f t h e a 6 c as e s a
y
f m
.

h
b e a s s o c iat e d wit e a c h o f t h e a 6 c as es, t o o r (a
’
b ) (a
' ’
b )
’

co mu p ss
o n d ca e u y y
all e
q all l u
ik el t o o cc r .

f th b t h v t s h pp i 66 f t h mb t h f il
’ ’
I n da o es e o e en a en n o e o a

f t h mt h fi t h pp
, ,

d f il
’
b d th d i h
’
i n a o e e rs a en s an e sec o n a s, an n a

o f t h mt h fi t f ils
e d th d h ppe Thu rs a an e sec o n a en s . s

W
I

i th h t h t b t h v t h pp ; s e c a n ce a o e en s a en
)
z
( a b fz z
a +
f
is t h e c h an c e t h at b ot h v e en ts f a il
3

t
h h fi th
lz ' is t h e t at th e e d th e d
n s an
' c an c e rs a
pp s e co n

( a b a + b )
’
f ils
a

h
a
is t h e c h an c e t h at th e fi rs t f a ils an d th e s ec o n d
( a b) ( a b )
h pp a en s .

Thus if t h sp t iv h s f t w i d p d t v t s
e re ec e c an c e o o n e en en e en a re

p d an
p t h h t h’
t b t h w ille h pp
c ia n ce
pp S im il a o a en s
’
ar

m
.
,

i g w ill pply i t h
re a so n n f y a u b f i d n
p d t e c a se o an n er o n e en en

e v ts Hen it i yt t h t if p
en c e p p s eas t h o s ee a a re e

m
,, g, a,
.

re s
p t i v ec h h t e u b c f i d
an c e s
p d t t v a t s w ilal n er o n e en en e en

se
p t l y
a ra e h pp t h h t h at t h y w
en ill ,
ll h e
pp ic an c e a e a a en s

p p p t h h h t t h t w fi t
e c w ill h p p
an c e d t a h e o rs a en an t e re s t

d im il ly f
3

f il i p p ( 1 p ) ( 1 p )
l

a
z

s
l g
—
3 y
—
t h p 4
an s ar o r an o er ar

t icu la r c a se .

4 57 I f p is t h e c a n c e t a t an e e n t will
. a
pp en i n h h v h
o n e t ria l, t h e c an c e t a t it ill a
pp e n in an h
y a s s i n e d su c
g h w h
c es s io n o f r t rial is p
"
t is o llo s ro s
t h e p re c e din g a rtic le h f w f m
u
b y s pp o s in g
p1 p2 p3 p .

h
To fi n d t h e c an c e t a t s o e o n e at le as t o f t h e e e n t s h m v
h a
pp e n w e
p ro c e e d t s : t h e c an c e t hu
a t all t h e e e n t s h h v
is ( 1 — p , ) ( 1 — p 2 ) ( 1 —p 3 ) an d e x c e t in
p t is c as e s o e h m
o f th e e en ts st h a v
pp e n
3 mu
e n c e t h e re
q i re d c an c e is h u h
—
1 p l) ) ( 1 p 3)
1 — 9 —
( 2
380 H IGH E R AL GE B R A .

e v en ts c an h a
pp en t o ge t
'
h er is aa
’

,
an d t h e p ro b a b ilit y o ft h e ir

co n c u rre n c e is
aa
’

(
’

( a b) a b )
Thus
if p is t h e p ro b ab ilit o f t h e y v fi ’
rs t e en t, an d p th e
c o n t in
gen t
p ro b a b ilit t at t h e s e c o n d ill y h w f ll w o o ,
th e p ro b ab ilit y
u
o f t h e c o n c rre n c e o f t h e t w o e e n t s is p p
’
v .

E xa mh d wh
pl e 1 h h
In a and at is t fi n d th e c an ce t at a s p ec ifi e play er
h d h k
ol s bot u th e
.

in g an d q een o f tru ID p S .

D en o b h
te th e p lay er h h k y A ; t en th e c an ce t at A h as th e in g is clearly

22 h u d
; fo r t is p artic lar c ar d d w w h c an be ealt in 52 ifferen t ay s, 13 o f h ic
'

fall

to A . h h wh Th e c an c e h t h d u
at , en h e h as th e kin g, e c an also ol th e q een is

th l en
51
?
u ’
d
fo r th e q w wh h
ee n c an be ealt in 51 ay s , 12 of ic fall t o A .

h T h
erefo re u d x 1
th e c an c e re q i re
13
—
52
12
51
—
1
7
7

O w m igh t
r e f ll w re a s o n as o o s

Th e num w wh h
b er o f ay s in u d
ic th e kin g an th e q een can b e ealt to A is
d
u
e q al to th e n um mu
b e r o f p er h m
tatio n s o f 1 3 t in gs 2 at a t i e , o r 1 3 1 2
m um w wh h u
.

A n d s i ilarly th e to tal n b er o f ay s in ic th e kin g an d q een c an b e

d e alt is 52 51 .

h T h
erefo re th e c an c e
13
52
12
51 17
1
as b efo re .

E m p le
xa w d w
2 T o ra in ghs e ac o f 3md m
b a lls are a e fro a b ag c o n
wh k
.
, ,

tain in g 5 ite an d 8 b lac b alls , th e b a lls n o t b e in g rep la c ed b e o re t h e

f
h h d w w v wh
s ec o n d tri a l : fi n d th e c an c e t at th e fi rs t ra in g ill gi e 3 ite an d
d
th e s ec o n k
3 b lac b alls .

m d w
A t th e fi rs t trial, 3 b alls w ay b e ra n in 13
03 ay s

an wh
d3 m d w i
ite b alls w ay be ra n n
5
03 ay s ;

th h
ere fo re wh
th e c an c e o f3 ite at fi rs t trial
5 4 13 12 11
143
5
'

Wh wh en hv
3 d w
ite b all s mv d a e b een ra n an d re o e th e b ag co n tain s
2 wh ite k an d 8 b lac b alls
,

th erefo re at d th e m d w s eco n w trial 3 b alls ay be ra n in 10

03 ay s

an k m d w
d 3 b lac b alls w ay be ra n in 80
3
ay s ;
th erefo reh k
th e c d
an c e o f 3 b lac at th e s ec o n trial
7 .

’
15

t h ere fo re th e c h an c e o f th e co mp u o n d v e en t
5 7 7
143
x 15 4 29

Th e st ud en t s h ud
o l co mp are t ish so u
l ti o n whh it t at o fE x 1 , A rt 4 57
. . .
 PR OB A B IL IT Y . 38 1

4 59 I] an even t h ap p e n in two o r
ca n o re ( lif
k ren t wa y s m
mu
.

wh h ic a re u y u v
t a ll e x c l s i e , th e c h a n c e th a t i t wi ll h ap p en i s
th e su mf th o e
'
c h a n c es of i ts h app en in g i n th es e difie ren t wa s
y .

T is is s o h mme ti e s re g de d a s a ar s el f vi d et p ro p o s it io n a ris in g
en

mm m
-

i e dia t e l y o u t o f t h e de n it io n fi of
p ro b a b ilit I t a , ho w
y y .

v
e e r, b e
p ro v e d as o llo s f w
u
S pp o s e t h e w y wh i h e v ten c an h a
pp e n in t wo a s c c an n o t

co n c u ;
d l
b
r
b
b th h
an f t h h pp i g et
a a
—2 e e c an c es o e a en n o f th e

ev t i t h twb w y p tiv ly Th
en n ese f 66
g

a s re s ec e en ou t o c a s es

v t my h pp i t h fi
.

th b i wh i h h
1 2

e re a re a n c t e e en a a en n e rs t wa y ,
v t my h pp i t h
2

b w y i wh i h h
l

an d a a s n c t e e en a a en n e sec o n d ;

Th f i ll
e l
an d h w y t ese a fb b s ca n n o t c o n cu r . e re o re n a ,
ou t o cases

th e re b —— b a res f v u b l t th v t ; h
a 1 a c as e a o ra e o e e en
l
en c e
2

th e
ch th t th
an c e v t will h pp i a th
,

f th
,

e e
2 1

en a en n on e o r o er o e t wo
wy ia s s

a b + a b a a
2
'
b b bl b2

S i ila r m re a so n in g will a pp l y wh t v a e er b e th e n u mb er o f ex

u v wy
el s i e a s in wh h ic t h e e e n t v c an h a pp e n .

H e n c e if a n e e n c an a e n in n a v t ic h a re t a lly h pp w ys wh mu u
u v
e x c l s i e , an d if
p , , p g, p g, p a r e t h e
p ro b a b ilit ie s t a t t h e h
v h h wy y
n

e en t wi ll e i n t e se dif fe re n t a s res e c t ive l , t h e

p
a
pp n
p r o

b ab ility t a t it h w
ill h app en in s o e o n e o f t h e s e wa s is m y
+ p .

E xa m
pl e 1 Fin d th e c h an c e o ft h wro in g 9 at leas t in a s in gle t h w
ro
wi h d
.

t two ice .

9 c an be md a e up in 4 w ay s , an dt hu sh th e c an ce o ft h w ro in g 9 is
36
4

1 0 can b e md a e up in 3 w ay s , a n dt hu h s th e c an c e o ft h w ro in g 1 0 is
36
3

11 c an be md a e u p 1n 2 w ay s , an d t hu h s th e c an ce o f th ro w mg1 1 18 —
2
36

12 can be md a e up in 1 way , an dt hu sh th e c an c e o f th ro w mg 1 2 1s
1
36

N o w th e c h an ce o ft h wiro n g a n um b er n o t les s t h an 9 is th e su m f th
o es e

s ep arate c h an c e s ;

th e re q u dhi re c an c e —
36 13
5
'
38 2 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

E x a p le 2 m h u d
On e p rs e c o n tain s 1 s o ereign an d 3 s illin gs , a s e co n v
pu rs e c o n t a i v .

d
n s 2 s o e re ign s an d 4 s hi llin gs , an d a thi r v
c o n tain s 3 s o ere ign s
h
an d 1 s illin g k u d
If a c o in is t a e n o u t o f o n e o f th e p rs e s s ele cte at
dm
ran o h h
, fi n d th e c
v .

an c e t at it is a s o e reign .

S h u
in c e e ac u lk p k h
rs e is eq ally i ely to b e ta en ,
th e c an ce o f selec ti n g

th e firs t is d h h d w
an v i 1 h
th e c h an ce o ft en ra in g a so ereign s ; en ce t e

ch d w
an c e o f v ra d d u
in g a so u ereign so far as it ep e n s p o n th e fi rs t p rse is

Sm h d w v
1 1 1
x — i ilarly th e c an ce o f ra in g a so ereign so far as it
5 4
.

12

d d epe n s on d u th e
2 3 m
s ec o n h d u p rs e is x ; an d fro th e t ir p rs e th e

h wm
1 3 1
c an c e o f dra ga s o vereI gn 1 s
3 4 4

h 2
th e req u 1red c an c e
1
1 1 1
4
4
9

4 60 I h p d i gn i l w th v e t h t th re c e
p n a rt c e e a e s ee n a e ro

v t my mtim b mf
.

h b ili y f
a t o an id
e d en h a so e es e co n s e re as t e su o

th p b b ili i
e ro f tw
a m p t v ; b t it i v y
t es o o or o re se a ra e e en ts u s er

im p t t
o r an t t i t h t t h po b b ili y f
n o hce f a e ro a t o on e o r o t er o

i
a s e r es of v t i th m f h p b b ili i f t h p
e en s s e su o t e ro a t es o e se a ra t e

ev t s ly wh h
en on m lly l i t h t i wh
en t e even ts a re u tu a ex c u s ve, a s, en

th u
e o cc f i i
rre n c e o mp tib l w it h th u one f y s n co a e e o cc rren c e o an

o f th e o t h e rs .

E m
pl Fro m20 ti k t m k d c e s ar e it wh th e fi rs t 2 0 n erals, um is
mu
xa e on e
d w dm d h h
.

ra n at ran o : fin th e c an c e t at it is a ltiple o f 3 o r o f 7 .

h h
Th e c um i muan c e i t h h at th e n b er s a ltiple o f 3 is
20
an d th e c an ce t at

i t ismu a
a
ltip le m o h f 7 is
2
)
; an d t h es e even ts a re u tu a lly ex c lu s ive , en c e th e

h
re qu 1 re d c an ce 1 s
0
6
20 2
2

u
B u t if th e q fi m e s tio n h ad b een d th e c h a n c e t h a t t h e n u b er i s
m
n a

f f
u ltip le o w udh v
3 or o w 5, it o l a e b e e n in c o rre c t t o re as o n as fo llo s

B u h h
ec a se um th emu 2
c an c e t at th e n b er is a ltip le o f 3 is
6
0
’
an d th e

h
c h
an c e um t mu
at h
th e h h n b er is a ltiple o f 5 is
4
20
’ t erefo re th e c an c e t at

it i s mu a
5 5
ltip le F um o k
f3 or 5 is
)
4
—
20
, or . or th e n b er on th e tic et

mh b mu
ig t h w v
lti p le b o th o f 3 d d d f 5, t at th e t ts c o n s i ere
mu u
e a an o so o e en
are n o t uv t ally e xc l s i e .

461 It h ld b b v d h h di i i b tw s ou e o se r e t at t e st n c t o n e e en

im m m
.

s
p l d e
p u d
anv t s i i y s
co
p u ly t ifi i l o n e en s n an c ase a re ar c a
384 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

7 F o u r p e rs o n s dra w e ac h a cardf m ro an or di n ar
y p ac k : fin d
h ht di h ui ( ) h d
.

th e c an c e ( )
1 t a a c ar s o f e ac s t, 2 t at n o t wo c ar s are o f

eq u l v lu
a a e .

8 . Fi n d th e c h an c e o f th ro wi n g s ix wi h t a s in gle die at leas t o n ce

in fi ve t rials .

Th e Od s t at a b o o
9 d h
ill b e a o u rab ly re ie e b y t ree kw fv v wd h
d d v wh
.

in ep en en t c rit ic s are 5 t o 2 , 4 t o 3 , an d 3 t o 4 res p e c t i ely ; at is

th e p ro b ab ility t at o f t h e th ree re ie s a h
a o rity will b e fa o rab le ? v w mj vu
A b ag c o n tain s 5
10 it e an 3 ac a s , an d 4 are s c c e s s e wh d b l k b ll u iv ly
w d wh h h
.

dra n o u t an d n o t replace ; at is th e c h an ce t at t ey are alte rn ate ly

d
feren t c o lo rs ?
o f if u
11 I n t re e t ro h h w s wit h a
p air o d
f ic e, fi n d t h e c h an c e o ft h ro win g
du
.

o b le ts at leas t o n c e .

12If 4 wh l umbo e n e rs ta k en a t ran d m ml ipli d

o a re u t e t o ge t e r h
h h h th i th p du
.

s e w t at th e c an ce at th e las t digit n i e ro ct s l, 3, 7, o r 9
. 16
1S °

6 25

13 In a p u rs e a re 10 c o in s , all s h illi g n s ex c e p t whi h i one c s a

v ig i h ll h illi g k
.

so e re n t en c o in s a
n an o t e r are s s Ni i n e co n s are ta en

f mh f m pu ; n

d h
.

t e o r er rs e an d p u t in t o t h l atter, an t i i
h f m
ro e en n n e co n s a re

k f mh l t
ta en ro t e at e r an d p u t in to t e or er : fi d th
n h ht e c an c e t a
th v ig i ill i
e s o e re n s st n th e rs t
p rs e fi u .

14 I f t wo c o in s are to s s e d 5 ti m es , wh at is th e c h an c e th at t h ere
w h d
.

ill b e 5 ea s an d 5 t ails ?

15 I f 8 c o in s are to ss e d wh at is th e c h an c e t h at one an d on ly
o n e w111 t u rn p h d ? u ea
,

16 A B C i d p k f d p l ing h m f h
o r er c u t a ac o c ar s , re ac n t e a te r eac

di i h t h fi wh u p d h ll wi p i fi d
, ,
.

cu t, on co n t on t a t e rs t o c ts a s a e s a n a r ze : n
t h i p iv h
e r res ect e c an c es .

17 A d B d w f m p u
an i i v ig d
ra ro a rs e co n ta n n g 3 so ere ns an

h illi g fi d h i p iv h ffi d wi g v ig
.

4 s n s : n t e r re s ec t e c an ces o rs t ra n a so ere n,

th i wh
e co n s d w t b i g pl d en ra n n o e n re ac e .

18 A p ty f p i u d t b l fi d h dd g i
ar o n ers o n s s t at a ro n a e, n t e o s a a n st
w p ifi d i d ividu l i i g h h
.

t o s ec e n a s s tt n n ex t to e ac o t er .

19 A i f6 h df
s on e o di b idd by o rs e s e n t e re o r a ra c e , an s to e r en
f tw j k y B h B id A i wh i h
. ,

on e o d 0 o I i t o c e s an t s 2 o 1 t at r es n c
ll h h u k ly wi if 0 id A h i h
.
,
c as e a tq lly l
ei o rs es are e a e to n ; r es s c an ce
b l d wh dd g i h i wi i g ? ,
i s t re e h at are t e o s a a n st s nn n

20 I f v g v li v y i w k d fi d h h
o n an a e ra e 1 ess e n e er 10 s rec e n t e c an c e

h t f v l p t d t l will iv f ly
.
,

t at o u o 5 es s e s e x ec e 4 a e as t arr e sa e .
 PR OB A B I LI T Y . 38 5

462 Th e p ro b a bili ty of th e h app en i n g of a n even t in o n e

.

tri a l b ein g kn o wn , requ i red th e p ro b a b ility of its h app en in g o n ce,

twic e, th ree ti es , ex a c tl
y i n m
11 tri a ls .

L e t p b e t h e p ro b a b ilit o f t h e a
pp e n in
g o f t h e e e n t in y h v
a s in gle t ria l, a n d le t q l p t e n t h e p ro b a b ilit t at t h e h y h
m
:

v
e en t w h t ll
ill app e n e x a c t l r t i e s in n t rials is t h e ( r l ) t e r y m
in t h e e x pan s io n o f ( q

Fo r if we y p s e le c t f an a rt ic
r t ria ls o u t o f t h e t o t a l ul ar set o

n um h h
b e r n , t h e c a n c e t a t t h e e e n t will a pp e n in e e r o n e o f v h v y
th es e r t ria ls a n d a il in a ll t h e re s t is p g f
' ""
[A rt an d a s .

a s e t o f r t ria ls c a n b e s e le c t e d in
"
0 a s , a ll o f ic a re wy wh h
e
q u y
a ll a
pp lic ab le t o t h e c a s e in
p o in t , t h e re
q ire d c a n c e is
7

u h
—r
Cp q
r n
.
r

I f we ex
p an d (p g)
”
b y t h e B in o mi l Th a e o re mw h v ,
e a e

p +

t hus m f th i
th e te r s o s s e rie s w ill re
p re se n t re s
p e c ti v lye th e

p b
rob ilit
a i f t h h pp es o e a en in g o f t h e e v en t ex a c tl y n ti m es, n 1
t im es, n 2 t im i es, n n t ria ls .

4 63 I f th e e v en t pp h a en s m
n f il ly
ti es, or a s on o n c e,

m t im m th f
.

t wi c e,
( n r
) ti es, it app e n h s r es o r o re e re o re th e
c h an c e t h at it h a
pp en s a t lea s t r t im i t i l i
es n n r a s s

“ r n -
r

p +

o r th e su m Of th e fi rs t n —r + l ter m s o f th e ex
p an s io n o f
(p

E x a p le 1 m
In fo r t ro s u h w wh it a p air o f d wh
ic e, at is th e c h an c e o f
h w du
.

t ro in g o b lets twice at le as t ?

In h w h
a s in gle t ro th e c an ce o f du o b let s is
6
—
36
,
1
6
; an d th eh c an c e o f

failin g to t h wd u ro o b le ts is
5
-

6
N o w th e u d v
re q ire e en t fo llo w du
s if o b le ts

are th w u m h
ro n fo r ti es , t ree ti m t
es, o r w h ic e ; t ere fo re th e re q ire u dh c an c e

m
4

m f th
5

(6 6)
1
is th e su h o f th e fi rs t t ree ter s o e e x p an s 1 0 n o f

T hu s th e c h an c e (1 4 5 6

H . H . A .
38 6 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

E x a p le 2 mA b ag c o n tain s a c ertain n b er o f b alls , s o e o f ic are um m wh h

wh d .

ite ; 8 b all is ra wn an d rep lac e , an o t er is t en ra n an d rep lac e ; d h h d w d

.

h
an d s o o n : ifp i s th e c an ce o f dra in g a ite b all in a s in gle trial, fin dw wh
th e n um wh
b er o f h
ite b alls t at is o s t li ely t o a e b e e n dra n in n trials m k hv w .

h
Th e c d w an ce o f ra in g e x ac tly r te b alls i s whi dw h v an e a e to
fin d wh v u
fo r h at al e o f r t is exp re s s io n is greate s t .

r —r r—1 —( r II
N OW at n n n -

T p q r
_1 p q ,

so lo n g as (n
( 71 + 1 ) P> (p q) r .

Bu t p + q = 1 ; h en c e th e re q u dv u
ire al e o f r is th e greates t in te ger in

If n is s uh h
c t at p n is an in teger, th e m t lik ly
os e c as e is t h at o f pa
s u cc e s se s an d qn fail res u .

4 64 . S u pp o se t h at t hlo t t e r fo r a p riz e
e re a re n t ic k e t s in a y
o f £x t h
e n s in c e e a c h
t ic k e t is e q a ll lik el t o w in t h e p riz e , a n d u y y
a
p e s
r on w h o p o s s e s s e d all t h e t ic k et s u s t win , t h e on e al e o f m m yv u
each t ic k e t is £
2
5

b
; in o t h w er o rds t h is w uld b f i mto e a a r su o

p y f
ao r h ti k t ; h
eac p w ch e en c e a e rs o n o
p d t i k t mi
o s s es s e
gh t r c e s

b ly
re a s o n a
p t £
2? h
ex
p i t
ec b p id f h i t i k t asb y t e r ce o e a or s c e s

an y w h w
on e i h d t b y t
o h m; h t i
s h ew u ld im o t u e t a s, e o e st a e

th w t h h v i t th
£
£ x as f hi e It i
or o t i s c an c e . s co n en en en o n

t d ro t h f ll w i g d fi iti
u ce e o o n e n on

If p p t re
p h
re s e n f u si y
a t u
e rs o n s
’
c an c e o s c c es s n an ven re

an d M th m f m y wh i h h w ill iv i
e su o f u
on e c e re c e e n c as e o s c c e ss ,

th m f m y d t d b y p M i ll d h i p t ti
e su o on e en o e s ca e s ex ec a on .

465 I n th e sa mw e a
y t h at exp ec ta ti o n is u sed in f
re e re n c e

my
.

t o a p e rs o n , w e a co n v en ien t l y u se th e p h ra s e
p ro b a b le
a
pp lied t o t hi n
g s .

m
E x a p le 1 u
On e p rse c o n tain s 5 s illin gs an d 1 so ereign : h v
k m
a
u h
p rs e c o n t ain s 6 s illin gs
.

Two c o in s are ta en fro th e fi rs t an d

d h m d d .

t h e s e c o n ; t en 2 are tak en fro t h e s ec o n an d place in

v u h u
fi n d th e pro b ab le al e o f th e c o n ten ts o f eac p rs e .

Th eh h v u
t at th eu ere ign is in th e fi rs t p rs e is al
mv d w mv d
c an c e so eq
th e ch h
an c es d h
t at it h as o e t ice an t at it h as n o t o e at all ;
388 H I GH E R AL GE BR A .

466 W e s all n o w gi
. h v e t w o p ro b le m wh i s c h le a d t o u se fu l
an d in t e re s tin
g re s lt u s .

m
E x a p le 1 Two p lay ers A an d a n t re s p ec ti ely an d n p o in ts o f Bw v m
w m h h w m
.

in n in g a set o f ga e s ; t eir c an c e s o f in n in g a s in gle ga e are p an d g

v wh
re s p ec ti e ly , ere th e s u o f p an d q is m
n ity ; th e s t a e is t o b elo n
g to u k
th e p lay er wh o fi rs t a es u p h is s et : mk
eter in e th e p ro b ab ilitie s in fa o r d m vu
o f e ac h play er .

Su pp o se t h at A w in in ex ac t ly m+ m; to do thi s h e mu t wi th e
m
s ga
m m
r es
m
s n

las t ga
m—
e an d 1 o u t o f th e p rec edi n g
m m
+ r 1 ga es Th e c h an c e o f

h
.

ml in — 1
m
1 M —1
t is is +r 0 _ p
r
g p’ or 0 _1 p q
r
.

w
N o w th e s et ill n e c e s sarily b e ec i e in d d d m
+ n — l ga es , an d A m m
mm m m m m m m
ay
win h is ga es in ex a c tly ga e s , o r + 1 ga e s , or +n 1 ga e s ;
h h
t ere fo re we s all o b tain th e c an c e t at A h h w
in s th e s e t b y gi in g to r th e
m
v
v u
al e s 0, 1 , 2 , n 1 in th e exp re s sio n
. .
’n +" l
C _1 p q " T s A s c an ce is
’ -

m . hu h
m +m
m( m 1 )
p I q+
{1 2

simil arly B
’
s c h an ce is

u
Th is q e s t io n is k n o n a s t h e Pro b le w
o f Po in t s , an d h a s
“
m
e n age d t h e a t t e n t io n o f
g an o f th e o st e in en t myat e a t ic ian m m mh m s
s in c e t h e t i m
e o f Pa s c al I t wa s o rigin all p ro p o s e d t o Pa c al b y
. y s
hv u
t h e C e alie r de M ere in 1 6 54 , a n d wa s dis c s se d b y Pa s c a l a n d
F m hy fi hmv
e r at , b u t t e co n h n ed t e s e l e s t o t h e ca s e in w ic h t h e
p y w u
la e rs u h u
e re s pp o se d t o b e o f e q a l s kill t e ir re s lt s we re a ls o

h f m f mu
e x ib it e d in a diffe re n thv v or Th e o r lae w e a e gi e n a re
m fi m w
.

g hy
a ss i n e d t o M o n t o rt , a s t e a
p p e a r fo r t h e rs t t i e i n a o rk
u h m u
o f h is p b lis e d in 1 7 1 4 f Th e s a e res lt wa s a t e rwa rds o b
.

f wy
t a in e d in di fe re n t a s b
y L a ran
g ge a n d L a la c e
p an d b y th e
m v us m
,

v y fu y u
lat t e r t h e p ro b le was t re at e d e r ll n de r a rio o di

fi c at io n s .

h m
E x a p le 2d w hf mk d m f h T ere are n ice it fac es ar e fro 1 to ; if t ese
h w d m wh h h m um
.

are t ro n at ran o at is th e c an c e t at th e su o f th e n b ers

exh dh ib iteu s all be eq al
,

to p ?

S f m d
in c e an y o n e o f th e d fac e s be f th e ic e ,
wh h d m
e x p o se on an y one o
um w
ay n
th e n b er o f ay s inf ic th e ic e ay fall is
um w
Als o th e n w h um h w w h v b er o f ay s in hi c th e n b ers t ro ill p fo r
h m u
n a e
t eir s u is e q fi c ien t o f x p in th e e x p an s io n
al t o th e c o e f o f

h
fo r t is fi cien
c o ef t arise s o u t o dm
f th e ifferen t ay s in w wh h ic n o f th e in d ice s
1 , 2 , 3, b e ta k en so as to fo r p b y a ditio n d .
 PR O B A B H ATY . 389

N o w th e ab o v e e x p re s s io n x
"
(1 + x + 55
2

We hv h
a e t e re fo re to fi n d th e fi c ie n
co ef t o f x” in th e e x p a n s io n o f

( a4 ) ( 1 )
”
1 x

No w xf u xf
n ( n — l) n ( u — l) ( n — 2)
(1 +

n (n + 1) n
—x
( 1 )
u
M ltip ly t h e s e s e rie s to ge t h e r an d p ic k o u t th e fi c ie n
c o ef t o f xp
r
" in

p ro du
c t ; we t hu s o b tain
—1 f 1)
) n
— n
1P n
| p
~

—2 — 1
n (n —l
) f )

wh e re th e s e rie s
is t o co n tin u e so lo n g a s n o n e gati e fac to rs v appe ar Th e
re q u d ire p ro b ab ility is o b tain e d dvd by i i in g t is s eries b y f h .

Th i p b l
se is du e t o D e M o i
ro m
v d w pub li h d b y h im re a n as s e

in u mh
1 7 30 it ill s t ra t e s a f qu t u tility
et o d o f re en .

L pl f w d b t i d t h m f ml b t i mu h
a ac e a ter ar s o a n e e sa e or u a, u n a c

m lb iu m
o re a ; h
or o pp li d it
s i m t t
an n e r
p d m e a e n an at t e o e on

th
s t ra t e i t f e p im it i v u
e x s en c e w h i h h m do t h a r e ca se c as a e e

p l t t
an e sm v i b io l t t
o h lip t
e i nd i t h
o r m ts c o se o e ec c, an n e sa e

di i th
re c t o n th u d th
as O t h i p i t th
e e ar d ro n e su n n s o n e re a er

my
.

a u lt T dhu
co n s Hi y f P b bili y A t 9 8 7
o n t er s ’
s to r o ro a t ,
r . .

E XA M PLE S . XXXI I . c .

1 I n a c e rtain ga e A s h m ’
kill i
to B
’
s as 3 to 2 : fi n d th e c an c e

m
s s

fA w
.

o in n in g 3 ga es at leas t o ut of5 .

2 A i wh f mk d co n i h w im wh t o se ac es are ar e 2, 3 s t ro n 5t es : a

h
.

i h s t f b i i g
e c l f
an c e o o ta n n a to ta o 12

3 I h f fg m i i t
e ac i f v u f h wio a s et o a es t 2 1 a o r o t e n n er

f h p v i u g m wh
n s o n

h h h pl y wh wi
.

o t e ire h o s a e : at s t e c an ce t at t e a er o n s

th fi g m h ll wi
e rs t h l a f he s f u a n t re e a t e as t o t e n ext o r

4 Th i i b g f wh i h v ig d 9 5
u k w i f qu l v lu fi d wh h y mu b if
. e re are co n s n a a ,
o c are so e re ns an

th e res t are n no n co n s o e a a e ; n at t e st e

th p b b l v lu
e f d w i
ro a h illi g
e a e o a ra s 12 s n s .
390 HI G H E R AL GE B R A .

5 d tim wh t i h h
A c o in is to s s e h h h d will es , a s t e c an c e t at t e ea

u mb f im ?
. n

re s en t its e lf an o dd n er o t es
p
6 F m b g i i g
ro v ig d hilli g p
a a co n ta n n 2 so ere n s an 3 s a e rs o n

im
s n

ll w d i di ly ; fi d h v lu
.

i s a d w
o ei to i ra 2 f hi co n s n s cr n at e n t e a e o s ex

p i
e c ta t o n .

7 Si p h wf x k wh i h i b w b y h
ers o n s t ro o r a s ta e, c s to e on t e one

h w h d wi h p y if h y h w i u i fi d
.

wh fi o rs t t ro s ea t a en n t e t ro n s c c e ss o n n

t h h
e c f th f u h p
an ce o e o rt e rs o n .
,

8 C u t mk d o l
n d i
e rs b d ar i wi he l , 2, 3 are a a an one s t
d w d pl d Th p i b i g p d h im wh t
.
p g ac e n ,

ra n an re ac e e o e rat o n e n re eat e t ree t es , a

h
.

i h s t e c f b i i g an ce o l f6 ? o ta n n a t o ta o

9 A i wh f mk d d i
co n do se im wh t ac es are ar e 3 5 s to s s e 4 t a
dd g i h m f h u mb h w b i g l h ?
. an es :

a re h t e o s a a n st t e su o t e n e rs t ro n e n es s t an 15

1 0 Fi d h h f t h wi g 0
n t ly i
e c t h w wi h
an c e o ro n 1 e x ac t n one ro t
di
.

3 ce .

11 Tw p l y f q u l k ill A o d B a ersl
p y gi o f e a are a a s et o

m h y l v f pl y i g wh A w
s an n

dB w
.
, ,

ga es ; t e ea p i e o a n en an ts 3 o n ts an an ts 2
k i £ wh h ugh h k ?
.

If h t e s ta e s 16, at s are o t eac t o ta e

A d B h w wi h d i if A h w 8 wh t i B h ’
12 an t ro t 3 ce : t ro a s an c e
u mb
s s c

f h w i g h igh
.
,
o t ro n a er n er

13 A h d i hi p k v ig d f u hilli g t ki g t
a n s oc et a s o e re n an r s ou
d mh p mi t giv h m B d (7 Wh t i
. o n s ; a n

tw o i co n s at ran o e ro s es o e t e to an a s
th w h f0 p i ?
.

’
e o rt o s ex ec t at o n

14 I fi h w wi h i gl di wh t i h h
n ve t ro f h wi g
s t a s n e e a s t e c an c e o t ro n

( ) h
.

1 t ly ( ) t h
ree ac es ex a ct l t ,
2 re e ac es at eas .

1 5 A mk b t wi h B f a h i i gl h w with
es a e t o 53 t o 2 3 t at n a s n e t ro
w di h will t h w v b f B h w fu E hh p i
. . .

t o ce e ro se en e o re t ro s o r ac as a a r

f di d h y t h w im ul u ly u il f h mwi fi d B
.
.

’
o ce an t e ro s tan eo s n t on e o t e ns : n s

ex p i
e c t at o n .

16 A p h w tw d i h
e rs o n mm ub t d th
ro h s o ce, o n e t e co on c e, an e o t er
u h d u m w k
.

l h b
t et ra e ro n , t e n h l f b i i h t es t ta t
h th m f h
ar g er o n e o ac e e n en n e
a re g
c as e f h o h d ; wh i h h
t e t e t ra e ro n at s t e c an c e t at e su o t e
n u mb h w i l h ? ers t ro n s n o t ess t an 5

17 A b g i i f v l u 11 d u mb f h i
ta a 1 a n er o o t er c o n s

im ill h
a co n n s a co n o e an

wh gg g v lu i m A p d w
.
,

o se a re at e a e s e rs o n ra s one at a t e t e
d w h i M fi d th lu f hi p t i
.

ra s t e co n n e va e o s ex ec at o n .

18 If 6 i k t num b d n t c e s l d i b g e re 0, 1 , 2 , 6n 1 are
h h m f th
p ac e n a a
d w hw h h h
.
,
d h t t, t at t t at t
u mb h mi qu l 6 i
an ree a re ra n ou s e e c an c e e su o e
n ers o n t e s e a to n s

3n

( 6n 1) (6n 2)
392 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

ti ms e . H en c e t h e p ro b ab ilit y h t at th e so v e re i
gn ca m f mth e ro e

fi rs t
p u rs e is
5
’
an d th e p ro b a b ilit y th at it ca m f m th
e ro e
11

seco n d is

*
469 h u m u
I t is i p o rt an t t a t t h e s t de n t s a t t e n t io n s h o ld b e
’

um m
.

u
dire c t e d t o t h e n a t re o f t h e a ss h p t io n t a t h as b e en a de in

hu
t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le u
T s , t o t ak e a p a rt ic la r in s t a n c e ,
f y y mm m
.

huh
a lt o
g in h w w h
6 0 t ro s it a
p e r ec t l s e t ric a l die it a
y
n o t ha
pp he n t h w
a t a c e is t roy n me x ac t l w 1 0 t i e s , y e t it il l
u s m h um
do b tle s b e a t o n c e a d itt e d t a t if t h e n b e r o f t h ro ws is
u y
c o n t in a ll um
in c re a se d t h e ra t io o f t h e n b e r o f a c es t o t h e
n um h w w
b e r o f t ro s m ill t en d m y
o re a n d mo re n e a rl t o t h e li it
1
6
h why f h u
T e re is n o re a s o n on e f
ace s o h ld a pp e a r o t e n e r t a n

h h
a n o t er um m h
e n c e in t h e lo n g ru n t h e n b e r o f t i e s t at e a c h o f
hv w
t h e s ix fa c e s will a e a p p e a re d m y u
ill b e a pp ro x i a t el e q al .

Th b v i t e a io p i
e u l
n s an c e f g l t h m
s a a rt c ar c ase o a en e ra e o re

wh i h i d t J m B u lli d w fi t giv i th A
c s ue o a es e rn o ,
an as rs en n e rs

C j di p u b li h d i 17 13 igh t y ft t h u t h s ’
on ec ta n s e n e e a rs a er e a or

h B u lli t h mmy b u i t d f ll w
, ,
’
d e at . e rn o s eo re a e en n c a e as o o s :

If p i s th e p ro b a b i li ty th a t a n even t h app en s i n a s in gle tria l,

th en if th e n u m
b er of tria ls is in de n i tely i n c reased, i t b eco s a fi m
m m
e

c erta in ty th a t th e li i t of th e ra tio of th e n u b er of su c c es s es to th e
n u m
b er of tria ls is equ a l to p ; in o th er wo rds , if th e n u b er of m
tri a ls i s N , th e n u b er of s u c cesses m a y b e ta ken to b e
p N m .

hu
Se e To d n t e r s H i s to ry
’
o f Pro b a b i lity C h a
p t e r A p ro o
VI I f
m
.
,

o f B e rn o u s h
lli t e o re
’
is gi v en in t h e a rt ic le Pro b a b ili ty in t h e
E n cy c lop cedia B rita n n ica .

47 0
*
A n o b s erved even t h as h app en ed th ro u gh s o e On e of a m
m m
.

n u b er of u tu a lly ex c lu s ive ca u s es requ ired to fi n d th e

p ro ,

b a b i lity of a n y as sign ed ca u s e b ei n g th e tru e o n e .

u
Le t t h e re b e n c a s e s , a n d b efo re th e even t to o k p la ce s u pp o se
'

h y
t at t h e p ro b a b ilit o f t h e e x is t e n c e o f t e s e c a s e s wa s e s t i at e d h u m
at P
“
P2 , P3 , P” L e t P de n o t e t h e p ro b ab ilit t at w e n t h e
. y h h
r
th
‘

u
c a s e e x is t s t h e e e n t will o llo v r

f w
after th e even t h as o c cu rred

u t“
it is re q ire d t o fi n d t h e p ro b ab ilit t a t th e r c a se wa s t h e
-

y h u
tr ue one .
 PR O B A B I L IT Y . 393

C o n s ide r a e r gre a t n v y um
b e r N o f t ria ls t e n t h e rs t c a s e u h fi
e x is t s in P , N o f t e se , a n d o u t o f t is n h b e r t h e e e n t o llo s h um v f w
in p , l , N
’
si m
ila rl t e re a re p 2 P2 N t rials in y h ic h t h e e e n t wh v
f w f
o llo s ro m u
t h e s e c o n d c a se ; a n d s o o n fo r e a c o f th e o t er h h
u
c a ses H en c e t h e n
. b e r o f t ria ls in um
ic h t h e e e n t o llo s is wh v f w
P
(p , 1 + P
p2 2 + + p P n n ) N , o r N 2 (p P) ;

an d th e n b e r in ic um wh h th e e v en t wa s du e t o th e r
m
u
ca se is
p PN h
e n c e after t h e e v en t t h e p ro b a b ilit y th at th e r ca u se

u
r r

w a s t h e t r e o n e is
pM
2 P N . N 2 ( p P)

t h at is , t h e p ro b a b ilit y th at th e e v en t w a s p ro d u ce d b y th e r

P
ca u se is
p

47 1 *
y
I t is n e c e s s a r to dis t in g is c le a rl b e t ee n t h e p ro u h y w
m
.

h a b ilit y
o f t h e e x is t e n c e o f t h e s e e ra l c a s e s e s t i
f
a t e d b e o re v u
t h e e ve n t , a n d t h e p ro b a b ilit after th e even t h a s h app en ed o f a n y y
a s s i n e d c a s e b e in
g g t h u
e tr e o n e T h e o r e r a re s a ll uc a lle d . f m uu y
a p r io ri p ro b a b ilit ie s a n d a re re p re s e n t e d b
y P ,
P P P n ;

d
.
,

t h e la t t e r a re c a lle d a p o s te ri o ri p ro b ab ilit ie s , a ii d if w e e n o te

t e hm by Q Q Q Q w e a e
p ro ed t at hv v h
Q
2 (p 1 )
r )

wh e re p, d e n o t e s t hy p h i
h e p ro b a b ilit y o f th e e v en t o n th e o t es s

of th e ue x is t e n c e o f t h e r
“
c a se .

F mth i u lt i pp t h t 2 ( Q ) 1 wh i h i h
ro s re s t a e a rs a = c s o t er

w i v id t t h v t h h pp d f m
,

se e en d as ly e e en as a en e ro o n e an on one

u
,

of h t e ca ses .

W h ll w giv th
e s p f f h
a h m f h
n o
p e an o er ro o o t e t e o re o t e re

ce di g i l wh i h d
n d p d t h p i ipl
a rt c e u itd c o es n o t e en on e r n c e en n c a e

in A rt . 469 .

47 2
*
A n o b s erved even t ha s h app en ed th ro u gh so m e o ne qf a
m m
.

n u b er of u tu a ll
y ex c lu s ive ca u ses r e qu i re d to fi nd th e p ro
b a b i li ty of a n y a ss ign ed c a u s e b ein g th e tr u e o n e .

h u
L e t t e re b e n c a s e s , an d b efo re th e even t to o ls p la ce s pp o s e t a t u h
'
y h u
t h e p ro b a b ilit o f t h e e x is t e n c e o f t e s e c a s e s wa s e s t i a t e d a t m
P1 , P2 , P , P L e t P de n o t e t h e p ro b ab ilit t a t en th e y h wh
" v w f w h
n

u
.

c a s e e x is t s t h e e e n t ill o llo h n tec eden t p ro b a

1
r
; t e n t e a

h
b ility t a t t h e e e n t wo ld o llo ro v “
u f wf m
t h e r c a s e is p P u r
.
394 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

Let Q, b e t h e a
p o s teri o ri p ro b a b ilit t at t h e r c a s e wa s t h e yh ih
u
h ih
y h
t ru e o n e ; t e n t h e p ro b a b ilit t at t h e r c a s e wa s t h e t r e o n e u u
y
is p ro p o rt io n a l t o t h e p ro b ab ilit t h a t , if in ex is te n c e , t is c a s e h u
wu u
o ld p ro d c e t h e e e n t v
Q . 2 62) 1

P
n r
Q ”

h
H e n c e it a pp e a rs t a t in t h e pre s e n t c la s o f p ro b le s m th s e

p u
ro d c t P
pr, ill a e tw hv
o b e c o rrey s m
c t l e t i a t e d a s a rs t fi st p ; e

my hwv w fu h
r

in an c a se s , o e e r, it ill b e o n d t a t P, , P2 , P3 , a re

u
a ll e
q a l, an d t h e w
o rk is t h e reb y mu m fi ch si
p li e d .

E xa m
pl e. T h
3 b ags e ac h
ere are wh
c o n tain in g 5 ite b alls an d 2 b lac k
h w k
b alls , an d 2 b ags eac c o n tain in g 1 hi te b all an d 4 b lac b alls : a b lac b all k
hva in g b een ra n , fi n d w d h h m m
th e c an ce t at it c a e fro th e fi rs t gro p u .

