EARTH SCIENCE
LESSON 1: SOIL AND MAN
Composting is a mixture that consists largely of decayed organic
matter and is used for fertilizing and conditioning land.
Vermicomposting is a way of making compost by using earthworms.
They are commonly found living on soil, feeding on biomass and
excreting it in a digested form.
Pedosphere comes from the Greek words пéдον рedon which
means ground, and opalpa sphaira which means sphere. It exists
at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere.
• The pedosphere is the uppermost/outermost layer of the Earth's
surface, composed of soil and subject to change due to erosion by
water and wind.
The Pedosphere: How Did It Form?
Mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering eventually takes
their toll on breaking down rocks. Over time, erosion disintegrates
boulders into soil.
It becomes loose particles of sand, silt, and clay. Then, mass wasting
moves this materials downslope.
Soil is constantly being deposited. It covers layers and creates new
layers on top. This is why soil profiles are several feet in depth.
The biggest influence on soil formation is water. Water dissolves into
rocks into finer material. Climate, terrain, organisms, parent material
and time are the five major formation factors.
Soil Formation: Five Factors That Affect Soil Formation
Parent Material - The parent or source material is important because
its chemistry and type will determine the soil that will be formed.
Climate - Temperature, rainfall, and moisture, affects the pattern and
intensity of soil- forming processes such as weathering, leaching,
transportation, and distribution.m
Topography - The gradient of the slope affects water flow and
erosion.
Biological Factors - Organisms such as plants, animals,
microorganisms, and humans affect soil formation.
Time - The formation of soil is a long and continuous process which
may take hundreds to thousands of years depending on the climate
and environment
Soil Texture
Soil texture is defined as the relative proportion of the particle sizes
in the soil-sand, silt, and clay. Soil is naturally composed of a mixture
of these particles and the proportion of which affects other soil
properties such as porosity and water retention.
The smallest of these particles is clay (<0.002mm), followed by silt
(0.002 0.05mm), and sand of varying sizes (0.05-2mm).
Particles larger than course-grained sand are called gravel and rock if
they are >75.00mm.
The Components of Soil
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
It is generally composed of 45% mineral (gravel,sand, silt,
and clay), 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic matter
(humus, roots, and dead and decaying organisms).
Soil Profile
Soil formation is a gradual process which involves the
development of a succession of zones or soil horizons. Each
horizon has a distinct set of physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics. The sequence of soil horizons from
the surface down to the underlying bedrock is call soil
profiles.
Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, E to identify
the soil horizons. Most soils have three major horizons: A, B,
and C horizons.
Soil Orders
Soils scientists also developed a soil classification system to
identify, understand, and manage soils. The most general
level of classification is the soil order consisting of 12 types:
Gelisol - Frozen soils found in the coldest regions of Earth.
Histosol - High organic content and wet.
Spodosol - Sandy and acidic soils found in moist climates
that often support dense forests.
Andisol - Composed of volcanic ash.
Aridisol - Very dry soils in arid regions.
Ultisol - Weathered soils.
Oxisol - Very weathered and common in tropical climates.
Vertisol - Clay-like soils that shrink and swell.
Inceptisol - Slightly developed, young soils found on steep
slopes and mountain ranges.
Entisol - Newly-formed soils found in steep rocky lands.
Mollisol - Deep and fertile soils.
Alfisol - Moderately weathered productive soils found in
temperate and humid regions.
LESSON 2: ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem- a community of plants, animals, other organism
and environment are interconnected.This is where exchanging
of energy and cycle of nutrients happens.
Environment- everything that surrounds a living organism.
Biodiversity- all the different kinds of life you'll find.
-A healthy ecosystem is crucial in sustaining life on Earth.
Ecosystem Services- Free benefits that humans receive from
ecosystems.
A) Cultural Services- the aestheticsof nature
-Non material Benefits.
B) Provisioning Services - provides the basic needs for
survival.
C) Regulatory Services- allows nature to resist or fix
problems that may harm the ecosystem and humans.
•Formed, A) located
Biodiversity-
or occurringecosystems
beneath with
themore
surfacebiodiversity
of the earth are stable
because they can provide more.