Of th e fi ve b b
ags , 3 u d elo n g to th e fi rs t gro p an 2 to th e s ec o nd h ; e n ce

3 2
Pl P2
5
“

If a b ag is d mh
s elec te fro t e firs t gro p th e u h
c an c e o f d w b k
ra in g a lac

b all is
3
; if fro m d u
th e s ec o n gro p th e c h an ce is
2 hu t s pl
3 2
P 2 3

6 8
P1 P1 Pap s
’
o -
25

H en c e th e c h an ce t h at th e b lac kb all c a mf m e ro one o f th e fi rs t gro p is u

6 8 15
__
'
35 25 43

*
47 3 h W en an e v
b s e r e d, we a re a b le b y
en t h a s b e en o v
mh d f m
.

th e et o o A rt 4 7 2 t o e s ti at e t h e p ro b ab ilit o f an y y
m m
.

p ar ti ul
c u
ar c a s e b e in g t h e t r e o n e ; w e a
y t h e n u
e s ti at e

th e p b b ili
ro a ty o f t h e e en t a
pp e n in
g i n a ve c o h
n d t ria l, o r s
we m a
y fi n d th e
p ro b ab ilit o f t h e o c c rre n c e o f s o ye o t h e r u m
e ve n t .

Fo r ex a
p impl
s t h e c h an c e t at t h e e ve n t will h a p e n
e, p h
f m
ro th e r ib
c a s e if in u
,

e x is t e n c e , a n d t h e c an c e t at t h e r
“
h h
u
c a s e is t h e t r e o n e is Q u h
e n c e o n a s e c o n d t rial t h e c h a n c e

h v
t a t t h e e e n t will h ap p e n ro ib
t h e r c a s e is p Q r
,

f m
T e re o re u h f
f ms m
.

v
.
,

t h e c h a n c e t h at t h e e en t will h app e n ro o e o n e o f th e

u s
,

o n a s eco n d t ria l is 2
c a se
( p Q) .
396 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

*
47 4 hw h y h ym
W e s a ll n o w s e h o w t h e t e o r o f p ro b a b ilit a
y
m m
.

uh
b e a p plie d t o e s t i a t e t h e t r t o f s tate e n t s a t te s t e d b
y wit
n e ss e s y
wh o se c re dib ilitum is a s s w
ed to h
b e kn o n W e s all .

u h hw s
s pp o s e t a t e a c wh
itn e s s t a t e s v uh
a t h e b e lie e s t o b e t h e t r t

h h m u v u ,

w et e r h is s t a t e e n t is t h e re s lt o f o b s e r a t io n , o r de d c t io n ,
m
o r e x p eri h
en t ; so m
t a t an y f h mu
is t ak e o r alse o o d st be
u
a tt rib ju m
t e d t o e rro rs o f w fu
dg e n t a n d n o t t o il l de c e it .

Th l f p bl m w
e h ll di u s fu i h
c a ss o u fu l ro e s e s a sc s rn s es a se

i t ll t u l
n e eci d l h u gh h
a ul t b
e x e rc s e , a n g d d a t o t e re s ts c an n o e re ar e

as of y p ian l imp t i w ill b f

ra c t c a u d h t h y fi m o r an c e, t e o n t a t e co n r

th e v e rdic t o f co mm on s en s e .

4 7 5 W h e n it is a s s e rt e d t a t t h e p ro b a b ilit t a t a p e rs o n
* h y h
k uh m h um
.

s ea s th e t r t is p , it is e an t t a t a la rge n b e r o f s ta t e
p
m men t sm a de b
y h i h as b een ex a in e d, an d t a t
p i s t h e ra t io m h
h wh h
o f t o seu wh u m
ic a re t r e t o t h e o le n b er .

47 6
*
Tw i d p d . w it A o d B wh n e
p b en en t n e s s es , an
,
o se ro a

f p ki g h t u t h v y g i '
b iliti es o s p ea d p p in l t e r a re an re s e ct e a ree n

mki g t m t
,

a n t i a wh t i th p b b ility t h t t h
c er a n sta e en : a s e ro a a e

s tat emti t u ? en s r e

H th b
e re v d v t i th f t t h t A d B mk t h
e o s er e e en s e ac a an a e e

sa m t t m t B f th v t t h
e s a e en f u hyp h ; f e o re e e en e re a re o r o t es e s or

d B my b t h p k t u ly A my p k t u ly B f l ly ;
.

A an a o s ea r or a s ea r a se

A my p k f l ly B t u ly ; d B my b
,

o r a s A
ea a seh p k ,
r or an a o t s ea

f l ly Th p b b iliti s f t h f u hyp t h
a se . e ro a e o es e o r o e s e s a re

11 2 (
9 9 s1
'
P( 1 9 ( p) ( p )
1 1 p t i v ly ,
— '
re s ec e .

H ft th b v d v t i wh i h A d B mk th
en c e a er e o se r e e en n c an a e e

m t m t th p b b ility t h t t h t t m t i t u i t
,

sa e s at e en ,
e ro a a e s a e en s r e s o

th ep b b ili
ro y t h t itai f l ppt t ( 1 p) ( 1 a t h t s a se as
'
o a

i t h p b b ili y t h t t h j i t t t m t i t u i
s, e ro a t a e o n s a e en s r e s

I
PP
+ (1 p) ( >
’
9
11 7 -
1 —
P
Simil ly if t h i d p
ar wh p b b ilit y a r e rs o n o se ro a of s p ea kin g t h e
mk t h m t t m t t h p b
,

t ut h i p y h
"
r s a es e sa e s a e en e ro a b ilit t at t h e
t t m t i t u i
, ,

s a e en s r e s

’ " — 0
PPP ( 2)
1 ( 1 ( 1

an d so 0 11 fo r an
y n u mb er o f p e rs o n s .
 PR OB A B I L I T Y . 397

*
47 7 u h
I n t h e p re c e din g a rtic le it h a s b e e n s pp o s e d t a t we
m m
.

v w
h a e n o k n o le dge o f t h e e ve n t e x c e p t t h e s t a t e e n t a de b
y A
a n d B ; if w e a e in o r hv f m f m h u s
a t io n ro o t er s o rc e as to th e
p ro b a b ilit o f th e tr t yo uh f y
r a ls it o m h mu
f t h e s ta te e n t , t is st b e

u m y v us
t a k e n in t o a c c o n t in e s t i a t in g t h e p ro b ab ilit o f th e a rio

hyp th o es es .

Fo r in s ta n c e , if A
d B a gre e in s t a t in g a a c t, o f ic an f wh h
t h e a p ri o ri p ro b a b ilit is P, t e n we s o ld e s t i a t e t h e p ro y h h u m
y
h ab ilit o f t h e t r t a n d als it o f t h e s t a te e n t b y uh f y m
Pp p
’
an d ( 1 P) ( l p) ( l p
’

) re s
p e c ti v el
y .

E x a p le m h
T ere is a raffle it 1 2 tickets an d two p riz es o f £ 9 an d £ 3 wh
A , B , 0, wh .

o se p ro b ab ilitie s o f s p e a in g th e tr t a re 123 s resp e c ti ely ,k uh v .

re p o rt th e re s lt t o D , wh o u
o l s o n e t ic e t h d
A an d B a s s e rt t at h e h a s k h
wo n th e £9 p riz e, an d C as s erts t at h e h as wo n th e £ 3 p riz e ; at i s D s h
’
.

wh
e x pec tatio n ?

T h ree c ases are p o s s ib le ; D m hv w £ 9 , £3 , or no th in g, fo r A , B ,

my
ay a e on
C a hv
all a e sp o k en fals ely .

No ww h it th e n o tatio n o fA rt 4 7 2 , w h v
. e a e th e a p ri o ri p ro b ab ilities
1 1 10
PI P2 P3
12
’ ’ ’
12 12

alS e pl
1
X
2
X g_ 4
__
1
x ix 3
’ ’
3
1 X __ x 1 2 2
2 5 5 2 3 5 2 3 5 30
’

Q3 1
Ql _ Q _e _
’
4 3 20 27

h e n ce D
’
s e x p e c tatio n o f £9 +
3
57
o f £3 1 3s 4 d. .

47 8 *
h
W it re s p e c t t o t h e re s lt s p ro e d in A rt 4 7 6 , it
‘

u v
um m
. .

hu
s o ld b e n o t ic e d t a t it wa s a s s h
ed th at th e s tat e e n t c an b e

m a de in t w o h w
a s o n l , s o t a t if a ll t h e wy y f h
it n e s s e s t e ll a ls e o o ds
hy mf h
t e agree in t e llin g t h e s a e a ls e o o d .

I f th i i t th l t
s u pp h t i t h h
s n o e c as e, e us s o se t a c s e c an c e

t h t tha tw w i e A d B will g o i t lli g h m

tn ess es an a re e n e n t e sa e

f l h d ; t h t h p b b ili y t h t th t m t i t u i t
a se oo en e ro a t a e s ate en s r e s o

t h p b b ili y t h t i i f l ( p) (
’
e ro a
pp t t1 l a t s a s e as o c

A g s l u la it i t m ly im
e n e ra
p b b l t h t t w
r e, s ex re e ro a e a o

i d p d t wit
n e en will t ll t h
en mfl h d ht i
n e s s es e e sa e a se oo so t a c s

u u lly v y mll; l it i b vi us t h t th qu tity b m

,

s a er s a a so s O o a e an 0 eco es

s mll a h um b
e r as f wi tb ms g e n Th er o tn e s s es eco e re a t e r. es e c o n

s id ti
e ra si t h p b b ili y t h t
on t t m t
n c re a s e t d by e ro a t a a s a e en as s e r e

t w o m i d p d t w it
o r o re i t u v t h ugh th
n e en en n e ss e s s r e, e en o e

c re dib ilit y f h wit i mll o e ac n es s s s a .

 398 H IGH E R AL GE BR A .

m k uh
A s p ea s tr t 3 ti e s o u t o f 4 , an d B 7 ti es o u t o f 1 0 ; t ey
E x a p le m m h
h h wh d w m
.

b o t a s s ert t at a ite b all h as b ee n ra n fro a b a g c o n t ain in g 6 b alls

all o f if d u
feren t c o lo rs fi n d th e p ro b ab ility o f th e tr t o f th e as s ertio n uh .

T he re are two h h yp o t es e s ; ( i) t h eir c o in ci d en t tes ti myi on s tr u e, ( )

11 it is
fals e .

P1 1 ,
6

3 7 1 1 3
PI
w
X p? X X
E 10
’
QE Z ’

fo r in e s ti atin g p 2 wem mu t t s a k e in to acc o n t th e u h h c an c e t at A an d B will

h
b o t s elec t th e ite b all wh wh en i t h as n o t b ee n ra d w h h n ; t is c an c e is

an 1
5 5
N o w th e p ro b ab ili ties o f th e two h yp o t h e ses are as P1 19 , to P2192 , an d

t h ere fo re as 3 5 to 1 ; t hu s th e pro b ab ility t h at th e s tate mti en s tru e is

22
*
Th e c a s es we h a e c o n s ide re d re la t e t o t h e pro b a
47 9 v b ility
m
.

o f th e tr t uh
o f c o n c u rren t t e s t i on ; t h e o llo in g is a c a s e y f w o f
tra di tio n a rg
/ t e s ti on my .

If A s ta t es t h a t a c e rta in e v en t t o o k p la c e , h vi a n
g re c e i v e d an

acco u n t o f it s o cc u rre n c e o r n o n o cc -
u rre n c e f m wh
ro B, at is th e
p ro y t h t t h
b ab ilit v t did t k p l ? a e e en a e ac e

Th v t h pp d ( 1 ) if th y b h p k th t u t h ( 2) if
e e en a en e e o t s o e e r

h y b th p k f l ly ; d h v t did t h pp if ly
,

t e o s o e a se an t e e en n o a en on

f h m p k th t u t h
o n e o t e s o e e r .

L t p p d et th p b b ili i t h'
A d B k
en o
p h e e ro a t es at an s ea t e

u h t h th p b b ili y t h t th v t did t k pl i
tr t
,

en e ro a t a e e en a e ace s

’
—
pp ( p)
1 ( 1

an d t h e p ro b a b ilit y th at it did n o t t a ke p la c e is

p ( 1 p)
-

*
4 80 . u
Th e s o l t io n o f t h e p re c edin g a rtic le is t a t wh ic h h as h
u s allu y b e en
gi e n in t e x t b o o vs b u t it is o
p e n t o s e ri o s -

j
o b ec k u
t io n s , fo r t h e a s s e rt io n t a t t h e gi e n e e n t a
pp h
e n e d if b o t h A v v h
an d B p o ke s
a ls e l i f y
s n o t c o rre c t e x c e p t o n t h e
pp o s it io n t a t su h
t h e s t ate en t c an b e m a de on l in t wo a s m M o re o e r, y wy v
f m
.

a lt o hu gh it is e x re s s l
p s t a t e d t a t A re c e i e h y
is ac c o n t ro h vs u
h
B , t is c a n n o t gen e ra ll y
b e t ak e n fo r gra n te d a s it res t s o n
A s t e s ti o n
’
my .
4 00 H IGH E R AL GE BR A .

11 k
th e tr t 2 o u t o f 3 t i es , an d B 4 ti es o u t o f 5;
A uh m m
h m
s p ea s
h d
.

t e y agre e in th e as s ert io n t at fro a b ag co n t ain in g 6 b alls o f if

fe ren t
u
c o lo rs a re d b all h as b een ra n : fi n d th e ro b ab ilit
y t at t h e s tat e d w h
m en t is tr e u .
p

12 On e o f a p ac k o f 52 c ar s d h as b een lo s t ; fro mth e re mi a n d er

k d d ud d
.

o f th e p ac t wo c ar s are ra wn an d are fo n to b e s pa es ; fi n d th e
h
c an ce t at t h e
g d h
i p d mi s s in c ar s a s a e .

13 Th i ffl w i h i k d w p i
ere f v lu £
a ra t 10 t c e ts an t o r z es 5
d i i f md b y B h
s e o a e
iv ly A h ld i k
.

an d£ p 1 re s ec t e o s on e t c et an s n or e t at
wh il 0 h h h w h £ pi
.

h h e w h £ p i
as on t e 5 r z e, e as s e rt s t at e as on t e 1 r ze

wh i A p i if h d ib ili y f B i d d b y g d
at s
’
s ex ec t at o n t e c re t o s en o t e an
th f 0 b y 2?
at o
, ,

14 A pu i f u i w i h vi g b d w
rs e c o n ta ns o r co n s ; t o co n s a n e en ra n are
fu d v ig fi d h h ( ) h ll h i
.

o b n to e so e re ns : n t e c an c e 1 t at a t e co n s are
sov ig ( ) h if h i
e re n s,
pl d th d wi g will gi
2 t at t e co n s are re ac e an o er ra n ve
a sov g e re i n .

1 5 P mk b t wi h Q f £ t £ h th
a es a will b e t o 8 o 1 20 t at re e rac e s e
h h A B 0 g i wh i h h b i g i
.

w by h
on t e t re e o rs e s a a n st c t e e tt n s 3 to 2 ,
iv ly h vi g b w b y A , , ,

4 to 1 , d p an Th fi t 2 to 1 res ect e e rs rac e a n e en on

d i b i g k w h h d i h
.
,
an t e n w w no by B nby t at t e s eco n rac e as on e t er or
a h D g i t wh i h h b i g w
o rs e a a ns fi d h v lu fP c t e e tt n as 2 to 1 , n t e a e o
,

S
e x pe c tatio n .

16 F m
b ag c o n tain in g 71 b alls , all e it e r h wh i bl k te or all
um
ro a ac

h u k d w wh i h u
,
.
,
n b e rs o f e ac b e in g e q ally li ely , a b all is ra n c t rn s o u t
to b e wh h
it e ; t is is re plac e , an d an o t e r b all is d h d w wh i h
ra n c als o
u
t rn s o u t t o b e wh ite I f t is b all is re plac e , p ro . h d v h h h e t at
,

t e c an c e

of h t t d w givi g
e n ex ll i ra
5 ( ) ( + n a bl k b
ac a s n 1 2n

17 If m i h v b di t ib u d i mp u ri c o n s i t h s r te to rs es , 72. n o eac

h t w p ifi d i will b f u d i h m
a e ee n n

h ,
.

fi d ( ) h
n 1 t e c an c e t t e co n s e o n n t e sa e

m
a o s ec

p u rs e ;d ( ) wh h an h b 2 wh at p u t e h v b es en r rs es a e ee n
mi d d f u d
c an c e e co
exa ne ani i h of h n
p ifi d i
n o t to co n ta n e t er o t e s ec e co n s .

18 A B tw i u i hm i i are wh h o f lvi g
n ac c rate ar t e t c an s o se c an ce o so n

v u ,
v h
.

i t i l d i l
c o rre c tif b i h 1 ec t t ta t
m
e o n e
g y res
m u l d if i i m
a q en es on p are an e
y y ;
t t, i t h i ki
t h 1 000
1 ?
1 a n st t
mi k fi d th h
sa an g a e r a n e sa e
e res g s o

s ta e, h th l i
n e c t an c e t at e res u t s c o rrec .

19 T wi h f wh mmk b
en tn e s s e s , fl t t m t i
e ac o o a es u t one a se s a e en n
th v hw h h
.

i i i i k pl
as s e rt n g at a c e rt a n t to o t at t
m v
s x , a re e
g n e en ac e ; s e e
odd fi t s are i fv u ve f h t o h f hion e n a o r o t e ru t o t e r s tate en t, e en

al h u gh h
t o
p i i p b b i
tli y f
e a h v ir or m ll ro a t o t e e en t s as s a as
1
 PR O B A B IL IT Y . 4 01

L OC A L PR OB A B IL I T Y . G E O M E TR I C A L M E TH O D s .

481 *
Th e a pplic a t io n o f G e o e t r t o q e s t io n s o f Pro m y u
u y uu
.

h a b ilit re q ire s , in ge n e ra l, t h e a id o f t h e I n t e gra l C a lc l s ;

h hwv my
t e re a re , o u
e e r, wh h
an easy
qv e s t io n s ic c an b e s o l ed b
y
El m t y G m y
e en ar eo etr .

m EF m h w u l 1 h ro ft al lin e s f le n gt p o rtio n is c u t
l
dm m
p e ea c o o eq o a
mv d wh
xa

h h
.

o ff a t ran o an d re o e : at is th e c an c e t at th e s u o f th o
m d h ,

re ain ers is les s t an 1?

P h u h u
lac e th e lin es p aralle l t o o n e an o t e r, an d s pp o s e t at afte r c ttin g,
hh d
th e rig t an mv d h u uv
p o rt io n s are re o e T en th e q e s tio n is e q i ale n t to
k wh h h m hh d
-
.

a s in g at is th e c an c e t at th e s u o f th e rig t p o rtio n s i s greate r

m
an

h h d h m
-

t an th e s u o f th e le ft an p o rtio n s I t is c lear t at th e fi rs t s u is
u k h d hu u d
-
.

e q ally li e ly to b e greater o r les s t an th e sec o n ; t s th e req ire

p ro b ab ility is

C OR . h E ac o f two lin es is k w
n o n to b e o f len gt h n o t e x c ee d in g l : th e

c h an c e t h h at t eir s u mi s no t gre ater t h an I is

1
2
.

m
E x a p le 2 If t h re e lin es are c h o s en dm v h h
a t ran op ro e t at t ey are
u d d
.
,

j s t a s like ly as n o t to en o te th e si es o fa p o s s i b le tria n gle

m
.

h
Of t lin es o n e
re eu u s t b e e q al t o o r gre a ter t an e ac o f th e o t e r h h h
w
t o ; d h h w
e n o te its le n gt by l T e n all e n o o f th e o t er t o lin e s is t a t k w hw w h
h h w
th e len gt o f eac li e s b e t een 0 an d I
.

B u t if e ac o f t o lin e s is n o n to h k w
dm h w v h h h m
.

b e o f ran o le n gt b e t een 0 an d I, it is an e en c an ce t at t e ir s u
h
is greater t an 1 [ ] E x 1 , Co r . . .

huT u d us w
th e re q ire res lt fo llo s .

m
E x a p le 3 h d w T ree tan gen ts are ra n at ran o to a gi e n c irc le dm v
hmwh dd
.

t at th e o 3 to 1 again s t th e c ircle b ein g i n scri b ed in th e trian gle

d hm
s e s are
fo r e b y t e .

D wh ra t ree ra n d ml
o in e s P, Q , R , in th e s a e p la n e m as th e c irc le , an d
dra w to th e c irc le th e s ix t an ge n ts p arallel to t e s e lin es h .

H . H . A .
 4 02 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

h vd h w
T en o f th e 8 trian gle s s o fo r e it is e i en t t md at th e c irc le ill b e
d
e s c rib e d h u wh v
to 6 a n d in s c rib e in 2 ; an d a s t is is tr e ate e r b e th e o rigin al
d u d u w
irec tio n s o f P, Q , R , th e req ire res lt fo llo s .

482 *
Q u ti s i P b b ilit y my mtim b es on n ro a a so e es e co n

di t G mt y
.

veni tly lv d b y t h
en id f so e e a o co o r
-
n a e eo e r .

m E x a p le h h m u d
On a ro d o f len gt +b+ le n gt s a , b are at
m u d
a c, e as re
dm h w
.

ran o : fi n d th e p ro b ab ility t at no p o in t o f th e e as re lin es ill

d
c o in c i e.

L b et AB d u PQ th e lin e , A P = x an d ; als o le t a b e
mu d m w d h mu
e an s ppo se a

h
z

fro P to B, t at x s t b e le s s t b +c A ga in le t
PQ m u d m w d h y mu
ea s re ar s so an

d u
.

' ’ ’ '
P to
’
A P z y, P fro
’
Q = b, an s re B, t st
pp o se ea s ar s en
h
b e les s t an a c
w m
.

N wi vu o n u hv fa Q o F AQ rab le c as es e st a e AP > A
’
,
o r e ls e A >
'
,

en ce y > a + x, o r x > b +y

w mu hv
.

A gain fo r all t
h e c as e s p o s s ib le , e st a e

x > 0, an d < b + c

y > 0, an d <a+o

Tak e a p air o f rec tan g lar a xes an d a e 0 X e q al to b + c an d C Y u mk u

u
e q al to a + 0 .
,

x
ra D w
th e lin e y = a + x rep resen te b y TM L in th e fi g re ; an d th e lin e
b y rep res en te b y KR d , d u “

A
’
P Q
,
B

T h en YM , KX
'

are eac h ul eq a to 0, GM , GT are eac h u eq al to a.

KXR , wh d
Th e c o n itio n s ( 1 ) are o n ly
d
ile th e c o n itio n s ( 2
s atis fi e d d
b y p o in ts in th e trian gle s M YL an d
'
s atis fi e b y an y Po l n ts M th in th e rec t
’

are
an gle 0 X , o y ;

th e u dh
req ire c an ce

*
483 We sh all c lo s e th i s ch a m Mi u
“

p r with
t
m s c ellan eo
.
e so e s
Exa p les .

m
E x a p le 1 A b o x is i i ed v d d i
n to e q al c o m u m m t i t whi h
m part
.

th w d h h will b p m en s n o c 71.
ball n at ran o ; fi n d th e pro b ab ility t at t
tm t
s are ro

h
'

m m
ere e oo
p ar
r co mp tm t
en
ar
s e ac
en
c o n tain in g a b all s

h , q co
. p art e n ts e ac
o

c o n t ai n i n g c b alls an d so o n
h t i i g b b ll h co n a n n a s
s e ac
, w ere ,

p a + gb + rc +
4 04 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

I n th e p artic l ar u c as e wh en k= 2,

2
( +1 2 u + 1l
u d h 1 ( 1

(
n a + n a
th e re q ire c an ce
n

3 ( n + 1)
2 (2 n + 1 )

If n is in d efi n itely large , th e c h an c e is eq u al to th e li mit , wh en

NH
]

mt
1
fi e ’ Of ' ;
n k+ 2 k+ 1

k 1
an dt hu s th e c h an c e 1 8
k+ 2

( ii) I f th e b alls are n o t rep lac e d ,

r r— l r — 2 r— k+1 .

' '
n u —l n —2 n — k+ 1 ’

—k+ 2 r—
( r ) ( 1) r
an d Q, ZPr —k + 2 r—
) ( 1) r
r= 0

le + 2 ) —1 r
(r -
( r )
k + 2)
[A rt .

( n -
(n
k
h h d w w v wh r= n °
7
Th e c an c e t at th e n ex t ra in g ill gi e a ite b all : 2
—k r
, z o n

—k
k+ 1 ( n ) ( n — k+ 1
)
—k l l k+ 2
( 11. — k) ( n ) - -
n (n + 1)

k+ 1
’
k+ 2

wh h ic is in d ep en d en t o f th e n um b er o f b alls in th e b ag at fi rs t .

E x a p le 3 mA p ers o n dd v w rite s 71. le tters d re ss e s 71 en p es ; if th e

elo
d mwh
an a
d v h
. .

let ters are plac e in th e en elo p e s a t ran o at i s th e p ro b ab ility t at

v w
e ery letter go e s ro n g ?
,

L d
et a n um w wh h
en o te th e w n b er o f
th e le tters go ro n g, an day s in ic all
let a b c d h m wh h
rep re s en t t at arran ge h ic all th e le tters are in t e ir en t in

v
o wn e n elo p e sw No h m u
i f a in an y o t e r arran ge en t o c c pies th e p lac e o f an
d h mu h u m h
.

a s s ign e letter b , t is le tter s t e it er o cc p l

’

y a s p ac e o r s o e o t er .

( i) Su u h u m
pp o se b o cc pie s a s plac e w wh h
T e n th e n b er o f ay s in
’
ic
m d d h
.

all t h e re ain in g ii — 2 letters c an b e is p lac e i s u n _2 , an d t e refo re th e

num w wh h m d
b ers o f ay s in ic a d h wh m
ay b e is plac e b y in t erc an ge it s o e o n e
h
o f th e o t er n d d d ( )
1 letters , an th e re s t b e all is plac e is n 1 u n _2 .
 PR OBA B I LI TY . 4 05

( ) u
S pp o s e p ieus b s p l d
ac
o cc e a n d b
’
o e s n o t o cc py a s T n i n u ’
h
m
11 a e

u d d d
.
,

en ts s atis fy i n g th e re q ire c o n itio n s , s in c e a is fi x e

’
in b s p lac e ,
mu
arran ge
th e le tters b , c , d, d
s t b e all d wh h
is p lace , ic c an b e o n e in ay s ; d w
h
t ere fo re th e n um w
b e r o f ay s i nwh h u ic a o c c p ies th e p lace o f an o t er le tter h
h whh
b u t n o t b y in terc an ge it t at le tte r i s n
( ) 1 u n _1 ;

u =
<
n 1) ( 11
.

fro mwh i h c , b y th e mth e od o fA rt 4 4 4 , we fi n d

. an

Als o u
1
= 0, u
2
= 1; t hu s we fi n ally o b tain
1 1 1 1

N o w th e to tal n b er um o f w wh h
ay s in ic th e n h
t in gs c an b e p u t in n

p lac e s is n ; t erefo re th e h re q u d h
ire c an c e is

1 1 1

Th e p ro b le mh
e re inv vo l e d is o f c o n s ide ra b le in t e re s t , a n d in

so m
e o f it s an m ym fi
o di c a t io n s h a s a in t a in e d a
p er an en t
p lac e m m
in w
o rk s o n h y
th e T eo r o f Pro b a b ilit I t wa s rs t dis c s s e d y fi u
m
.

b y M o n t o rt , a n d it wa s ge n e rali e d b y D e M o ivre , E le r, an d s u
L apla c e .

*
484 uj
Th e s b e c t o f Pro b ab ilit is s o e x t e n s i e t h a t it is y v
m v m h
.

i p o s s ib le h
e re t o gi e o re t a n a s k et c o f th e
p rin c i a l
p h
a l e b ra ic a l
g e t o ds mh A n ad m i ra b le c o lle c t io n o f
.
p ro b le s ,
ill s m u
v y w
t ra t in g e e r alge b ra ic a l p ro c es s , ill b e o n d in W it o rt s
’
fu h w h
Ch o i c e a n d Ch a n ce ; a n d t h e rea de r wh o is ac q a in t e d it t h e u w h
I n t e gra l C alc l s a uu m
y u f
c o n s lt Pro es s o r C ro t o n s a rt ic le Pro b a
’
f
b ility in th e E n cy c lo p cedi a B ri ta n n ic a A c o p le t e a c c o n t o f m u
v m
.

uj
t h e o rigin a n d de e lo p e n t o f t h e s b ec t is gi e n in To d
’
n te r s v hu
H is to ry of th e Th eo ry of Pro b a b ili ty fro th e ti e of Pa s ca l to m m
th a t of L ap la ce .

Th e p ra c t ic a l a pplic a t io n s o f t h e t e o r o f Pro b ab ilit to h y y

co mm e rc ia l t ran s a c t io n s a re b e o n d t h e s c o e o f a n
p e le e n ta r y m y
t re a t is e ; fo r t es e w e ahy re e r t o t h m
e a rt ic le s A n n u i ties a n d f
I n s u ra n ce in t h e E n cy clop te dia B rita n n ic a .

'
*
E XA M PL E S . XXXII . e .

1 t at are th e o dd s in fa v u f h wi g l
o r o t ro n at eas t 7 in a s in gle

h ww h di
.

t ro it t wo ce ?

2 I n a
p u 5so
rs e t h e re are v ig d h illi g
e re n s an 4 s n s If t h e y a re

d w wh h h h m v
. .

ra n o u t o n e b y o n e , at is t e h c an c e t at t e
y co e o u t so e re ign s

a n d s h i lli n gs alte rn a te ly , b e gin n i n g wi h v i t a so e re gn

4 06 H I GH E R A L E BR A G .

3 If on an v
a e rage 9h ip s s out o f 10 retu rn s afe t o po rt , w h at

Is th e
.

c h an c e t h at o u t o f5s h ip s e x pe c te d l will at eas t 3 arri e v ?

4 In a lo ttery all t h ti k e c e ts bl k b t
are an s u one ; eac hp ers o n

dra w s
.

a t ic k e t, an d retain s it : s h w th
e hp at eac e rs o n h as an eq ul a

c h an c e o w f dra in g th e p riz e .

5 O b g i whit d d b ll d ta n s 5 d b g 3 a

wh i d d b l F m f h m h
a s , an a s ec o n
dm
. n e a co n e an re

co n t i a ns 4 te an 5 re a ls ro one o t e c o s e n at ran o

d w fi d th h h h y f diff t l u , ,
.

tw b ll o a s are ra n : n e c an c e t at t e a re o e ren co o rs .

6 Fiv p A B 0 D E h w ers o n s di i th d md t ro a e n e o r er n a e
u til f h m h w
e
fi d h i l tiv h f wi i g
. , , , ,

n one o t e t ro s an ace : n t e r re a e c an ces o nn n

su pp i g h t h w
os n t i u eill ro
pp s to co n t n e t an ac e a ears .
,

7 Th q u f h
ree s b d b i g h ares o d mwh a c es s o ar e n c o s en at ran o at

h t h t tw h ? ,
.

i h
s t e c an ce f l da f o are o o n e c o o u r an one o an o t er

8 A p t h w t w di th mm ub d th th
h d h umb
ers o n ro s o c e, o n e e co on c e , an e o er

gul th l w f big k i
.

a re ar t etra e ro n t e n er o n e o es t ac e e n ta en n

th f h t
e c as e o h d fi d th v g v lu f th h w d
t e etra
,

e ro n n e a e ra e a e o e t ro an
mp h h
; ,
co are f h wi g
t e c 6 7 an ces O t ro n 5, , .

’ ’
kill i dt D
’ ’
9 A B s s 3 t O s to s as l : ; o s as 3 : 2; an o s as 4 3
h th A i th t i l wi h h p will u d
.

fi d h
n t e c an c e at n ree r a s, o n e t e ac e rs o n s c cee

twi t l ce a eas t .
,

10 A i t k i b w
c erta n by h fi p
s a w h eh w s to e on t e rs t e rs o n o t ro s

with t h d l di if h wh
.

an ac e an oc ap ei h ra e : t e re are 4 e rs o n s at s t e

ch f h l
an ce o ? t e as t

11 Tw pl y A B f q u l k ill l i f m A a set o

g m
o a p y ge rs g o e a s are a n a es

g m mp
;
w mpl th d B w
.
,

an ts 2 a es to co ete e s e t, an an ts 3 a es : co are
thi h e r c f wi i gan c es o nn n .

12 A pu i v ig d w h illi g p
rs e co n ta ns 3 so e re ns an t o s n s : a ers o n
d w hh d dl k f h mwh i h p v
.

ra i i
s o n e co n n ea c an an oo s at o n e o t e c ro es
to b v ig h w h th h i q u lly lik ly b v ig
e a so ere n ; s e t at e ot er s e a e to
,

e a so ere n

or a s hilli g n .

13 A d B pl y f p i
an A i th w di fi t
a di tor a r ze ; s to ro a e rs an s o

h w If h f il B i h w d wi if h h w
.
,

wi if h n e t ro s 6 e a s s to t ro an to n t ro s
e
h w g i wi w i h
,
.

6 or I f h f il A i t
5 e d
a s, s o t ro a a n an to n t 6 o r 5 o r 4,
h h pl y
.

an d so fi d h on : f n t e c an c e o eac a er .

14 S v p d e w l t
en f t h up y f h i t i
ers o n s ra s or t
fi l ilw y mp tm fi d h h ( ) h w p ifi d
. o e o cc an c o e s x s ea s n
a rs t c ass ra a co ar en t: n t e c an c e 1 t at t o s ec e
b i i ta ( ) th h y b i dj te s eat s , 2 at t ta ac en t s e ats
m id
p e rs o n s o n o os
pp e o n a on
th e sa e s e .

15 A mb
. i t f 7 digit wh
nu mi
er c o n s s s o
p v h h s o se su s 59 ; ro e t at t e

ch f i b i g d ivi ib l b y
an c e o ts i
5 e n s e 11 s .

16 Fi d th . h f h wi g
n i e c i gl h w wi h
an c e o di t ro n 12 n a s n e t ro t 3 ce .
4 08 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

26 h
T e re are t wo p rs es , o n e c o n tain in g t re e s o ereign s an u h v do
m
a

h .

h h h
s illin g, an d t h e o t er c o n t ain in g t re e s illin gs an d a s o e re i gn A co v
k m k w wh h d d h
.

is t a en fro o n e ( it is n o t n o n ic ) an d ro pp e I n t o th e o t e r ;
h
an d t e n o n d w
ra in g a c o in fro m h u t h f t o b e t wo ud
m
a re o n
e ac p rs e e
y
h
s illin gs h dd h ,

W at are th e o s again s t t h is ap p en i n g agai n I f t wo o re

d w m h u
.

are ra n , o n e fro eac p rs e ?

27 If i gl i f md b y j i i
a t r an h pi k e s dm
or e o n n gt ree o n t s ta e n a t ran o

i um i l p v h h dd
.

i n h t f
e c rc f e re n c e o g i a c rc e , ro e t at t e o s are 3 to 1 a a n st

i ts b i g e n u gl d ac te -
an e .

28 Th i k d m h i
ts u m f f ta at ran o on t e c rc e re n c e o a

h h mf y w f h
re e o n are en
p
i l wh i h h
.

at t t at t e su o an t o o t e a rc s so

d mi d i g
c rc e : s e c an ce

e te r ne h h hi d ? s reate r t an t e t r

29 A li i d ivid d ne d mi h p wh i h h e at ran o n t o t ree art s , at s t e c an ce

h h y f m h id f p ib l i gl ?
. s

t at t e or t e s es o a o ss e t r an e

3 0 Of w p u t igi lly
o i d rs es v ig d h one or na co n ta n e 25 so e re n s , an t e

h v ig d h lli g O p u i k b y h
.

o t er 10 so e re n s an 15 s i n s n e rs e s ta en c an c e

d w wh i h p v b ll v ig wh i h
.

an d 4 i co n s ra n ou t, c ro e to e a so e re ns : at s t e

h h hi p u
an c e t at i
t ly s v ig d wh i h p b
rs e c o n ta n s on so e re n s , an at s t e ro

d w f mi ?
c

a b l v lu
e f h
a e O t e n ex t ra ro t

31 O igh li fl g h
a s tra w p i
t k d m
n e o t t o o n ts are ta e n at ran o

h mi g
n en a ;
h n h h di b w h 6
.

fi d h
n t e c a ce t at t e s t an c e et een t e s re at e r t an .

32 A igh li fl
s tra h i d ivid d i h p b y w
t ne o en gt a s e n to t re e arts t o

k d mfi d h h h p ig h b
.

p i
o n ts t a en at ran o ; n t e c an c e t at n o art s reate r t an .

33 If igh li f l gh
a b w l gh
s t ra b t o t + t o en t
m u d h h mm p f h l g h
on n e en a s a, are
d mh h
.

e as re at ran o ,
t e c an c e t at t e co on art O t es e en t s
9

s h ll a no d i b wh
t e xc ee l h
0 b
s l
C
h
a
h
d

e re c i s es s t an a or ; a so t e c an c e

t h h mll l g h b li i ly w i h i h l g i g
at t e s a er en t
b
es e n t re t n t e ar e r a s
a

34 If igh li fl a h b w l gh b
s t ra t gt + +c t t
mm p wh i h
on n e o en o
m u d d mh h
a en s a, a re

f h i h vi g
.

e as re at ran o
,
t e c an c e o t e r a n a co on art c

s h ll a n o ddi (
t e xc ee
b)
wh d i l sth i h
c
b e re s es s an e t er a o r .

35 F p g our A B 0 D i
as s en t g h th
e rs , en t re s ran to
m d l
e rs ea c o e r, are
v lli g i ilw y i whi h
.
, , , ,

tra e n n a ra i lfi l a t ra n c co n ta rs t c as s ,
h i d l mp m A d B g l m wh
ns -
s ec o n '
c as s ,
an d n t r -
c as s co art en ts an are en t e en o se re
i h v lli g fi d hi d l
.

sp i
ec t ve a
p i f r or c an c e s o t ra e n rs t, s ec o n or t r c as s are
re p re s e n di hi te by
n e ac 0 d D l di wh
n s t an c e A, p ,
’
,

im d by l m P v
v; an are a es o se
s il ar
p i i h
a r or h p c an c es are eac re re s e n te n ro e
h f ll v lu f u wh , .
,
t at, or a
( a
p i h es i l
o A, p , e x ce t t art c
l m ) m lik ly b f u d b h i h
v n e ar
p c as e en
A v= d B A to ot t
m y f h m l dy h
p n an are o re e e o n n e
co p a n o t h wi h diff
e sa
,

e a t an eac t a ere n t one .

 C H A PTER XXXI I I .

D E TE R M IN A N TS .

48 5 TH E p res e n t c h ap te r is de o t e d t o a b rie dis c s s io n o f v f u

m m m
.

det e r in an ts a n d t h eir o re e le en ta r ro
p p e rt ie s Th e s lig t y . h
u y hh v w
in t ro d c t o r s ke t c e re gi e n ill e n a b le a s t de n t t o a a il u v
hm f v m
i s e l O f t h e a d a n ta ge s o f de te r in a n t n o t a t io n in A n al t ic a l y
m y m h
G e o e t r , a n d in s o e o t e r p a rt s o f H ig e r M a t e a t ic s ; h hm
fu f m h h
lle r in o r a t io n o n t is b ra n c o f A n al s is a
y b e Ob t a in e d y m
f m
ro m
D r Sa l o n s L es s o n s I n tro du cto ry to th e ill o dern H igh er
’

u
A lgeb ra , a n d M ir s Th eo ry of D eter in a n ts
’
m .

486 . C o n s ide r t h e t wo h mgo o en e o u s lin e a r e

q u a t io n s

Q x +
Qy z
Q
a
z
mb y 2
O;

mu ltiply i n
g t h e fi rs t e
q u i
at o n by b the seco n d by 6 su b
t ra c t in g an v
d di idin g b y a
t, we O b t a in

—
( 1,
l a b = O.

h
T is re s ul
t is so mtim w
e es rit t e n

a
l
bl
a
2
b2

an f
d t h e e x p re s s io n o n t h e le t is c a lle d a det er in an t I t c o n s is t s m
um f m h
.

o f t wo ro w
s an d two c o l n s , a n d in it s e x p a n de d o r eac

ter m u u
is t h e p ro d c t o f t wo q a n t it ie s ; it is t e re o re s a id t o b e h f
o f t h e s eco n d o rder .

Th e le t t e rs a b u a 2 , b e a re c a lle d t h e co n s ti tu en ts o f t h e
m m
de t e r in an t , a n d t h e t e r s a b a b a re c a lle d t h e ele en ts m .
 10 HI GH E R A L EBR A G .

487 . Sin c e

a b a b —a b a a
l , §, l

it f ll w t h
o o s at th e va lu e of th e m
deter in a n t is n o t a ltered b y ch a n
g
i n g th e ro ws in to c o lu m n s, a n d th e co lu n s in to ro ws m .

4 88 . A ga in , it is e a s il y s e en t h at

a
1
b1 61 a
l
an d al b1 a b
a
2
b2 b2 a
2
a
2
b2 a
1
bl

t h at is , if w e i n terc h a n e two ro ws o r two c o lu

g m f th n s o e de ter
mi n an t, we o b ta in a deter in a n t which difers fro m mi t ly i on n sign .

4 89 . L et us n o w c o n s ide r th e h mgo o e n eo u s li n ear e

q u a t io n s

a x
,
by c ,z O,

a x
g
b gy c z
z
O,

a x
3
by c z
s
0 .

By e li mi n a t in
g x,
y ,
z ,
we o b t a in as in E x 2 , A rt 1 6 , . .

l ( ( s z)
a b c b c b , ( 02 a 3 c a
3 2 ) c
l
a b a b O,

a b e b e a -
i—c O .

a! 61 01

a
?
62 0
2

a
s
b3 c
3

an d th e e x p res s io n o n t h e le t b f ig e n a de t e r in a n t m wh i h c c o n s is t s

of t re e ro h w s an d t h re e co lu m i n s s c a lle d a de t e r mi n an t o f th e
th ird o rder

4 90 By a m
re a rran
g t f t m t h e en o er s e ex
p an de d
mi t my b w itt
.

th e ab o v e de t e r n an a e r en

—b
, ( 2 3
a b c c
) + d ( b c

a
l
b2 b3 b3 bl
0 0 0 C
2 3 3 l
412 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

Th e de t e r in an t m al b1 01

“
I ( 2 3
6 6 b C
l b l ( c2 a 3 0 11
3 2 ) C
l

a s) I ( s
b i ( a z ca
’ a C b C b C b a
s

h en c e

a
l
bl cl

“
2
b2 0
2

a
3
b 0
3

T hu s it a
pp e a rs t h at if two j
a d a c en t c o lu m n s , o r ro ws , of th e
m
deter in a n t a re in terch a n ged, th e sign o f th e deter m in a n t i s
c h a n ged, b u t i ts va lu e re a in s u n a ltered m .

I f fo r t h e s ake o f b re i t v yw e de n o t e t h e de t e r in an t m
a] b, 01

a
,
b2 0
2

“
3
63 6
3

by t h en th e u lt w h v j u
re s e a e st o b t a in e d my b w
a e rit t e n

( l
b ) a e
z s

Si mil a rl yw e my h w t h
a s e at

( s sl ( 2 3) ( 1 2 3)
C a
i
b Cl/ 6
1
6 Z
a 6 6 °

493 If two ro ws or two co lu m ns o

f the deter mi n an t a re

mi
.

iden tic a l th e deter n an t va n is hes .

Fo r le t D b e v lu
f t h e de t e r in a n t, t e n b y in t e r
th e a e o m h
h
c an i
g gn t w o ro s o r two co l w
n s we o b t a in a d e t e rum
in an t m
wh o se v u
a l e is —D
; b u t t h e de t e r in a n t is n a lt e re d
; m
e n c e u h
I) r h
D , t a t is D
.
0 T s w e a e t h e o llo in g e q a t io n s ,
. hu h v f w u
“ A _ a A a A D
1 1 g 2 s 3

b,A l b, A 2 63 A 3 0,

c
l
A l c 2
c
a
A 3
0 .

494 If ea ch c o n s titu en t i n a n y ro w, o r in a n y c o lu mn is
m m m mltip li d
.
,

u lti li ed b
p y th e s a e
f a c to r, th en th e de ter i n a n t is u e
b y th a t fa c to r .
 D E TE R M I N A N TS . 413

m a
l
Al — m a
2
A2 m a
3
AS

(
77 2. a
l
A I
a
s
A s) ;

wh i h p v
c ro es t h e p ro p o s itio n .

C OR h
I f e a c c o n s t it e n t o f o n e ro w , o r u l
co um n , is t h e sa m e

mu
.

lt iple o f th e c o rre s p o n din g c o n s t it e n t u of an o t h er ro w, o r

co um
l n ,
t h e de t e r in an t a n is e s m v h .

4 9 5 If ea ch c o n s titu en t i n a n y ro w, o r c o lu m
n
f
c o n s is ts o tw o
m m s u m of
.
,

ter s , th en th e deter in an t c a n b e ex
p res s ed a s th e two
o th er deter in an ts m .

T h us w e ha v e

(t, d
l
b1 0, d
l

cl (1
2
b2 0
2

7
“ ct 0 0
3 3 3 3

fo r t h e e x p re s s io n on t h e le t f

( “
1
A i
a2A 2 a
a
A a) ( a
l
A l
A a
3
A 3) ;

wh i h p v
c ro es t h e p ro p o s it io n .

m
I n lik e if h tit u an n e r e ac co n s en t in an
y o n e ro w, o r co um
l n

mt m th d t mi
,

c o n s is t s o f er s, e e er n an t c an be ex re s s e d as th e
p
su m m h d t mi t s
o f ot er e er n an .

S imil ly w my h w t h t
ar ,
e a s e a

a, 0
1

a a 0
2 ? 2

(t
a
4 14 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

T h e se re su l my ily b ts a eas e g e n e ra lis e d ; t hu s if t h e co n

s t it u e n ts o f th th lu m e re e co n s c o n s is t f o m n
p t e r m p s res ec

mi m f mp
, ,

t iv e ly , t h e de t e r n an t c an be e x p re s s e d as the su o u

m
,

de te r in a n t s .

E xa m
pl e 1 . S hw h e t at 3a b c a
s b3 c
3

Th e gi v d
en e te r mi n an t

b a a c a a c b a

c b b a b b a c b
a c c b c c b a 0

h u d mi h v h
t s th e fi rs t t ree a n is , A rt 4 9 3 ;
2
Of t fo r e ter n an 1 8 th e ex
es e
9
du u d m h
.

pres s io n t o th e las t o f th e fo r e ter in an ts ; e n c e i ts v 1

1u e
7

re ces

z — ab — b — b0
{ ( e c ) ( ac
)}
3a b c — a 3 — b 3 — c3

m
E x a p le 2 . Fin d th e v u al e o f 67 19 21

39 13 14
81 24 26

21 10 19 21
14 0 13 14
26 9 24 26

19 19 2 10
13 13 1 0
24 9

2 20 — 6 3 — 43 .

496 . C o n s ide r t h e de t e r in an t m
(
a+ p 961 61 or

a
,
+ p b2 gc2 b2 c
2

a
3
+ b
p s gc3 b3 c
3

In t h e la s t a rt ic e l we c an s h w th
e at it is e
qu al to

“I 61 CI 6
B 1 bl 01
Q C) bl CI
416 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

an d o f th e f u d mi t
o r e te r n an s in t o w ic h h re s o v
l e d
t h e re is o n e wh i h d t v c o es n o an is h ,
n a mly
e

b
p l
_
gcl Ta r

b
p 2
—
gc
2
ra

b
p s
-

q 0
3

E xa m
pl e 1 . Fin d th e v u
al e o f 29 26 2
25 31 27
I
’
63 54 46

Th e gi v d
en e ter mi n an t

3 26 -
4
.

—6 31 —4

9 54 — 8

12 1 1 26

0 —3 5
0 1 2

[ E xp la n a tio n du
I n th e fi rs t s tep o f th e re c tio n eep th e s ec o n co l k d um
um d m h
n
u md
n altere ; fo r th e fi rs t n ew c o l n i in is e ac c o n s tit e n t o f th e fi rs t h u
u m
co l d u
n b y t h e c o rre s p o n in g c o n s tit en t o f t h e s e c o n ; fo r th e t ir n ew d h d
um d h h
co l n u hd
i in is e ac c o n s tit en t o f th e t ir c o l n b y th e c o rre sp o n in g um d
u d d
c o n s tit e n t o f th e s ec o n I n th e s eco n s tep t a e o u t th e fac to rs 3 a n d k
d mh
hd k u d d
.

4 I n th e t ir s tep eep th e fi rs t ro w n altere ; fo r th e s ec o n n e w ro w

u d d
.

i in is th e c o n s tit en t s o f th e s e co n b y th e c o rre s p o n in g o n e s o f th e
h d dm h
fi rs t ; fo r th e t ir n ew ro w i i n is th e c o n s tit en t s o f th e t ir b y t ic e u hd w
d u
th e c o rre sp o n in g co n s tit en ts o f th e fi rs t
‘

Th e re ain in g s tep s ill b e . m w

e as ily s e en ] .

E x a p le 2m . S hw he t at a b c ( a b
2b
2c

Th e gi v d en eter mi n an t

a +b +c a +b+ c a +b + c 1 1
2b b —c — a 2b 2b b —c — a

26 2c c —a — b 2c 2c

1 0
2b -
b —c — a
2c 0 — c —a — b
 D E TE R M I N A N TS . 4 17

[ E xp lan a tio n I n th e fi rs t n e w e te r in an t th e fi rs t ro w is th e s u o f d m m
u h
th e c o n s tit en ts o f th e t ree ro s o f th e o rigin al e ter in an t, th e se c o n w d m d
an d t ir ro h d w u d
s b e in g n altere I n th e t ir o f th e n ew e ter in an ts th e h d d m
um m u d wh d h d um
.

fi rs t c o l n re ain s n alte re , ile th e s ec o n an d t ir co l

um m h
n s are

o b tain e d u u
b y s b trac tin g th e c o n s tit en ts o f th e fi rs t c o l n fro t o se o f
th e s ec o n d h d v
an d t ir re s pec ti e ly Th e re ain in g tran s fo r atio n s are s fh m m u
v u
.

c ien tly o b io s ]

4 97 B f h wi g h w t e o re s e n o o e x p re s s t h e p ro d c t u of t w o de
mi m
.

ter n an ts as a de t e r in a n t , w e s h a ll in v e sti at e th e
g v u al e o f

an l
b l fl, a a 0
1 72 a a b VB3 0
1 73
a a a a 0 a a 0
2 72 2 73
a a + 63 3 1 + 0
3 71 a a + b glgs + 037 2
a a + 6318 3 + 0
3 73
F mAro 4 9 5, we k n o t at t h e a b o e de t e r in an t
rt w h v m c an be
m m
.

e x p re s se d a s t h e s u o f 2 7 de t e r in a n t s of ic it wh h w ill b e
u
s ffic ie n t t o gi e t h e o llo in g s p e c i e n s v f w m
a a (t a 01 32 0
1 73 O
i
/
l2
6 2 18 2 C
2 73 C
2 72 62 18 3
6318 2 6
3 73 0
3 72 Z
) 18
3 3

th e se a re re s
p e c ti v ly qu
e e a l to

l
a a a
s s
“
1
a
l
“
I
“
1
bl C
1
(1 8 37 2
11
a C
l
bl
66
2
“
2
“
2
“
2
62 C
2
C
2
62
a
s
a
s
a
s
63 0
3 3
6
3
be
wh i h v i h ; imil ly it w ill b f u d t h 2 1
.

th e fi rs t o f c an s es s ar e o n at

ou t f th e
o 27 d t m i t v i h
e er Th i d t m i t
n an h s an s e s x e er n an s t at

m
.

re ain a re e
qu l t a o

( 6
0
3 2 73 a
fi e re fi
e/t n G
etter.)
X

t h at is , B

h en c e t h e gi e n de t e r in a n t v m c an be e x p re s s e d a s t h e p ro d u ct

t wo h
o t e r de t e r in an t s m .

498 . Th e p ro du ct o
f two deter mi n an ts i s a deter mi n an t.

C o n s ide r t h e t w o lin e a r e
qu i
at o n s

a
l
X , l e
0)
e
,
x ,
of

H . H . A .
4 18 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

wh e re X, a as l 1
a x
z 2

X2 x 8
,
9:

u u
S b s t it t in g fo r X ] an d X 2 in we hv a e

( a a 61 3 1 ) x ( a e x : 0
( )
3
l l 2 2

b2 6 1 ) x
1 (
+ a a 62 6 2 ) $
2
: 0

In o rde r t h at e
q u t i a on s
( )
3 my imu lt u ly h
a s an e o s o ld fo r
v lu s
a e o fx1 an d so , o th ther an z e ro ,
w muth v e s a e

a a + 6 13, a a + 6 16 2 = 0

a e
g
l 62 6 , a
g2
r
a

Bu t e q u i
at o n s
( )
3 w ill h o ld if e qu a t io n s
( )
1 h o ld, an d t is h
w ill b e t h e c a s e e it h er if
a
1
b1 0
a
?
62

or if Xl z 0 an d X2 = 0;

u
H e n c e if e q at io n s ( 5) an d ( 6 ) o ld, e
q a t io n
( )
4 s t a ls o h u mu
h f
h o ld ; an d t e re o re t h e de t e r in an t in ( 4 ) st c o n t a in as m mu
f a c t o rs t h e de t e r m
in an t s in ( 5) a n d an d a c o n s ide ra t io n of

m
t h e di e n s io n s o f t h e de t e r in a n t s s e s t a t t h e re a in in g m hw h m
fa cto r o f 4
( ) st b e n mu e ric a l en c e um h
Ct
1
61 d a + 6 13 1 d a + 613 2
a
s,
b 2
a a
z l a a
g z

th e n um i e r c al f a c t o r, by co mp a rin
g t h e co e ffi i c en ts o f a b
l g lfl
a

on t h e t wo s ide s o f th e eq u a t io n s , b e in g s e en to b e u n it y .
z

C OR . a
1
b1 a
l
2
b,
2
a a
l s
b b
2
b2 b i bs
9 .

a a
2 2

Th e ab o v mt h
e e o d f p ro o is p e r e c t l
o f f y g e n e ra l, an d h lds
o
wh t v a e er b e th e o rde r o f t h e de t e r in an t s m .

Sin ce th e v lu
de t e r n an
a e f
is n o t alte re d w e n we
o a mi t h
w rit e t h e ro s as co l w
n s, a n d t h e c o l um n s a s ro s, th e
p ro d c t um w u
o f t wo de t e r in an t s amy b e
p m
e x re s s e d a s a de t e r i n an t in m
v
s e e ra l a s
y w; b u t t e s e will a ll
gi h
e th e sa e r e s lt o n e x v m u
a n SI o n
p .
4 20 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

12 . Wi h u t o t exp an di g n th e d t mi e er n an ts , p ro v h
e t at

a b c y b g x y z

r
x y z x a p p g

p g r z c r a b c

13 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

(2) 1 5— 2x 11 10
( )
1 a a x

mmm 1 1 — 3x 17 16

b x b 7 -
x 14 13

Pro v e th e fo llo w m
g d
i en tities

14 . b +c c+d a + b 2 a b c

q + r r+
p r+ q p q r

y + z e +x x +y v y z
—d b)
1 a a
2
(b -
c ) ( c ) ( a -
.

2
1 b b
2
1 c 0

—c c — a
1 1 1 =
( b ) ( ) (a
a b c

3
a
s
b 3
c

—z —x
x y z (y )( z ) ( x

2 z 2
x Z
y
ex x
yz y
— 2a 4 ( b + c)
a +h a + c

b+a — 2b b +c

c + d c+ b — 2c

19 .
(b c ) 2
a
2
2a bc ( a b c
)
3

b 2
52
2
c ( a + b)

20 . E x
p re ss as a de ter in an t m 0 c b 2

c 0 a

b a 6

21 Fi d
d th e c o n itio n t at th e e q atio n lx + y + n z = 0
n h a r be u m m
d h v u f
.

s at i s fi e

d h w h
b y th e t re e s e t s o f al e s ( a l , b l , c l ) ( a b z , 02) ( a 3 , b e cg) ;
m
m
an S e t at I t I s t h e s a e as th e c o n it io n t at t h e t re e e q at io n s d h h u
a x + by 0 2 : 0, a x b
+ 3y + g
e e = 0
my b imul
2 2 3

a e S t an e o u ly s s at is fi d by l m
e , ,
n .
 D E TE R M I N A N TS . 421

22 . Fi n d th e v lu a e o f
ab + ch cd — bA x 7\
a b — ch b c + a 7\
ca + b 7\ b c — ak

23 . Pro v h e t at a + ib c+ id x y id
'
— C
+ id a — ib — — l8 + B
’
a t
y

w h e re i V 1, c an b e writte n in t h e f m
or

A — iB 0 iB
0 tB A + iB
h en ce de du ce th e f ll wi g th
o o n e o re md ,
ue to E le r u
Th e ro du ct o
f two su m s ea ch o
ff our s
qu a res c a n be exp ress ed
su mf o our s
q u a res .

Pro v e th e f ll wi g id
o o n en tities
? 2 z
24 . 1 be ad Na a d
2
1 ca bd 2
c a
z
b d 2

Z 2
1 a b cd a b 0
2
d 2

—c —d — d)
-
( b ) ( c a )( a b) ( a ) (b — d) ( c .

—
bc a 2
ca — bz '
( lb — 0
2

— b c + ca + ab b c — ca + ab b c + ca — ab

3 ( b —c) ( c — a )( a

—x — 2 —
26 .
(a ) (
a
y ) ( ) a z
2

—x —
1 ?
?
( ) ( 1) y ) ( 3) 0
2 -

( C W ( C Z)
z —
( l
2 2
C x - “

2 ( b — C) ( 0 -
a ) ( w —
y)
27 . Fi n d in th e f m f d mi
o r o a et e r n an t th e co n di i t on t h at th e
e x p res s io n
2 2
M 2 5 20
7
2
2 24 737 2 “fa /
3

my b a e t h e p ro du ct o f two fac t o rs o f th e fi d rs t e gre e in a, B, y

28 . So l v e th e eq u atio n

'
2
w abx
’
u a x v a cx
' '
w a bx v b z
x u b cx
' ’
v a cx u b ox 20

e x p re s s in g th e re s u lt by m e an s o f d mie te r n an ts .
4 22 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

49 9 Th e p ro p e rt ie o f de t e r in a n t s a
y b e s m m u fu lly m
se e

mu
.

p lo y
e d in s o l in
g s i lt an e ovs lin e a r e
q a t io n s u u .

Let th e eq u a t io n sb e

a
s
mb y c z
s
dl 0,
a x
s
bsy o z
g
d2 0,

mu ltiply t h mb y A e — A As re s p e c t i v lye an d dd t h e
a re s u lt s,

A b i gm m
n
A A i e n n o rs o f a
l ,
a , a
s
in t h e de t e r in a n t
s, s s

a1 bl c,

a
2
62 6
2

a
s
63 c
s

Th e fi
c o e f c ie nfy ts o an d z v an is hi n virt u e o f th e re la t io n s
p ro v ed

in A rt 4 9 3 , a n d we
. o b t a in

( a
s
A 1
a
s
A 2
a
s
A s)
x +
( C Z1 A 1
_ ds A 2 ds A s ) 0 .

Simil ar l y w my h w t h e a s e at

b
( l l
B 62 3 2
b3B3 ) y (d B l l
d2 B 2 CZB
3 S ) O,

'
( ( l l
’
0
1
0 1
c
s
C s
c
s
Cs)
z d C ds Cs ds Cs ) 0 .

a,A A b sBs)
l
a
s s
a
s
A s
x
( 1 1
6 B “
b s B2
0
1
0 1
c
s
C s
c
s
Cs
D ;

h en c e t h e so u
l t io n my a be w itr t en

x
y
”

d1 bl c
l
dl a
l

d2 b2 c
2
d2 a
2

ds bs c
s
ds a
s

o r m o re s y mmt i lly e r ca

b1 0
1
d1
6, c2 d2
bs c
s
ds

500 S pp o s e we
. u hv a e th e s y t m f f u h mg
s e o o r o o en e o u s lin e a r
u
e q at io n s
4 24 HI GH ER AL G EBR A .

Th e le t an d f h mmb er o f t i h s qu e at o n i is a de t e r in an t h ic m w h
m
e

um
-

c o n s is t s o f n ro w
th
s an d n co l n s , an d is c alle d a dete r in an t o f
th e n o rde r .

Th e dis c s s io n o f t is u o re ge n e ra l or h m f m
o f de t e r in an t is m
y
b e o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e p re s e n t wo rk it w
ill b e s f c ie n t h e re ufi
m h
t o re a rk t a t t h e p ro p e rt ies h ic w hh v
a e b ee n e s t ab lis e d in t h e h
m h
c a se o f de t e r in an t s o f t h e s e c o n d a n d t ird o rde rs a re q it e u
g e n e ral, an d a re c a pab le o f b e in g e x t e n de d t o de t e r in a n t s o f m
o rde r
an
y .

Fo r ex a mpl e, th e ab o v e det e r in m an t o f th e n
th
o rde r is
eq u a l to
a
l
A l
— b lB l + c
,
0 ,
dl D l 1) l s,

a A —a A A A 1) An
+ a — a + — a
s s s s s 4 n ,
l s

a c c o rdin
g w e de e lo p it
as ro t h e v
rs t ro w o r t h e f m fi
rs t c o l n fi um
m
.

H e re t h e c ap it al le t t e rs s t a n d fo r t h e in o rs o f th e c o n s t it e n t s u
de n o te d b y th e c o rre s p o n din g s all le t te rs , a n d a re t e s el e s m hmv
m
de t e r in an t o f t h e ( n s
— l) lb
o rde r E a c o f t es e a
y b e ex h h m
m um m
.

— ih
p re s s e d a s t h e s u o f a n b e r o f de t e r in an t s o f t h e
( n 2 )
o rde r ; a n d s o o n ; a n d t s t h e e x a n de d
p o r huo f t h e d e te r f m
m in an t a
y b m
e o b t a in e d .

h u gh w my lw ys d v l p d t mi b y m s
A lt o e a a a e e o a e er n an t e an f
o

th p e d ib d b v
ro c es s i i t lw y t h im
escr
p l t mt h e a o e, t s n o a a s e s es e o d,

es p i lly wh
ec a bj t i t mu h t fi d th lu
en our o ec s n o so c o n e va e of

th wh l d
e mi t o e t fi d th ig s f i
e ter v n an as o n e s n o ts se e ral
mt
,

e le en s .

502 . Th e ex p an de d f m f th
o r o e m
de t e r in an t

a
l
bl c
l

“
2
62 6
2

a
s
bs c

“ 6 0
1 2 3
a b c
l s 2
a b c a b c “ 6 0 a b c
s s 1 s s s 3 1 2 s s l

an d it a
pp e ar s ht at e a c h lmti
f t re e a c to r ,
e e en s u
t h e p ro d ct o h f s
f m h
o n e t ak e n ro eac ro w, an d o n e ro ea c co l n ; a ls o t h e f m h um
g h f
si n s o f ma l th e t e r s a re a n d o f t h e o th e r h a l Th e s ign s f
v m m
o f t h e s e e ral e le en t s a
y b e Ob t a in e d a s o llo Th e rs t f ws fi
m h h ufi f hm
.

e le e n t “ 6 0 1 in w ic t h e s f x es o llo w t h e a rit e tic a l Orde r,

v h h m v y h
1 2 3
is p o s it i e ; w e S all c all t is t h e le a din e le e n t ; e er t
m m
o e
g r
e le en t a f m u
y b e o b t a in e d ro it b y s it ab l in t e rc an gin g t h e y h
su ffi x e s Th e Sign
.
fi or is t o b e p re x e d to a n y e le e n t a c .
m
 D E TE R M IN A N TS . 4 25

c o rdin g i t c an b e as e ced ro t h e le a din g e led du

en t b
y an f m m
v
e e n o r o dd n b er o f pe r um mu
t a tio n s o f t wo s ffi x es fo r in s t a n c e , u
m
th e e le e n t a s b s c l is o b t a in e d b y in t e rc h a n gin g t h e ffi x e s 1 a n d su
h f
3 , t e re o re it s s ign is n e gat i e ; th e e le e n t “3 6 1 02 is o b t a in e d v m
by fi
rs t in t e rc h an gin g t h e s u fiix e s 1 an d 3 , a n d t e n t h e f xes h su fi
h
1 a n d 2, e n c e it s Sign is p o s it i e v .

503 Th e de t e r in an t m
h o s e le a din g w e le m en t is a b c d

my t h u
.
l s s 4

a s b e e x pre s s e d b y t h e n o t at io n

Ei a b c d
1 2 3 4
'

th e p l 2 i
a c e d b e o re t h e le a din
g e le e f
n t in dic a t in
g t h e a re a t e
gg g m
o f a ll t h e e le en t s m
ic h c an b e o b t a in e d ro wh
it b y it ab le f m su
in te rc h an ge s o f s u fii x e s a n d a d s t e n t o f s ign s ju m .

mm
So e ti e s t h e de t e r in an t is s t ill o re s i p l m m my e x pre s s e d by
e n c lo s in
g t h e le a din
g e le e n t wit in b ra c k e t s ; t m h h us ( a b c d

Is u
se d a s a n a b b re vI a t i o n o f 2 =b a b c d
s s s s
.
1 2 3 4

m
E x a p le d t mi t ( b d ) wh t ig i t b p fi d t
I n th e e er n an c e a S n s e
m
. a
1 2 3 4 5 o re xe o
th e ele en t a4 b 3c 1 d5e2 ?

F mth l di g l m t b y p m
ro uti g th uffi f d d w g t
ea n e e en er n e s x es

; f m th i b y p m
e o a an e e
b d uti g th uffi f b d w h v b d ;
by p m
c ro s er e s x es o an c e a e a4 3 c2
uti g th uffi f d d w h v b d ; fi lly b y p muti g
a 2 3
e n e
4 l 5 1 5
er n e s xe s o c an ea e a4 3c l e na er n

th u ffi f d d w b t i th qui d l m t b d ; d i 2 5

w h v md f u p m
e s x es o e o e re re

ut ti th ig f th l m t i p itiv
an c a n e e en a4 c e
5 2 an S n ce
3 1
e a e a e o r er a ons e S n o e e e en s os e .

504 I f in A rt 501 , e ac h o f th e c o n s t it e n t s b l , c l , k1 is u
m
. .

u
e q al t o z e ro t h e de t e r in a n t re d c e t o a sA l in o t e r wo rds u s h
u u
it is e q a l t o t h e p ro d c t o f a 1 an d a de te r in an t o f t h e ( n l) lb
m
o rde r, a n d we e as il y f
in e r t h e o llo win g ge n e ra l t h e o re f m .

If ea c h f
o th e c o n s ti tu en ts f
o th e fi rs t ro w or l m
co u n f
o a

deter mi n an t is z ero ex c e
p t th e fi rs t, a n d if th is c o n s titu en t is equ a l
to mth m
deter i n a n t is equ a l to
e ti es th a t deter i n a n t of lo wer mm m
m m
,

o rder whi ch is o b ta in e d b y o i ttin g th e rs t c o lu n an d rs t fi fi

ro w .

s
A ls o in c e b y s it ab le in t e rc h an ge o f ro u an d c o l n an
y ws u ms
u
c o n s t it e n t c a n b e b ro
g t in to th e rs t
p la c e , it uh
o llo s t a t if fi f w h
an
y ro w o r c o l um
n h a s a ll it s c o n s t it e n t s e x c e t o n e e
p q al t o u u
z e ro , t h e de t e r in an t c an i m
e dia t e l mm
b e e x p re s s e d a s a de t e r y
m in an t o f lo we r o rde r .

h
T is is s o e ti m ms u fu l i e se n th e re d u c t io n an d Si mplifi c a t io n

o f de t e r in a n t s m .
426 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e v u al e o f

30 11 20 38

6 3 0 9
11 2 36 3

19 6 17 22

Dm h h
i i n is e ac c o n s tit en t o f th e fi rs t c o l u
n b y t i ce th e c o rre s p o n in g um w dm
u
c o n s ti t e n t in th e s e c o n co l n , an d e ac d um
c o n s tit en t o f th e fo rt co l n h u u hm u
h m d
b y t re e ti e s th e c o rre sp o n in g c o n s tit e n t in th e s eco n co l n , an d u d u
we o b tain
8 1 1 20 5
0 3 0 0
15 —2 36 9
7 16 17 4

an d s in ce th e sec o n d ro w h as t h re e z e ro c o n s tit u en ts t is h d ete r mi n an t

3 8 20 5 3 8 20 5 3 0 1 0 —3 8 5

15 36 9 8 19 5 8 19 5 7 4

7 17 4 7 17 4 7 17 4

505 Th e . f ll w i o o n
g ex a mpl es s h ew a rt ifi c e s wh i h c a re Oc

c a s io n a ll
y se u fu l .

E xa m
p l e 1 P v h
. ro e t at

—b +c —d —b —c — d
a b c d ~

) ( a ) .

b a d c

c d a b
d c b a

By dd h
in g t o get e r all th e ro s we s e e t at a + b w
d is a fac to r o f th e h
m
a c
d e ter in an t ; b y a dd h
in g t o ge t e r th e fi rs t an d t ir ro s an d s b trac tin g h d w u
fro m th e re s lt th e s u u o f th e an d fo rt m s we s e e t a t d u h w h
m
s ec o n ro
b +c d i s als o a fac to r ; s i ilarly it c an b e s ewn t at a b c + d an d h h
m m m m
a
a + b d are fac to rs ; th e re ain in g fac to r is n u eric al, an d, fro a co
m
c
“
p aris o n o f th e ter s in o l in g a o n eac v v
S i e , is e as ily s e en t o b e n ity ; h d u
h en c e we hv
a e th e re q ire re s lt u d u .

m
E x a p le 2 . Pro v h
e t at

= —c —d —c —d —d
1 1 1 1 ( a — b) ( a )( a
) ( b )( b ) ( c ) .

a b c d
2 2 2 2
a b c cl

3 3 3 3
a b c d
v d m v h wh
Th e gi in an t an is e s
e te r en b = a , fo r t en th e fi rs t an d seco n h d
um d
en
co l h
n s are i en tical ; b is a fac to r o f th e eter in an t [A rt d m
m
en ce a

h
Si ilarly e ac o f th e e xp re s s io n s a c , a d, b c, b d, c d i s a fac to r o f
.

th e d m d m m
e ter in an t ; t h e e ter in an t b ein g o f s ix i e n s io n s , th e re ain in g dm m
mu
fac to r um
st b e n eric al ; an d, fro a co p ariso n o f th e te r s in o l in g m m vv
h d u
b c 2 d3 o n e ac Si e , it is e asily s e e n to b e n ity ; en c e we o b tain th e re q ire h u d
u
re s lt .
4 28 HI GH E R G
A L E BR A .

So l v e th e eq u tia ons

z = 1, 13 + by + cz = lc,
12 . 03 + y+ . ax

dx -
l by + cz = lc,
3
a x +b y+
3 3 =
c 2 lc3

x + y+ 2 + u = 1,
ax + by cz + du = lc,

15 . Pro v h e t at

b +c—a — d bc — ad ( + d) bc a

c + a — b — d ca — bd ca ( b + d)

a + b — c —d a b — cd a b ( c + d)

— 2 b — c c — a a — b a — cl b
( )( )( )( )( d) ( c

16 . Pro v the at

a
2
a
2
(b )c
2
be
2
b 2
b 2
(
c a) ca

b) 2 ab
0
2
c
2
(a
— b)
—
( b — 0
)( c -
a )( Cl

17 . S hw h
e t at

a b

f a

e f
d e

c d
b c

wh e re

2 — 2
C 0
=
f + 2 ae 2bd .

18 I f a e t e r in an t is d m o f th e th
o rde r,
d if th e c o n s tit en ts
an u
um
n
fi d w
.

t h I rd, are t h e fi rs t n fi gu rate n b e rs o f

.

o f I ts rs t, s e c o n ro s
,

t h e fi rs t , s ec o n , t i r , d h d d
o r e rs , h
S ew t at it s h
al e is n it
y v u u . .
 C H A PTE R XX XIV .

M I SC EL L A N E O US TH E OR E MS A N D E XA M PL E S .

506 WE
b egin t h i s h pt with s m m ks th
s h a ll c a er o e re ar on e

m f mb i fly i w i g th fu d m t l
.

e r an e n c e o f a lge b ra ic al o r r e re v e n e n a en a
p ,

v
la ws wh ic h h a e b ee n e s ta b lis h d i t h u s f th w k e n e co r e o e or .

507 I th p it i n f lg b
e i l
ex p i i p
os l s w p on d o a e ra c a r n c e e ro c e e

u t t w d t l y d w w ms d
.

ly t i lly
a t th
ca : a e o se e o n o a o n n e n a e an

ne w id b t w eas , b gi f m k wl dg f b t t
u e e n ro our n o e e o a s ra c

A i h mti
r t w p v e c t i l ws f p e ro ti wh i h
e cer a n p b l a o o e ra on c a re c a a e

of v ifi t i er i y p ti u l
ca on n d th g
eve r l th ar y f c a r c a s e , an e en era eo r o

th es e O
p i t it u t t h
e rat o n s c o n ss i f A lg b es e c en c e o e ra .

H it i u u l t
en c e p k f s A i h ms i a l A lg b o dS Sy m ea o r t et c a e ra a n

b li l A lg b
o ca d t mk e ra , a n di t i t i b tw o t h m I th a e a s nc on e een e n e

f mw dfi m m
.

or er ye b el i s
n e o ur s it h t i ll y i t ll ig oib l s n a e n se a r e ca n e e,

an d th d du fu d m t l l w f p ti ; i th l t
en c e e ce n a en a a s o o e ra on n e at e r

w s um th l w f A ith mti l A lg b t b t u i ll
e a s e e a s o r e ca e ra o e r e n a

c ase s , wh t v th tu f th ymb l my b d fi d
a e er e na re o e s o s a e, an so n

ou t wh t m i g m a u t b tt h d t t h ymb l i d h t
e an n
-

s e a ac e o e s o s n o r er t a

t h y my b y t h
e a l w o Th u s g du lly
e es e w t a s d th ra a as e ra n s c e n e

lim y A i h mti w u lt p i g p w l
.
,

it s f di o o r n ar r t e c, n e re s s s r n u n e an

m m
,

u
g g a h t
e b p las y d o d i t e e
p t t i s g i vo t e y b l an n e r re a on en o s o s

t m
,

wh i h w c t l
e re n o
p t d i t h i
co n
g i l d efi it i A
a et t h n e or n a e n on s e

s m tim f mth w y i wh i h t h g l l w f A lg b
.

a e e, ro e a n c e e n e ra a s o e ra

a re t b li h d w
es a s u d f th i p m
e e a re dass i re o e r er a n en c e an un

t h mt i
,

v e rs ali y v wh h y
t ,
e en pp li d t q uen t i t it t e i a re a e o an es n o ar e

ca lly i t lligib l n e e .

508 C fi i g tt on ti n
p n i i v i t
our a
g l v lu f en on to os t e n e ra a es o

ymb l th f ll w i g l w b li h d f m p i i
.

th e s o s, e ily o o n a s a re e a s e sta s e ro a r or

ar i h m i l d fi it i
t et ca e n on s .
4 30 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

I . Th e L aw o f Co mmt u at io n ,
wh i h w c e en u n c ia t e a s f ll w
o o s

()
1 A ddi tio n s an d su b tra c ti o n s my a be md a e in an
y o rder .

T hu s a + b — o z a — c + b : b — c + a .

( )
ii M u ltip lic a ti o n s an d divis i o n s my a be md a e in an y o rder .

T hu s a x bs a ;
an d so on .

a b —
z -
c a x b -
r x b =
( b —
z

II . Th e Law o f D is t rib u t io n , wh i h w c e en u i
n c ate as f ll w
o o s

M u ltip li ca tio n s an d divis io n s my a b e di s trib u ted o ver a dditio n s

an d su b tra c ti o n s .

T hu s
( a — b m m + c ,

—b
( a
)( c — d) = ac — ad — bc + bd .

[S ee E le mt en a ry A lgeb ra , A rt s . 3 3,

A n d s in c e divis io n is t h e re v e rs e o f mu ltipli c a t io n t h e dis t ri

b u tiv e la w fo r divis io n re q ire s u n o se
p a ra t e dis c u s s io n
,

III . Th e L aws o f I n dic e s .

mX m+
()
i
n 1;
a a “

[S e e E le mt en ar
y A lgeb ra , A rt 23 3 t o 2 3 5 ] .

h l w l id d w fu d m t l t
T es e a s a re u b j t h vi g
a o n as n a en a o ours ec a n

v u h y m s m y ,

b e en
p d t hro p p i
e i t on t h b l e sl d os t on a t e s o e o
p e

p i
osi v t d i g l
e an d t h t hy n te i t d i
ra uh wy an a t e a re re s t r c e n s c a a
i h mti lly i t lli ib l
,

t h t th p ti b v i di t d
a e o e ra on s a o
g
e n ca e a re a r t e ca n e e
I f th t h ld b y t h p i ip l f Sy m
.

di i
ese d co n t on s ob li l n o o e r n c es o

u m t h l ws f A i h mti l A lg b
, o ca
Alg b ew ra e a ss e b t ue a o r t e ca e ra to e r e
in v y
e er d p t t h i
c a s e an
p t i t wh i h th i
ac c e mp e n ter re t a on o c s a ss u
t i onl d By hi
ea s u w u s . u d h t th l w f t s co rs e e a re ass re t a e a s O
A lg b i l p
e i
ra c a lf o i t t d t h t t h y i lu d i
e ra t o n a re s e -
c o n s s en an a e n c e n
y A ith mti
,

t h i g li y h p ti u l
e r e n e ra t f di t e ar c a r c a se s o or n ar r e c .

509 F m h l w f mmu t ti w d du th u l
ro t e a o co a on e

mv l d i t i f b k t [E l m y A lg b
.
e ce e r es
fo r h t e re o a an n s er on o ra c e s e en ta r e ra ,
A 2 1 2 2]
rt s . d by h,
id f h ul w
an b li h h l w t e a o t es e r es e e s ta s t e a
 4 32 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

A ls o s in c e e v y er ra t io n al fu ti i v lv s
n c on n o e n o o p e ra t io n s but
t h o se bo v m ti
e en o n e d, it f ll w t h t
o o i s a a ra t o n a l fu n ct o n i o f a

mpl u mb
a

co mpl ex n u mb i i er s n
g e n era l a co ex n er .

f m
E x p res s io n s o f t h e o r + iy
) c an n o t b efu yll a
w ”
lo g ( x
m y
,

hu
t re a t e d wit o t Trigo n o e t r ; b u t b y t h e a id o f D e M o ivre s
’

h m y h h u h fu
t e o re , it is e a s t o S ew t at s c u
n c t io n s c a n b e re d c e d t o

com p l um
ex n b f m
e rs o f t h e o r A iB .

Th p i e ex i f u
re ss o ni l u d d i
e t
x
h m
“?
g l
s o co rs e nc e n e o re e n e ra

f m b t t h md f t i g it i w hy f tt i
or a
” ‘
u an o er o e o re at n s o rt o a en t on .

W h v e i A t 220 h
a e s e en n r . t at

wh i i fi i en n s n n te,

x b i g y
e n l q u t iany ; h u
re a
q t i y m m y b
an im il l
ty t e an t e
?
a e s ar

d fi d by m
e n e f th q u t i e an s o e e a on

m Lim 1 e
.

"wh i i fi i
71

en n s n n te,

x andy b i g y l q ue n t i i an re a an t es .

Th d v l p m t f h t h
e e e o y f mpl u mb w ill b
en o t e eo r O co ex n e rs e

f u d fu lly di u d i C h pt d f S h lOm
’
il h
‘

o n sc sse n a e rs X . an XI . o c c s
H an db u ch der a lge ra i s ch en
b An a ly s is .

51 3 h
W e s all n o w gi e s o e t e o re v m h m d mpl s illus
mh
. s an ex a e
t ra t in g e t o ds ic ill o t e n b e wh h w f
o fud n u se fu l i n
p ro vi n
g
ide n tit ie s , an d in t h e T e o r o f E q a tio n s h y u .

51 4 . To fi n d th e re mi a n der wh en an
y ra ti o n a l in te ra l u n c ti o n
g f
o
f x is divided b y X a .

Le t f( ) x den o t e an
y rat io n a l
in t e gral n c t io n o f x ; di ide fu v
f (x ) b y x a un t il a re m
a in de r is o b t a in e d ic do es n o t in o l e wh h v v
x ; le t Q b e th e quo t ie n t a n d B t h e re
, ain de r ; t e n m h
Sin c e B do e s n o t in o l e v v w ill mi u
x it re a n n a lt e re d wh t v a e er
val e w eu i
g e to x ; pu t x v z th a, en

f (a) Q x 0 B

no w Q is fi n it e fo r fi n it e v lu a es o f x, h en ce
 M I S C E LL A N E O US TH E O R E MS A N D E X A M PLE S . 4 33

C OR I f ( x ) is e x a c t l di is ib le b y x
f a, t en R 0, t a t is y v h h
h
.

e n c e if a ra ti o n a l i n tegra lfu n c ti o n of x va n is h es wh en
f ( )
a 0
x za , i t i s di vis i b l b y x a e
.

51 5 Th e p ro p o s it io n c o n t a in e d in t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le is s o
u fu h v h f w h v
.

se l t a t w e gi e an o t e r p ro o o f it h ic h a s t h e a d a n t age
h f m
o f e x ib it in g t h e o r o f t h e q o t ie n t u .

S u pp s t h t t h fu o e a e n c t io n is o f n di m e n s io n s , an d le t it b e
de n o t e d b y
” ” "
2 " 3 “

x + pl x
ps x + ps x + p
po

t h en th e q u o tie n t w ill b e o fn 1 di m e n s io n s de n o t e it b y

gm
n —l n —2
gl x + q
e

le t B b e t h e re mi d a n er n o t co n t a in in g x t h en

+ ps x + p n

" 2
( ) R
“

x a qlx qsx ,

u
M lt ipl in g o u t y an d eq u at n i g th e c o effi c ie n ts o f li k e p o w e rs o f x,
w e h a ve

or 9.
— 04 or 2 + 17
92 11 p 92 91
3
g?

— a o r a + 23
qs q p Qs qe
z z
s s,

B — a or B a +p
q p q
z
n , n
—l

th u s h u s iv eac ffi i t i th s
q u t i t i f
cce sm d by e co e c en n e o en s o r e

mu l iply i g b y th
t ffi i t l t f md
n d ddi g t h a e co e c en as o r e ,
an a n e

n ex t ffi i i th div id d Th p
co e c en f fi di g t h
t n e en e ro c e s s o n n e

u s iv t m f t h q u t i t d t h mi d my b
.

s cce s e er s o e o en an e re a n er a e

a rran
g d t hu e s

To 21 0 P2 P3 P
a
ge a .
a
qQ (6
9 11
—2

91 Q2 Q3 q —l n

Th u s R :
ag — + )
lt l 1 (6
(M a — 2
+ p —l ) n p n

"_ 2
-

p0 a + p sa + p .
n

I f t h e di i s o r is x + a t h e v sa m mt h e e o d c an be
h
t is c a s e t h e ltiplie r is a mu .

H . H . A .
4 34 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E xa m
pl e. Fin d th e q u o tien t an d re mi a n d wh
er en 3 x7 x6 5
is dvd d
i i e by x +2 .

H ere th e multipli er is 2, an d we hv a e

3 1 0 31 0 0 21 5
6 14 — 28 6 12 — 24 6
3 —7 14 3 6 12 3 11

T hu s th e q u o tien t is 3 x 6
7x 5
l 4x 4
3x 3
6 x + l 2x 2
3, an d th e re

mi a n der is 1 1 .

51 6 I n th e p re c e din g e x a p le t h e o rk h a s b e e n a b ri d e d
g m w
w w y v ms
.

by rit in g do n on l t h e c o e fii c ie n t s o f t h e s e e ra l t e r z e ro

m
,

fi u
c o e f c ie n t s b e in g s e d t o re p res e n t t e r s c o rre s o n din
p g t o p o e rs w
wh h
o fx hsmh
ic a re a b s e n t T i e t o d o f D eta ch ed Co
efi c i en ts a
y m
m
.

f u y u
re
q en tl v u
b e sed t o s a e la b o r in e le e n t ar a l e b ra ic a l
g y
p u y wh fu
ro c e s se s , p a rt ic la rl en t h e n c t io n s w e a re de a lin
g w it h
f
a re rat io n a l a n d in t e gral Th e o llo win g is a n o t e r ill s t rat io n
. h u .

m Dvd
E x a p le . i i e 3x 5
8x 4
5x 3
2 6 x
? 33 x 26 b y x
3
2x 2 4x 8 .

-
8
—2 4
—2 + 7 + 2 —33
—2 4
3 6
3+ — 24

T hu s u th e q o tie n t i s 3 x 2
2x + 3 an d th e re mi a n d er is 5x 2 .

It h ud l d b tic e d h t at in w
g o wn th e i is o r, th e Sign o f e ery ritin dv v
m
s o e n o
h d h
ter ex c ep t t h e fi rs t h as b een c an ge ; t is en ab le s u s to rep la c e t h e p ro ces s
h u
of s u b tra c ti on b y t h a t of a ddi ti o n at e ac s c ces s i e s tage o f th e or v w k .

51 7 Th w k my b ill fu t h e or a e st r e r ab r idg d b y t h f ll wi
e e o o
g
m
.
n

a rran g whei h i k w en H t, c s n o n as o rn e r s
’
M eth o d of Sy n th etic
D ivis i o n .

1 3—8
2 6 12 24
4 4 8 16
6 12 24
3 — 2 + 3 + 0 5+ 2

[ E xp lan a tio n Th e c o l um
n o f fi g re s to th e le ft o f th e ertic al lin e u v
c o n s i s ts o f th e c o e ffic ien t s o f th e dv
i iso r, th e Sign o f e ac after th e fi rs t b ein h
h
c an ge ; d th e s ec o n d h
o riz o n tal lin e is o b t ain e by ltip ly in g 2 , 4 ,
g
d mu
m u 8
h m
-

b y 3 , th e firs t t r
e o f th e q o tien t W e t en a dd th e ter s in th e s ec o n d
um h m v h v wh h
.

co l n to th e ri g t o f th e ertical lin e ; t is
gi es 2, ic i s th e c o e ffi
c ien t o f th e s ec o n ter o f th e d u
o tie n t
q Wit th e c o effi cien t t s o b tain ed . h hu
436 HI GH E R A L EBR AG .

0 th
z
Pu t z : en A 3 , b ein g t h e fi c ie n
c o ef t o f x y in th e ex
,
3

p a n s io n o f (x y)
Pu t an d we ge t 6) + B ; w h en c e

B 6 .

T hu s
( x
y z
)
3

2
6xy z
g
3 3
z
?’
3x y
2
3xy
2
3s 3y x
2
Sz x 3z x
x y
.

52 0 A fu n ct o n i is s a id to b e a ltern a tin g wit re s p ec t to it s h

v h v u
.

a ria b le s , w e n it s Sign b u t n o t it s a l e is a lt e re d b y t h e I n t e r

h
c an
g e o f a n y p a ir o f t e hm . Th us a
s y an d

—a
) ( b)
g

(
s
a b + e a

a re alt ern a t in
g fu n ct o n s i .

v h
I t is e ide n t t a t t e re c a n b e n o lin e a r a lt e rn a t in g h
n c t io n fu
v v m h
in o l in g s h
o re t a n t wo v a ria b le , an d a ls o t a t t h e p ro d c t o f u
a s ymm fu e t rical fu
n c t io n a n d a n a lt e rn at in g n c t io n t b e an mu s
fu
a lt ern at in
g n c t io n .

52 1 Sym mt i l d l ti g fu ti s my b
e r ca an a t e rn a n n c on a e co n

f th t m
.

i ly d
c se t d by w i i g d w
en o e d p fi i g r t n o n on e o e er s an re x n

th ymb l 2 ; t h us E t d f th m f ll th t m fw h i h
e s o a s an s or e su o a e er s o c

a i t h t yp 2 b s t d f
s e th m f ll th t m f wh i h
e, a an s or e su o a e er s o c

ab i th syp ; d e tF i t eif t h fu ti
an i v lv s so on . o r n s an c e , e n c on n o e

f u l tt s b d
o r e er a, c ,

an d so o n .

m
Si ila rl y if th fu e n c t io n in v lv t h
o es ree le t t e r s a, b, c,

2 a (b
2
) (
g
—
) (
g
c = a b c b ( e a
) c
g
a b) ;
Ea b c
g g
bc e
b
g
a ca c a b;
an d so on .

h u
I t s o ld b e n o tic e d t h at w h en t h e re a re t h re e le tt e r in s v lv d o e
Ea b do es n o t c o n s is t o f t
f
h ree ter mb s, u t o f s ix : t hus
g
Ea b
2
b
2 z
a a o b c b
g
a o a
g 2
0 6 .

Th e s y b o l 2 m my a a ls o b e se d to i u mply ummti wit h

m
s a on
re a rd t o t wo o r
g o re s e t s o f le t t ers
; th s u
Ey z ( b —b
) .
 M I SC E L L A N EO US TH E OR E M S A N D E X A M PL E S . 4 37

52 2 Th e a b o v e n o tat io n e n ab le s us to ex
p re ss in an a b ridge d
f m y mmt i
.

or t h e p ro d c t u s an d po w s er o fs e r c al e x re s s io n s :
p t hu s

s
Ea 32a b
3 2
( a b c
) 6abc ;
3 a 2
( a b c d) Ea 3 Ea b 6 2 ab c ;
“
Ea 42 a b
3 2
6 2 6t
4 2

( a b c
) 1 22 a bc ;
”
2a
3 ’
Ba x Ea Ea b .

E x a p le 1m . Pro v h e t at

5 5 5=
( + b) ( b) (a
2
a a b 5a b a + ab +

D en o te th e th e le ft b y E ; t en E is a f n c tio n o f a
ex p re ss io n o n ic h u wh h
v h wh
an is es h en a = c , e n ce a is a fac to r o f E si ilarly b is a fa c to r o f E m
v h wh
A gain E an is e s b , t at i s a + b is a fac to r o f E ; an d t erefo reh h .

m mu
en a
E c o n tain s a b ( a + b ) as a fac to r Th e re ain i n g fac to r s t b e o f two

dm mm wh mu
.

i e n s io n s , an d, s in ce it is sy etrical it res p ec t t o a an d b , it st b e

o f th e fo r m
2
A a + B ab + A b ; t2
s hu
5=
(a + b )
5 5 2 2
a b ab
( a + h) (A a + B a b + A b ) ,

wh ere A an dB are in d ep en d en t o fa an db .

u
P ttin g a = 1 , b : 1 , w h v e a e 1 5= 2A + B ;

u
p ttin g a = 2, b 1,w h v e a e 1 5: 5A 2B ;

wh en ce A = 5, B = 5; an d hu t s th e req ui d u
re res lt at o n c e fo llo w s .

m
E x a p le 2 . Fin d th e fac to rs o f
3 3 3 —b
3
(b + c ) (b c ) ( c + d
)( c a ) ( a ) .

D th e expres s io n b y E ; t en E is a f n c tio n o f
en o te h u wh h v h
ic an is
mil
a es
wh h
en a = b , an d t ere fo re c o n t ain s a b as a fac to r [A rt Si arly it
hu
.

c an d c s E c o n tain s ( b ) (c
co n tain s t h e fac to rs b a; t c a
)( a b) as a
facto r .

A ls o Sin ce E is o f th e fo rt u hd th e re ain in g fac to r m s t b e o f th e mu

mm mu
e gree
d
fi rs t egre e ; an d s in c e it is a s y u
e tric al f n c tio n o f a , b , c , it st b e o f
th e fo r m
M ( a + b + c) [A rt . .

M (b —c —a —b
E :
)( c )( a )
To o b tain M we ay gi e t o a , b , c an ym al e s t at we fi n d v v u h mt o s co n
hu
ven ien t ; t u
s b y p ttin g a = o , b = 1 , a = 2 , we fi n d M : 1 , an d we hv
a e th e
u d u
req ire res lt .

m
E x a p le 3 . S hw he t at

5
-
x ( 2 + x)
D te th e exp res s io n o n th e left b y E ; t en E an is e s — z h v h wh
m
en o en y :
h
an d t ere fo re y + z is a fac to r o f E ; s i
,

ilarly z + x an d x + y are fac to rs ;

h
t erefo re E c o n tain s (y + z ) ( x + x ) (x + y ) as a fac to r Also Sin ce E is o f th e .
438 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

fi ft hd th e mi a n in g fac to r is o f th e dd s in ce
mu m
s eco n egree ,

mmt i
egree re

sy e r c al in x , y , 2, it s t b e o f th e fo r

Pu t thu s 1 O= A + B ;

pu t x = 2, y = 1 , z = 0; t hu s 3 5= 5A + 2B ;

w h en c e A = B = 5,

an d we hv a e th e req u d ul
ire re s t .

523 We h e re fo r re e ren c e a li t o f ide n titie w ic

c o lle c t f s s h h
f m my
.

a re u fuse l in t h e t ran s o r a t io n o f a lgeb ra ic al e x p re s s io n s ; an

o f th e s e u h
h ave o c c rre d in C ap XXI X o f t h e E le en ta ry A lgebra . . m .

E ( — —c —b
b c b c
) =
( b )( ) c -
a
)( a .

—c — c c —a a — b
2 ) ( )( )(
2
a
( b : -
b ) .

c (c — a —b
-

) )( a ) .

— c c —a a — b
( b ( b )( )( )
b c — ca — a b )
3 3 s
a + b + c .

Th i ide n tit s y my b a e i
g ve n in an o t h f m
er or ,

é c —a
3 3 3
a + b + c 3a b c = ( a + b + c
) {( b ( )
9
+
( a b)
2

( b —c —a —b
)( c
)( ) a .

— —b3
(
3
b )
s
a + + o a
( c + d
)
Eb c ( 6 + 0
) 2ab c = ( b a
)( a + b
) .

2 a b c = (b b) .

— abc =
2 2 "2 ” z
2b c 2c a 2a b a
4
b
4
c
4

— c
) .

E XA M PLE S . XXXIV . a .

1 .
F in d th e re mi a n der w h en 3x 5+ l 1 x 4 + 9 0x ? 1 9x 53 is di ided v
by x +5

my ba e v
di is ib le b y x 3 .
4 40 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

25 .

3 —
2 ( a
3
+ b +c
3
3 a bc) .

— c S h ew th at
26 . If x = b+c ,

x
3
+y + z
3 3 — 3 a b c) .

27 Pro v h
e t at th e v lua e o f a +b +c 3 3 3
3 a b c is u n alt e re d if we
s u .

u
b s tit t e 3 a s b, s c fo r a , b , 0 re s p ec t i
.

v ly wh
e ,
ere

33 2 (a b c ) .

Fin d th e v lua e o f
a b c

—a b) ( )( b) x — c )
( a — b ) (a -
c )( x — a ) (b -
c
) (b )( x — c +
d c— (
a —
2
b2— 0
2
b 2— 2
c — a2 c
2—
a
2 —
b 2

( a+ n )( 0+ q)
—c — a
(b + x) c— a c—
( a b) ( a ( b ) (b ) ( )( b) (c + x)

b cd
2 b) —c a—
32' E —b a — c d)
‘

( a -

( a )( d) e u u a —

Ifx y z = s , an d xy z 2 s
p , hwh e t at

P 23
29

M I SC E L L A N EO US I D E N TI TI E S .

52 4 M an ide n t it ies c a n b e
. y re a dil y e s t ab lis h ed by mki a n
g
u s e o f th e ro
p p e rt ie s o f t h e c b e u ro o ts o f u n it y; as u s u al t h e se
w ill b e de n o t e d b y 1 , w, ( 52
.

E x a p lem . Shw he t at

— x7
( x + y) 7 -
y = 7
7 xr

Th e e x p re s s io n
mu t
E on th e left v h wh
an is es en x = 0, =
y 0, x + y = 0;
h en c e it s co n tain
, ,

xy (x + y ) as a fac to r .

u
P ttin g x z wy , we hv a e

— w7 — 1 fly
}y z ( -
1 ) y?

w r-
w— 1 1y7 = o ;

he n ce E co n tain s x wy facto r ; an d si ilarly we

as a m my a s hw h
e t at it co n
taI n s x wy 2
as a h
fac to r ; t at is , E is i is ib le b y dv
( x we) ( 5
6 o r at
?
m
y+y
2
.
 M I SC E LLA N E O US I D E N TITI E S . 441

F rt u h E b ein g o f v d xy (x + y ) o f fi ve dm i e n s io n s ,
mu t b m
er, se e n an
m hu
,
2
th e re ain in g fac to r s e o f th e fo r A ( x + y ) + B xy ; t
2
s

—
y)
7
(M
7 7
y) 96 y =x
y (M
u
P ttin g x = l , y = 1 , we hv a e 2 1 : 2A + B ;

u
p ttin g x = 2,
y 1, w h v
e a e 2 1 = 5A 2B ;

wh en c e A = 7, B = 7 ;
— x7
( x + y) 7

52 5 . We kn o w f m l m t y A lg b
ro e e en ar e ra t h at

3
b
2 2
— bc — — ab ;
)
a 3
d + b 0 + 0 cd

al o s we hv a e s ee n in E x . 3 , A rt 1 1 0, t. h at

— — 2
wc ) ;
(
9 g
b
2
a + b + e b c cd a + a 4-

h en c e a
s
b
3
0
3
3a b c c an be re os lv ed in t o t h re e lin e a r f ac t o rs ;
thu s

+ c —
3 3 a 4
a + b 3ab c -

E x a p le m . S hw h e t at th e p ro du t c o f
3 3 3
a +b +c
3
3 ab c an d x
3
+y + z
3 3x y z

c an b e p u t in to th e fo r mA 3
+ B 3
C3 3A B O .

Th e p ro du ct (a b c ) (a wb Me) ( a w b we )
2

( x + wy ( x + w2
y + wz ) .

By takin g t h es e s ix fac to rs in th e p airs ( a b c )( x y z );

( a +ab +x
’
c )( x + wy
a
wz ) ; an d ( a + wb
2
we) ( x wy 2
w z ),

we o b tain th e t h ree p artial p ro du c ts

2
A + B + 0, A + w B + wC ,

wh ere

T hu s th e p ro du ct :
(A +B C) (A + i (A (0
2
3 x C)
—A3 3
C 3 3213 0
+B + .

52 6 I n o rde r t o fi n d t h e al e o f ex p re s s io n
. in o l in g v u s s v v
a, h h
b , 0 w e n t e s e q an t itie s a re c o n n e c t e d b y t h e e q a t io n u u
a b c 0, w e ig t e plo t h e s b s t it t io n mh m y u u
2 2
a = h + lc, b = wh + w 1c
,
c = w h + wk .

h w v thIf o e er e e x p re s s io n s i v lv n o e a, b, c s y mmt i lly e r ca the

m h d h ib it d i
et o ex e n th e f ll w i g mpl
o o n exa e is
p re f bl e ra e .
 44 2 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

E x a p le m . If a b c O, s hw he t at

2
( )(
3
6 ( a
5
+b
5 a + b3 + c
3 a +b +
2

We hv da e i en tically

( 1 + a x
)( 1 b x ) ( 1 + 023) = 1 + p x + qx 2 + rx 3 ,

wh ere r= ab c .

H en c e , u sin g th e co n d itio n gi v en ,

2 3
x) ( 1 + bx )
( l + a + qx + rx .

Taki n g lo garit
—1
hm s an d eq u atin g th e fi c ien
c o ef ts o f x
”
, we hv
a e
l) n
" " "
c ) co e fficien t o f x in th e e xp an s io n of lo g ( 1 2 3
n
( a
n
b qx rx )
1
" in 2
( )
2 3 3 2 3 3
( ) ( )
2
c o e fficien t o f x qx rx qx rx qx rx
$3
u
By p ttin g n = 2 , 3 , 5 we o b tain
2 2 2 3 3 3
a +b + c a +b + c
q ";
”

2 3

5 5 5 3 3 3
wh en c e
a +b +c
5
a + b +c
3

an d th e req u d u ire res lt at o n ce fo llo w s .

If a =
B 7 b z '
y a c : a (3, th e gi v en co n d itio n is s atis fi e d h
; en ce
we hv da e
, ,

i en tically fo r all al e s o f a , B, 7 v u
—
{ (B fl) }
5
6

5 -

I9 )
3
l {(fl — 2
B) }
t h at is ,

—d — —8 —
(6 l 5
+ ( a -

fi)
5=
5 (IS -

r) (r d
l( 06
17 7 a —a
fi) ;
co mp are E x 3 , A rt 522
. . .

E XA M PLE S . XXXIV b . .

1n t ege r
1 ° If ( a + b c )
3 3
“ + 54 3 - 3
0 , S h w th e at w h en n is a Po s iti e v
2 . S h w th
e at

— l) — c — —a — b
) ( 2 b c— a ) ( 2 c
) .

3 S ehw h t at (x + 3/l n — n — " is di vi s ib le b y ( 2

+W 2
if
mu
x y xy 5
0
y
v
~

n is an o dd
p o s it i e in t e ger n o t a ltiple o f 3 .

4 . S hw h
e t at
3
( b y)
3
b 3
( )
3 3
( bx )3 3 a b c ( be y) bx )
a e c cx az c a
y c
( cx az ) ( ay .
44 4 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

If a + s hwh e t at

2
+b +c +d
2 2 2
3 3
+d
3
a
5
+ b 5 5
+c + d 5 a +b + c3 a
23 2
3
.

5
2
24 .
( a
3
b 3
c
3 d 3 2
) 9 ( b cd + cda da b abc )
b d) b cd )
= 9 (be ad )( ca ( a .

25 . If 2s = a +b +e an d 20 2
a
2
+b
2 2
0 , p ro v h e t at
2
2( s b) ( s c )( a a
2
) 5a b cs ( 3
2
( 4 3

26 . S hw he t at ( x
3
6x y 2
3 xy 2
y
3 3
) (y
3
6W 2
3x y 2
x
3 3
)
+ 23
2 3
( x + 2) (r
« as .

27 . S hw he t at 2
( a — b) ( a — e )( a — d)

28 . R es o l v e in to fac to rs
3 3 3 3 3b 3
2 2
2a b e2
( a
3
b 3
0
3
) a bc b c c a a .

E L I M IN A TI O N .

52 7 h
I n C apt e r X XXI II we a e s ee n t a t t h e e li in an t o f hv h m
y m m
.

u
.

a s st e o f lin e a r e q at io n s a t o n c e b e writ t e n do wn in t h e
a
y
f m
or m
o f a de t e r in an t G e n e ral mh
e t o ds o f e li min at io n a p
.

lic ab le t o u
e q at io n s o f an y de gre e wi ll b e fu u
o n d dis c s s e d in
p
s h y u
t re at ise o n t h e T e o r o f E q at io n s u
in partic la r we m fa
y re e r

u h s m
t h e s t de n t t o C apt e r I V an d V I o f D r Sal o n s L es s o n s I n tro
’
. .

du c to ry to th e M o dern H igh er A lgebra, an d t o C h a p X I I I o f . .

u
B rn s ide an d Pa n t o n
’
s Th eo ry of E qu a tio n s
mt h d t h u gh t h ti lly mpl t
.

Th es e e o s, o t lw y e o re ca co e e , a re n o a a s

th mte os i t i pc o n ve nti W h ll t h f
en n ly gi v ra c ce . e s a e re o re o n e a

b i fr e
pl ext i f t h
an a
g l t h
on y o d h ll t h i lluet t en e ra eo r an S a en s ra e

mpl s m mth ds f limi ti n t h t m p ti

,

by ex a e so e e o o e n a o a a re o re ra c

ca lly u f ul se .

52 8 L t us fi t
. id
e th lim i ti rs f u k wco n s er e e n a on o on e n no n

q u t
an it y b t w t w q
eu t i s ee n o e a on .

D t th en o q u t i
e s b y f( )
e e 0 d q5 a d s u pp
on x = an an o se

t h t if
a ,
y t h qu t i s h v b
n e c e s sa r , du d t e e f mi a on a e e en re ce o a or n

wh i h f ( )
c 1( ) p
d < x an t t i l i t g l fu t i
) x re f re s e n ra on a n e ra n c on s o x

th tw fu i s v i h s im u lt u ly t h mu t b
.

Si n ce ese o n ct o n an s an e o s e re s e

so m lu f wh i h ti fi s b th th giv qu ti ; h
e va e o x c sa s e o e en e a on s en c e
 E LI M I N A TION . 445

th e e li mi n an t e x p re s e s s th e co n dit io n t h t must h
a o ld b e t we e n t h e
fi
c o e f c ie n t si n o rde r t h t tha e e
q u
a t io n s my h v a a e a co mm on ro o t .

u
S pp o s e t h a t x = a, x B a re th e ro o ts o f f( ) x = 0,
mu t
,

h
t e n o n e a t le a t s o u
f t h e q a n t it ies gt ( a ) , I (B )
( ) s

m
,

u
b e e q al t o z e ro h e n c e t h e e li in an t is

P( ) P(B ) P( r)
a 0

Th e e x p re s s io n o n t h e le t is a e t ric a l n c t io n f
o f th e symm fu
ro o ts o f t h e e
q a t io n
f( )
x 0 ua n d it s a l e c an b e o n d b
y t h e v u fu
m
,

s
e t h o d e x pla in e d in trea t is e s o n t h e Th eo r
y f q
o E u a t i o n s .

52 9 W e s h a ll n o w e x p la in t h re e ge n e ra l e t h o ds o f e li in a m m
sm
.

t io n : it w u
ill b e s ffi c ie n t fo r o u r p rp o s e t o t ak e a i ple u
exa p lm
e ,
b u t it will b e s e e n t h a t in e ac c a e th e
p ro c e s is h s s
a
pp lic ab le t o e
q a t io n Of an
y d eg u
re e s .

Th e prin c iple illu s t ra t e d in t h e f o llo wi n

g ex a mpl e is du e t o
u
E le r .

E x a p le m . E li mi n ate x b et w een th e eq u atio n s

3 2
+ d= o, f + gx + h : 0
?
dx + b x ex x .

L et x + k b e th e fac to r c o rre s p o n din g to th e ro o t co m

m o n to b o t h u eq a
tio n s , an d s u p p o s e t h at

an d

k, l, m bi , n e n g uk w u i
n no n q an t ties .

F mth
ro es e eq u i w h v id
at o n s, e a e en tic ally

Eq u atin g c o effi c ien ts o f li k w

e po ers o f x , we o b tain

— a n + a — b = 0,
fl g f
gl +f mb n + a lt -
c =
f 0,
h l + gm ~
cn —d = 0
f ,
hm—d a 0 .

Fro mh u
t e s e lin e ar eq atio n s b y eli in atin g th e m uk w u
n no n q an titie s l, m
d m
,

n , we o b tain th e e ter in an t
—b =0
f 0 a ag f .

g f b a h — ef

h g c df
-

lo h d o
44 6 HI GH E R A L E B RA G .

53 0 Th e e li i n a n t o f m
t h e e q a t io n s ( )
x = 0 <1 (’ )
) x 0 c an u f
m
,

v y y yv
.

il d d t i t b S l t r s D ia l tic
b e e r e as e r n an
y e s e y
m
e s s e a s a e
p r

sm
e x

h I eth o d of E li in a tio n Wm e s a ll t a k e t h e a .
e e x a
p le a s h
f
b e o re .

E x a p le m . E li mi n ate x b et w een th e eq u atio n s

+ gx + h = 0
2
f x .

M ul tiply th e fi rs t e q u atio n d th e s ec o n
by x , an d wu eq by
atio n
m
x in
x an d 2

s u
c c es s io n ; we t hu h v s u
a e 5 e q atio n s b e t e en ic w wh h e c an eli in ate th e 4
q u an tities x
4
, x
3
, x
2
,
x regar e as dd d
is tin c t ariab le s v . u
Th e e q atio n s are

ax
3
+ b x
2
+ cx + d = 0,

dx
4
bx 3 0x
2
dx 0,
2
fx gx h 0,

f x
3
gx 2 hx 0,
4 3 ? 0
fx 9 x luv

H e n c e th e e li mi n an t is

0 a b c d

a b c d 0
0 O f g h
0 f g h 0

f g h 0 0

Th e p rin c iple o f th e o llo in g et o d is du e t o B e z o u t

53 1 f w mh
m
.

v
it h a s t h e a d an t a ge o f e x p re s s in g t h e re s lt a s a de t e r in a n t o f u
w h h
lo e r o rde r t a n e it e r o f t h e de t e r in a n t s o b t a in e d b y t h e p re m
c e din
g mh e t h
o d s W e s all c o o s e t h e s a e e xa
p le a s b e o re , h m m f
v u hy m m
.

an d
gi e C a c
’
s o de o f c o n d c t in
g t h e e li in a t io n u .

E x a p lem . E li mi n ate x b et w ee n th e eq u atio n s

3 2
ax + b x + c x + d z 0, fx
2
+ gx h= 0 .

Fro mth e s e eq u atio n s , we hv a e

2
f gx + hx

ax +b cx +d

fx +g hx

w h en c e
( ag bf) x
2
+ (a h c f) x df: O,

(a h
2
an d -
f) x
c + (b h

Co mb i n in gt h es e two u
eq atio n s wi h t
2
f x 4 9 33
“
h 0,
44 8 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E xa m
p l e 2 . E li i n atem x, y , z b et w een th e eq u atio n s

+ y = c xy
2 2 = 2 2 = bz x, 2 2
y +z ay z , z +x x .

We hva e 3
z
z
_

y
£
y
8
2
x

by multiplyi n g get
to h h
er t es e t h re e e q u atio n s we o b tain ,

+ 2
+ 2 2 + 2
+ 2
x
y 33 2 y

h en ce 2+ (a
2

2 2 2
a + b +c ~
4= abc .

E xa m
pl e 3 . E li mi n ate x ,
y b et w e en th e eq u atio n s

x
2
y
2 =
px qy , 4 xy = qx + 19 31, w2 + y 2 =

u
M ltiply in g th e fi rs t eq u atio n by x , an d th e s eco n d b y y , we o b tai n
w3 3x y = p 2
( ro u x) ;
h en c e , b y th e t ir hd u eq atio n ,

3 2
1) x 3x y

q 3 w 31
3

p
-

q =
( w— y) ;
3

y)
2
(p -

2
2 y )

E xa m
pl e 4 . m
E li i n ate x, y, z b et w e en th e eq u atio n s

3 - 5 x y
z y x z y x

We hv
a e

—
(y -
z )( z -
x ) w
( y)
xyz

I f we c h an ge th e s ign o f x, th e s ign s o fb d h d wh ile

mi
an c a re c an ge
Sign o fa re a n s u n altere d ;
,

h en ce a —b — c _ (y (M y)
xy z

Si mil arly , b c a
x yz

c — a —b (y + z
) -

y)
xy z
 E LI M I N A TI O N . 449

2 2 2
a b 0 .

2 2 “ 4 4 2 2 2
2c a a b 0 a b c O
.

E XA M PLE S . XXXI V . 0 .

E li mi n at e mf mth q u ti
ro e e a ons

m m y+ 0 2
m
y+x a= ,
x = 0 .

E limi n at e m f mth qu ti
n ro e e a on s

m m+ 1
,
2 z
x n x n = 0 .

E limi n at e m b n et w e en th e eq u atio n s

m (m m mm m
,

2 2 2
x n
y a nx
y 20 , n

E limi n at e
p , g, r f mth
ro e eq u atio n s

0 + r = 0, a
1 g x,
'
ap r= 1
g y, 97 °

E li mi n at e x f mhro t e eq u ti
a ons
2 2 2 2
dx 2a x +1 O, a +x 3 ax = 0 .

E li mimf mth qu ti
n at e ro e e a ons

y + m ( 1 + m ) y
— x = a , an x = a, ( 1 — m) .

E limi t y f m t
n a e x,h q u ti ,
2 ro e e a ons
2
y z = a , zx = b 2
,
xy = c2
,

E li mi n at e p , g f m h ro t e eq u atio n s

93 =
y, p (1 x
p9
= w

E li mi n a te x ,
y f mh ro t e eq u atio n s

x — = a Z— 2=
b 2 3 — 3= 3
y ,
x y , x
y c .

E li mi n ate x ,
y f m h ro t e eq u atio n s

+9
2 2= z
b x4
= a 4= 4
x +y ,
x , +y 0 .

E li mi n at e x ,
y ,
z, a f mhro t e eq u atio n s

y
= oz + du + a x ,

E li mi n at e x ,
y, z f mh
ro t e eq u atio n s
2 2 2 2
413 + 3/ + z a ,

3 3 3 3
5
x +y + z ,

H . H . A .
450

13 E li m i n at e x , y, 2 f mth
ro e eq u at i o n s

3
“

a f a+ a+ i b
+ +
z x z x y
y
f m
m
14 . E li m in ate x, y, z ro th e eq u atio n s

W e ) y
2
< >
z +x
3
e ( x
3
xy z

abc
fl
b 0

16 . E li mi n at e x , y, z f mth
ro e eq u at io n s

2 2
( y) 4o
2 xy
)
2 4b z x,
2 z
( x .
2 4a y ,
(y z ) z x

17 . E li mi n ate x , y ,
z f mth
ro e eq u atio n s

—x ) = bz x ,
( x +y z )( x (y + z ) (y z + x

—
( ZN y) ( z

18 . E li mi n at e x , y f mth ro e eq u at io n s

2 2x + y = a
x = a
,

19 . S hwh e t at ( c + a)

20 . E li mi n at e x , y f mt h ro e eq u at io n s

xy
ax
2
+ y ax + 6y
x +y

21 . S hw h e t at
3 3
60 c
3x 3 a
3 b g= 2 202
5(1 6

is th e mi
e li n an t of

= ab, xy z = a b a
a +y
x z = b e, by + z x = ca, cz xy

22 . E li mi n ate x , y, z f m ro

b c

( —
Pl
—
fiy flll
' f ‘
x
g 2

23 .
E mpl y Bo ez o u t s
’
mth d t e o o eli mi n at e x , y fro m
my '? '
dy 3 O
’
2
b
’
3 3
3 bx y 2 2 ( lg 0, a x x
y c xg
/
.

ax /
 An d HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

53 8 . E very equ a tio n qf th e n

th
degree h as n ro o ts , a n d n o m o re .

D e n o t e t h e gi v en e
qu at o n i by f( ) x 0, wh e re

x
f( ) =
p0 x
"
1 0 x
2
’“ 2
p
Th e e q atio n u f( ) x = 0 h a s a ro o t , re al o r i mgi a n ar y ; l t t h is
e b e

de n o te d b y a t h en f( )
x is di is ib le b y x v a so th t a

f( ) x
( x a
l )
wh e re gt , (x ) is a rat io n al in t e gral n c t io n of n 1 di e n sio n fu m s
m
.

A ga in , t h e e q at io n u
h a s a ro o t , re al o r i agin a r ; le t y
hs
t i b e de n o t e d b y a 2 ; t e n ct, ( x ) is di is ib le b y x h
a , s o t h at
g
v
¢ ( l
x z
) ( 5
8 9 2 ( ),
5 x

w h e re qt, ( )
x is a ra t io n a l in t egra l fu n c t io n o fn 2 di m e n s io n s .

T h us f( ) ( 90 x a
)
. ( w a
t ) a( )
w

Pro c ee din g in t is wa y , we h o b t ain ,

as in A rt 3 09 , .

— —a
a
) ( a
o
. )
H en c e th e e
qu at io n f( ) x 0 h as n ro o t s s in c e f( ) x v an is hs e

wh en x h as an
y o f th e v lu a es a
, ,
a
s ,
“
3 ,

hv m h
A ls o t h e e q atio n c an n o t a e uo re t an n ro o t s ; fo r if x h a s

an
y v u
al e dif f e f m
re n t ro an
y o u
f t h e
q a n t itie s a , a , a , a ll

f m
,

f s h f
t h e a ct o r o n t h e rig t a re di fe ren t ro h f 2 s
z e ro , an d t e re o re

f ( )
x v
c an n o t h
an is h fv u
o r t at al e o f x .

I th b v i v tig t i
n e a m f th qu titi
o e n es a o n so e o e an es a a a a

my b qu l ; i t h i s h w v w h ll u pp t h t t h 2 ,
.
l s , ,,

a e e a n s c a e, o e e r, e s a s o se a e

e
q u t i h
a t ill
on t lt h u
as s
g h t h t ll diff n t ro o s, a o e s e a re n o a e ren .

53 9 To in vestiga te th e
. rela tio n s b etween th e ro o ts an d
co
eflieien ts i n a n y equ a tio n .

L et u s de n o t e t h e e
qu a t io n by
" " 2
+ O,
‘

x +p
p 2x x

an d th e ro o ts b y a, b, c, k t h en we h a ve ide n t ic a ll y
n n l n —2
+ a +
. .
x x
pl p2 + p n _1 x + 19
—a — —c —k
( x
)( x b) ( x
) (
x
);
h en ce, w it h th e no t at io n o f A rt 1 6 3, we h ave
.

w 2 x
u
+ 9
l
+p2 m n —2
+ p n —l x
—l
w Slw
n

q
2
1) S
-
u
k
n
—l x
 TH E OR Y OF E Q U A TI ON S . 4 53

Eq u i g
at n c o e f c ie n fi ts o f lik e p o w e rs o f x in t is ide n t it h y ,

p, S su m f th o e ro o ts ;

p2 = S = su m f th o e p ro d u ct s o f th e ro o t st ak e n t wo
t im; e

p3 = S3 su m f th o e
p ro d u ct s o f th e ro o ts taken t h re e

t im e

zp ro d u ct o f th e ro o ts .

I f th e co e ffi i c en t o f W is p a , t h en on v
di idin g ea c h te r mb y
9
2 0, th e eq u at io n b ec o m es

9
2

Po Po Po
an d, wit h th e n o tat io n o f A rt 52 1 , we h a . v e

fl 9
22 — p3 —1 p
_
’ 2 ab , Ba b e , )
pa p0 P0

m
E x a p le 1 So l v e th e eq u atio n s

Fro mth e se eq u atio n s we s ee t h at a , b, e are th e v u al es o f t wh h

ic
s atis fy th e c u b ic eq u atio n

t3 — z t2 — y t — x = 0

h en c e y = x = ab e .

E m
pl 2 If a , b , c are th e ro o ts o f th e u atio n x
3

mth
xa e eq + p 2x
u wh
.

2 2 2
fo r e e q atio n o s e ro o ts are a , b , C .

Th e re q ui d u
re e q atio n is (y a
?
) (y b ?
) (y c
?
) O,

(x
2
a
?
) (x 2
b 2
) (x
2
C 2
) = O, if y = x 2 ;

—a —b
( a
o ) ( cc ) ( se -
e )
(x ) a ( w b ) (x 0) = 3 2
x + p 1 x + p 2x + 17 3 :

= "— 2 —
( + )( + )( + )
x a x b x c x p 1 +p 2
x x p3 .

T hu s th e re q u d u
ire eq atio n is

( + 101 06 + p 2w+ 19 3 ) + p 2w—p 3)

3 2 3 2
90 ( 96 “

4 9 1 90 0,

( 3
(
2
90 10106 2 0,
2 2
( 2 (P2
6 2:
“ 217 2P1 P3 ) x “

P3 O;

an d if we rep lac e x 2 b y y , we o b tain

1
3 + (
3
219 2 u h
?
)y
?
( 19 2
2
219 1 10 3 ) y -

p3
2 =0
4 54 HI GH E R AL GEBR A .

54 0 u mh u
Th e s t de n t ig t s pp o s e t at t h e re la tio n e t ab lish e d h s s
m s v
.

in t h e p re c d i r t ic l e w o l d e n a u
b l e h i t o o l e an y p p r o o se d
um
a
e n
g
u
e q a t io n ; f o r t h e n b e r o f t h eumr e la t io n is e q a l t o t h e n b e r s u
o f th e r o o t A s li t t le r e e c t io n fl ill s e t a t i s t h i n owt t h e hw h s
s m u
.

f u w e li i n a t e an
y n 1 o f t h e
q a n t itie s

m
e
m
o se
ca e o r s pp
a , b , e, 7c d b t i n an e q a t io n t o d e t e r in e t h u
e r e a i n i n
g
ymm
a n s o O a

on e; t eh s n in c e t e s e q an thit i e s a r e in uo l e d s e t r ic a ll i n v v '

y
h o f t h e e q a t io n s ui t i s c l e a r t a t w e s a ll a lw a o b t a in h an h ys
m
e c
a

u hv
at io n a in
g t h e sa
,

e c o e fi c ie n t s ; t i f
e q a t io n is t h e re o re hs u f
sm
e
q
t h e o rigin al e q at io n u w
it h o e o n e o f t h e ro o t a , b , c , su b s
u
s tit t e d fo r x .

L et us t a k e fo r ex a mpl e th e e
qu at io n

w
3 2
+ p1 x

an d le t a, b, c b e th e ro o ts ; t h en

a + b + c —
p
a b + ac + 60 :
19
2 ,

a bc 103 .

u
M lt ipl y th es e e q u a t io n s by a
2
,
a, 1 res
p e c ti v lye an d a dd ; t hs
u

— 2 — a —
p1 a p2 p37
s 2
t h a t is a + p1 a + p2 a 9
13 O,

w ic h hi s th e o ri
gin al e
q u t i w it
a h on a in t h e pla c e Of x .

Th e ab o v e
p ro c e s s f limi t i
o e n a on u
is q it e ge n e ra l, an d is
a
pp lic a b le t o e
qu at io n s f ydgo an e re e .

54 1 If t wo o r
. m o re o f th e f an e q at io n a re c o n
ro o t s o u
n e c te d b
y a n a s si n e d
g re la t io n , t h e pro p e rt ie s p ro e d in A rt 53 9 v
m ms m
.

W i ll s o et i e e n a b le us t o o b t ain t h e c o p le t e s o l t io n u .

E x a p le 1 m So lv th e u atio n 4x 3 h vi g gi v
hm
e eq a n en
h
.

t at th e ro o ts are in arit etic al p ro gres sio n .

D te th e ts b y a b , a , a + b ; t en th e su o f th e h m ts is 3 a ; th e
m
en o ro o
m
ro o
su f th eo
p ro du c ts o f th e ro o ts two at a t i e i 3a
s 2 2
b ; an d th e p ro ct du
o f th e ro o ts is a 2 2
h
( a b ) ; en ce we a e th e e q atio n s hv u
23
— b2 — —b2
)
2 z
3a z 6, 3a a (a
4

fro mth e fi rs t eq u atio n we fi n d a: 2, an d fro mth e s e co n d b : an d

s in c e h vu
t es e al es satis fy th e t ir h d ,
th e t h ree eq u atio n s are c o n s is ten t.

T hu s th e ro o ts are — 1
2
’
2, 9
2
°
4 56 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

Fro mth es e e q u atio n s we hva e

— b ed )
pq 3 ( abc a b cl acd

2
Za b 3r ;
‘
Z
Ea b 37 ‘

pq .

E XA M PLE S . XXXV . a .

F mth or e eq u atio n w h o s e ro o ts are

2 3
2 O) 0a 2 a 2 :
5 é
°
, ,

2, 2, 2, o, 5 4 + b, —b —a+ b, — a — b
3 .
-
. . a a ,
.

So l v e th e eq u atio n s

5 . x
4 l 7 6x 1 05= O, t wo ro o ts b e in g 1 an d 7 .

6 . 4x3 + 1 6x
2
9x 36 = O, th e su m f tw
o o o f th e ro o ts b ein g z e ro .

7 . 4 x3 + 2 0x
2
2 3x + two o f th e ro o ts b e in g e q ula .

8 . 3x3 52 x 24 O, t h e ro o t s b ein g in geo mt ie r c al p ro

gress io n .

9 . 2x 3 — x 2 — 2 2x t wo o f th e ro o ts b ein g in th e ratio o f
3 4 .

10 . 2 4 x3 + 4 6x + 9 x 2
o n e ro o t b e in g d ub l o e an o t h er o f th e
ro o ts .

11 8x 4 2x 3 two o f th e ro o ts b ein g eq u lb a u t
O o s 1te in s ign
pp .

12 . 3 9x 2
2 6x + 1 6 O, th e ro o ts b ein g in ge o mt ie r c al p ro
gre s s ion .

13 3 2x 3 4 8x 2 + 2 2x 3 O, th e ro o t s b ein g in arit hmti cal

m
e ro
.
p
gres s n .

14 . 6x 4 2 9 x3 7x 12 O, th e pro du t c o f t wo o f th e ro o ts
b ein g 2 .

15 . x4 2 x3 2 1 x 2 + 22 x 40 O, t h e ro o ts b ein g in arit hmti e c al

p ro gres s io n .

16 4 9 4 73 2
52 0x + 1 9 2 O, th e ts b ein g in
mt
. ro o geo
e ri c al p ro e i
gr s s o n .

17 . o n e ro o t b e in g h lf th
a e su m f th o e
o th er two .
 TH E OR Y OF E Q U A TI ON S . 4 57

18 If a, b, c are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n x 3 ~

px
2
+ qx r= O, fi n d
v
.

th e alu e o f
1 1 1 1
( 1) (2 ) b 2 2
0
+

19 . If a, b, e are th e ro o ts o f fi n d th e v lua e o f

( 1) < 1’ — b) 2
( )
2 -
1

20 . Fi n d th e su m f th o e sq u are s an d o f th e c ub es o f th e ro o ts o f

21 . Fi n d th e su m f th f u t h p w
o e o r o e rs o f th e ro o ts o f

54 3 I n an . equ a tio n wi th rea l eo

e fi e eni ts i mgi a n ar
y ro o ts

o c cu r i n p a irs .

u s
S pp o e t h a t ( )
x O is f an e
qu at o n i wit h re a l c o effi c ie n t s ,
an d s
pp u
o s e t h a t it h a s an i mgi a n ar y ro o t a ib ; we S a ll s e w h h
h
t at a ib is a ls o a ro o t .

Th e f act o r o f f( ) x c o rre s
p on din g t o t h e s e t w o ro o t s is

—ib
( )( ib ) , (
2
)
2
x — a x a + or x a + b .

L et ( )
x b f
e di ide d b y
( x ) + bv; de n o t e t h e
q
—a 2 z
u o t ie n t b y
Q ,
an d t h e re a in de r, if a n
y m
,
b y R x R
'
; t e n h

h
I n t is ide n t it p u t x a ib , t y h en f( ) x z : 0 by hyp t h o e s is a sol
( x — a
)
2
+ b
e
0 ; e n c e R ( a + ib
:
) h
Eq u a t in
g t o z e ro th e re a l a n di mgi a n ar yp a rt s ,

Rb : 0 °

an d b by hyp t h o e s is is n o t z e ro ,

R
’
0 an d R 0 .

H en c e f( ) x is e x ac t l y divi ib l s e by ( x a
)
2
b
e
,
t h at is , b y
— a
( x ib ) ( x

h en c e x a ib is a ls o a ro o t .

544 I n t h e p re c e din g a rt ic le we h a ve s e e n h t if th
t a e eq u a

mgi
.

ti o n f ( x) 0 h as a
p a ir o f I a n ar y ro o ts a 'ib
=
,
th ( en x a
)
2
b 2

is a f ac t o r o f t h e e x re s sI On
p f( ) x
4 58 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

Su pp o se t h at l=i b
a = ,
l= id
e= ,
e i a re th e i mgi a n ar y ro o t s
of th e e q u ti f (
a on x
) O, an d t h at
f(
( ) x
) is t h e
p ro d c t o f t h e u
q u
a drat ic f t s
ac o r c o rre s p o n din g t o t h es e m y
i agin ar ro o t ; t h e n s
Y W
2

l( }
2
( )96 x “ 5 “: 9
N ow e ac h o f t es e h f t i a c o rs s p o s it i v
fo r e e ver y re al val u e o f x

h en c e 1)
< ( ) x is a lwa ys p sitiv o e fo r re al al v u es o fx .

54 5 A S in A rt 54 3 we
. a
y S e w t h at in
. m h an e
q u a t io n wit h
ra tio n a l fi
c o e f c ie n t s , s rd ro o t e n t e r in
p u
air ; t s s h at is , if a Jb is

a h
ro o t t e n a
J b is a ls o a ro o t .

E x a p le 1 m So l v e th e eq u atio n 6x 4
l 3x 3
x 3 0, h vi
a n g gi v en
h
t at o n e ro o t is 2
.

Sin ce 2 — ,J3 is a ro o t , we n o k w h t at is als o a ro o t, and co rre

h
sp o n din g t o t is p air o f ro o ts we a hv ud e th e q a ratic fac to r x 2 4x 1 .

Also 6x 4 — 1 3x 3 — 3 5x 2

h en ce th e ot h er ro o ts are o b tain e d m fro

or ( 3 x + 1 )( 2x + 3 ) = 0 ;

t hu s th e ro o ts are g g J ,
-
2 + , 3, 2

m
E x a p le 2 .F m u or u hd th e eq atio n o f th e fo rt e gree wh it ratio n al

fi cien ts , o n e
c o ef wh o
Jf J o se ro o t s is 2 3 .

H ere r e
y— mu h v J J
st / /a e 2+ —3
, N
2 —N —3 as one p air o f ro o ts , an d
3, / h p N
-
3 as an o t er air .

C o rres p o n ddii n w h v ud
g to th e fi rs t p air e a e th e q a ratic fac to r x 2 2 J 2x 5,
an d co rresp o n d whv ud
n g to th e s e co n
p air e a e th e q a ratic fac to r

J
2
x 2 2x 5
hu u d u
.

T s th e re q ire eq atio n is
2
(x
2
(
x + 5) 2
8x2 = 0,
4 2
x 2
+ x 2 5= O .

m
E x a p le 3 . S hw h
e t at th e eq u atio n

2 2 2
A B 0
x —a x —b x —c

h as no imgi a n ary ro o ts .

I f p o s s ib le let p + i q b e a ro o t ; t en —i
q is also a ro o t S b s titu te h u
m
p
h v u
t e se al es fo r x an d s b trac t th e fi rs t res lt fro u
th e s e c o n ; t s u d hu .

whi h im c is po ss ib le u n les s q : 0 .
4 60 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

H en c e we s ee th a t in t h e p ro d u ct

()
i an a m u y b ig it repla c e s each co n t in u a t io n o f Sign in t h e
o rigin al p o l n o y mi l ; a

( ) 11 th e Sign sb f e o re an d a ft er an a mb iguity o r s et o f a m
b igu it ie s a re u n lik e ;

( )
iii a c h an ge o f Sign is in t ro d u c e d at th e en d
mt u f
.

L et us t ak e le c a s e an d s pp o s e t at all
th e os n a vo u ra b uh
m u s
t h e a b ig it ie a re re pla c e d b y c o n t in at io n s ; ro ( ii) w e s ee u f m
h
t a t th e n um h
b e r o f c a n ge s o f S ign will b e t h e s a e w et e r we m h h
k
t a e th e pp e r o r t h e lou e r S i n s ; le t
g t a k e t hwe pp ;e r t h us u us
th e n um h
b e r o f c an ge o f Sign c an n o t b e le s t h an in s s
—
fi
an dt i hs f s ign is t h e a e a s in t h e
s e ri e s o s sm o rigin al
p o y mi l
l n o a

wi t h an h
a ddit io n al c an ge o f S ign at t h e e n d .

I f t en w e s h upp s f
o e t h e a c t o r c o rre p o n din g t o t h e n e a t i e
g s s v
an d i m
a in a r
g y
ro o t s t o b e a lre a d lti p lie d t o g e t e r, e a c h act o r y mu h f
x a c o rre s o n din
p g t o a
p o s it i e ro o t in t ro c e a t le a st o n e v du s
c anh ge o f Si n ;
g t e re o re n o e
q a t io nh fc a n h a v e o re p o it iv e u m s
ro o t s h
t an it h as c h an ge s o f s ign .

A gain , th e ro o t o f t h e e q atio n s )
x = 0 a re e
q u
al t o t h o e f u s
of f
( x
) 0 b ut o
pp o s it e t o t e in S ig n ; t e hm
re o re t h e n e at i e
g h f v
ro o t s o f
( ) f
x = 0 a re t h e
p o s it i e ro o t s Of xv) = O
; b u t t h e f
n um hs
b e r o f t e e p o s iti e ro o t s c an n o t e x c e e d t h e n v b er o f um
c anh g e s o f s i n in
g x
) ; t a t is tfh e n h
b e r o f n ega t ive ro o t s um
um
,

o f f x = 0 c an n o t e x c e e d t h e n
( ) b e r o f c an e s
g o f S ign in h
f 96
)
E x a p le m . C o n si d er th e eq u atio n x 9 5x8 x
3
7x 2 0 .

v h
H ere t erew h are t o c an ge s o f s ign , th erefo re th ere are at n io s t two
p o s iti e ro o ts .

f )
A gain x — x 9 l 5x 8 + x 3 7 x + 2 an d ere t h hh et hv h
m
- -
ere ar ree c
o f h
S i gn
mu h v
v t erefo re
\ ,
th e gi en e q atio n h as at
.

uu o st t re e n egati e ro o ts an
an ges
d
h m
,
,
t erefo re it st a e at leas t fo r i agin ary ro o ts .

E XA M PLE S . XXXV b . .

So l v e th e eq u atio n s

— 3
4
1 . 3 x 1 0x 3 + 4 x 2 x o n e ro o t b ein g
2
4
2 . 6x 1 3x —
3
3 5x 2 o n e ro o t b e in g 2

3 . x
4
+ 4x3
+ 5x + 2 x
2
o n e ro o t b e in g
 TH E O R Y OF E Q UA TI O N S . 46 1

r ]
4 . x
“
4x3
6x 2
4x 5 0, o n e ro o t b e in g J
5 So l e th e
. v eq u at io n x5 x
4
8x 2
9x l5 0, o ne ro o t b e in g
J 3 a n d an o t e r 1 h 1 .

F mth
or e eq u at io n o f lo w es t di m e n s io n s wi h t fi c ie n
rat io n al c o e f ts ,
one o f wh o s e ro o ts is

6 .
J + J 2f
3 f 7 .
—
J
8 .
J 2 .

10 . F mthor e eq u i wh at o n o s e ro o ts are 4 4 J3 ,
5 J 1 .

F mth qu i wh
-

11 . or e e at o n o s e ro o ts a re 1 l
: :
J 2, 1 2 4 J 3 .

12 . Fo r mth e eq u i f at o n o th e h h d g wi h
e ig t
_
e re e t rat io n al co

effi c ie n ts one o f wh o s e ro o ts is J2 + J J 3+ , 1 .

13 . Fi n d th e n at u re o f th e ro o ts f h q
o u i t e e at o n

3 x4 + 1 2 x + 5x — 4 2 = O .

14 S hw h t at th e u atio n 2x 7 — x 4 + 4x 3 — 5_—_O h as at le as t fo u r
m
. e eq
i a in ar
g y ro o ts .

15 . W h my b
at a e in fe rred res p e c t in g th e ro o ts o f th e eq u at io n

10 — 6 4—
x 4x + .v 2x 3 = O?

16 Fi n d t h e leas t p o s s ib le n umb er o f i mgi a n ar

y ro o ts o f th e
eq u ati o n x
9

17 . F in d th e co n d itio n t h at x
3 —
p x
2
q x r= O my h a a v e

( )
1 t wo ro o ts eq u al but o f o pp o s ite s ign ;

( 2) th e ro o ts in ge o mt i e r c al
p ro gres s io n .

18 I f t h e r o o t s o f t h e eq a t io n
4
+p 3
+q +
x
2
x = 0 u are in
hm
x x r s

hw h hy
.

arit e t ic al
p ro gre s s io n , s e t at p 3 an d if t

m
e a re

in geo etric al p ro gres s io n , s e t at p gs = r2 hw h .

19 . I f th e ro o ts o f th e qu i
e at o n x
“
1 = 0 a re 1, a, B, s hw he t at

—
(1 -
a ) ( 1 7 )
If a , b , c a re th e ro o ts o f th e eq u a tio n x
3 —
p x
2
qx — r= 0, fi n d t h e
v u al e o f

21 .
( b + c) ( c + a )

23 . 2a b 2
.

ro o ts o f +p a
3
q x
2
rx s 0, fi n d th e v lua e

25 “
. E a .
462 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

54 8 To fi n d th e
. va lu e o f
f ( x h ) , wh en f ( x ) is a ra ti o n a l
in tegra lfu n c tio n of x .

" "
th en
f( )
'
2
L et x =
p0 x p, x pz x + p n _, x

+ p n —1 x ( IL) + p '

m
n

E x pan din g e a c h te r an d a rran i

g g
n t h e re s ult in a s c en din g
p o we rs o f h , w e a hv e

" "' l ""

2
+ p lx + x + p x + p
po x p2 n

" "
2 ) p gx
3
(
2
( 1 ) p 1x
"

h
-

n n

— l —2
( )( )p
n -
Q
+ n n x
l

T is h re sult i s uu s a ll y w itt r en in t h e f m
or

3
[L
{i f
?
h
t
b
—
f
I H 1 1! n

g I n

an d th e fu
n c t io n s f ( x ,
)
'
a re c a lle d th e fi rs t,

s ec o n d, th ird, derived fu n c tio n s o f f( ) x

Th e st ud en t wh o k n o ws t h e m t f t h D iff ti l C l
e le en s o e e re n a a n

cu lu s ill w
h t th b v s ee t a e a o e ex p i f f (
an s o n h ) i l
oy x + s on a

p a rt ic la r uf T yl Th case o a or s
’
eo re m; t h fu ti s f ( ) e n c on x

m
,
’”

f ( ) xy t h f b w
a itt e re o re e r en d w t
o n b y th
a di y
o n ce e or n ar

rul f diff i ti t hu t
es or e re n t a on : s o o bt i f ( ) f m
a n f( ) w xmultiply ro x e

each t mi f ( ) b y th i d
er n x e n ex f io th t t m
x nd th a er an en
dim i i h th i d
n s b y u it y e n ex n .

Sim il ly b y u iv di fi '
ar s c c es s e e re n t iat io n s we Ob t a in f (x )
”
,

f
B y writ in g h in t h e pla c e o f h , we h a v e

f (w h) =
f<> x
g f
g f
f
g f (x )

Th e n c t io n fu f( x + h ) is e vi den t l y ymmt i
s e r c al w it h sp re ect
to x an d h ; en c e h
f ( )
g
’
x h f (h )
464 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

E xa m l
p e . Fin d th e re s u lt fc
o h an gin g x in to x 3 in th e e x p re s s io n

2x4 — x
3 2x + 5x 2
1 .

H e re we i i dvd u e s c c e s s i elyv by x 3 .

2 —1 —2 5 —1 Or m o re b rie fly t hu s

6 15 39 1 32 2 _ 1 _ 2 5 _1

2 5 13

1 8 2 = q3 2 11

2 17 97

2 23

H en c e th e res u lt is 2 x 4
23x3 9 7x 2
1 8 2x 131 . Co mp are A rt 54 8. .

It my ha e re m k d th
ar e at H o rn er s
’
pro ces s is c h iefly u ulsef in nu mi er ca l

w k
or .

550 If th e varia b le x ha n ges co n tin

c u o u s ly f ro m a to b th e
mf (
.

fu n ctio n f ( )
x w i ll ch a n e
g c o n tin u o u s ly fro a
) to f (b ) .

L et 0 an d c + h be an
y t wo v al ue s o y
f x l in g b e t we e n a an db .

We hv a e
e
h
fl w») f<
>f () ( )
’
ek -
c c
f c

,,

an m
d b y t a kin g h s all e n o g t h e di fe re n c e b et we en ( c h ) u
an d h f f
f ( )
c c an b e a de a s s m
a ll a s we
p le a e; m
en ce to a s a ll c a n
g e s h m h
in t h e v a riab le x t e re c o rre sp o n ds a h
a ll c a n
ge in t h e n c t io n sm h fu
f ( ) h f
x , an d t e re o re a s x c h a n e
g g ra d all ro a t o b , th e n c s u yf m fu
t io n f
( )
x c an e
g g ra d all h sro
( )
a to
( )
b u y f mf f
551 I t is i p o rta n t t o m n o t ic e t h at we h a v e no t p ro v ed t h at
f mf ( ) t f ( b ) sf m
.

f ( )
x a lwa s in c re a s e s y ro a o or de c re a s e ro f( )a

f m v lu
,

to f ( )
b b u t t at it
p as se s h ro on e a e t o t h e o t e r wit o t h h u
m ms it my b i
,

an
y u
s dde n c an e
g ; s o e t i h e a e n c re a in
g s
a n d a t o th e r

m
t i es it a
y b e dec rm
e as in
g .

u
Th e s t de n t wh o h a s a kn o le dge o f t h e e le w m en t s o f C u rve
m
s

t ra c in g will in an y pa rt ic la r ex a ple fi n d it e a s u yt f o o llo w t h e

g u
ra d a l c h an e
g o f v al e o f s
f ( x ) b y dra in g t h e c u w u v y
r e f ( x)
552 If f ( a) an d f(b ) a re o f co n tra ry s ign s th en o n e ro o t Qf
m
.

equ a tio n f x
th e ( ) 0 u st lie b etween a an db .

A S x c h g g du lly f m t b
an es ra a ro a o th e fu n c t io n f( ) x c h an
ge s

lly f m mu t
,

gra d u a
f( ) f( )
t b ro d t h f a o ,
an e re o re s
p ass t h ro u
g h a ll
 TH E OR Y OF E Q UA TI ON S . 465

in t e r mdi
v lu ; b t si f( ) d f( b ) h v t y ig
e ate a es u n ce a an a e co n ra r S ns

th lu
e va mu t li b t w t h m; t h t i ( ) 0 f m
e z e ro s e e e en e a s, x = o r so e

v lu f b t w
a e o db
x e e en a an .

It d s t f ll w t h t f ( )
oe 0 h
n o ly o bo w a x = as o n o n e ro o t et e en a

an d b; i h d it f ll w h t if f( )
n e t er d f (b ) h v t h
o es m o o t a a an a e e sa e

Sig f( ) n 0h x t b w db as n o ro o et ee n a an .

553 E very equ a tio n of a n o dd degree h a s at lea s t o n e r ea l

m
.

ro o t who s e s ign i s o pp o s i te to th a t of i ts la s t ter .

I n th e fu ti n c on f( ) u
x b s s t it ut e fo r x th e va l e s u co 0, co

s u c c e s s i el v y th ,
en

— 00
+ 00
: f( .

I f p ” is p o s iti e , t h e n f ( x ) v = 0 h a s a ro o t l in g b et e e n 0 a n d y w
oo a n d if p is n e gat i e v f ( )
x = 0 h a s a ro o t l in
g b e t e e n 0 y w
an d co

554 E very equ a tio n wh ich i s of a n even degree a n d h a s i ts

m
.

la s t ter n ega tive h a s a t lea s t two rea l ro o ts , o n e p o s i tive a n d o n e

n ega tive .

Fo r in t h is ca e s
+ 00
. f( )
0 =
p f( — w ) + 00
;
but is n e
g at i v;h e en c e f( ) x = 0 h as a ro o y
t l in g b e t w e en 0
an d co an d a ro o y
t l in g b e t w ee n 0 an d w

555 If th e exp ressi o n s f ( a) a n d ( b ) h a ve c o n trary s ign s , f

m
.

a n o dd n u b er of ro o ts of ( x ) 0 wi ll lie b etween a a n d b a n d f
if ( )
a f a n d f( b ) h a ve th e s a e s ign , eith er n o ro o t o r a n even m
n u b er m
o
f ro o ts w i ll li e b etw een a a n d b .

u
S pp o s t h at
is gre at e r t a n b , a n d t at a , ,8 ,
e a h h
re re s e n t a ll t h e ro o t
p o f f( )
x = 0 i c h li e b e tswe e n a a n d 6 wh .

L et ¢ (x) b e t h e q o t ien t en
( )
x i u
s di i de d b y t h e p ro d c t wh f v u
( x —a x — x —
) ( B) ( y ) ( x —K
); t e n h
—a iv — 3 ff — )(
w 6 73 )( 7) 1 ( 09 6)
—
H en c e f( ) a =
( a a
)( a
( a —
y) ( a
)q ( )
K S a

f( )
b =
( b — a
)( b —
Bfl b 7)
-

( ) — K
1 M “)
N ow d ( )
) a an d ( b b
( ) mu t b s e o m
f t h e s a e S ign , fo r o t e rwis e a h
ro o t o f t h e e
q a t io n u h f
a n d t e re o re o f
( )
x 0,
o ld f : wu
w
lie b e t e e n a a n d b [A rt . wh h
ic is c o n t ra r t o t h e p o y hy
H . H . A . 30
 466 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

t h es is . H en c e if f ( a ) an d f ( )
b ha v e co n t ra r y si
gn s, th e ex

re ss i o n s
p
—
m)
—
(a a
)( a B) ( a
y) ( a
) K ,

—K
( b _ a
) ( y ( b )
mu t h s a v e co n y
A ls o t h e a c t o r in t h e rs t e x p re ss io n
t rar s ign s . f s fi
a re a ll
p o s it i e , a n d t h e v
a c t o rs in t h g f
e s e c o n d a re a ll n e a t i e ; v
hen c e t h e n b e r o f a c t o rs um f
s t b e o dd, t a t is t h e n b er o f mu h um
ro o t a s
, ,3 , y ,
K s t b e O dd mu .

m y f
Si ila rl if ( a ) a n d ( b ) a e t h e a e S ign t h e n f
b er o f hv sm um
fac to r s mu v
st b e e e n h
I n t is c a s e t h e gi e n c o n dit io n is s at is e d
. v fi
if a , ,8 , y , K a re a ll gre a t e r t h an a , o r le s t an b ; t s it do es s h hu
n o t n e c e s s a ril o llo w t at yf
( )
x 0 h a s a ro o t b e t h
e e n a an d b f w .

556 . I f a, b, c, a re th e ro o t s o f th e eq u a t io n
f( )x 0, t h en

f( ) er
—l —k
x z os -
a
)( a
c aac
( -
c
) ( se
) .

H e re th e q u an t itie s a, b, e, h a re n o t n e c e s s a ril yu n e
qu al

hm h
.

If r o ft e a re e
q u al to a, s to b, t to c, t en

f( ) P. ( ) ( bl
”
(
”
96 = 90 a 90 90

In t ish c as e it is co n v en ie n t s t ill t o s p e ak o f t h e e q at io n u
f( ) x O a s a in
g n hv ro o t s , eac h
o f the e
q a l ro o t b ein
g u
c o n s ide re d s
a dis t in c t ro o t .

557 If th e equ a tio n f(x ) = 0 h a s r ro o ts equ a l to

. a, th en th e
'
( )
equ a tio n f x 0 wi ll h a ve r 1 ro o ts equ a l to a .

L et ¢( ) x b e th e q u o tie n t wh e n f( ) x is divide d b y ( x
t h en f( ) ( x x

W rit e x h in t h e plac e o fx; t hu s

—a h) ;

g
—
f (x ) +

( x

hs
I n t i ide n t it y ,
by eq u at in
g t h e c o efli c ie n
‘
ts o f h , we hv
a e

f( ) x
( w
T hu s f ( ’
x
) co n t ain s th f e a c to r x a re
p e at e d r — l ti m; es t h at
i s, th e e
q u at io n
f( )
’
x 0 h as r 1 ro o ts e
q u a l to a .
468 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

u oh t u
i f( ) 0 h a s r
’
1 B ut
u
ro o t s e q al to a .

e q al
"
t a ,
t e e q a

fi
rs t de ri e
o n

v fu
d
x

t i o f f ( )
x , e n c e t h e e q a t io n ’
h u
m y
o n
f ( )x i s th e

0 st mu h v 2 ruu
o o
n

t s
c

e q a l t o a ; s i i l a r l t h e e q a t io n u
f ( ) a e r
h
mu h v
x
— l t a n d S O 0 11 T e s e
3 ro t e q a o a ;
.

st a e r o s

w mm i b l u s t o d i sc o e r t h e e q al v u
m
i d t io n s ill s o e t e s e n a e
co n s

ro o t s o
e

f
ra

x Of( ) it w h les u
s ht ro b le t a n t h e e t h o d o f A r t 5 5 9 . .

i f( x ) 0, t
th e f th e equ a t o n
:

If b, a re ro o ts o
56 1 . a, c,

ro ve th a t
p

—k+ h
( x )

Bu t f( x + h) =
f( ) fl x

h e n c e f ( ) is
'
x eq ul a to th e c o e fli c ie n t o f h in th e rig h t h an
-

mm e b er o f ( 1 ) t h f e re o re , a s in A rt 1 6 3, .

—c —h
f( ) x :
( x —b
)( 90 — 0
) ( x —a
)( x ) ( x
) +

fl ) “
t h at is , f ( ) x

56 2 Th e u
re s lt o f t h e p rec e din g a rtic le e n ab le s us v y s er ea i
m u
.

to fi n d th e s u o f a n a s s ign e d p o we r o f t h e ro o ts of q ani e at o n .

E xa m
pl e. I f Sh d en o te th e su m f th
o e k th
po w ers o f th e ro o ts o f th e

eq u ati o n x
5
px
‘
qx
2
t : 0,

fi n d th e vu al e o f S4 , S 6 an d8 -
4 .

L et

t h en f (x )
’
5x 4
4p x 3 2 gx .

an d si mil ar ex p re ss io n s h d ol fo r

f (x ) f (x ) f (x ) f (x )
9 ’
x — b x — c x — d a; _ e
 TH E O R Y OF E Q U A TI O N S .
469

H en ce by a dd itio n ,
4 3
5x 4
+ px 2 qx = 5x4 + ( 8 1 + 5p ) x3 + (8 2 + p S l ) x
2

( S 3 + P3 2 5g) x ( S 4 + 17 3 3 4 9 3 1 )
"

By eq u atin g c o e f
fi c ien ts ,

wh en c e

3 2 + Ps l z 0, wh en ce

wh en ce S3 —_
p
3 _
3g;

wh en ce = 4
S 4 p + 4p q .

To fi n d th e v u al e o f S , fo r o t h v u
er al es o f h , we p ro cee d as fo llo w s .

u
M ltiplyin g th e gi v en eq u atio n by ce
k -
5
,

" t 1 k—3 k
+ fin
-

x +p a
c + gee

u u
S b s tit tin g fo r x in s u cc es s io n th e v u al es a , b, c, d, e an d a dd in g
res u
lts , we o b tain Sh qS k_3

Pu t k = 5; t hu s

wh en ce S5 — 5
p 5
p q
2
5t .

Pu t k = 6 ; t hu s

wh en ce Se p
= 6 6p 3 q 3 g2 6p t .

To fi n d pu t k = 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 in s u c ces s io n ; t en h
wh en c e S _I

S3 + p S 2 5g ts _2 z o, wh e n ce 5 -
2

0, wh en ce 8 -
4
24
t 2
2
4p
t

56 3 h
W en t h e c o effi c ien t s a re n ume i r c al we my a

m
.

f w
c ee d a s i n t h e o llo in g ex a ple .

m F d
E x a p le m u h w
. in th e su o f th e fo rt po ers o f th e ro o ts o f
3
x 2 x2 + x

f( ) x = x3 — 2 x2 + x 1,
2;
f (x)
’
3x 4x + 1 .

3
27
47 0 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

1 4
10

2 2 5 10
H en c e th e q u o ti en t is
3
5
+

E XA M PLE S . XXXV . c .

1 . If f( ) a = x4 7 6x 6 5, fi n d th e v lu ff(
a e o x

2 . I f f( x ) x
4
1 x
2 3 1 7x 2
9 x + 7 , fi n d th e va lu ff (
e o x +

3 . If f (x ) = 2x 4
l 3x 2
1 9 , fi n d th e v lua e of f( x +

4 . If f( ) x = x4 7 2x 2
6 4x 1 2 9 , fi n d th e v lua e o f f ( x

5 . If f( ) x ax
s
b x5 cx d, fin d th e v lu
a e o ff ( x h) f( x h) .

6h h S eu w t 7 at th e eq atio n 1 x 2
+ x + 6 0 h as a ro o t
w 0 d
.

b et een an 1 .

7 Sh w h h qu i
e t at+ t e e at o n x
4
5x 3
+ 3x
2
3 5x h as a ro o t
tw b w
.

be een d d 2 an 3 d an one et e en 2 an 3 .

8 Sh w h h qu i
e t at t e e at o n x4 1 2x 2 1 2x 3 = 0 h as a ro o t
tw h b w
.

be e en d d 3 an d 4 an an o t er et e en 2 an 3 .

9 Sh w h
. e t ath x5 5x 4
2 0x 2
1 9x 2 0 as a ro o t b et w een 2 an d
3, an d b twa ro o 4 td e e en an 5 .

S lv h f ll wi g q u i
t wh i h h v u at o n s
q l
o e e o o n e c a e e a ro o ts
4
10 . x 11 . x
4 — 3
6 x + 1 2x 2
12 . x —
5
1 3 x4 + 6 7 x3 — 1 7 1 x 2 + 2 1 6 x
5
13 . x — v3 + . 4x 2
14 . 8 x4 + 4 x 3 — 1 8x 2 + 1 1 x — 2 =- 0 .

5—
15 . x 3 x5 + 6 x 3 — 3 x 2
6 —
16 . 33 2 x5 — 4x4 + 1 2 x3 — 3 x 2

17 . x
4 — a
( a — a 3b z
0 .
 H I H ER G AL GE BR A .

I f t h e p ro p o s e d e
q u at o n i is
"
“ 2
0,
"

po x -
l +p2 x + p n 1
x p a
z:

t h en it is e v id en t t h at th e re
q u i re d e
q u a t io n w ill b e

We
—l
as
"
“

29
1 9
n
+ re/
"
2
y .
0,

h
w ic h is o b t ain e d ro f m
t h e o rigin al e q at io n b y c h a n gin g th e u
s ign of every a ltern a te ter b egin n i n g wi th th e s eco n d m .

56 6 To tra n sfo r a n equ a tio n in to m an o th er who s e ro o ts a re

m
.

equ a l to th o se of th e p rop o s ed equ a ti o n u ltip li ed b y a given

u an ti ty
q .

L et f (x ) 0 b e t h e p ro po s ed e
qu a t io n an d let q den o t e t h e

gi v en
q u an tit y . Pu t y =
q x, SO t h at x t h en th e re
qu i re d

e
qu at io n is f
h f
Th e c ie u s e o f t h i t ran s s f mti
or a on is t o c le a r a n e
q u at io n

f rac t io n al c o e c ie n t ffi s .

E xa p lem . Re mv o e fractio n al c o ef
fi cien ts fro mth e eq u atio n

3 1 3
— x -
—0
§
.

Pu t x an d multiply eac h m ter b y q3 ; t hu s

3 i 2
3
3: 0
2

u
By p ttin g q = 4 all th e ter m b mi s ec o e n tegral, an d on divid in g b y 2 ,
we o b tain
y
— 3
3y 2

56 7 . m
To tra n sfo r a n equ a ti o n i n to a n o th er wh o s e ro o ts a re
th e reci ro ca ls o
p f th e ro o ts of th e p ro p o sed equ a tio n .

L et f( ) x 0 b e t h e p ro p o s e d e
qu i
at o n ; p t yu so t h at

9
q u dtqu h
t en th e re i re e a io n is

O f th h i f u f t h i t sf mti i t
n e o e c e se s o s ran or a on s o Ob t ain t h e
v lu f p i s wh i h i v lv ymmt i l fu
a es o ex re s s o n c n o e s e r ca n c t io n s o f
ne
g t v p w s f th ts
a i e o er o e ro o .
 TR A N SFO R M A TI ON OF EQ UA TIO N S . 47 3

m
E x a p le 1 . I f a, b , c are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

3 — 2
+ — r= 0
x
p x qx ,

1 1 1
fi n d th e val u e o f
a b 0

multiply h
Write
5
3
fo r x, by y , an d c an ge

s u itin g e q u atio n ry
3
qy + p y
2
1 0,

1 1 1
h as fo r i ts ro o ts
a b c

h en c e 2 l 13
ab r
‘
2
1 q 2p r
2 —
77 2
. r
2

m
E x a p le 2 . If a, b, c are th e ro o ts Of

x
3
+ 2 x — 3x 2

fi n d th e v lua e o f a
‘
3
+b
‘
3
c
v
3
.

md u
Writin g
3 fo r x , th e tran s fo r

83
y + y
—2
y
2
e eq atio n is

an d th e gi v en e xp res s io n is eq ul a to th e v u al e o f S 3 in t is h eq u atio n .

H ere SI 3
—2
Si = (
an d S 3 + 33 2 -
23 1

wh en ce we o b tain S3 42 .

56 8 . If an e
q u a t io n is u n a lt e re d by c h an i
g g
n x in t o

is c a lle d a recip ro ca l equ a ti o n .

I f t h e gi v en eq u a t io n is
“ " l
0,
‘

x
p, x +p x + p n
_ ,x + p
1
th e e
q u a t io n o b t ain e d b y w iti r n
g fo r x , an d c le a rin g o f f ra c tio n s

" " 1 "' 2 2

1 0
"

p u
x
p x
p n
_2 x + p ,,x + p ,x + : .

If t h es e t wo e
q u at o n i s a re th e sa m e, we mu t h v s a e

19
p P. P. 1

fl
..

P1 70
.

flw ’

7 v R
"

:
2 ’ ’ ’
p zu
f mth l
.

ro e ast re s u lt w h v e a e p
= =
h 1, an d t h us we h a v e

l s s f u
n

c a se o re c i ro c al e at io n s
p q .
47 4 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

i If 1, t h en

p z
p p2 z
p —2 ’ pa p —a ’ 5
z
l n
—l ’ n ii

t h is , t h e
at c o efli c ien ts o f t er ms qu idi t e s an t f mt h
ro e b egin n in g
an d e n d a re eq u al .

( ) 11 If p ” 1, t h en

—
pi p n
—1 ’ pg

h en c e if t h e
i is o f 2 eq u
di e n s io n p m — p m, o r p m 0
at o n m m s
f m
:

m u s
.

hs
I n t i c a s e th e c o e fli c ien t s Of t e r s e q idi t an t ro t h e b e gin
n in
g a n d e n d a re e
q a l in
g p u
a n i t de a n d o p o s it e in Si n , a n d
g m u
u
if t h e e q at io n is o f a n e ven degre e t h e iddle t e r is wan t in g m m .

56 9 . u
S ppo s e th at f( ) x 0 is a re c i
p ro cal e
qu a tio n .

I f f ( x ) 0 is o f t h e rs t c la
z an d o f an o dd de re e it h a s a
g fi ss
ro o t 1 ; s o t h at f ( x ) is di is ib le b y x 1 If < 1( )
) x i s t h e v .

q u 1( )
o t ie n t , t h e n <
) x 0 is a re c i ro c a l e
p q at io n O f t h e rs t c la u fi ss
an d o f an e v e n de ree
g .

I f f (x ) = 0 is o f t h e e c o n d c la an d o f an s
O dd de re e , it
g ss
h as a ro o t + 1 ; in t i ( )
c as e f x i hs
s di is ib le b
y x 1 ,
an d as v
b e o ref 1( )
( ) x 0 is a rec ipro c al e q at io n o f t h e rs t c la s a n d o f u fi s
an e v en degree .

I f f (x ) 0 is o f t h e e co n d c la
= an d o f a n e en s
degree , it ss . v
h as a ro o t 1 a n d a ro o t — 1 in t h is c a s e f ( x ) is di is ib le b y v
x
2
1 , an d a s b e o re q5( x ) f
O is a recip ro c a l e q atio n o f t h e r t u fis
c la ss a n d o f a n e ven de re e
g .

H en c e an
y rec ip ro ca l equ a ti o n is of an even degree with
its la s t ter m p o s i tive, o r c a n b e redu ced to thi s fo r m h hm ; w ic a
y
t h f e re o re s
b e c o n ide re d a s t h e t a n da rd or s f m Of re c ip ro c a l

e
qu at o n si .

57 0 A recip ro ca l equ a tio n of th e s ta n da r d fo r m c an

m
.

du ced to an equ a tio n o f h a lf i ts di i

en s o n s .

Let th e e
qu at io n be

ax
2 m+ b x2 m" + cx
2 m
-
2

v
di idin g b y x
’”
an d re a rra n i
g g
n t h e t er mw s, e ha v e

” + h = 0
47 6 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

E x a p lem . Fin d th e eq u atio n wh o s e ro o ts e x cee d b y 2 th e ro o ts o f th e

eq u atio n 4x + 4
3 2 x3 8 3x 2
7 6x 21 0 .

Th e u d u ire atio n will b e o b tain e b y d u u

b s tit tin g x 2 fo r in th e
m
re q eq s x

d u h atio n in H m ’
p ro ces s we e plo y x + 2 a s dv i i s o r,
md
p ro p o s e eq ; en c e o er s

an d th e c alc ul atio n is p erfo r e as fo llo w s

4 32 83 76 21

m
4 24 35 6 [9
4 16 s

4 s 13

4 [ o

T hu s th e tran s fo r md e eq u atio n is

(4 x
2
4x 4
9 = 0, or 9) (x
2
1) 0
.

Th e ro o ts o h
f t is u
e q atio n are + 1, -
1; h en c e th e ro o ts o f

th e p ro p o se d u eq atio n are

57 3 Th e hi f c e u se o us u
f t h e s b tit tio n in t h e p re c e din g
mv m mf m
.

a rtic le is t o re o e so e a ss i n e d t e r
g ro an e
q a t io n u .

L e t th e giv q u t i
en e a on be
—2
0;
n
+ x + =
p p n

t h en if y z x h , we Ob ta in t h e n ew e
q u at io n

P. ( y 2 70 ”
7
+ + 29 2 +

wh i h whc ,
en a rra n
g ed in de s c e n di n g p o w e rs o f y , b ec o m es

09
?
Po l/
n

( n
po h + 29 0
71
( n 1 ) p ,h + p

I f th e t er mt o b e re mv o ed is t h e s eco n d, w e pu t np
o
h p 1
0,

h mt mv h
so t at h
7
2
; 0
if t h e t e r o be re o e d is t h e t ird we pu t

_ 1
(
2
0
k n
pl h + )
3
22 2 O’

an d so o b t ain a
q u a dra t ic t o fi n d h ; an d si mil ar y w my mv
l e a re o e

an
y o t h e r a s si n e d
g ter m .
 TR A N S FOR M A TI O N OF E Q U A TI ON S 47 7

mtim it w ill
So e es be m o re co n v en ie n t t o p ro c ee d as in t h e
f ll w i g mpl
o o n ex a e .

E xa m
pl e. Re mv o e th e s ec o n d m m ter fro th e eq u a tio n

L et a, 8 , 7 b e th e ro o ts , so t h at a + fl+ 7
g
P
T h en if we in c re as e

e ac h o f th e ro o ts b y .

3p
2 .

’ in th e tran s fo r md e eq u atio n th e su m f th
o e ro o ts

wl il be eq u al to th at is , th e c o efli c ien t o f th e s ec o n d mw ter ill

be z ero .

H en ce th e u d
re q ire tran s fo r mti a on will b e ef
fecte d b ub i u
y s st t tin g x

fo r x in th e g iv u en e q atio n .

57 4 . F o mth e
r eq u a t io n
f( ) x : 0 we a
y o r m f m an e
qu at io n

wh o se ro o ts a re c o n n e ct ed with t hs o e o f th e
gi e n v e
qu a t io n by
so m s ig e as n e d relat io n .

L et y b e a ro o t o f t h e re q ire d e q atio n an d le t d ( )
) x, y = 0 u u
den o t e t h e a s sign e d relat io n ; t en t h e t ran s o r e d e q at io n c an h f m u
h
b e Ob t a in e d e it e r b y e x p re s s in g x a s a n c t io n of y b
y e an s fu m
o f th e e
q a t io n 4) ( x , u
y) 0 a n d s b s t it t in
g t h i s v al e o f x in : u u u
f( )
x 0 ; o:r b y e li in a t in
g x b e t we e n t h e e
q m
at io n f( )
x = 0 u s
an d )
4 ( y) 0
x, .

E x a p le 1 If m b, th e ts o f th e u atio n x3
m
a, c are ro o eq
u wh
.

fo r th e eq atio n o s e ro o ts are

1
be

W h en x = a in th e gi v en eq u atio n , y = a in th e tran s fo r md e eq u atio n ;

1 E
be ab c

an dt h erefo re th e tran sfo r md e eq u atio n w ill b e o b tain e d b y th e s ub u s tit tio n

=
y x+ 2
’
01 x

thu s th e req u d u ire eq atio n is

E x a p le 2 m Fo r mth e eq u atio n wh o se ro o ts are th e sq u are s o f th e

d u
.

ifferen ce s o f th e ro o ts o f th e c b ic
3 0
x q x r: .

L et a, b, c b e th e ro o ts o f th e c u b ic t h en th e ro o ts of th e req ui d
re

eq u atio n are ( b c)
2
, ( c a )
2
, (a b) 2
.
47 8 HI GH E R AL G EB R A .

( b c )
2 = b2 —c 2 2b e a
= 2
b +c 2 2

2 a

2 q — a2 l -

als o w h en x = a in th e gi v en eq u atio n y = —
(b c)
2 in th e tran s fo r md e
eq u atio n ;
,

—2 — fv
2
+
y q

T hu s we hv
a e to eli mi n ate x b et w een th e eq u atio n s

3
x qx r 0,

+ (2 g y)
3
x x 2 r= 0 .

By s u b trac tio n (q y) x 3r

u
S b s tit tin g an d u re du c in g, we ob tain
2 z 2
y
3 6 qy 9g y 27 r 4 q3 0
.

C OR If a , b , c are real, ( b c )
2
( c a
) (
2
a b) 2
are all v h
p o s iti e t ere fo re

2 7 r2
.

4 q3 is n e gati e v .
, ,

H en c e in d h
o r er t at th e u eq atio n x 3
+ qx + r = 0 my h v a a e all its ro o ts

mu b iv h mu v
2 3
real 2 7 r2 + 4 q3 st e n egat e, t at is
(2) ( ) g t b s e n egati e .

If 27r2
4
+ q
3=
0 th e tran s fo r md e eq u atio n h as o n e ro o t z ero h
t erefo re
th e o rigin al eq atio n h as two e q u u al ro o ts .
,

If + q4
27 r2
3 is
po s iti e , th e tran s fo r v md qu ti h as a n egati v e ro o t
mu t h v
on
m
e e a

[ A rt t h
e refo re th e o rigin al e q atio n u s a e t wo i agin ary ro o ts ,
.

Sin c e it is o n ly s c uh
a p air o f ro o ts ic wh h du c e a n egati e ro o t v in
md u pro
c an
th e tran s fo r e eq atio n .

E XA M PL E S . XXXV d . .

1 . Tran s f mthor e e qu atio n x

3
4x + 2 lx
zl
0 in t o an o t h wi h
er t

in t egral c o ef c ienfi ts , an d u n ity fo r t h e c o effi c ien t o f th e fi rs t t er m .

2 Tran s o r f m h qu i t at o n 3x 4
5x3 +
2
+1 = 0 in to t hr
wh fi t mi u
. e e x x an o e

th e c o effi c ien t o f o se rs t er s n ity .

So l v e th e e q u t ia on s

4
3 . 2x + x3
4 — 3 2
4 . x 1 0x + 2 6x
x5— 9 x3 —
4 2
5 . 5x + 9 x + 5x

6 . 4 x6 — 24 x + 5
' 4
57 x — 73 x 3
+ 7x
5 2
480 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

C UB I C E Q U A TIO N S .

57 5 . Th e ge n e ra l t p e y o f a c ub i c e
q u a t io n is
3
—
x + n l Q x + R = 0,

b u t as ex
p la in e d in A rt 57 3 t is h eq u ti ba du
on c an e re ce d to th e
mpl f m
.

3
si er or x qx r 0 ,

wh i h w sh ll t
c e a ak e a s th e s t an da r d f mf ub i q
o r o a c c e u a t io n .

57 6 . To so v
l e th e e
q u a t io n x
3
qx r 0.

L et x = y + z ; t h en

2 3 3
3y z ( y )
‘

x
y + z + + z

an d t h e gi v en eq u a t io n b ec o m es

3 s
+ e +
y

A t p re s en t y, z a re an
y t w o qu an s
tit ie s ub j e ct to th e c o n
dit io n t a t t e ir su h is h m uon e o e ro o t s e
q al t o f th o f th e
gi e n v
e
q u
a t io n ; if w e
p fu h
rt e r s u p o e t h a t s e s a t is t h e th y fy e
qu a t io n

3y z q 0,
t e a re c o
p le thy
e l de m y
t e r in ate W e t s m . hu ob t ain
3
9
7 " yz 3 3

27

h en c e
y
s
,
z
3
a re th e ro o ts o f th e q u a dra t ic
3
q
27

So lvin g e
q u at o n
,
ia n d p ttin g u
f
2
’ 3
7 9
a?

we o b ta in t h e v lu a e o f x f mth
ro e re la t io n x y z ; t hu s

v u
Th e ab o e s o l tio n is gen e rall kn o wn a s Ca rda n s So lu tio n , y ’

a s it w a s rs t
p b lis fie d b y h i iu g h m
n t h e A rs M a n a , in 1 54 5 C a rda n

s u f m u
.

Ob t a in e d t h e o l t io n ro Ta rt aglia ; b u t t h e so l t io n o f t h e
u
c b ic s e e m
s to h a e b een v
du e o rigin all t o Sc ip io e rre o , a b o t y F u
 C UB IC E Q p A TI ON s . 48 1

1 505 . A n h
in t e re s t in g is t o ric a l n o t e o n t is s b e c t ill b e h uj w
fu
o n d u
a t t h e e n d o f B rn s ide an d Pa n t o n s Th eo r
’

y f q
o E u a ti o n s .

57 7 By A rt 1 1 0, e a c o f t h e q an t it ie s o n t h e rig t an d
. . h u h h -

s ide o f e q a t io n s ( 1
) an d 2u
( ) o f th e
p re c e din
g a rt ic le h a s t ree h
u
c b e ro o t s , e n c e it h
o ld a pp e a r t a t x h a s n i n e wu
al es
; t is ,
h v u h
hwv o e e r, is n o t th e c a se . Fo r s in c e y z —
g ,
th e c ub e ro o ts a re

to b e t a ke n in pa ir s o t s h
f e a c h pa ir is ra t io n a l
at t h e p ro d u ct o .

H en c e if y , de n o t e t h e z
a l e s o f an
y p a ir Of c b e ro o t s iv
c h u u wh
fu fi h
l l t is c o n dit io n , t h e o n l o t h e r a d is s ib le p a ir will b e y m s
my ,
g
( a e an d w
g
y ,
w z, e re w, ( 0
2
a re t h e i wh
a in a r
g c b e ro o ts o f m y u
u y
n it H e n c e t h e ro o t s o f t h e e q a tio n a re
. u
2 2
l
:/ z ,
(b
y (0 2, £0
2
] (o z .

E xa m
pl e . v
So l e th e u
eq atio n x
3
1 5x : 1 2 6 .

Pu t y + z fo r x t , h en

+ ( 3y z 1 5)
3
y + z3 x = 12 6 ;

pu t 3yz 15: 0,

th en y +
3
z3 = 1 26

als o 3z 3 = 1 25
y
h en c e 31
3
, 2
3
are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

t 2 1 2 6 t + 1 2 5= 0 ;
3= 1 2 5,
y
=
y 5, z =1 .

1 J —3

2
2
wy + w z

-
3 -
2 J TS
,

an d th e ro o ts are —3 + 2
J —3 , —3 -
2 J
,
-
3 .

57 8 To e x pla in t h e re a so n
. w e app a re n tl o b t a in why y n in e
u
v a l e s fo r x in A rt 57 6 , w e o b se rv e t a t y a n d a re t o b e
. h z fu o n d

f mth
ro e eq u at io n s
y
3
z
3
r: O, y z b u t in t h e p ro c e s s f o

so u
l t io n t h e s ec o n d o ft h ese wa s c h an
g ed in t o y z wh i h c

H H . . A .
482 HI GH E R A L EBR A G .

w u ld
o a ls o h o ld if y e
3
Q
i
(”
_
o r yz
"
h en ce th e o t h er

valu es o fx a re s o u
l t io n s o f t h e c b ic s u

57 9 We p ro c ee d to c o n s ide r m fu lly
o re th e ro o ts o f
mq
.

e
q u
at io n
a
x r 0 .

()
i If
9
—
27
is p o sit i v e, t h en y
3
an d z
3
a re b ot h re al ; le t

y an d z re
p re se n t t h e ir a rit h mti e c al c ub e ro o t s, t h en th e ro o ts
g 2
a re y + z, wy + wz, w y + wz .

Th e fi rs t o f t h e se is re a l, a n d by su b s tit u ti n
g fo r w an d w th e
2

o t h er two b ec o m e

—z + z
g+ z y y
n
y
+ J 3
_
2
j .

2
3

( )
ii If
4
+
9
7
2
is z e ro ,
t h en y
3
= z
3
; in t hi s c ase
y = z
,
an d

th e ro o ts b ec o m 2y e , y( w y( w w ),
e
or 2y , — y , — y .

mgi
3

( )
iii I f
4
+
9
27
is n e
g ati v h e, t en
y
3
an d z
3
a re i a n ar y ex

p re s s io n s o f th e f m or a + ib an d a — ib u
S pp o s e t at t h e c b e h u
m m
.

ro o ts o h
f t es e q an t it ie s u a re in an d h
in ; t en t h e ro o t s o f
th e c u b ic b e c o e m
m + in + m— i n ,
or 2m;
( m i — n
) w
2
,
or —m -
n
J ;
S
—m
— in ) a, o r + n
J ;
3

wh i h c ll l qu
a re t it i aA h w v
re a th i g l an es s o e er e re s n o e n e ra

it h m i l i l mt h d f fi di g t h
.

'
ar lg b
et ca or a t l e f ra c a e o o n n e ex ac va u e o

th eub c t f imgi e y qu ti i s [C mp A t
ro o o th a n ar an t e o a re r . e

so lu t i b t i d i A t 57 6 i
on O f lit l p
a n e ti l wh th n r . s o t e ra c ca u se en e

ro ots f th ub i
o ll l d
e c
q u l c a re a re a an u n e a .

Th i i mtims ll d t h I d ib l C
s ca se s so fC d s e e ca e e rre uc e as e o ar an
’

so l uti on .

58 0 I n t h e i rredu cib le ca s e j u st m t i d t h en on e e so u
l t io n a
y m
m m y f ll w L t th
.

be co
p le t e d b y T rigo n o e t r a s o o s e e u
s o l t io n b e I

é
( a ib ) ( a ib )
 484 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

by e li mi n a t in
g a an db f mt h
ro ese e
q u a t io n s , we Ob ta in

( 9) (
2
(2
2
7 9 0 2 7
4 + 19 7
0

2 h — qh
3 2
1 2 (p r — — r
2
= 0
qs
-
.

F mt h i
ro s c ub i c e
qu a t io n o n e re a l v lu a e o f 10 c an al w ys b
a e

fu o n d [A rt . t hu s a an db a re kn o w n . A ls o
h) b) ;
2
(
2
(
2
x +px + : dx +

an d th e v lu
a es o f x a re to b e o b t a in e d f mth
ro e t wo q u a dra t ic s
—b
( )
2
x + p : 0,

E xa m
p l e . So l v e th e eq u atio n

x
4
2x 3 — 5x 2 + 1 0x

A dd a x
2 2
+ 2a b x b 2
to e ac h d si e o f th e eq u atio n , an d ass um e

— 2 x3 + —5 + 2 ( a b + 5) x + b — = 2
(x
2 2 2
x
4
( a )x 3

t h en by eq u atin g c o effi cien ts , we hv a e

a
2=
2h + 6 , ab k — 5, b 2 = k2 + 3 ;

( 2k + 6 )
2 k3 5k — 4k 2
+

By trial, we fi n d t h at k 1 h en c e a =
2 4, b = 4, 2
ab

B u t fro mth e as s um p tio n , it fo llo w h s t at

2=
( x
2
x k) ( ax b) 2

u
S b s tit tin g th eu v u al es o f k, a an d b , we hv a e th e two eq u atio n s

2 —x 1=
x -
: ;i
( 2x
th at is , x
2
an d x
2
+x

wh en ce th e ro o ts are
3=
s J5
2 2

58 3 . Th e f ll w i
o o n
g so u
l t io n wa s gi v en b y De s c a rt e s in 1 6 3 7 .

u
S pp o se t h at t h e b iqu a dra t ic e
qu a t io n is re d u c ed to th e f m
or

a s s um e x
4
+ qx
2
+ rx + s
( x
2
 B I Q U A D R A TI O E Q U A TI O N S . 485

t h en by e
q u a t in
g c o ef
fi c ie n t s , we hv a e

l+ m — hg z
q ,
h ( m—l
) = r
,
l m z s .

F mt h
ro e fi rs t t wo o f t h es e e
q u a t io n s , we o b ta in

mh r
‘

2 2
7
2 = + q + 2l= h + -

h
’
7C
h en c e s ub s t it uit n
g in t h e t ird h e
q u a t io n ,

) )
3
( 7
0
qh r qlc r

" “
(q 43 ) h
2 2
h 2qh r 0 .

h
T is is a c b ic in h u wh h
ic alwa s h a s o n e re a l p o s iti e s o l
2
y v u
t io n [A rt t s e n is
2
hu wh
is k n o n t h e a l es o f l a n d w v u m
m
.

a re de t e r u
in e d, a n d t h e s o l t io n o f t h e b iq a dra t ic is Ob t a in e d u
v
b y s o l in g t h e t wo q a dra t ic s u
g
an d x

m
E xa p le . So l v e th e eq u atio n

4 2
x 2x + 8x

A ss um e x
4 — 2x 2 + 8 x

t h en by u eq atin g co e ffi c ien ts , we hv a e

l l - -
m— k 2
2, k ( m l) z 8, l m= 3;

wh en ce we o b tain 2k 8) ( h 3 2k 8) 1 2 702 ,

or k — 4 6
4k l 16k2 --

h u
T is e q atio n is c learly s atisfi e d wh en k 2
o r k: It w ill b e
s u d
ffi c ien t to co n s i er o n e o f th e al v u es o fk p ttin gu we hv
a e

m+ l= 2 m l= 4 ; ,
-
h t at is , l = —1 , m= 3 .

T hu s x
4 — 2x 2 + 8 x — 1 x2
)(
h en ce x
2
+ 2x an d x
2

I
an dt h erefo re th e ro o ts are 1i J2 , J 2 .

584 Th e ge n e ral algeb ra ic a l s o l tio n o f e q at io n s o f a

. u u
h h
degree h ig e r t an t h e o rt h a s n o t b ee n Ob ta in e d, an d A b el s fu h ’

m m
de o n s t ra t io n o f t h e i p o s s ib ilit o f s c a s o l tio n is ge n e ra ll y u h u y
a c c ep t e d b
y M at e a t ic ia n s I f hmo e e r t h e c o e f c ie n t s o f an hwv fi
um m
, , .

e
q u
a t io n a re n e ric a l, t h e a l e o f a n
y rea l ro o t a
y b e o v u
nd fu
u
t o a n y re q ire d de gre e o f a c c ra c b y H o rn e r s M e t o d o f a p
’
u y h
p ro x i m fu
a t io n , a ll a c c o n t o f w ic w ill b e o n d i u
n t re a t ise s o n h h f u
t h e Th eo ry of E qu atio n s .
4 86 HIGHER G AL E BR A .

58 5 . We s h a ll c o n c lu d w it h t h e e dis c u s s io n o f so m mi
e s ce lla

n eo n s e
q u a t io n s .

E xa m
pl e 1 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

x y z u O,

ax by
2 2
a x
2 2
b y e z d a = O,
3 3 3
a x b y c z d3a k .

uh
M ltip ly t u
e q atio n s , b e gin n in g fro mth lo w e st, b y 1 , p , q,
mi
ese e r re

s p ec tively ' u
r b ein g q an titie s icwh hare at p re s e n t ud e ter d
um h h
n n e
p q
uh h v h h
.
, ,

A ss e t at t ey are s c t at th e co effic ien ts o f y , z , u an is t en

x : k,

wh ils t b , c, d are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

—b —c —d
H en c e )( a )( a );
an dt h ere fo re (a , b) (a . c ) (a d) x 7c .

T hu th e v u al e x is fo ud an d th e v u al es o fy, be w ritten dw
mm
s n ,
z , u c an o n
by sy e try .

Co n . If th e eq u atio n s are

ax + by
a x
fi
b y g
d i’
u W ,

3
a x b 3y 3
c z
3
da W ,

d
b y p ro cee in g as b efo re , we hv a e

—b —c —b —c k — d
( a )( a )( d
)( k )( ) .

T hu th e vm u al f is fo ud d th e v u al es o f y, be w ritte n
m
s e o x n an z u c an
dw
o n by sy e try .
, ,

m
u
Th e s o l tio n o f th e ab o
U n deter i n ed M u ltip liers
v u e eq atio n s h as b een facilitate d b y th e u se o f
.

E x a p le 2m . S hw he t at th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

— —e —a — b ) — h 2 (x
(
x a
)( x b) ( x
) f (-
2
x ) g
2
( x

are all re al .

Fro mth e gi v en eq u atio n , we hv a e

—a
( x ll tv
’
b) ( v— 0
a
) ~

f }
2
{9 (
2
x b l+ h 2
( e -
C
l 2fgh } = 0

L e t p , g b e th e ro o ts o f th e q ud a ratic

—
( c—
a b) ( x c
) f
2 = o,
4 88 HIGHER AL GE BR A .

h u wh
T is eq atio n d
en c leare o f frac tio n s i s o f th e s ec o n d d egre e in 0, an d
d v u
i s s atis fi e b y th e th ree al e s dz u , d = v, in irt v u o f th e gi en v
mu
e

u
e q atio n s ;h en ce it d
s t b e an i en tity [A rt . .

d
To fi n v u mu th e al e o fx, ltiply up by a + 0, an dt h en pu t a +
—V
{I} :
a b l( a u) ( a )
( b a
) ( c a )

th at is ,
( a b) (a 0 )
By sy mmt y e r , we hv a e

—
( b - c ) ( b a )

—a
( c )( c— b)

E XA M PLE S . XXXV . e .

So l v e th e f ll wi g
o o n eq uatio n s

1 . x
3
1 8x = 35 . 2 . x3 1 7 20 = O .

3 . 4 .

x —
3 2
5 . 2 8x3 6 . l 5x

7 .

8 . Pro v h e t at th e re al ro o t o f th e eq u atio n x
3
1 2x 12 O
is 2 f/4 .

So l v e th e fo llo wi g qu
n e atio n s

9 . x
4 — 3 x 2 — 4 2x — 4 O= 0 . 10 . d
4 —
l ox 2—
2 0x — I G= O .

11 4
8x3 9 — 8x 2
. x + + x

12 . x 4
+ 2x —
3
7x 2

13 . x —
4 3x 2 — 6x — 2 = O . 14 . x
4 —
2 x3
4
15 . 4x 2 0x 4 O .

é —
16 . z 6x — 4
17 x
3
+ 7
1 x +6 x — 2
1= O .

17 . x
4
9x 3
8 0x 192 O, w ic h hh as e
q ul a ro o ts .

18 Fi n d th e relat io n w
b e t een 9 an d r in d h t at th e u atio n
my b m
. o r er eq
x
3
+g + x r= 0 a e p u t in t o th e fo r x
4 :

H en c e s o l e v th e eq u atio n

8 x3
 B I Q U A D R A TI O EQ U A TI O N S . 489

19 If x
3
3 gx + r an d x
?
2p x q
mm
.

hv a e a co on fac to r, s hw h e t at
2 g—
4 (p q) ( a p r) ( pg
If t hyh v
e a e t wo co mm on fac to rs , s hw he t at

0 — —
2 2
1 0
F . 9 p r = o

20 . u i I f th e eq at o n h a s t wo eq ul a ro o ts ,

s h w h h f h m qu l
e t a t e ac o t e 1s e a to
2
bc —
( ac
ad

b ?
)
21 Sh w th h qu i e at t e e at o n x
4
+p x
3
gx
z
rx s z my b
0 a e so lvd e
u d
.

as a q i if p a rat c
2
r =
2
s .

22 S lv .h qu i o e t e e at o n

6 4 3 2
+ 6 x 1 8x 1 r + 2 8x 3 2x + 8 = O,
one o f wh i 6 o s e ro o ts s 2 .

23 . I f a , B, y , 8 a re th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

fi n d th e u ti wh eq a on o s e ro o ts are B
1
,

24 I h q u ti p t e e a x
4—
x3
+ gx
2
+ s = 0, p ro e t at if t h e s u v h m
m
n on rx

u h
.

of w f ht o O i q l th e ro o ts s e a t o t e s u o ft h e o t e r t wo
19
3
4 pq + 8 r= 0 ;

an d h if h p du
t at f w t e ro ct o t o o f th e ro o t s is e q al t o t h e p ro ct o f u du
th h w 1
e ot er t o r
2
9
2
s .

25 Th u t i 0 5
2 9 x + 56 = O h as t wo ts wh du ct is
u i y d mi h mq . e e a on x ro o o se p ro
n t : e t er ne t e .

26 F i d h tw
. t f n t e o ro o s o x
5 4 09 x + 2 8 5= O wh o se su mi s 5 .

27 . I f a, b , are th e ro o ts of

+ p n _ 1x
s h e wt h at
—
P2 + P4 P3 + P5
“ "

28 . Th e su m f tw o o ro o ts o f th e eq u at io n
4 3 2
x 8x + 2 1 x 20x + 5= 0
is 4 e x plain wh y o n at t e mp ti g to lv th e eq u atio n fro mth e k no w
mth d f
n so e

le ged o f t is h f ac t th e e o ails .
 M I SCE LL A N E OU S E XA M PLE S .

1 um f t m
I f 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 are th e p iv ly f s s o n 2 a , 3 72 er s res ec t e o an

i hm hw h
. ,

ar t (
et ical p ro gres s io n , s e t at 3
2

2 Fi d tw u mb u h h h i diff
n o nm d p du e rs s c t at t e r ere n c e , s u an ro c t,

h
.

are to 7
o n e an o t er as 1, ,
24 .

3 I wh t
. l nf t ti i d u b l d b y v i g th digi
a sca e o no a on s 25 o e re e rs n e ts ?

4 S lv
. h q u i
o e t e e at o n s

( )
1 ( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x 4) ( x

( )
2 y( z e ( 2 x

5 In A P, f whi h is t h e rs t t e r if t he fi m m f th
m
an o c a su o e

h h h m m
.
,
. .

fi rs t p t er s = O, s ew t at t e su o f t h e n e xt t er s
9
a ( r+ q>
9
p 1
[ R M A . . . WOOLW I CH ] .

6 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s
2
( 1 ) (a + b ) (d x -
l b) ( a bx ) ( a x
‘
6 2
) (a + bx ) .

l l 1

( 2) x
5
( 2x
5
3 : {1 2 ( x ND C V S V ] [ I IA I IL ER I CE

7 Fi
d an arit e tic al p ro hm i wh fi t mi u i y ter t
h i t y f u th t m f m g m i
n g res s o n o se rs s n

uh h d h
.

t at th e s e co n , t en t an d t r o r er s or e tr c
s
c a eo
-

s e rI e s .

8 . If a , B are th e ro o ts o fx + ?
p x
g 0 fi d th v lu f ,
n e a es o
2 2 3 3 4 2 Z 4
a a B+ B , 0 +3 ,
0 +a B +B .

9 . I f 2x : a a
‘

1
an d Qy b b
"
1
,
fin d th e v lua e o f

10 . Fin d th e v lu
a e o f

V1 5
5 ;
V3 13)
[ R M A . . . W O OL W I C H ] .

a an d th e i mgi a n ar
y c ub e ro o ts o f u n ity , s hwh
e t at

4 4 l l
+3 fi 0
‘ ‘

a a .
492 HI GH ER G
A L E BR A .

23 Fi d th e m f th
d c ts o f th e in tegers 1 , 2 , 3 , 77 t a p ro u k
mf
n su o e en
m h h u h
. .

t wo at a t i e, an d s e w t at it is e q al t o alf t h e e x c es s o f th e s u
m h
o
u
t h e c b es o f th e gi en in t egers o ver th e s u v
o f t eir s q u ares .

24 A m
d h is a ily c o n s
an an fm
e 20 lo a e s o f b re a in a ee um v d w k
w w d d d
. .

I fh is ages ere rais e 5 p e r c e n t , an d th e p ric e o f b rea we re rais e

w d w k w w w d
.

r c en t , h e oul i d B t if h i l
3w k
2 p e ga n 6 a ee u s a g es e re o e re
d h w ud
. . .

ell 1 0 p er c en t , t e n h e o l
7 p e r c e n t , an d b rea f l f
o se l d
q
-

k f
. . .

a ee : fi n d hi s wee ly wages an d th e p ric e o f a lo a .

25 Th e mff u mb in arit hm i l p g
et c a res s io n is 4 8 an d
m
our n ers ro
du t f h m
su o

t h e p ro
.

du ct o f th e e x tre es is t o t h e p ro c o t e ean s as 2 7 to 3 5
fin d th e num b ers .

26 . S lv th
o e e eq u atio n s

c — a
2
( )
1 a (b e ) x +b ( ) x + c (a b) = 0 .

( )
2
W [ M A TIL TR I P OS
] .

27 . I f Va —x + Vb —x= 0, S hw h
e t at

an d if s h w th
e at

28 hu
A train , an o r after s tartin g, ee ts wit an acc i e n t ic m h d wh h
hu h h d h m
.

det ain s it an o r, aft er w ic it p ro cee s at t re e fifth s o f its fo r e r

m
-

v hu
rat e an d arri e s 3 o rs aft er t i e : b u t h a d th e a cc i e n t 5 0 d h d
m
ap e n e
p
h u h
iles fart e r o n th e lin e, it wo ld ave arri ed 1 5h rs s o o n e r : fi n d th e v
h ju
.

len gt o f t h e o rn ey .

29 S l th.
q u i o ve e e at o n s

2 x + y = 2z , 9 z 7 x = 6y ,
[ R M A . . . WOOLWI CH ] .

30 Six p ap ers are s e t in ex a in atio n , two o f t e in at m h m mh mi e at c s

m d d v v d ly h
.

in h o w an y iffe ren t o r ers c an th e p ap ers b e gi e n , p ro ide t at

mh m
on

th e t wo at e atic al p ap ers are n o t s c c e s s i e ? u v

31 I h wm y w y
n o an a s can £5 4 3 2 01 b e p ai in e xac tly 6 0 c o in s , d
h w h u
. . . .

c o n s is t in g f o alf c ro
-
n s, s illin gs an d fo rp en n y p ieces ? -

32 Fi d d b th at x 3 + x x3 + 1 1 x + 6 an d 3 2
+ b x + 14x + 8
my h mm f
n an

m
. a so x
a ave a c o on ac t o r o f th e fo r 2
x + x +
p g .

[ LO ND N UN O IV E R SI T Y] .

In
33 wh tim w uld A
at B , 0 to get h d w k if A l uld
hu m B l hu m
e o er o a or a o n e co
wi
.
,
do it in s ix o n e in o n e d0 alo n e in t
m
o rs o re , a o r o re, an ce
th e ti e ?
 M I SC E L L A N EO US E x A M PLE S . 49 3

34 . If tl e
g
eq u at io n s a x by = 1, 0x 2 dy 2
1 hv a e on ly o n e so u
l tio n

b}
2

p ro v h
e t at 9
a
+ 1, an d x =
y =

35 . Fin d by th e Bin o mi l Th a eo re mth e fi rs t fi ve t e r mi s n th e ex

p an
l
2
s io n o f(1 2 x + 2x ) 2

36 If o n e o f th e
.

3—
ro o ts o
2
f x +p x + g= 0 is th e sq u a re o f th e o t h e r,

s h o w th at p g ( 3p
[ PE M R C O LL . CA M B .
]
37 . So l v e th e eq u at io n

5x 2 —6 x 5= O
N
.

[ Q U E E
’
S COL L C x . .
]
38 .
Fi n d th e v lu
a e o f df or w ic h h t h e frac tio n

x
3 — ax 2 l 1 9 x — a — 4
- -

x
3 — a— 7
a d mit s o f re d u c tio n . R ed u ce it to its lo w es t te r m s .
[M A TIL TR I PO S ] .

39 . I f a, b , c, x , y ,
z are real q u an tities , an d
—x 2 — 2 —z2
y ) ,

S h w th
e at a= b= c, an d x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 .

C ST S C OLL C A M B ]
’
[ H R I . .

40 . Wh at is th e greates t t er mi n th e ex p an s io n o f 1

6
th e val e o f x u is
7
? [ MM
E . C OL L CA M B . .
]

41 in d t wo n F b e rs s um u h h h i mmul ipli d b y h m
t at t t t
ml ipli d b y h diff
e r su

mu
c e e su
o f th e s q ares is 5500, an d t h i d iff
e r e ren c e u e t e e re n c e

h
o f t e ir s q ares is 3 52 u .
[C s C C B] H R I ST
’
OLL . AM .

1+b + 2
302

in its si mpl es t fo r mi n te r m s o fa, b, c

DN E Y COLL
.

[SI . CA M B ] .

So l v e th e eq u atio n s

( 1)
2 —
( 2) y + 2
2
y = x2 + 2 — z =
y 1 .

[COR PUS COL L .

If x , y , z are i n h mi
ar o n c al p ro gre s s io n , s h e wt h at

lo g ( x lo g ( a: — z ) .
4 94 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

45 . S hw he t at

[E MM . C OL L . CA M B .
]
3 x + 2y 3y + 2 z 3e + 2x
46 If ’
3a — 2 b 3b — 2c 3c — 2a
.

t h en will 5 3a) :
( 9 x + 8y ( a + b + c) .

H R I ST S C O L L C A M B ]
[
’
C . .

47 W it h
vw 17 m d fu ts an d 5 o e ls , h o w an y wo r s o f o r

mdd
c o n s o n an
f md h v vw
.

le tt e rs b c an e o r e a in g 2 dif fe re n t o els in th e i le an d 1
( p
c o n s o n an dt d re h e at e or ifferen t ) at eac en d ?

48 A q u ti w l wh i h 6 es
p h
ond v d ; t
as h m
o st o n c 00 ers o n s a o te e sa e
h vi g v d g i h m q u i i w i d b y wi
.

o te t es t o n t t
m y i w b f l b y d h w mj i y w
rs o n s a a n on e as carr e ce

h f m
p e a n e sa ,

t o st t t to t or er

h wm y h g d h i m
as an as as e o re an ene a or as e

i d ? J N ,

as 8 to 7 o
[ S an C c C B
an ] e t e r n s T OH
’
S O LL . AM .

49 Sh w h t
. e t a

as a
s

[ C
’
H R I ST S C O LL . CA M B .
]
50 w
A b o y o f en md d
h w u h d
ere fo r e m
in t o a o llo s q are , t ree e ep ,

wh vd h w h dd h um
.

en it was o b s er e , t at it th e a itio n o f 2 5 t o t eir n b er a

d u mh
s o li md wh h um m
ig t b e fo r e , o f h d ic t h e n b er o f en in e ac s i e
um m
s q are

w ud
o l h u
b e gre at er b y 2 2 t an th e s q are ro o t o f t h e n b er o f en in
each d h
s i e o f th e u u d um m
o llo w s q are : re q ire th e n b er o f en .

S lv th q u t i
o e e e a on s

W(
"
(1) a — x
2
)
-
3 V61 2

( 2 ) (x

Pro ve th at

3
2

[ S I DN EY C OLL C A M B
. .
]

53 So l v e —
f/5 ( 6 x
N
.

[ Q U E E S
’
C O L L CA M B
. .
]
 49 6 H I G H ER AL GE BR A .

65 . I f th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n

2 ?
+ £ 4
2
+ 10 ( 1 1
2
9
9 2 2

are e q u al, s h w th
e at
p
2=
4g .
[R M . . A . W OOLW I CH ] .

66 . If a + b 2 z =
7 ab, S hw he t at

( lo g a lo g b ) .

[ Q U E E N ’
S CO L L Ox . .
]
67 . If ni s a ro o t o f th e eq u atio n

"
ac — x 2
a (1 ) ( a + 0
2
) (1
an d if n ar h mi m on c in s ert e d b tw d hw h t at th e
m
ean s a re e e en a an c, S e

d ifferen c e b e t w h fi e en t e rs t an d las t e an is eq ul
a to ac ( a c ) .

[WA D H A M CO L L Ox . .
]
If " 2
P4 = 57
68 1 6 , fin d
‘

. n .

A p e rs o n in e s ts a c ertain s u
69 v
in a 6 p e r c en t G o e rn m 1
v m en t
w udh v vd
. .

lo an : if th e p ri c e h ad b een £3 les s h e o l a e re c e i e 2; p e r c en t
m m wh u
.

o re in te res t o n h is o n ey ; at at p ric e was t h e lo an is s e d ?

70 . So l v e th e eq u atio n

(
2 3
} {( + ) + }
2 3
(
2 3
93 + x x x + 27 1 x
4
( a +

[ M E R TO NC O LL . Cx .
]
71 . If b y e li mi n a t in g x b et w e en th e eq u atio n

2
x + ax + b = 0 an d x
y+l
a qu d a rat ic my i s f md whor e o se ro o t s are t h e s a m e as t h o se o f th e
o ri
gin al q u adratic I n x , th ith en e er a = 2 l, an d b = m ,
o r b +m = al
-
.

[R M . A . W OOLW I C H ] .

72 . Gi v en lo g an d lo g so l e v th e eq u ti a ons

( 1) 6 96
3
9 (2) V +
75
V5
—x — 9
3 1O

73 Fi n d two n umb e rs s uh h c t at t hi e r su mi s 9, an d th e su mf o
h u hp w ND N UN V Y ]
.

t e ir fo rt o ers 24 1 7 .
[ L O O I E R SI T .

74 A t w lk h f mil hu f h hd t to at t e rat e 4 t er
v k h im d w 4 mil
se ou a o es an o r; a e a

w lki g 2 h u B
.

b 2 s et t to e rta en t 4
h u } mil h
e en a n o rs , ou o e an es

th fi rs t d h hi d d g i i g qu
o r, 47 t 5t t arte r
v y h u I h w m y h u w uld h v k A ?
e a n n a

f m
es e s ec o n ,
e r ,
an so
o il
a e e er o r . n o an o rs o e o e rt a e

75 P v h h itg b v (J
ro e t i m t at t e n e e r n e xt a o e 3+ co n a ns 2 “ as

f
.

a ac to r.
 M I S C E L LA N U EO S E X A M PL E S . 497

76Th e s erie s o f n at ra n u l u mb is di i vd di to gro up 1 2, 3, 4 ;

m f th
e rs

u mb
e n s

p v h
.

5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ; an d S O o n : ro e t at t h e s u o e n e rs in t h e
g ro
p is ( nu 1 ) +
3
7 t3
.

77 S hw he t at th e su mf o n ter m s o f th e s e ries

1 1 l 4
__
3 5
2 I
i??
l4

1s e u al to 1
1 3 5 7 (2n 1)
q
2n In
[ R M A . . . W OO LW I CH ] .

1 2x
78 . S hw he t at th e c o ef
fi c i en t o f x
”
In th e e x p an s i o n o f
1 — x+x
2
—l
g: n

3 ( 2 (
a cc o r di g n as n is o f th e f mm m
or 3 , 3 + 1, 3 m+ 2 .

79 . So l v e th e eq u at io n s

2
“

3 z
( I) b
a e x +y + z

(2)
[U N I v C O LL.C x . .
]
80 Th e al e o f v u is 7 5o r 3 ? di th e s e ries a , x , y
m umi g h m
xy z z

h m
ac c o r ng as
v lu ,
.
,

b is arith etic o r ar o n ic : fi n d th e a es of a an d b as s n t e

t o b e p o s iti e in tege rs v .
[ M E R TO NC OLL . Cx .
]

82 I f ( x + ) is greater t
1 2
h an 5x 1 an d les s t h an 7 x — 3 , fin d th e
v lu
.

in tegral a e o fx .

83I f P is th e n b er o f in tegers um
o s e lo garit wh hm h v h a e t e

m f wh
s

h
.

c arac t e ris t ic
p, a n d Q th e n b e r o f in t e ge rs t h e lo ga rl th um s o o se

rec i ro cals
p a hv
e t h e c arac t eris tic
g, S e t h
a t hw h
10 810 P _ 10 8 1 0 Q = P 9 + 1 °

84 In h o w m y w y my 20 hilli g b e gi v en t o 5 p e rs o n s so

my iv l th 3 h illi
. an a s a S n s
'

t 1 at n o
p ers o n a rec e e ess an s n gs

85 m wi h i g h i tw d u gh t t
A iv q u l
p t i a or ons

ml t dmt t
e rs o re c e e e

h th y m f g b q th d t th ld th
. an s n s o a
w e ac c u u a e e res

m f m y i v t d t th tim f h i d t h 4 p
en e ca e o a e e u ea e o e e er

f t i ea In er

mul t d
o a c er a n s u o one n es e a e e o s

t t k t 88 ; d t th y u g h b qu th d th u a e

ml t h th f m b y £3 500 i v t d t th e m
c en . s oc a an o e o n er e e ea e e ac c

i t t f a sa e
m
e re s er n es e

t im i t h
n o a su es s an e or
3 p t t 63 Su p p i g t h i t t h t f es a e 1 e o

m v td
e n e g
e r c en s a os n e r a

t h i f th d th t h v b d 1 4 wh t w
. .
.

e r a 17
er s
’
ea th o a e ee n an a as e su In es e

in ea c h ca s e , an d wh at was e ac h d u gh a t e r s fo rt
’
,

u ne

H . IL A .
498 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

86 A n u mb f h d igi t t s in s c ale 7 wh en e x p re s s e di s cale 9

u mb
er o ree n

d v di d fi
.

h as its igit s re ers e n o r er : n d th e n er

J N
.

[ C OL L C A M B ]
’
S T OH S . .

87 I f th e s u m f mt m f an ar t et c a i hm i l p g re s s io n is ul
m
s o ro eq a
m f th
. o er

to t h e o f th e n e x t rt te an d als o t o th e su o e n ex t ?
su 1
te r m s p ro v h (m
e t at rt ) ( 77 7.

[ S T J N OH
’
S C OL L . CA M B .
]
88 . Pro v h e t at

l 1 1 1
— 2 —x
e x ) ,y U z x
-

[ R M A . . W OOLW I CH ] .

mi s n egat i e , o r v p o s it i v e an d gre at er t h an 1, s hw h e t at

m m
1 +3 + 5m+ + ( 2n

[ M
E M . C OL L . CA M B .
]
90 . I f e ac hp i a r o f th e t h re e e q u atio n s

2 2 2_
x x “

p it
-
59 2 2 01 (6 p3 x + 9 3 = 03

hv
a e a co mm o n ro o t, p ro v h e t at

9 3) 2 ( 102 203 + a r.
2 2 2
4 (9.
2 01 + 19 2 + 10 3 92
[S T J N OH
’
S C OL L . CA M B .
]
91 A B t v ll d h m d d t h m f m
d ra e on t t e rate

m
an e e sa e ro a an a e sa ro

Hu ti n d L d A toh mil f L d A v t t 50 ‘h
es t o n e

f m
n g on on on e ro on on o er

k d v f g whi h w p d i g h ,
.

to il i at t e ra t e o 3 2
f w d m
a ro ees e e re ro c ee es
w g wh i h w mvi g
o e o c n n
hu rs d w h u t rs a te r ar et a a g , as n at
f m h u B v k h md v fg
o an o o s o n c o
t h e rat e o il i9 es n 4 rs o e rt o o t ro e es e at

d m h w gg mi u b f h
o e sa e e o
mil
.

‘h
th e 4 5 es t o n e , ly et t exac t 40 t es
m mil
an e a on n e o re e
ca e to t h 3 e Wh
1 w B wh
“
A h dL d ?
es t o n e ere as en reac e on on

[S J N C
.

C B] T OH
’
S OL L . AM .

92 . If p v h ro e t at

[ R M A . . W OOLW I C H ] .

93 A n A P, G P, a d H P hv d b fo r t hi e r fi rs t t wo
m
an an a e a an

hw h h m will b
. . . . . . .

ter s S e t at t eir t er s e in G P if . .

n +1
ba (b 2"— 27 [ M A TH . TR I P OS ] .

a ) 72

94 . S hw h e t at th e c o ef
fic ie n t o fx “
in t h e e x p an s io n o f
( x a
x

)( x b)

di p w b 1
in as c en n
g o er o f x is
a

a b a
n
b ”
an dt h at t h e c o ef c ie n t fi o fx 2”

in th e ex
p an s io n o f
[E M M . C O LL . CA M B .
]
500 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

105 . S hwh e t at th e e x p an s io n o f

x x
3
1 . x5

1 06 . If a , B are ro o ts o f th e eq u at io n s

w h ere rt is an e v en in t eger, sh e w t h at
a B are ro o ts o f
B a

" F
1 (x + 1 0 [ COL L
n
x . E ME . .

1 07 Fi n d
t h e differen c e b etween th e sq u ares o f th e
udf
.

c o n tin e rac tio n s

b b b d d d
an d 0+
2a + 2a + 2a + 20 + 20 + 20 +

[ C H R IS T S C O LL
’
. CA M B .
]
1 08 A su of m m
o n e y is dis t rib te o n gs t a c ert ain n u d m
b er o f um
m h
a
d v fi h d
.

T h re c ei e s 1 3 re t an t h e rs t , th e t ir 2
fu h m h
er s o ns e s ec o o 3
p
m h
n

d h d
. . .

o re t an th e s e c o n , th e o rt 33 o re t an th e t ir , a n d s o o n
fi wh
. .

If th e rs t p ers o n ge ts 1 3 an d th e las t p ers o n £3 7 a , at is th e

um m u d
. .

n b er o f p ers o n s an d th e s u dis trib te ?

109 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

3
"7 z +x _ i
(1) b+c b
+ +
a c+ a c a +b
m
y
x
g
/

1 10 . If a an db are
p o s it i e an v d u q u l p v th
ne a ,
ro e at

n —l

— b" —b
a
n
rt ( a ) ( a b) 2

[ ST OA TH . C OL L . CA MB .
]
763
1 11
9
. u d
E x pres s
f i h fi d h l
3 6
as a co n tin e rac t o n ; en ce n t e eas t

v lu f d g whi h i fy h qu ti
a es o x an 7 y c s at s t e e a on 39 6x 63 = 12 .

112 T mpl t i w k w km A l w uld k e te a c e r a n ta

m my d y
o co o r a or an a one o e
B d 0 w ki g g h B l w uld
.
,
971. t1 es to et
k im m y d y
as an a s as an or n er a one o
;
ta e 77 t d 0 g h 0 l w uld k A to et ta
m
es as
m y d y A dB g h h w h h umb f
. an a s as an er ; a on e o e

p t1 e s as an a s as an to et er t at t e rs o
m
S e e n
d y i wh i h h w uld d i l
a s n c eac
1 o o t a o n e are as +1 n 1 0 +1 .

P v
m P n

m+
l ro e a so _ _
R M A W W 1 a +1 ?
2 + 1 [ . . O OL I CH .
]
 M IS C E L L A N E O US E X A M PL E S . 501

1 13 Th e e xpe n s es o f a y ro p at ic e s tab lis hd h hm l t art

um p en
y are co n
v w h d E h b d
.

s tan t an d p art ly ary it t h e n b e r Of b o ar e rs ac o ar e r

u fi h d wh h
.

£ 6 5 a ea r, an d t h e an n al o t a e £9 a t
a
p y s y p r s r ea en e re are
d
50 b o ar ers , an d £ 1 0 1 33 4 03 en t ere are 6 0 : wh h wh i h p fi at s t e ro t on
h d h h
. . .

eac b o ar er w en t ere are 80 ?

1 14 . If x y 2 = 2x —
y, an d x is 2
n o t great er t h an 1, s hw he t at

6 10 4
$
-
+ o o o

[ PE TE R H O U SE , C A M B .
]

x
2
_
b ’
an d x
y = e2 s
, h w th t wh
e a en a an d c

z 2 2 — b2 = 0
(d or a + 0 .

+ k1x + k2x +
2
1 16 . If (1
2
d (
-

an JU

p ro v h e t at (1) 1 lol + lez

( )
2 1 701 01 47 202

[ R M A . . W O OLW I CH ] .

1 17 . So l v e th e eq u at io n s

( 1) (x
( )
’
2 x 2y 2 x

1 18 h
I f t ere are 77 p o s iti e q v u an t ities a, , an d if t h e
u h du k h ud v
. .

sq are ro o ts o f all t e ir
p ro c ts t a en two to get er b e fo n , p
ro e

t h at

77. — 1
Va 1 a 2 + Va 1 a 3 + —
2
h v th at th e arit hm i m et c f th e s q are u ts o f th e
hm m
en c e ro e ean o ro o
p
p ro d u c ts t wo t o get h er is l h th
es s t an e arit etic e an o f th e gi e n v
q u an titie s .
[ R M A . . W OOLW I CH ] .

119 . If b 2
x
4
a
z
g
/
4
a
2 2
b ,
an d a
2
b 2
x 2
y
?
1 , p ro v h e t at

b 4
x6 d
4
y
6
(
2 4
b x a
2 4 2
y ) .
[ I ND IA CI V I L SE R V I CE ]
1 20 . Fi n d th e su m f th o e fi rs t rt t er m s o f th e s e rie s wh o se r
‘h
t er m s

27 .
1 2 "
r b )
? ( )
2 ( a x
r (r
[ ST J N OH
’
S C OLL CA M B . .

]
1 21 . Fi n d th e greate s t v lu a e o f
502 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

1 22 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

( )
1

(2 ) 3 xy 2x = xz 6p 2p x 3x 0 .

1 23 If a , , a 2 , a 3 , are an y fu o r c o n s ec u iv
t e c o e fi c ien ts
m
a

dd v h
4
.

e x p an e b in o ial, p ro e t at

[ Q U E E N S
’
C OL L C A M B . .
]

x
3
+ 7x
2 —x — 8

fi n d th e gen eral t er mwh en i s e x an

p d die n as c e n di g p w
n o ers

o fx .

1 25 . I n th e rec u rrin g s eries

th e f relatio n is a q a
s c ale o ud ra tic e x p res s io n d mi
e te r ne th e uk w
u h m ; n no n

c o effi c ie n t o f th e fo rt t e r d th e s c ale o f re latio n d giv h t

m
an ,
an e e

gen eral t er o f th e s erie s .

[ R M A . . W O OLW I C H ] .

126 . If x , y , z are u n eq u al ,
an d if
2
2 a — 3y
(Z 0
6
d 2a — 3
y ,
an

)
2
h will (y Z
z
t en 2a 3x
x
an d x 3/ a .
[ TH TR I P OS ]
M A . .

So l v e th e eq u a t io n s

( )
1 x
.
y + 6 = 2x — x
2
,
x
y
—
y
2
.

( )
2 ( >
1
“x 0 g a ( by y o gb
,
l
b o gx a lo g y .

Fi n d th e li miti n g v lua es o f

( 1) x /
Nx q
g FZ -
wh en x = o o .

( )
2 wh en x = a .
[L O ND N UN V
O I E R SI T Y] .

129 T h t wo n umb wh p du t i d h qu i
e rs o se ro c 1 9 2, an t e o t en t
h m i lm f h i g
e re are s

hm i mm
.

o f t h e arit e t c al b y t h e t re at e s t on

mm mu l ipl i 35 fi d h u mb
ar on ca e an o e r co

m e as u re an d leas t c o on t e s 3 n t e n ers .

[ R M A . . WOOLWI CH ] .
504 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

1 39 . Su mt o n te r m s

( 1) ( 2 7t
( )
2 Th e sq u are s o f th e te r m s o f th e s erie s 1 , 3 , 6 , 10,

(3 ) Th e Odd t er m s o f th e s e ries in [ TR I N . C OLL CA M B

. .
]
1 40 If a, B, y are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n x
3
+ gx + r = 0 p ro v e

h
.

t at

[ ST J N OH
’
S C OL L C A M B
. .
]
141 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

(1) x ( y
3 4 (2) x
3
+y 3
+ z 3=
4 95
x +y + z 15
ay z = 1 05

[ RI
T N . C OL L C A M B
. .
]
1 42 If a , b , c are th e ro o ts o f th e e q atio n u fo r mth e
u wh
.

e q atio n o s e ro o ts are a b c, b + 0 a, c a b .

1 43 . Su mth e s e rie s

2 —1
(1)
n
+x
-

( )
2 3 x 2x 2
l 6x 3
28 x 4 6 7 6 x 5+ t o in fi n ity ;

(3) to n t er m s .

[ OXF OR D M OD S ]
1 44 . E li mi n ate x ,
y ,
2 fro mth e eq u at io n s

l l l 1
ly l
‘ ‘ ‘ “

x - - - -
z ,

2 2 2 2
x +y +2 0 ,

an d Sh w h t if
e t a x, 2 are all fi n ite an d n um i e r cally u n eq ul6
a c an n o t
be e q u la d to .
[R M . . A .
,

W O OL W I C H ] .

1 45 Th e ro o ts f th e eq u atio n are n o t
hm
o

u u
.

all n e q al : fi n d t e .
[ R M A . . W O OLW I CH ] .

1 46 A tra e ller s et o u t frov a ce rta in p lac e, an d wen t 1 ile th e m m

d v m
.

fi rs t day , 3 t h e s ec o n , 5 th e n e x t, an d s o o n , go in g e e ry day 2 iles

m h
o re t an h e h ad go n e t h e p re c e in g day A fte r h e h ad b e en go n e d
h d d v m fi
.

t ree ay s , a s e c o n s e ts o u t, a n d tra els 1 2 iles th e rs t day , 1 3 t h e

d
s e c o n , an d S O o n In h o w an
y ay s will th e s e c o n
d m
o e rta e th e d v k
fi u w
.

rs t ? E xplain th e do b le an s e r .

1 47 . Fi n d th e va lu e o f
1 1 1 1
3+ 2+ 1+ 3+ 2+
 M I SC E LLAN E O US E X A M PL E S . 505

148 . So l v e th e eq u atio n

?
b e) 3
b — 3a bc = 0
(
3 2 3 3
x + 3 ax + 3 a x + a + + c

ND C V S V ]
.

[ I IA I IL ER I CE .

1 49 I f 7 2 is a p im ru mb wh i h wil
e nl d i id i h b er c v e n e t er a , n o r

v h d by
.
. ,
—z —2
+ b , p ro e t at a
n
b b +a
n
e x c ee s 1 a

mu
a

ltip le o f rt .
[ S J N C C B ] T OH
’
S O LL . AM .

1 50 F d
in th e n th t m d h m m f h i wh t to rt t er t
mt
er an e su s o e s er es o se
fi
.

—2
)
2
a bx ) (1 bx
2
in n ity is ( 1 ) (1
‘

Su o ax .

[OX F OR D M O D S ]
1 51 . If a, b, c are th e ro o
2
ts
2
o
2
f th e
2 2
u
e q at io n fi n d th e
b + a + b
2
e q u at l o n wh o s e ro o ts are
a
0 0 +

b
a

[ RI
T N . C OL L C A M B
. .
]
v h
m
152 . Pro e t at

<
y+ z — f
a r Py
- —
y z — zx — x
y>
z
.

LA R E C O L L C A M B
[ C . .
]
1 53 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

( )
1 x
3
3 0x 133 0, b y C ar d an s
’
mth de o .

( 2) x
5
4x4 1 0x3
+ 40 x
2
9x 36 0, h vi g
a n ro o ts o fth e fo r m
i a, :l; b, c.

1 54 I t is o n fu d h u
t at th e q an tity o f wo rk do n e b y a an in a n m
h v d hu v u
.

o ur aries irec tly as h is p ay p e r o r an d in e rs ely as t h e s q are

ro o t o f t h e n um h u
b er o f o rs h e wo rks p er day H e c an n is a p iec e fi h
wk d wh w k h u hu
.

o f in S ix ay s o r in g 9 rs a day at 1 3 p e r How
m
en o o r

m d
or
k fi h w k wh w k
. .

an y a s will h e t a e t o n is t h e sa e p iece o f o r e n o r in g
y
hu
1 6 o rs a day at 1 3 6 d p er o r ? hu . .

1 55 . If d t th mt
Sn m en o e e su o rt ter s o f th e s e rie s

an d t h at to n 1 te r m s o f th e s erie s

1 1 1

s hw h
e t at l 8 s,,o s ,, 2 0 .

[M A G D . COL L C x . .
]
156 . So l v e th e eq u at io n s

— 1 6x 1 ) (4 x — 1 ) (3x
( 1) ( l 2 x )( -

( 2,
1 2 — 7 > 92
—6 —8
)
°

9 13 ) 58 5

[ S T J N OH
’
S C OL L C A M B
. .
]
506 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

1 57 ttage a t t h e b egin n in g o f a y ear was

A co o rt £2 50, b u t it w h
ud h d d h
.

was fo n t at b y ilap i at io n s at t h e e n d o f eac y ear it lo s t te n p e r

cen t o f th e v u
al e it h ad a t t h e b e gin n i n g o f eac
y ear a fte r at h wh
um w ud v u du d w
.

n b er o f y ears o l t h e al e o f t h e c o tt age b e re c e b elo £2 5?

v
G i en lo g10 3 = 4 7 7 1 2 1 3 [R M
. A WOOLWI CH . . . .
]

1 58 . S hw he t at th e in fi n it e s e rie s

1
-
4
4 8

are e q ul a .
[ PE TE R H O U S E ,
C A M B .
]

1 59 . Pro v e th e i d en tity

—
x x ( x a ) (
x x — a ) (x
a a 3
1 + m
(
” w+ a )
a a B a By ‘

(517
2 2
$

[ NC
TR I . OL L . CA M B .
]
1 60. If rt is a p o s it i v e in tege r greater t h an 1, S hw he t at

5 572 3
56 71
r
t

is a multipl e of 120 .
[WA D H A M C OL L C x . .
]

1 61 um
A n d w k
b e r o f p e rs o n s were en gage t o do a p ie c e o f o r
h hw udh v u d h m h u h mm d
.

w ic o l a e o c c p ie t e 24 o rs if t ey h a d c o en c e at

m m d d
t h e s a e t i e ; b u t in s te a h mm d of u o in g S O, t e y c o en ce a t e q al

v h ud w k
in t er als an d t e n c o n t in e t o wh hd t ill t h e o le was fi n is e , t h e

m m
or

t b i w kd
t i l h
t t h n e b t h e fi rs t c o er

v d v m mu h m u d
y
a
p y e n e n r
gp po o r o n a o e o r o eac :

re c e i e e le en t i es as c as t h e las t ; fi n d th e ti e o c c p ie .

162 S lv
. h q u ti o e t e e a on s

x y 1

2 2 2
g + e a ,

x
2
z( x +y) C
Z
.
[ PE M B C O LL C A M B. . .
]
508 H I GH ER AL GE BR A .

17 1 Sh w h e t at rt
7 — 7 rt 5+ 1 4 rt 3 — 8 n is d ivi ib l s e b y 8 4 0, if n is an

th
.

in t eger n o t l es s an 3 .

17 2 . S lvo h qu e t e e at io n s

z (r —x
)_ b yo u —z
) m
< >d a — z

— rt x — x —
z y y
M R I P OS
[ A TH T ] . .

17 3 . I f s b e th e su mf o r
t p o s it i v u q u l qu
e ne a an tit ies a b t h en

2
8
i 8
M I P OS ]
3 — a
—
s — b s —c [ A TH TR . .

17 4 A m h uh
erc an t b o g t a q an tity o f c o tt o n ; t is h e e x c an ge u h h d
wh h um d vd h
.

fo r o il ic h e s o l H e o b s er e t at th e n b e r Of c wt o f c o tt o n ,
um h um d
. .

th e n b er o f gallo n s o f O il o b tain e fo r e ac c wt , an d th e n b er o f
h h d h md d d m
.

s hi llin gs fo r w ic h e s o l e ac gallo n fo r e a e s c en in g ge o etrical

u d h
re s s io n H d
c alc lat e tm at if h e h ad Ob t ain e o n e c wt o re o f

m
r e
m
p o g
h h
. .

c o t t o n , o n e gallo n o re o f Oil fo r eac c wt , an d 1 3 o re fo r ea c

w ud h v d m h
. .

a ll o n , he o l a e o b t ain e £ 508 9 3 o re ; w ereas if h e h ad

g
d h
. .

o b tain e o n e c wt les s o f c o t to n , o n e gallo n le s s o f o il fo r e ac c wt , an d

h w ud h v d
. .

1 3 les s fo r e ac gallo n , h e o l a e o b ta in e £4 83 1 3 8 les s : h o w

mu h u v
. . .

c did h e ac t ally recei e

17 5 P v th t . ro e a

— — 4 — c —d b ) ( x — a ) (x — b ) ( x — c )
2 (b + c a x ) (b )( a —c
)( c )( a .

[ J ES US C OLL CA M B . .
]
17 6 . I f a , B, y are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u at i on x
3'
fi n d th e

eq u ti
a on w h o s e ro o ts are
a
7
2
a
, [ R M A . . W OOLW I C H ] .

177 If um
b e r o f fac o s o f th e fo r
t a + b
2 2
m multipli d
m f tw
an y n r are e

h hw h du d
.

t o ge t e r, s e t at th e p ro c t c an b e e x p re s s e as t h e s u o o

G iv th t ( 2
+b )
2 2
+ g , fin d p
2 d g in
m
en a a an
t er s o f a, b , 0, cl,
fg
e, , ,
12 . L ON D ON UNIV E R SI T Y]
.

17 8 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

x
2
+y
2=
6 1, x 3
p
3=
91 .
[R M . A . W OOLWI CH ] .

m g i f
17 9 A E m i ti i wh i h t h
an fu o es o r an
h m imum f mm k f h p p ; h w th t th
. n xa na on n c e re are o r
.

W t
umb f w y f g tti g 2 mm k th wh l i
e rs
p p a i a ax o ar s o r e ac a er s e a e

n er o a s o e n ar s o n e o e s

1 ( m 1 ) (2 m 4 m [ M T P ] 2 A TH . RI OS .

:3
 M I S C E LL A N E O US E X A M PLE S . 509

If B are th e f 2
1 80 a, ro o ts o x d y , 8 are th e an ro o ts
hw h
.

o f x + qx + 1 = 0 ;
2
S e t at (a 7 X)? y ) ( + ) ( B+ 3)
a 8 = 2 —
g p
2
.

[ R M A . . W OOLW I CH ] .

181 Sh w h ife t at mb e t h e
a c o ef c ien fi t ofx min th e e x p an s io n o f
h wh v
.

(1 t en ate e r rt b e,

a — a + az
( rt 1 ) (7t
1) m_,
O l

[ E W COL L C x
N . .
]
1 82 u mb i h p du t f h p im f t h
A c ertain n t t ree r t
m wh
er s e ro c o e ac o rs , e

qu Th umb ( i lud i g
.

su of i 7 6
o se s are s s 233 1 e re 5 0 n
u i y ) wh i h l h h u mb d p im it Th m f
. are e rs nc n
n t c a re es s t an t e n er an e to
d ivi ( i ludi g u i y d th u mb i lf) i 6 Fi d h
r . e su o
i ts t ts e s 1 05 0 t
umb
s o rs nc n n an e n er . n e
n er .
[ C P U C C B ] OR S OL L . AM .

1 83 F m q u i wh h ll b h p du f v y
or an e at o n o s e ro o ts s a e t e ro c ts o e er
u
.

t w f h
o of h tq i e ro o ts o t e e at o n x3

S lv mpl t ly h q u ti
o e co e e t e e a on

[R M A . . WOOLWI CH ] .

184 . Pro v the at if rt is a p o s iti e v in t ege r,

n ( z —
r l)
— rt
( n ( rt

185 If an d if F b e th e frac tio n al p art o f N ,

v h
.

t at N F H M C O LL C A M B ]
zn + 1
p ro e : 2o [E . . .

186 . So l v e th e e
q u at io n s

—1
( )
1 x
.
3
+y +
3
z
3
.

— — 2— —
(2 ) x
z
(y —z ’
) a t y
z
( z z
(x y)
’
0

H R I ST S C O L L C A M B
[ ]
’
C . .

1 87 At umb f Lib l t d
gen eral ele c tio n th e wh o le n
m h h u mb f E gli h C
a er o e ra s re u rn e

v iv th wh l
.

w 15 t t o n s e r at

u mb f C v iv w m h wi h u mb f E gli h
as o re an e n er o n s es , e o e

er o at 5 t t t er o

u mb f S h C v tiv w h m h
n o n s er es as o re an ce e n n s

L ib l Th tc t t
mb f W l h Lib l d h S h Lib l mj i y w q u l
e ra s . e n er o co o n s er a es as e sa e as e
er o e ra s , an t tc era a or t as e a
u mb f W l h C v iv
n u e s e co

to tw i h t d w h I i h o n s er at to t
l mj i y
ce as e rs
v iv mj i y w
e n er o e s es , an
Lib Th E gli h C t 2 3 o n s e r at or t 10
m h h wh l umb f I i h mmb
e ra a or as e a as

u mb f
e n s
Th wh l
.

t t er o
mmb w f wh m w
o re an e o e n er o r s e e rs e o e n

u d by S h i u
.

e rs as 6 52 , i 60 ere re t tc co n st t e n c es

F i d h u mb
e o o rn e co

h p y tu d b y E gl d S l d I
.

n t f e n e rs o e ac art re rn e n an c o t an re

l d v , ,

dW l i ly B ec t
[ C ]
’
an ,
an
p S J
a es , res C e .
T OH N S O LL . AM .

188 Sh w t h t ( . b) b ( ) (
o b ) a a
5
c
5
a c c
5 a

abc
( b c )( c d )( a b) (2 a 3
) .
51 0 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

1 89 . Pro v h e t at a
3
3a 2
3a 1 =
( a
2 2
a a 2a 2a 1 1
a 2a 1 a 2 1
1 3 3 1 [ A LL C OLL
B . . Cx .
]

190 . If
1
a C
1
a
I
b
l
— 0, p ro v h e t at a , b, e are 1 n h ar mm l o ca

r
p o gre s s io n u,
n les s b = a +0 .
[ TR I N . C OLL C A M B . .
]
191 . S lvo e th e eq u at io n s

(1) x 3 2
1 3 x + 1 5x + h vi g giv h a n en t at o ne ro o t ex
c e e ds an o t er ro o t b
y 2 h .

2) x
4
4 x
2
8 33 + 3 5 0 h v i g giv
,
a h n en t at o n e ro o t is

2 N 75
/1 .
[R M . A . W O OLW I CH ] .

1 92 Two n um
b e rs a an d b are gi e n ; t wo v t h
e rs d l , b l are
fo r ed m
m
o
md
.

b y th e relatio n s 3 a 1 = 2 a + b , 3 b 1 = a + 2 b ; t wo o re a 2 , b 2 are
fo r e
fro m a , b in t h e s a e mm
an n e r, an d s o o n ; fi n d f a an d
a n , b ,, in t e r s o m
, 1
v h
b , an d p ro e t at w en rt is in fi n it e, a n = b n h .
[ R M A W O O LW I C H
.
] . .

1 93 . If S hw h e t at

wr tw + x ) ? + re ( w + 30
2

+ z x (w + wz ( w + xy ( w
?
)
Z
2
z ) 4 xy z w= 0 .

M A TH TR I P OS
[ ] . .

2
be
1 94 . If a
a
be n o t alt ere d i v lu b y i
n a e n t erc h an gin g a

p air o f th e le tt e rs a , b , c n o t eq u al to e ac h h i will o t e r, t n o t be alt ere d

h
b y in t erc an gin g an y o t h er p air ; an d it will v i h if an s a +b c= 1 .

M A TH TRI P OS
[ ] . .

1 95 q u d u pl li
On f il a a r e n e o ra s w
b e t e en t wo ter in i A an d B , m
w d w
.

t o o i n t rad n s s tart at an a n d t wo u p t rain s at an d

If h f u i t( g d d
e o r t ra re e i t ) ll o a n o t er h
im
n s ar as o n s a a s s n e
p p
u l u ly fi d h f ll wi g q u
t an e o t a tio n s b e t w
x , x 3 , x 4 , t eir h
i m
S s n e o o n e e en
rat es il p
n hu es
,

er o r,
2

4 m5 x
3
4 m lo x
4

1
x
1 + x
3
37
1
-
14 74

wh mie re s th e u mb n er o f mil es in A B .
[ TR I N . COL L C A M B . .
]
196 . Pro v h e t at, re e c t in j g ter m s o f th e t ir h d an d high e r o r e rs , d

[ TRI N . C O LL C A M B . .
]
51 2 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

206 . If a
, B, y are th e ro o ts o fx 3
gx+ r = 0, fi n d t h e val u e o f
m l— a -
r
t r
rt B+ rt my + r
t

rt a — r
r t rn B— rt my
— r
t

in t er m fm s o ,
rt, q, r .
[ Q U E E N S
’
C OLL C A M B . .
]
207 I n E n glan d
o n e p e rs o n o u t o f 4 6 is s ai to die e ery y ear, d v
h w m
.

an d o n e o u t o f 3 3 t o b e b o rn I f t ere e re n o e igrat io n , in h o w
m w ud u u h v
.

an y y ears o l th e p o p latio n do b le its elf at t is rate ? Gi en

lo g 2 3 01 0300, lo g 1 53 1 3 1 8 4 9 7 52 , lo g 1 51 8 3 1 8 12 7 1 8 .

208 . If ( 1 pro v the at

—1
_na
r
t ( rt )
‘

r -
l l
- '

1 0 2

u n les s r is a multipl e o f3 . W h at is it s v lu
a e in t is h c as e ?
[ ST J O H N ’
S C OL L . CA M B .
]
209 mi d mp y In i ti g f P l
a Tu k Gxe k co an co n s s o o es , r s,
G m
n ree s,

th t hi d
.

d I t li th P l l f th
umb f G m d th l th h lf th u mb f It li
er an s an a an s , e o es are one e ss an one -
r o e

d G m ut u mb th G k d I t li b y 3 ;
n er o er an s , an ree es s an a e n er o a an s
Th Tu k
.

k d G m f m l th h lf th mp y ; whil
e r s an er an s o n er e re e s an a an s
th G
k f m v i t th f th mp y d t
e re e s an er an s or one es s an a e co an e

th I t li dG
mi th umb f h ti
e -
a an s an re e s or se en s x ee n
-
s o e co an : e er
ne e n er o e ac n a on .

210 F i d th . mt i fi ity f th i wh
n t m i
e su o n n o e s er es o se r
t th
er s

-
x ) n + 1
[ OX F OR D M OD S ] .

21 1 . I f rt is a p o s it i e v in t eger, pro v h e t at

z
rt ( rt 2
1) n ( rt 1 ) (n 2 2 2)

Lg . L12
2

— —
a ( rt 1 ) ( rt 2 )
2 2 2
—1
) 1
n +

[ FE M E C OL L CA M B ]
m f th
. . .

Fi n d th e su o e s eries

( 1) 6, 24 , 1 20, 2 1 0, 33 6 , to r
t te r m s .

(2 ) 4 9x 1 6x 2 2 5x 3
3 6x 4
4 9x5
t o in f .

1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9
( )
3
2 2 2
“

7
2
to In f .

So l v e th e eq u at io n 4x 6x 2 8x 1
6x 2 9x 3 1 2x
8x 1 1 2x 1 6x 2

[ K N
I G S C O LL C A M B
]
’
. .
 M I SC E L LA N E O US E X A M PLE S . 51 3

214 . S h w th e at

( 1)
( )
2

th e n u mb er o fq u an tities a, b, b e in g n .

2 15 . So l v e th e eq u at io n s

y z = a ( x+ 2 )
zx = a
(z + x )
xy = (
a x +
y)
-

[TRI N . CO L L . CA MB .
]
216 . If n b e a p ri m u mb e n er, p ro v the at

+3 — 1) 1
+

is d ivi ib ls e by n .
[ Q U EE N ’
S COL L . Cx .
]
21 7 h i g mp iti m
In a S t n
oo co et on a an c an s c o re 5, 4 , 3 , 2 , or 0
h h u m t w y i wh i h h
.

p i o n f ts fi d h
o r eacb f d iff s ot : n t e n er o e ren a s n c e

0i 7 h
c an S c o re 3 n
[ P C C ]
S o ts . E MB . OLL . A MB .

218 P v h h p i b + d w ill b h
t at t 5 3 2
+ t
m
ro e e ex re s s o n x x cx x 8 e e

du u m u
.

p ro f ct op l q d pl t
a co b if e te s are an a co e e c e

1 26 9d 56 d 2
_
5 b c 0
2

2 19 A
b ag c o n tain s 6 b lac b alls an d an n no n n b e r, n o t k u k w um
h wh h d w u v
.

greate r t an s ix , o f ite b alls ; t re e are ra n s c c es s i ely an d n o t

re pla c ed a n d are all o n to b e fu d
ite ; p ro e t at th e c an c e t at wh v h h h
$ ?
a b la c b all ill b e ra n n ex t is 1
k w [ d w
E S U S C OLL C A M B ] J . .

9 09

220 . Sh w h e t at th e su m f th o e p ro du f v y p i f h
c ts o e er a r o t e

sq u are s o f th e fi rs t 77. wh o le n u mb e rs l S
1
—
36
n (n
2 —1
) (4 n
2

[ C A I U S C O L L . CA M B .
]

221 1
u
z
< b —c >B ( ’
0 a ) 2
< >0
a ~

b
h as eq u al ro o t s , p ro v e
x — c
.

x a x b
t ht
a a
(b c + ) B( c a ) + -
y( a b) : O

222 . Pro v h t whe t a en n is a p o s iti e v in te ger,

—2 —3 n — 4)
2 n —l n ( n )(
1 | 2

( n — 4 xn — s xn — 8 )

[ C LA R E C O L L . CAMB .
]
H . H . A .
33
51 4 L HGH E R A L E BR A G .

So l v e th e eq u atio n s

( )
1

( )
2
t?
i Z
]. E 3
a b c

[CH R I ST S C OLL C A M B
’
. .
]
224 v h h m
Pro e t at if eac o f p o in ts in o n e s t raig t lin e b e o in e h j d
h h h m d h
.

to e ac o f n in an o t e r b y s traig t lin es t er in ate b y th e p o in ts , t en ,

e xc lud i g th giv np i t th lie en o n s, e n es will in ters ec t

imcm l) ( n n 1)

ti m es .
[ M A TH . TR I P OS ] .

225 . H a vi g giv
n en y x x
2
x
5
,
e xp an d x in th e fo r m

an d s h w th
e at a
2
d 3a bc 26 3
1 .
[B A LL COL L Ox . .
]
226 A farme r s pe n t t h ree e q u al s u ms of m
in b y in g c al es , u v
m
o n ey
h h m h
.

i d E ac c alf co s t £ 1 o re t an a i a d £ 2
an s e e p p g n o re
m um
s
p g,
h h h uh
.

t an a S ee p ; alt o ge t e r h e b o g t 4 7 an i als Th e n b er o f p igs

dd h v m h udh v uh
.

t at o f th e c al es b y a s an y S e e p as h e co l a e bo
g t
um m
e x cee e
fo r £9 : fi n d th e n b er o f an i als o f eac in hk d .

227 . E x pres s lo g 2 in t h e f m f th
or o e in fi n ite co n t in u dfe rac tio n

2 2
1 l 2 3
1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ [ E U LE R ]
1+

228 In a c e rtain mi ti i p p e rs are s e t, an d t o e ac h

m imu m S h w t h
exa na

d mk
on s x a are

as s ign e
.

1 00 th e n
at um b er o f wy
d id t my
ar s as a ax e

u mb
a s

i wh i h wh
.

a c an a e a Ob ta in fo rty p er c e n t o f th e o le n er
fm k i
n c .

o ar s s

{13
2 1 4

3
[
[ FOR D D
4 MO
OX S .
]
2 111
229 . Tes t fo r
'
co n v e rge n c y

x 1 3 3 5
1 x
7
. x x

2 14

23 0 Fi d th e ale o f re lat io n th e th
t er m d th e ui f
m
n sc n an s n o n

u , ,
.

te r s Of th e rec rrin s eries 1+6

g
S e hwals o t at t h e h mf t m f th e s e ries fo r md b y t ki
e a n
g
m
su o er s o

m f t m f thi
n
“
fo r it s 7 t er th e s u o 7
'
er s o s s eries is

2 4 577
U B
.

1)
21
°
[ C A I S C O LL C A M . .
]
51 6 HI GH E R AL GE BR A .

240 . S hw ht
e t a th e eq u atio n

re du c es to a Si mpl e eq u at io n if

So l v e th e eq u atio n

24 1 t ain s 3 re d an d 3 gree n b alls , an d a p e rs o n

A b ag co n ra s d w
dm h u
.

o u t 3 a t ran H e t en dro p s 3 b l e b alls in t o t h e b ag, an d again

m
o

d w dm hw h ju w h
.

o u t 3 at ran S e t at h e s t la 8 t 3 it
hm f
ra s o ay
y o
dv d
.

a an t age to i sel again s t t h e 3 latt er b alls b e in g all o f iffere n t

l u
co o rs .
[ FE M E . C OL L . CA M B .
]
24 2 Fi n d th e s u m f th o e fif h p wt o e rs o f th e ro o ts o f t h e e q atio n u
N D N UN
.

7 332
+ 4x 3= 0 ,
[ LO O I V E R SI T ] Y .

243 A Geo mt i e r c al an d H ar m o n ical Pro gress i h v th

on a e e sa m e
m b v hw h
.

t“ “
7 t er s a, 0 re s p e c t i e ly : S e t at
g , ,

— c lo a +b — a lo b + c
a ( b ) g ( c ) g ( a

[ C CA M B
’
H R I S T S C O L L . .
]
244 d f u u mb u h th t th m f th fi th i d d
Fi n r n ers s a rs t,
d b y h m f h qu
o c e su o e r an
f u h d h fh
.

o rt ex c ee s t at o
f h t e s eco n 8; t e su t t
d h m f h qu f h hi d d f u h
o e s ares o e
fi d d
rs t an s e co n e x c ee s t e su o t are s o t t rt
m f th p du
e s e r an o
by 6 3 h ; t e f h fi
su d d d fho e ro c ts o t e rs t an s ec o n an o t e
thi d d f u h i
r an h u b f h fi i q u l th m f th
o rt s 42 ; t e c e o t e rs t s e a to
,

e su o e
cub f h
es O d th i d d f u h
t e s ec o n ,
r , an o rt .

245 I f T T T b u iv m f u i g i “ e 3 c o n s ec t e te r s o a rec rr n s e r es
t d by h a p v h
.
n , n , u +z
c o n n ec e l i t e re at o n ,
ro e t at

Ii ” { p u n
= a c o n s t an t .

246 . E li mi n at e x ,
y ,
2 fro mth e e
q u a tio n s

1
__
1
l 1
x
y z a
’

3 3 3 = c3
x +y + z ,

[E M M . C O LL . CA M B .
]
24 7 . S h w th
e at th e ro o ts o f th e eq u at io n

4 — 2
x x3 +g x
p

are in p ro p o rt io n . H en c e s o l v e x
4
4 7x 2 7 2x 36 0 .
 M I S C E LLA N EO US E XA M PL E S . 51 7

248 A c a n h it a targe t fo r t i e s in 5 s o ts ; t u m h B h re e ti m es in 4
h w h h v wh
.

s o ts ; a n d C t ic e in 3 S o ts T ey fi re a o lley : at is t h e p ro
h h h wh
.

ab ility t a t t wo s o t s a t leas t b it ? A n d if t wo h it at is t h e p ro

h
b ility t at it is 0 wh o h as is s e ? [ S T C A TH m d . C O L L CA M B ]
. .

249 . Su m e ac h o f th e f ll w i g
o i
o n s e r es to n m ter s :

( )
I

( ) 9 0

2 3 "
x + 1 29 x
6
(3) 3 x 9x x

[S E CO ND PUB L I C E X A M . Cx .
]
250 . So l v e th e eq u a t io n s

2 2 —x
( )
1 y +y + 3 2 ax , ( 2) x (y + z
) a,

2 2
8 + zx + x a
y, y (z + x
(x + y )
2 2 = c
x + xy + y az . z .

P TE R H O U S E , C A M B
[ E .
]
251 lf
1 l 1 l
an d 7L Is
.
' ‘
in O dd i n t eU
.

e r, s hw e t h zrt
b
r c
o
g
a c a +b+c
1 1 1 1
5
23 °

+b +c
n. n. n n n
a o a
.

If v6 516 2
72
2
( u
z
72
2
) 4s ( 1 u
t “
v ) 0, p ro ve t h at

( 25
2
v
2 6
)
2 2
1 6 25 12 ( 1 u
s
)( 1 v8 ) .
[ PE M B CO L L . .

252 . If y + zx + x
z
y = 3g
b x z
y
= 7
'
, p ro v th e at

w + z — Z = — 27 3 + 36
) p p 2 8 r,
—

(y + z —z
)
3=
2 7p 3 — 2 4 r .

253 . Fi n d th e fac to rs , lin e ar in x,

y ,
z, o f

{ a
( b c ) x
2
b( c a )y ?
c ( a b) 4 abc ( x
2
+y 2 z
2
)( ax
2
by ?

C A I U S C OL L CA M B ]
[ . .

x + y + x + y + z

hwh
z

S e t at fl y yz
x + 3/ z

[ S r J N OH
’
S C O LL . CA M B .
]

255 . By m ean s o f th e iden tity 1

1 +x
1 x
’ p ro v h e t at

PE MB CO L L CA M B ]
[ . . .
51 8 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

256 . So l v e th e eq u a tio n s

2 2 — z2 — u 6,
x +y
3 3
x +y
x
y i
- -
zu : 45 .

257 . If p =
g n e arl , an
y d n 1, s hw h
e t at

If ? 4 agre e wi h u t n ity as far as th e 7

“
d iml pl
ec a ac e , to h o w my an

p lac es will h i t s app ro x i mti a on in ge n eral b e c o rre c t

“
Z .
[ M A TH TR I P.OS ] .

258 uh d
A la y b o g t 54 lb s o f t ea an d c o ffee ; if S h e h ad b o g t uh
h u u u
. .

fi ve S ix t s o f th e q an tity o f t e a an d fo r fi fth s o f th e q an tity o f

- -

co ffee S h e w dhv
o ul v h
a e s p e n t n in e e le e n t s o f at S h e h ad ac t ally wh u
u h mu h
-

s p e n t ; an d if S h e h ad b o g t as t ea as s h e did c o ffee an d vice

m
c

xers d, S h e w udh v
o l m h
a e s p e n t 58 o re t an s h e did Te a is o re e x

v h h
. .

en s i e t an c o ffee , an d t h e p ric e o f 6 l o f co ffe e e x c e e ds t a t o f

p
h
.

2l o f t ea b y 58
. fi n d th e p ric e o f e ac
. .

259 If Sn re p res en t th e s u m f th e p ro du t c s o f th e fi rs t 77. n at u ral

um
O

k m h
.

n b ers ta en t wo at a t i e , t en

2 11
e
3 ! 4 ! 24
A I U S C O LL CA M B
[ C . .
]
P Q R
260 ° If
p a
?
2 ga b + rb 2
m
p c + g( b e 61
2
) xa b
P0
2
2 9 0“

p ro v th P p
e at Q g; an d R, r my b a e in te rc h an ge d wi h u t o t alt e rin g
q u li i
, ,

th e e a t es .
[ M A TH . TR I P OS ].

261 . If a 8
, y 0, s hw he t at

[ C A I U S C O L L . CA M B .
]
26 2 . If a, B, y 8 b,
e th e ro o ts o f th e e q u atio n

4
x

fi n d in t er m s o f th e co e ffi i c en ts th e v lu a e o f2 ( a B) ( y
? ‘

[ L O ND N UN V O I E R SI T Y].
520 HI GH ER A L EBR AG .

27 0 . Fin d th e re al ro o ts o f th e eq u atio n s

+w
2 2 2
x + v (1 2,

2
2
+ 25
2
+ 12
2 = 2
c , m ;

[ M A TH . TR I P OS ]
.

27 1 h u
I t is a r le in G aelic t at n o c o n s o n an t o r gro p o f c o n s o n an ts u
d mmd w w kv w
.

c a n s t an i e iate ly b e t ee n a s t ro n g a n d a ea o e l ; t h e s tro n g

vw w kvw
e ls b e in g a , 0 , u ; an d t h e e ls e an d z
'
S e w t at th e h h
h um md
o ea o

w d h h h
.

w o le n b e r o f G ae lic o r s o f n 3 le tte rs e ac , w ic can b e fo r e

2 1n + 3
f
o n d th wl i
c o n s o n an ts an e vo e s a eo s
+2
wh l t
e re i no e te r s re

mw
n
o rd A I U S C OL L CA M B ]
p e at e d in th e sa e .
[ C . .

27 2 . S hw h
e t at if x
2
y
" wh ere x , y, za re in te ge rs , t h en

2x = r ( l 2
2 1k f
e
z
), 231 r
( lc
2
2 lx 2
Z) , 2z = r (l 2
+k
?
)
wh e re r l an d 1c are in t ege rs .
[ C A I U S C O L L C A M B . .
]

27 3 . Fi n d th e v lua e o f
1 1
1 + 1 + 3 + 5+ 7 +
2 4 6
t o in f .

CA MB
’
[ C H R I ST S C O L L . .
]
27 4 . Su mth e s e rie s

2
$
tO In f .

L1 L
E n

27 5 . So l v e th e eq u atio n s

(1) 2 xy z + 3 =
( 2x

( )
2 3 tu : 2 0g : vx + u
y
= 3u + 2
2 122
14 xy = 10 m ) .

27 6 . S hw h
e t at a
2
+ 7\ ab ac ad

v
is di is ib le b y an d fi n d th e o t h er fac to r .
[ C OR P U S C OL L . CA M B .
]
 M ISC E L L A N E O US E XA M PL E S . 52 1

If a, b, c, are th e ro o ts o f th e eq u a tio n

" '
I
+ Pn = 0 ;
n
+ Pr f + Pn
’
x 37
1

fi n d th e su mf o a
3
+ b 3 3
+e + an d s hw he t at

2 —
Pn — 1 (P| 2P2 )
6 a c a c b
J N C[S T OH
’
S OLL . CA M B .
]

27 8 . By th e e x p an s io n o f
[ i
i i ,
o r o t h wi p v h
er s e, ro e t at

( 3 12 . 1 ) (3 n 2) (3n 2) (3n 3 ) (3n /

4)

— 3 — 4 — 5 3n
( 3 n )( 3 n )( 3 n )( — 6)
M G
" — 1
”n

wh en ni s an in t ege r, an d th e s e rie s s to
p s at t h e fi rs t t e r mt h at v an is h es .

[ M A TH . TR I P OS ] .

27 9 Two s p o rt s e n A an d m
e n t o u t S o o tin g an d b ro g t Bw h uh
hm d m u um h
.

e 1 0 b ir s Th e s u o f t h e s q a re s o f t h e n b e r o f s o ts was
um
o

u h d h
.

2 8 8 0, a n d th e p ro d c t o f th e n b e rs o f s o ts fi re b y e ac was 4 8
m
t i es t h e p ro du
c t o f th e n b e rs o f b ir s ille b y e ac um I f A h ad d k d h
fi B B h B w ud h v k
.

re d as o fte n as an d as o ft en as A , t e n o l illed 5
m m
a e

h
o re b irds t an A : fi n d th e n u b e r o f b ir s ille d b y eac d k h .

280 . P v th
ro e at 8 (a 3
b 3
9 ( G
2
b e) ( 6 2
ca ) (0
2
a b) .

[PE M B C OLL CA M B . . .
]
28 1 . S hw he t at th e n th
co n v e rge n t to

2 4 6
is 2 "
3— 4 — 5 "
20 2 n (
W h at is th e li mit o h wh
f t is en ni s in fi n ite ? [ KI G S C O N
LL C A
’
M B ] . .

282 . If
9a
is th e n
th
co n v e rge n t to t h e co n tin u dfe rac t io n

1 1 l l 1 1
a + b+ c + a + b+ c +

s h w th
e at
Q 3“ .
[ Q U E E N S
’
C OL L . CA M B .
]

283 Ou t ht li wh l g h
o f 77. s trai t 1, 2 , 3, h
in c
umb f w y i wh i h f u my b h
g n es o se en s a re n es
iv ly h wh i h
.

re s pe c t t
m q u d il l i wh i h i l my b i ib d i
e e n er o a s n c o r a e c o s en c
will f or a
,

a r ate ra n c a c rc e a e n scr e s

1
{ a M H TR I P OS
23
2 (a 2) ( 2n 5) 3 3 [ A T ] . .
52 2 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

284 I f 252 , 243 are re s p e c ti e ly th e arit e tic v

ea n s O f t h e s q are s hm m u
u um h m v h
.

a n d c b es o f all n b e rs le s s t an n an d p ri e t o it , p ro e t at
n
3
u
6 n u 2 + 4 u 3 = 0, n ity b e in g c o n t e a s a p ri e u d m .

[ S T J N OH
’
S C O LL . CA M B .
]
28 5 n
I f is O f th e fo r 6 1 S e mm hw h t at
(y (z (x
dv
is i is i b le b y x + y + z
2 2 2—
y z —zx — x
y ; an d if n is o f t h e fo r m6 m+ 1
hw h
s e t at it is di is ib le b y v ,

?
y)
— 2x x
yz

28 6 I f S is t h e s u o f th e m mp t“
o w e rs P th e m f th d ut
m
su o e ro c s
p
h u hw h
.

to ge t e r o f t h e n q an t ities d l , G
2 ,
G
3 ,
an , s e t at

ln
[ C A I U S C O LL C A M B . .
]
2 87 . Pro v h
e t at if t h e eq u at io n s

x
3
+ gx r= 0 an d xx
3
29 2 2
x 5grx 29 3
r
2=
0

hva e a co mm on ro o t , t h e fi rs t eq u at io n will h v a e a p air o f e q al ro o t s ; u

an d if eac h o ft h es e is a, fin d all th e ro o ts o f th e s ec o n d u
e q atio n .

[I ND IA C I V I L SE R V I C E ]

If x A/2 a
2
3 x + jy2
M 2a — 2
3y 4 2 -
z V2 a 2

s ta n ds fo r x 2
y
‘

p ro v h e t at

(H z/H M — z
) = 0

[TR I N . C O L L CA M B . .
]
28 9 d h v lu f
Fi n t e a es o x x2 , wh i h c s at is f
y t h e f ll wi g
o o n
m f imul u qu i
.
l ,

s y s te o s tan eo s e at o n s

1
+
d — b, a 62 d — bn
l l

_
a
2
_ bn

“11 — bl ( tn — 62 n

ND N UN V
.

[ L O O I E R SIT Y] .

290 . S hw h
e t at y z x
2
2x
y
?
x
y z ¢
2
u
z

z 2 2 2 ?
x u
2x
y xy 2
y z r
2 2 ? 2 ? 2
x z u u x
y 2
y x zx
y
wh e re x
2
y
? 2
2 , an d u
? =
yz 2x x
y
N
.

[TR I . C OL L . CA MB .
]
52 4 HI GH E R AL GE B R A .

29 8 . S hw e th at if a , b , c a re p o s it i v e an d u qu l
ne a ,
th e eq u a t io n s

gi v h
e t r e e dis t in c t t ria d f s o re al v lua fo r es x,
y z ; an d th e rat io o f th e
p ro du c t s o f t h e t re e h v lu a es o fx an d i
y s b (b
,

c ) a
(c a
) .

[ OX F O R D MO DS ]
29 9 . If A = ax -
by — cz
,
D = b z + cy ,
B = by — cz — a x
,
E = cx + az ,

C= cz ~
ax -
by , F= a
y + b x,

p ro v h
e t at ABC AD 2
BE 2
CF + 2 D E F2

) ( ax
2 ? ?
(a b c + by 02 ) (x
2
+y 2

[ S E C O N D PUB LI C E XA M . OX F O R D] .

300 A udi c e rtainy t d iphst ud ld

en t fo n t n e c e s s ar o ec er an

m u ip D i g p vi u p i
o
m ki d h h d
.

an scr t f h
ur n re o s ex e r en c e s O t e sa e n e a
v d h h umb f w d h uld d d ily v i d j i ly
.

b s er e t at t er o or s re a ar e t
u mb f mil h w lk d d th u mb f h u h w k d
O e n e co a o n

h t e n er o an e n er O rs
d h mu f d ily
as es e a e o e or e

du i g h d y H h f g du lly i
t t t t
mil d h p d y
rn e a e e re o re ra a n c reas e e a o n o a

d d ily w k
.

i
e x e rc s e an h f a or at t e rat e o 1 e an 1 o ur er a

re s iv l
ec t b i i h fi d w i h h i u l q u i y H f
t u d
e rs t t an t t e

h h m u ip
nn n a s us a n
p y g g e y e o

i d w d h h u d 00
.
,
t at t e an s cr t ta n e
co n 2 3 2 000 o r s, t at e co n te 12 0
h fit d y d7 rs t h l t d y d h b y th d f h lf
2 000 o n t an t at e en o

d 6 000 w d fi d h i u u l mu t f d ily
on e an e as a a

im h h d
a , ;
th e t e e a c o u n te 2 or s n s s a a o n o a

i
ex erc s e an dw k or .
 A N SW E R S .

I . PA G E S 1 0— 1 2 .

( 8) bx z ay . 2 . 18 . 3 .

11 . 5 . 6 . 5: 6 0r

5 3
5 -
7
:
‘
f l f . 17 . ab c + 2fgh ~
a f
2 —b
g
2
4 2 3 1 -
1 o
8 4 1 21 .
-
3, 22 . 2 . 23 . 3, 4, 1 .

—
(
2 2 — 2 2
(b c )’
2
i a : Eb
( 0 a , ) a

b c (b — c ) , —a —b
ca ( c ) , ab ( a ) .

II . PA G E S 1 9 , 20 .

" 3
2 .
( 1) 12 .
( 2)
3
3 0001 5 . 3 .
f
y ( + x) .
-
a
c

Mb ” )
0, 5 14 . 0, 3 , 8 .

c m bm 2 da

8 . 19 . 6 , 9 , 1 0, 1 5 . 20 . 3 gallo n s fro mA ; 8 gallo n s fro mB .

4 5 gallo n s . 23 . 17 3 . 24 . a = 4b .

64 p er cen t c o p p e r an d 3 6 p er c en t z in c 3 p arts o f b ras s are ta k en to

mi u t
. . .

rts o f b ro n z e . 26 . 63 or 12 n es .

III . PA G E S 2 6 , 2 7 .

54 . 2 . 9 . 3 . 14
, 4 . 2 . 7 . 60 .

10 = 5x + 11 4
.
y . .

22
—
15
2 + i
1 5z
. 14 . 36 . 15 . 1 6 1 0 fee t ; 3 05 9 fee t .

—
22 51 c b ic f
1eet u . 17 . 4 3 .

Th e re gatta las te d d 6 ay s ; d ay s .

1 6, 2 5 y ears ; £ 2 00, £ 2 50 21 1 day 1 8 hu o rs 28 mi u t n es

m
. . .

Th e co st is leas t wh en th e rate is 1 2 ile s an hu o r; an d t h en th e co s t

m
il e i s £3 3
7
5, an d fo r th e jo u rn ey is £ 9 7 8 6 d . . .
 H I GH E R AL GE B R A .

IV PA G E S 3 1 , 3 2

m
. a . .

27 7 1 2
. 3 . o . 5 30
.

—42 . 7 . 8 . 1 32 5J 3 . 9 . 7 5J 5

82 0a 1 6 80b . n (n 1) a Mb . 12 .
( 1 1a 9b) .

_
1
4 ’
3
—9
i . 14 . 1, 1
15 . 3 3 x, 31 m,

x
2 —x + 1 x
2 2x + 2 , x . 18 . 3 .
,

6 12 . 21 . 4 , 9 , 14 . 23 . 4 95 .

P( 10+ 1
)+ b
p .

2a

IV b . . PA G E S 3 5, 3 6 .

10 or — 8 2 8 or -
13 3 2 , 5,
m8 umb m 59
. . . .

Firs t ter n er o f t er s

Fi t t m umb f t m 54
.
,

rs er n er o er s .

”
S I t lm t £ 51 £53
ns a err s , , 7 . 12 . 8 . 25 .

n
—3
—w ( 2 + n .
J ) x . 10 . 2
2
. 12 .

)
um um
.

13 3 , 5, 7 , 9 [A s s e fo r th e n b ers a 3 d, a d, a + d, a + 3d ]
m
. . .

14 2, 4 , 6 , 8 15 — 16 12 17 17 67 1
p +q
:
or

m
. . . . . . . .

20 . 1 0p — 8 . 21 . 8 ter s . Se rie s Hg , 3 ,
22 . 3 , 5, 7 ; 4 , 5, 6 . 23 . ry = (n + l

V . a . PA G E S 4 1 , 4 2 .

2 059
1 4 58
1 09 3
45

( 58 5J2 ,

16
2
27 . 13 .

3
27
° 16 .
‘
999 .

58
7 (7 20 . 2 .
22 .

2 .
24 . 28 . 6, 3, I
52 8 H IGH E R AL GE B R A .

11 . 3 003 4 3 4 2 . 12 . 7 1 07733 . 13 . 2 7 14 6 8 7 . 14 . 2 04 6 . 15 . 1 5 1 t6
°
.

5 2 5
16 20 7 3 17 1 2 5 01 2 0
g
. . . . o 0

3 8
20 0 N in e . 21 . Fo u r . 22 . T wvel e . 23 . E ig t h . 24 . E le v
en .

25 . T wv el e . 26 . Ten . 30 .

3 9 —3 3 — 3 7 —3 6 5
3 +3 + 3 2
+L 3

VIII . a . PA G E S 7 2 , 7 3 .

2 + J2 + J6 3 + J 6 + J 15
4 6

a + bJa a —I+
J a2 —1+
J 2a
2ab a — l
3J 3 0 5J1 5
. 12 I ON/2
6
7 2
2 5 1 3 3 1 2

2 4 l 2 2 2 1 2
— 23
2
56 .

1 10 }
1
11 9 1 2
G — 6 4
.

a a b + a6 b
2 —b 4
10 .

1 1 q
23 — 74 .

11 1 2 11
. 1

3 1
2 2 9 2 .
7
.

17
l 2 1 2 3 2 I

1 § é § 2 1 31 46
5 21 16 11

36 —1 17
5
.

31
if 2 1
2 6 6
3
—
19 .
J J
5+ 7 2 .

J
,5 21 . 22 . 1+
2

2 + Ja — J 3b . 24 . 3 25 .

2 + J5 —2
. 27 . 3 23 .
J 1 4 J 2

2 J3 + J5 . 30 . 3 ,J 3 — ,J6 .

35 . 11 56 36 . 289 .
 A N SW ER S .

38 . 3 J3 + 5 . 39 . 3 .

9
40 . a w .

3 + N/5= 5 2 3 6 07 42 1 {7 4 s/2
'
41 . . . x . 7: J

a 1
J
‘ ‘
z
43 . 3a b 3a 2

2 13 . 3 . c
Q V— l

11

J
+m
2 2
u

11 .
J 1 . 12 . 1 00 .

21 .

IX . a . PA G E S 8 8

+ 13x m n zv + ( n
‘
3 — m) x -
m n z o .

‘
3
q
?
) x
2
+ 4p qx x 1 4 73 + 2 9 z 0 .

2 9
x 2
+ px +p

m+ 2
a
2 6 . v
3
+ 1 1x
9
1 9x + 6 : 0 .

3 ? 2 3
2d x (4 a
)x 2a x =0 . x

a b
3, 5 . 15 . 2, °

a +b
? F
I — 4a c)
b ?
2a c I) (
2 3
(1 0

2 ( 12 2
22 ) — 1f1 )
22 . 23 . O . 24 .
ff ~

b ?
2ac b ( b ?
3ac ) 3
( 2) 27 . "U 3 :
( 1 n
) uc .

( 6 2
2 77 0 ) ( a c 7: ( b ? 2a c l '

mm (m
.

4 :
?
z
IX b . . PA G E S 9 2 , 9 3 .

—2 2
1 . 2 an d . 5 . bx
— ‘
q)
2
p (p ]J
6 .
( 1)

H . H . A .
53 0 H I GH E R AL G E BR A .

IX . c . PA G E 9 6 .

1 . 2 . 2 . i7 . 5 .
(n
l
’ '
l n ) = (l
2
m lm
) (m m)
' '
n
' '
n .

’ '
( ) (
’ 2 ’ ’ ’
7 . da 4 bbh a h b )( h b h a
) 0 .

10 .

’
( b b
’

' 2:
2 ac
'
'
2
' 2= ?
a c)
( b
' '
4 ac
)( b
'
2
wh h du ic re ces to

( ) ( )(
’
ac a c ab a b b c b c ) .

X . a . PA G E S 1 01 , 1 02 .

2 $ 1 ,
3

2”
6 1, 2 7 27

12 .

14 . $ 3 . 15 0

J -
24 . 2, -
4,

" g ,
1 2
.

2 , — 8,

5
1 Si J 8
1 4 14 7 i
J 7
3
’
3 3 3 6
7 8=
b J4 1 5
’
3 6

29 30 . a, 31 2,

32 4, 34 . 6,

35 1, 36 3 37 .

39 . 3 a , —4 a . 40 . i

S
2

44 3, —1

47 . 4 . 48 . 0

49 . 1
W“ J b ) + 4 2
50 4 5 .
53 2 HIGHER AL GE BR A .

s/ /1 3 , ; y = 0, Fb J7 , J 13,
40 .
i d ' 7, i aN i 3a, i a : i b ; b, =
E 3h .

41 . 4
2 01 2

y 1=
= 4 2a, =
a
J
, 1 6 a4 —a — 1 2
J 1 6 a 4 — a2 — 1

X . c . PA G E S 1 09 , 1 1 0 .

2 . y — 1; z = 1

— 1 ; y = 1 , — 5; z =2 . 4 . x = 8,
—

3,
24 1 51
=
y 3 , 4,
fl
2 T5I _
11
3 3 .
3

= 4 3; = 4 5 7 = 4 1; z = 4 1
x z . .
y .

1
—8 —5 z = 3 —3 9
; ; , . . .

x : 1L x = 5, -
7 ; y = 3 , — 5;

m z 1, -
2 , y = 7, —3, z = 3,
11
3
.

13 . z = 2, —6 14 . m z a, O, O; y = 0, a, O; z = 0, 0, a.

15 . a:

16 . m = a, — 2a , a ; y = 4 a, a,
_ 11 4
J i 15
2
= 2 a, 4a , 1 /
z ~

( 4
V

X . (1 . PA G E 1 1 3 .

$ 2 2 9, 5; y 2 , 5, 8 , 1 1 z

m
.

z 1 , 3 , 5, 7 , 9 ; y 24 , 1 9 , 1 4 , 9, 4 z .

x = 2 0, 8 ; y : 1, 8 . 4 . 2 0, 3 1 ; y = 2 7 , 1 4 , 1 .

x = 3 0, 5; y = 9 , 3 2 . 6 . 3 ; y = 3, 44 .

= 7p =5 —4 1 8 1 3p —2 , 1 1 ; y = 6p — 1 5
x y p , . . g3 z , .

w: 2 1p 8 —5 3 10 1 7p , 1 7 ; g z 1 3p , 1 3
y :
p , . . x : .

x : 1 9p — 1 6 , 3 ; y : 2 3p -
1 9, 4 . 12 . x = 7 7p — 7 4 , 3 ; y 3 0p — 2 5, 5 z .

11 h o rs e s , 1 5co w s . 14 . 1 01 . 15 . 56 , 2 5 o r 1 6 , 6 5 .

To p ay 3 g in eas u an d re c ei e v h w 21 alf- c ro ns

um m
.

1 1 4 7 ; an in fi n ite n b er o f th e fo r x 56p .

To p ay 1 7 flo rin s an d rece i v h w e 3 alf cro n s .

3 7 , 99 ; 7 7 , 59 ; 1 1 7 , 1 9
m 1 pig m 1 4 pig
.

28 ra s, ,
11 o x en ; o r 1 3 ra s, s, 13 o xen .

3 so vereign s , 11 h alf- c ro w n s, 13 s hi llin gs .

 A N S WE R S . 53 3

PA G E S

1 06 2 6 , 1 1 6 2 8 .

7 .

11 .

15 . 2 3 03 00 .

19 . 8 48 .

23 . 3 6 9 6 00 .

27 . 57 6 0 .

32 . 41 .

XI b . . PA G E S 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 .

1 2 9 7 2 9 6 00 .
(3) 33 2 6 4 00 . 2 . 4 08 4 08 0 .

360 . 5 . 72 . 6 . 1 25 .

" 10 30
53 1 44 1 . 9 .
p . . .

13 4 55 2 3
8 69 6 9
. .

15 . 4 09 5 . 16 . 57 7 60000 . 18 . 7 2 0 ; 3 6 28800 .

19 . 1 27 . 20 . 3 15 . 22 . 6 4 ; 3 25 23 . 42 .

—1 — 1 ) (p — 2 ) —1 —2
) (q )
13 09 ) 4 0
1 p (p _ q (q
( )
1
2 2 ( )
2
6 6

0 9 —
0 4 )
2
12 2 q (q —1
26 .

27 . 1 1 3 ; 2 190 . 23 . 2 4 54 . 29 . 6 6 66 6 00 . 30 . 51 99 9 6 0 .

XIII . a . PA G E S 1 4 2, 14 3 .

x
5
4 053: 243 .

3
2 16x 3
1
3 2 4 5
8 055 31 1 02371 y .

l 1 8a2 1 3541 4 4
5 061 6
1 2 1 561 8 7 29a 12

m
.

l0
5x 9 5x 6 $
5
.

3 3 5 5 G
1 7 7:y
. 3 5x y 2 1x y
8
81
g
:
16 27 x6
1
8 0” 6 4“ G4
7 294 6
54 0a “ 1 6 04 3 + ‘

3 27 7 29
2 1 15 2 7
7 zl: x
1+ _ + + +
2 4 8 16 9;
53 4 E HGH E R AL GE B R A .

64 m s
12
8— 3
4
20 +
1 35 24 3
29
2
7 29 27 3 4x
1 a “ "
a
s
16 15
.

2 56 4 s
10 45 1 20 210 2 52 210 1 20 45 10 1
+ + +
713
°
3 8 9
x4
lo
x 73 x x
10 9
5 5
3 7 072 14 . 11 2 6 4 073 15 .

[3 5112 3 8
9 1 12 0
——
( ) ( )
,7
y
3
EZI 81

1 0500
20 .
3
x
2 2
2 07: a .

3
2 (3 6 5 6 32 2
x ) . 25
. 2 52 .

4
1 1 056 5a 28 .

17
1 89a 7
°

8 18

I n
34 1
—r
) <n + r>
.

3( n 4

XI I I b . . PA G E S 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 .

th
Th e 9 . 2 . Th e 3 . Th e 4 . Th e an d 11 th
.

Th e 3 rd
= 6§ . 6 . Th e 4 th
an ds th
&
1
8
9 . =
y 3, n = 5 .

3 7
1 8x 8x 33 .

54 d x 5
1 1 7 61256 4 1 1 6 a 3x 3 5
54 a x 27 a s
.

If} .

x
r—l
a n -
r—
i—
l 2 7
a: 1
r— l n —7 + 1
| ]
*

14 . 15 .

XIV . a . PA G E 1 55 .

3 3 1
_ l 1+ x + x x
3
.

8 2 8 16
3
—— x 1 2 56 + 2
3 x4 4x 6
.

25
14
— —
1 x x 2 —
g x
3
1 + x + 2x 2 + — x .

1 — mg
mg
+
2 — x
3
1 —x +
2
§
x
2 — — w3
27
10
.

3 3
x
1— §
2a + a 2 —§ 3
a .
 53 6 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

2 —n

)
n

l
-

1
l2n
3
2" 1
3 ) ( (
n n

e e
D du c d fro m( 1 x
3
) (1 x 3=) 3x 3x2 16 ( 1) 45 ( 2)
u
. . .

( 1) Eq ate c o effi c ien ts f ca in ’

(1
"
o
(1 ) ) 1
( 1 + 33) 1
-

x n -
x z
.

u u mi 2

( 2)
-

( 2 Eq ate ab s o l te ter (1 )
”
1 2
s n x x
( 1 a
r t- 2

Series th e left + f x " in

on 2
co ef
fi cien t ?
9 71 o
(1 x
2
)
1 13 4

2
12 1 9

[U s e ( en )
"
60 c
1 0
2 m 2 ( c o
o 1 0 0
1 2 = c 02 01
2
+ 02 + 2

XV . PAG ES 1 7 3, 1 7 4 .

17 . 1 2x 2
4 x3 5x4 2 0x 5 .

XVI . a . PAG ES 1 7 8, 1 7 9 .

8, 6 .
2 . 2, —1 .

8 6 10 g a r 9 lo g b
3
lo g a +
-

lo g b
.
.

§
.

4 1 2 1
— lo g a — 10 g b
§ §
.

7
12
lo g a lo g b .
5lo g 6 . 16 . lo g 3 .

l o ge

l o ga
— lo
gb
lo g a + lo g b
2 lo g c — lo g a 1—lo g b -
' 21 ' x
lo g x =
% (a + 3 b ) ,
lo g y (a 2b) .
 A N S WE R S . 53 7

XV I b . . PA G E S 1 8 5, 1 8 6 .

2, 1, 1 .

8 8 2 1 2 59 , 2 8 8 2 1 2 59 , 3 8 8 2 1 2 59 , 58 8 2 1 2 59 , 6 8 8 2 1 2 59 .

5, 2 , 4 , 1
ml pl ml p l
.

Seco n dd e ci a ace ; u n its p lac e ; fi ft

’
hd ec i a ac e .

1 8 06 1 800 . 6 . 1 8 242 7 9 3 . 7 . 1 1 07 2 1 00 . 8 . 2 09 6 9 1 00 .

1 1 58 3 6 2 6 . 10 .
°
6 6 9 006 7 . 11 . 8 597 2 7 1 12 . 8 56 3 52 0 .

1 5052 9 7 3 . 14 .
°
4 409 23 88 . 15 . 1 8 4 8 445 16 . 1 9 1 56 3 1 .

1 1 998692 . 18 . 19 . 9 07 6 2 2 6 20 . 1 7 8 1 4 151 6 .

9 . 23 . 3 01 . 24 . 3 42 9 . 26 . 27 . 1 4 8 06 .

lo g 3 lo g 2
4 0
0 6 2° 29 ° 2: _
lo g 3 lo g 2 lo g 3 lo g 2
3 lo g 3 01 9 lo g 3
31 . 1 6 16 01 .

7
56 14 .

lo g 2

XVII . PA G E S 1 9 5 197 .

1 . lo g, 2 . 2 . lo g, 3 lo g, 2 . 6 .
°
002 00000066 6 6 6 7 0 .

H
9 . e
x — cv . 10 . 8 4 509 8 0 ; 1 8 41 3 9 2 7 ; 1 1 1 3 9 4 34 . In A rt 2 2 5 p u t
.

in ( 2 in an d in ( 1 ) res p ec ti ely v .

r —l
r
+1 1) 3 r + 2r
i) r
13 "
12 . . x .

r
°

14 . 2
L . s
e
4 r
x

2
( 7

24 . 8 9 3 14 7 1 8 ; 1 8 9 86 1 22 9 ; 1 8 09 4 3 7 9 2 ; a

lo g,
( 3)1
1 0
04 08 2 1 9 9 5; c = lo g,
( 1 01 2 4 22 52 0 .

XV I I I . a . PA G E 2 02 .

1 . £ 1 1 4 6 14 s 1 0d. . . 2 . £7 20 . 3 . 1 4 2 y ears .

4 . £6 7 6 8 . 7 s 1 05d
. . 5 . 9 6 y ears . 8 . £ 4 9 6 1 9 3 4 34 . . .

9 . A little les s t h an 7 y ears . 10 . £ 1 1 9 1 6 3 4 2d

. . .

XV I I I b . . PA G E 2 07 .

1 . 6 p er cen t . 2 . £3 1 3 7 . 3 . £ 1 10 .

4 . 3 p er ce n t . 5 . 2 8 ; y ears . 6 . £ 127 5 . 7 . £9 2 6 . 26 .

8 . £6 7 55 l 3 s . . 9 . £ 1 8 3 1 83 . . 10 .
pe r c e n t . 11 . £ 6 1 6 9 5 l id
. . .

13 . £ 1 3 08 1 23 . . 15 . £ 4 2 00 .
53 8 HI GH E R A L E BR A G .

XI X . a . PA G E S 2 1 3 , 2 1 4 .

8 . 61+ 3 2b 3
is th e greater . 12 . x
3
> o r < x2 + a: + 2, ac c o r d in g a s 23 > o r <2
v u
.

14 . Th e greates t al e o f xi s 1 . 15 . 4; 8 .

22 . 44 55; wh en at : 3 . 23 . 9, wh en

XI X b . . PA G E S 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 .

?
3 5
2
J
3 5
’

XX . PA G E 2 2 8 .

1
2 . 9 ,

5 . 1 ; 0 . 6 . 0;

8 . lo g a — lo
gb . 9 . 2 . 10 . mem “

16 . 0 .

XXI . a. PA G E S 2 4 1 , 2 4 2 .

Co n v ergen t . 2 . Co n v ergen t. 3 . Co n v ergen t .

x <1, or x = 1, co n v ergen t; x > l, dv i ergen t

m
.

Sa e re s u lt as Ex 4 . . 6 . Co n v ergen t . 7 . Dv i erge n t .

a: 1, co n v ergen t; a: 1, or x 1, div ergen t .

Dv i ergen t ex cep t W h en p > 2 .

a: 1, o r oz : 1, co n v ergen t; a: 1, div ergen t .

I f a: 1, co n v erge n t; a: 1, o r a; div
1, ergen t
m
.

Sa e res u lt as E x 11 . Dv 13 . i ergen t , e x c e p t wh en p>1 .

x <1, orx = 1, co n v ergen t; x >1, dv i ergen t .

Co n v e rgen t . Dv 16 . i erge n t
.

( 1) Di v ergen t .
( 2) Co n v ergen t
.

( )
1 D iv ergen t . ( )
2 Co n v ergen t .

XXI b . . PA G E 2 52 .

a: < 1 , o r x : 1, co n v ergen t; (17 > 1, dv i ergen t

m m
.

Sa e res u lt as Ex 1 . . 3 . Sa e re s u lt as Ex 1
. .

1 1
x <
e e
co n v ergen t; x >
1
8
div ergen t .

x e, c o n v ergen t; a: e, o r x e, div ergen t .

54 0 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

1 1 3 3
x —l a: + 1
_ 1 r
4 1 ( ) r _ 4 r) x
r
.

3 (l + 7 x) 3
r—1

)
11 4 1 ( _ 1)
a:
— 23
)

r—l
4 r
—4ac ’

)
2

6 3M l

)
2 3
(4 ) 2 T

x + 2

l
1 1 x
n -
tl
-

x
n

a
l -
.

XXI V . PA G E 2 7 2 .

l + 3 az
( 7
”
4 '
1) x
—
.
2 ’
( l x)
2 — 3 2: r r

1
3 — 1 2x + 1 1 x2
1) 6
— 2 —
.
’
1 6x + 1 1x 6x 3
 A N SW E R S .
54 1

1 x
" 1 1
n n —l n —l .

’
1 1

m 1
211 3
2
1) -
1 1+ — 6
21

94 0
30
11 —11 0; 11 11 7 0
mt m
2 4 .

wh
1

wh
.

12 S, —2 ere 2 = su o in fi n ity b e gin n in g it te r

h my hw wh u
. .
,

T is a eas ily be s e n to agre e it t h e res lt 1 n A rt 3 2 5 . .

2
2 1 + }l
13 .
( 2 11 .
4
3
2

XXV . a . PA G E S 2 7 7 , 2 7 6 .

Q
I 13 15 28 3 23 67 4
I
°
’ ’ ’ ’
H 6 7 13 1 50 3 13

H 2 7 9 43 95 6 13
'
O
K 1 49 7
O
O 10 13 36 85 121 1174
H

1 1 1 1 1 1
°
’
2+ 2+ 2+ 1 + 1 + 2+ 2 12

1 1 1 1 1 1 57
5+ ’ °

4 + 3+ 2+ 1+ 3 30
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 33
3
°

3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 1 09

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
°
’
3 + 5+ 1 + 1 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 5 35
1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 1
.
' 9 ° 1+
2+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 19 7 + 5+ 6 + 1 + 3
’
223
1 1
3 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 10
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
’
m 63
y

4+
1 1 .
2 9
5 1
_
_
7 8 39 47
if
°
’ ’ ’ ’ °

3+ 6+ 3 60 4 29 16 1 19 4

n 1
( 11 + 1 )
1

( n
1
11 +1
1
an d th e fi rs t t h re e c o n v erge n ts a re

—1 + 11 — 1
2 3 ?
11 71 11 -
n
’
?
1 n +1 11

X XV b . . PA G E S 2 8 1 — 2 8 3 .

1 1 1 51
2 °

115
9
1 1 1 1 a + 3a + 3
(1 + a +3
54 2 HIGHER AL G E BR A .

XXVI . PA G E S 2 9 0, 29 1 .

x 7 1 1 t + 1 00, y = 7 7 5t + 1 09 ;
= x = 1 00, y = 1 09 .

x = 51 9 t 7 3 , y = 4 55t — 6 4 ;
-
=
y 39 1 .

x= 3 9 3 t + 3 2 0, y = 4 3 6 t + 3 55; m
= 3 20 , y = 3 55 .

Fo u r
. 5 . Se v en .

5 3 .
11 7 1 1 5 7
’ ’ ’ ’ °

12 s 8 12 8 12
£6 . 9 .
y = 8, z : 3 . 10 . y 6, z = 7 .

y = 2, 12 . x = 2, z = 7 .

7 , 2, ,
8, 1 , 2, 2 , 3 .

3 , 2 ; y = 5, 1 , 3 ; 4, 3 .

16 . 131, 4 12 .

D en ary 24 8 , Sep ten ary 503 , N o n ary 3 05 .

1 0, 9 , 8 , 6 , b = 66 , 3 0, 1 8 , 1 2 , 6 , 3 , 2
m ith
.

Th e l o 7 th an d 1 04 ‘h
dv i is io n s , re c k o ni n g fro e er en d
m m
.

50, 4 1 , 3 5 ti es , e x cl ud in g th e fi rs t ti e .

4 25 . 22 . 8 99 . 23 . 1 82 9 an d 1363 .

XXV I I . a . PA G E S 2 9 4 , 2 9 5 .

1 1 26 1 2 33 9
0
° 2 2+ '
1+ 2+ 15 4+ 1292
1 1 4 35 1 1 99
.
4 2+ °

2+ 1+ 35
1 1 397 0 1 1 1 1 1
’ +
3+ 6+ 1197 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 6+
1 1 1 1 116
°

1+ 2+ 1 + 6+ 31
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
197
1+ 2+ 4+ 2+ 1+ 8+ 42
1 1 1 3 51 1 1 1 1
10 5+
2+ 6+ 3 90 1 + 1 + 1 + 10+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 61
°

1+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 1+ 24
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 53
°

1 + 1 + 1 + 5+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,
12
°

4+ 1+ 1 + 2+ 1+ 1+ 8+ 55
1 1 1 1 1 47
.
° 15 . 1+
5+ 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 0 + 27 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 + 3 + 1 + 16 + 1 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 1 + 16 +
54 4 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

15 x = m 2 — 3n 3
y = m 2m
‘
2 —
n. 16 a: 111
2
+2 m+ n n
2
; y z m g

2m m
.
, .

17 x = 5 — 2 2
18 53 , 52 ; 1 9 , 1 6 ; 1 3 , 8 ; 1 1 , 4
n y z n

2 m; m+ m
. .
,

m
. .

19 111
2 — 11 2 11
2 2
20 2 2
171 — 11 ; 2
2
.
; . . n +u

21 . H en d k
ric , A n n a ; C laas , Gatr u n ; C o rn eli u s, G ee rtru ij .

XXIX . a . PA G E S 3 2 1 , 3 2 2 .

g ( n + 41 .

1 ( 311 2) (3n 1 ) ( 3n 4) (3 n 7)
56 11
3 2
+ 9 011 + 4 511
12 12

4 .

g (n + 1) ( n + 6) ( 11 4 5 .

11 11 1
; 1 °
’ °

n +1 3n + 1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
'
12 4 (2 u + 1 ) 12 24 6 ( 3 11 + 1 ) ( 3 11 + 4 ) 24
5 2n + 5 5
'
4 4
3 2 1 3 n
.

4 4

i n N n
Q —l
) . 15 .

% (n
1
( n + 1) ( n + ) (
2 3 11
3 3 6 1z 2 + 1 5l n + 2 4 0) 32
{5
.

(n
6 (2 n + 1 ) 3
n (n + 3) 3 2 1
+ 20 ° u +1
2 2 n +2

XX I X b PA G E S 3 3 2 , 3 3 3

m
. . .

11. 2 . 511 + 3 n ; 2
g u

— 4n 2 — 3n
( n

1
56
11 01 4 4)
1 +x 2
1 2 — x + a:

< 1 — x 13
°

—
— x 3
1 1 4
(1 ( 5
l —x 1 + 1 1x + 1 1 x + x 2 3
9
(1 (1 x )
5
4
25
13 .
 A N SW E R S . 54 5

2
3 +
n
11 + 11 1
-
l) 2 — 1 511 15 .

2 n +1 — 11 2 — 2 n ; — 4

2 2 6
"
1 (
”
1 x
”
71x
”
x 11 11 + 1) as
'
l —x —x ” — az 2
—x
( l ) ( l )
‘

( 1 )

11
( n + 1)
1

( 3 113
1

2 7 11 2
+ 58 11 + 2 )
mm
11

11
—1

( 11 + 1)
M“
3

( 12 11
3
+ 3
+

3 1 1
2
3
2

3 7 11 8)
15 60
11 ( n 1 ) ( 9 112 1 3 11 8) 1 1 1
12 2

(
2 4
n -
.

1
fl
(n 1) 3 3
n, -

28 . .

2 0 0 0 0 0 0

l 1 1
4
1
1

c . PA G E S 3 3 8 — 3 40 .

1 " x
1 0
- -

( e 2 . lo g ( 1 — x ) .

2
1
— i e‘x + i e
(
'
x x
3 e -
e
4
.

(1 + x ) e
x
5 . . 7 . 1 .

9 . 0 . 10 . 4 .

12 3 ( e 1) 13 . e
x

j
5 6
f 1 ? 7n 4
7 1 11 7 11
( )
1 + + ( 2) + 1
7 2 2 6 42 8 2 12 24
1 56 . 17 .
( 1) 11 1 .

1 1

(1 10 3 ( 1 + x )
3x + 2
( 1) 2 3
n
21
-

. 11 n .
3 46 H IGH E R AL GE B R A .

XXX . a . PA G E S 3 4 3 , 3 4 9 .

1 . 3 , 6 , 1 5, 4 2 . 2 . 6 . 48 .

7 . 23 . 33 . 8 9 87 .

XXX b . . PA G E S 3 56 — 3 58 .

20 . x = 1 39 t + 6 1 , W h ere t is an in teger .

XXX I . a . PA G E S 3 6 7 — 3 6 9 .

2 . 1 18 . 1 ; it c an be s hw h
e n t at

XXXII . a . PA G E S 3 7 6 , 3 7 7 .

8 1
°

663 56
4
8 . 4 3 to 3 4 . 9 . 36 30 25
.

2 7 07 2 5

11 . 9 52 to 7 1 5 . 14 . g .

3
11 (11 1)

XXXII . c . PA G E S 3 8 9 , 3 9 0

4
. 4 . Flo rin s .

9
7
° 9 . 1 1 to 5 .

27
54 8 H 1GH E R AL G E BR A .

26 . Th e d e te r mi n an t is eq u al to a
?
a 1 x 1
2
b b 1 1
1

XXXI II b . . PA G E S 4 2 7 , 4 2 8 .

1 . 2 . 0; a dd fi rs t an d s ec o n d w h d ro s, t ir an d fo u h w
rt ro s .

2 2 z
( a + 3 ) (a 4 . a +b + e 2 bc 2 cd 2a b .

6 ; fro th e fi rs t c o l m
n um u s b trac t t h ree ti m es hd m
th e t ir , fro th e s e c o n d
u
s b trac t t wice th e t ir h d , an d fro mth e fo rt u h u u
s b trac t fo r ti es m
th e th ird .

1 1 1
a b c

-
z ) .

m k
x
( Z263
)E
1
4
( u 9 . a. 12 .

a —
;

b ) ( k — c) —b —c —d
k (k -

.
14 a:
( k )( k )( k ) .

—b a —c a —b
’ ’
d
( a )( ) ( a )( d -
)

XXXIV . a . PA G E S 4 3 9 , 4 4 0 .

1 02 . 2 . 3a + b z 27 .

x
3 — 1 5x + 1 1 . 4 .

4 5 —5
5513 54 13 7 3 56 33 9 01: 6
- -

+
-

2 ;
—c —b
( b ) ( c )(
-
a
) a

— b
( -
c) ( c — a ) ( a — b ) ( b + c ) ( c + d )

2 4 11 6 0 . 9 .
( b + c) ( c + a ) ( a + b ) .

—c —a —b
( b ) )( ) ( c c1

3 a b c ( b + c) ( c + a ) 12 . 12ab c
2
8 0a b c ( 11 + b 2 1 c2 ) - -
.

3 (b —c ) ( c d ) ( a — b ) (ao —a ) (x - —c
) .

x 29 2
— —c
.

( w
‘

11
.

x -
a b 1(x
)
—w w)
( 1) ) (q -

31 . 1 . 32 .

XXXI V b . . PA GE S 4 4 2 , 44 3 .

5 0 7 —a
y
. . . .

2
+ b c) ( b + ca ) 2
28 ( 61
 A N S WE R S . 54 9

XXXI V . c . PA G E S 4 4 9 , 4 50 .

2 9
afi + xy + a : 2 . x +a=0 . 3 .

— 3a
)
6 2 = 2
2
. 5 . 11 6 . x +y 2a
4 4 4 4 fl g 3
4 4
b c +c a +a b z a
2
b c d 8 . 4 a x = k2
a
4 10 . (1
4 — 2 a? b 2

fi +
£ b
+
l i c
+ —
1 i a
1 . 12 . 5a b = 2 3
60 5
.

ab =1 + c. 14 .

(a 16 .

(
2 2 3
a bc : 4 a b c ) . 18 . (1 4ab c ( 10 4 63 b 2 9
6 =0
.

2 —c — g — 2ab + b 3 — a
0
( a +b ( a +b l) ( a

1 1 1
—b
( a ) ap
1
b c qr + c a rp + a bp q
’ ' ' ’ ' =
ab a b ao a o ad 0
.

’ ' ’ ’ ' ’ ’ ’
ac a o ad a d bc b c bd b d
' ' ’ ’ '
b d cd c d
’
ad a d bd

XXXV . a . PA G E S 4 56 , 4 57 .

5
18 x6
2
6 17 4 1 327 3 1 2 23 0 . 2 . 2x 0
,

x
6 8 x4 0 .

“ — b2 2 1 , 3 , 5, 7
:11 ) 5 . .

3 3
.

—4 . 7 . 8 .
,
2

s 1

—2 r
2
q p 1 —G
18 .
( 1
1 .
19 .
( 1 q; ( 2)
,

—2 2
20 .
q, 21 . 2q .

XXXV b . . PA G E S 4 6 0, 4 6 1 .

2 3 1
’ °
4 3 .

3 2 2
— 1 .

—
4 .
+
J i i,

J
‘

1 1 4
-
1, 4
4 3 ,
1 4 2 . 6 . x

+ 16 = 0
4 4
x 8 . x .
 50 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

1=0 . 10 . x
4
1 05133 1 3 92 0 .

3
x4 6x 26x + 21 = 0 12 x8 1 44 0
mgi mp
. .

v v
.

On e p o s iti e, o n e n egati e , two i a n ary

[Co are A rt
mgi [ Co m
. .

On e p o s iti v e , o n e n egati e , a t v leas t fo u r i a n ary . p are A rt .

Six . 17 .
( ) pg
1 ( ) p
2 3
1
'
= Q3 . 20 .
Q
2
2p r .

pq
pg 22 . 3 . 23 .
pg
r

p r — 43 . 25 .
p
4 —4p 2 q + 2 q2 + 4p r 4s .

XXXV . c . PA G E S 4 7 0, 4 7 1 .

— 2 — 2
3 4 — 1 2 3x — 1 1 0
+ 1 5 x6x 1 x+1 . 2 . 2 -
372 2
.

2 — — 242
4
2x + 8 x3 — x 8 x — 20 . 4 . 23
4 2 —1 .

2 4 6 2
2 b h ( 5x
‘
4 3
)
4
1 6 ax h 7x h 71 1 01: h . 11 )
2, 2 , -
1, -
3 . 11 . 1, 1, 1, 3 . 12 . 3 , 3 , 3, 2, 2 .

—3 —3
2

1, -
1, 2 .

17 .

2
5
19 . 20 . o w n —2

22 .
( 1) -
2; ( )
2 -
1 . 27 . 5 .

XXXV d . . PA G E S 4 7 8 , 4 7 9 .

3 —2 4 2 4 —5 3
y + 31
2
y y + 9y 2 .
y

-
2, 4 . 3 + 2J 2,

i
I i
e . 2,

1 1 1
8 6 , 3, 2 -

5
. .
,
.
,
2 5
4 5— 3 2 —
12 .
y 13 .
y 7y + 1 2 y 7y
3 2
6 0y 4
3 2 031 7 17y 7 7 3g 42 0 .

2
g 3 15
g
5 4 3
g
a_ - .
0 16 y + 1 1 y + 4 2 y + 57 y
2 —
1 3y
2
. .

_3 2 2
y + 3y + 4 y
4
y + 1 9y
3 13 3
y .

z
3
20 . r
y + q + k = 0

3 — 2 2 —2 '2 — r4 z 0 22 "— 2
y q y q1 y . . ry qy
3
ry + g ( 1
3 24 9

28 ° 5 °
552 HI GH E R AL G E BR A .

W age s 1 5s ; lo af 6 d. . 25 . 6 , 1 0, 1 4 , 1 8 .

c (d — b) ab ( c + d) 28 8 89 8
( 1) 1’ — c)
( 2 ) ab — cd
(
a b

x = 3 k, y = 4 k, z = 5k ; wh ere Ic
3= 1, so h
t at k = 1 , w, or

E it h er 33 h alf cro -
w n s, 19 s h illin gs , 8 fo u rp en n y p ieces ;

or 37 h alf c ro w n s, 6 S h illin gs , 1 7 fo u rp e n n y p i ece s

mi u t
- .

a z 6, b = 7 . 33 . 40 n es .

1 +x+
§ x

4
or x

38 . a z 8 40 . Th e fi rs t ter m .

‘
2 2 2 2 Z ?
1 4 11 0 90 a a b
41 1 3, 9 2 2
+b +
2 0
a

43 .
( )
1 3, 2, [A dd a
fl
+ 4 to e ac h d si e .
]
1
(2 ) x 1,
5 s

1
01 13
J
Q 3

1
, 0. 0. 47 . 57 8 0 .

2
1 50 p erso n s c h an ge d h md t e ir in ; at fi rs t th e mi n o rity was 2 50 th e
m m
,

aj o rity 3 50 . 50 . 9 36 en .

2 7” 1 ad bc
( )
1 0’ m
2 + 1
a.
( )
2
a —b — c+d

[ Pu t ( a —c b
)( —c
) ( x —d
) (ac t h en s q u are ]
6,
1 61
55 . m 2b
/
J a
’
n
2a
30 N CH w fl)
( 1 ) 1 .
( )
2 i 4 N/ 2 [p t ting u x
2 — 16 = 4
y , we fi n d y4 — 1 6 —4
y (y
2

ml ml
2
)p ( a) p
2
( a c b
fe 63 O, b,
a + b
b —c
a es ;
b -
c
a es . . a
a + b
Co mm on d ifferen ce o f th e A P is . .
b —a
n -
l
co mm on d iffe ren ce o f th e A P . .

mi
—b
w h hi c is th e rec ip ro c al o f th e H P . . is
ab
a

( n
[ Th e 7
“
ter s

mi
—1
a
( n
th e te r s
ab ( n )
—l
n a ( n

19 . 69 . £7 8 .

5
4 1 -
3
70 .

— a3 — b 3 = —b 3
(a
3 3
3ab an d ( a
) -
a +b -
3a b
 A N S WE R S . 553

— 2 lo 2
g )
( 1) a
: a s 1
: : 6 14 (2) a: d:
l — lo g 2
+ 1

7, 2 . 74 . 8 hu o rs .

3 z a +b + c
a:
! ( )
(1) a b 5 ab c
2

— a : u an d
b : 1 . 81 .
[ Pu t :c y 82 . 84 . 126 .

S um v d w s in e s te e re £ 7 7 00 an d £ 3 500 : th e fo rt u ne o f e ac hw as £ 1 400
mil mL
.

503 in v s cale s e en . 91 . 25 es fro on d on

/ —1 3 2 51 1 0 N/— 1
x = 5’ 1 ’
3 3 y = 3’
5
‘

’
2 29

G en eratin gf u n c tio n is
1
1 + 4x
2x 3
su m_ 1 2 2:
mt m
:z:

er
n ‘

l
u : x .

a b
2
d 0
2
. 1 08 . 1 2 p erso n s , £ 1 4 1 83 . .

( )
1 m y z a, z b, ( )
2 or 1 ; y = 1, or 3 .

1 1 1 1 1 1
x — 9 48 , y _ 4 9 2 11 3
g
. .
?
12 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
x = a, y z b; x = a, y : 2a ; =
y b .

( )
2 1 , y : 2,
or or 3;
—1 : 29
—3 z
;

—1
( )
f f)
a

i 1 (
2 2
( )
2 71 + x 2
( 71 + 2 71 1) a:
(
3
5
1: 1

1
. 1 22 .
( )
1
-
5+ J _ 11
3 6 2

( )
2 y : z : : 3 .

1 3 21 — 2 3 1 023 — 1 r+ 4
3 ( m—3 2
x l)

1: 1 ; s c ale o frelatio n is 1 x 2
243 ; ge n eral ter mi s
{ 2 "—3

1 1
(1) x —6
,
2 ; y = 9 , —3 .
( )
2 a: ;
a 5
.

2
“
( )
1
Q
.
( 2) 1 29 . 12 , 16 ; or 43, 4 .

(1) x = i 7 .

2) f 1
3 z
: L wh ere k 2
2b 2 2
+
2 2
2c a + 2a b
2 2 — a* b4— ‘

b : c c
-
.
,
a c 2ab c
l 1, r— 1 . 1 34 . 3 8 4 sq y ds . . 1 36 . b : 3,

7 9 1
( )
1 x : 4 +
( )
2 3
1 7 7
.

, 2 2

£ 3 23 . . at th e fi rs t sa le an d £2 12 s . . at th e se c o n d s ale .
 HIGH E R AL G E BR A .

( )
1
$ 13 (71 1 ) ( 2n ( )
2 n (n 1) (n 2 ) ( 3 712 6n

( 3) % n ( n + 1 ) ( 4n

( )
1 o r f
I
; y : or
15
.

( )
2 w, y , 3 my h a a e v th e p er mut atio n s o f th e v u al e s 3 , 5, 7 .

3 2 2 3
y qy q y g Br : 0 .

:17 s 1 n 3 1 4 2:
1 ' '
x —l — z —
5o w 8 x 3
( a: l + 5x

é ( ( b3 — d3
) 3 (b ?
(
‘
+1 — a
(3) 2 + 7) 2 1 44 2 ) b )
n
+ n u . .
: c .

2, 2, -
2, g .

A w k u vd al s in s cce s s i e ay s 1 , 3 , 5, 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 , 1 5, 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 1 , 23 , mil es ,

Bw k al s 1 2 , 13 , 1 4 , 1 5, 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0,
so h B v k it at o erta es A n 2 d ay s an d p as s es h i o n th e t ir m hd day ; A
sub u Bs eq en tly gain s on an d o v k erta es h i
’
m
on B s 9
ih
day .

M6 1
148 .

(a )
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n
n
b

wh e re A
1 ax
an d B d en o te s a c o rre

sp o n din g f u n c tio n o fB .

3
211 2p 2y 2 5p qy 219 3 f
c : 0 .

( )
1 7,
7 + 3 J ( 2) + 1, : 3, 4 . 1 54 . 3 d ay s .

9—2 1 1 2
( )
2
[5 85 5
2 2 y e ars n early . 1 61 . hu o rs .

2
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(1) x
2 :
y
4 y :
: 2,

( 2) a: : k( b4 0
4
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, wh ere 2 71 2 b 6
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[I t is
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2 2 3 3 3
b c% 3x y z 2
b 2 2
a y z : x y 3 61 3 x + c y .
]
— 4 ab c

[E q u atio n re du ces to x
2

1
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(n 1) (n 2) (3n
12
n
( ) 2c
2 5 .
 HI GH E R AL G EBR A .

( 1) z

orx= 4, 6 , —4 —6
, ;
y 6,
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5, —5 5 -
.
,

x — a —b —c
y —
z

a ( b —c
) b ( c — a) c
( a —b
)
wh ere ( b —c
)( c —a
)( a — b c — cd — a b .

1 2 c al v es , 1 5pigs , 2 0 s h eep . 22 9 . Li m n
u" 3
5 ; co n v e rgen t .

—l
relatio n
Sc ale is { };
11 - 1
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E
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1 1
2

5 8 12 9
16 1 2 20 u in 28 32
( 1813
17 17
1 a x “ 13 (1 33 a x (1 33 0 1 5
5

3 hu o rs 51 mi n . 2 40 . 2 or
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2 2 3 ?
3 , 4 , 5, 6 . 24 6 . a
3
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s
3d3
) = ( ab + 2d ) ( ab
6
2, 6 , 1 , 3 .

13

( )
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2 71
2
2
( 71 + 1 ) ( n + 3) 3
2 (1 +] x n t l
)
n+1
1 2 n - -

x
2
1 4x
wh en n is o dd .

2 50 .
( )
1 x =y = z = 0 or
g h w v . If o e er t h en

x +y +z a , an u d th e so l tio n is in d m e ter in ate .

a: y z

—c
a ( b ( a )

2 53 .
( A x i By + C z
-
) A x + B y + C z ) (A x — B y + 0 z ) ( A x l B y
- -
Cz ) wh e re

A :
J et ( b —C
) ,
& C .
 A N S WE R S . 557

z (a + b ) , (a w + b a )
P
, (a w
‘
3
+ b ro ) .

—4
(2) 7
§ i
or or
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y
To at le as t 3 7 ‘
2 p lac es . 2 58 . Te a, 23 6 d ; C o fi e e , l s
. .

2q
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mut
. . .

( )
1 x, y, z hv a e th e p e r atio n s o f th e v u al es

% a ( b — 2b
% a ( b —1 _
J b 2 -
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a +b +c
( 2) a: ; &c 267 O
3 77 —
7:
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1 6 C lergy m en o fa v erage age 4 5 y ears

24 D o c to rs o fa v erage age 3 5 y ears ;
2 0 L a y ers w o fa v erage age 3 0 y e ars .

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z i _ ; 27 3 . f t
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27 5 .
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4
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(2) x = i 4, y = i 5, u : $ 1 .

/
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x/ /
5 2 l
x 3
$ 2
N
z I
3 x
::l
x
3
27 6 .
p1 + 3p 1 p 2 -
3p 3 .

27 9 . A , 6 b ir d s ; B, 4 b ir d s .

— 5a — 5a 2 89
( l
b al ) (b l Gel an )
2 87 a, . .

( l
,
71 2) ( b i
.

b b ai - b
( 1 bn )
291 . A w kd d d
or e 45 ay s ; B , 24 ay s ; C, 1 0
g
d ay s .

2
)
2 2 ? ? 2 ? 2
2 94 ( b ) ( ) ( C a a b c a b c

W k d m w k d h u
. . .

al e 3 ile s , or e 4 o rs a day ;
or w kd m w kd hu
al e 4 ile s , or e 3 o rs a day .

C A MBR I D G E : PR I N TE D B Y C . J . C L AY, M A . . AN D S ON S , A T TH E U N I VE R SIT Y PR E S S .