Endogenic B) Human
Processes Activities- When humans
are geological processes alter
thatoroccur
destroy habitats, TYPES OF VOLCANOES
beneath
Mountains are also formed when the deformation is principally due
the natural
the surface of the Earth. cycling is disrupted.
to tensional stresses Thus, creates crustal thinning that develops rift
C) Conservation- using less of a resource so it can last longer. *STRATOVOLCANO • Thermal heating by a plutonicStratovolcanoes
intrusionhave relatively steep sides
valleys
It is associated with energy originating in the interior of the solid and are more cone-shaped than shield volcanoes.
earth (THERMAL ENERGY)Waste, and Waste Management
Human Activities, • Thermal (Contact) Metamorphism Due to heat from magma
*The eruptions
invading host rockare very violent
Creates and explosive,
zoned bands hurling
of alteration volcanic
in host rock
The ground
SOLID we
WASTE- live on
is is moving
generally all
made the uptime
of (ENDOGENIC
objects or particles that bombs
SHEARING
FORCES)
accumulate areon thetheforces that makes
site where they aregrounds
produce.move • Called a contact (or metamorphic) aureole
*They have steep sides as high as 7000 feet, and the shape is a
Some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away in
HOW DOES
MUNICIPAL ENDOGENIC
WASTE- PROCESS
includes materialsWORKS? symmetrical
• The aureolecone.
surrounds the plutonic intrusion Zoned from high
different directions, eventually making the platethat peopleininsize.
smaller a The
community no (near pluton) to low grade (far from pluton) Burial increases in P
friction causedthe bylonger useful.
this stress can rock
causelayers
earthquakes
•When ground moves, at the surface of the and*TItby consists of alternating
deep burial in a basinlayers of lava and ash
earth are broken twisted and shahen
AGRICULTURAL WASTE- is a common form of waste derived • SHIELD VOLCANO is a type of volcano named for its low
CONFINING
from farming and poultry. •As sediments are buried in a sedimentary basin
• Land is destroyed in many places and created in other profile. resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground
The crust becomes compact, making it look smaller. This is
places.
INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE- •P increases because of the weight of the overburden
different from shearing as none of thecomes
crust'sfromedgesIndustrial
break away.sourceThis *usually constructed almost entirely of basaltic and/or andesitic
othercan
stress than mining.
cause sinkholes where the inside portion of the ground has lava flows which
•T increases wereof
because very
thefluid when erupted
geothermal gradient
•(ENDOGENIC PROCESSES) lands shapedby Endogenic
already
Forces disintegrated without being apparent
MINING WASTE- is generated in three ways: * They
Requires are built
burial belowbydiagenetic
repeated eruptions
effects that occurred
TYPES
MAGMA OFAND STRAIN VOLCANISM intermittently over vast periods of time (up to a million years or
1. Large amounts of rock and soil are removed to extract the •This is -8-15 km depending on thegeothermal gradient
longer)
Magmavaluable
Shortening/Contraction ores and the waste materials
- Pushing towards are left
each outside the mining
other
(realesed through) Volcanoes (Forms)
site. • Dynamic shearing in a fault zone wider (3-4) mi) than they are tall
➤ Shield volcanoes are much
Stretching-Pulling
2. In milling operations,
Volcanism away fromthe eachvother
grinding and sorting of materials
(1,500-20001).
produce solid waste called TAILINGS, which are dumped and Breakage of rock by shearing at a fault zone Fault location
Shear
Magmatism strain - Change
storedisnear a process in angles
under the
at the milling between features.
earth's crust where formation
site. determines type of alteration The simplest type of volcano. They
CINDER CONE VOLCANO
and3.movement
Lastly, of magma
water that isoccurs
pumped from mines flows from files of are built from
Elastic strain. When stress is removed and goes back to its original *Shallow crust upper 10-15 hm> Rocks behave in a brittle fashion
state waste rock or tailings that contain hazardous materials.
Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock from inside the Earth to *Large-scale foldsforming,
are found mainly along destructive plate
the surface. Volcanism occurs because of Earth's internal heat, and *Mineral grains crush fault breccia Deeper crust below
Ductile deformation - It becomes irreversible that leads to boundaries.
10-15 hm Shear zone
is associated with tectonic processes and a part of the rock cycle
permanent
There aredeformation
5 METHODS OF WASTE DOSPOSAL: TYPES
* RocksOF areFOLDS
ductile
Magma
WHAT IS METAMORPHISM?
LANDFILL- the cheapest and the most convenient method but could * The simplest type of fold is called a monocline.
•The molten rockswaterthat are *Minerals smear like taffy to form mylonite
contaminate
. The process that surface
occurs when andafound
ground
roch
beneath
water.its form into a new
changes
one without *This fold involves
* Regional P and Taalteration
slight benddueintootherwise
orogenesisparallel layers of roch
•Earth'sundergoing
INCERNATION- aremelting
surface Involves or disintegration
calledburning
magma. in a controlledis called
manner using an
metamorphism *The two most common types of folds
incornator.Incernation coupled with high temperature waste
• They are less dense than the surrounding solid rock and * Hydrothermal alteration by hot waterare anticlines and synclines
leaching
treatment
Protofuly are recognized
is the original as THERMAL
unmetamorphosed TREATMENTS.
roch from which a given
therefore capable of rising the surface. *•Anticlines
Subductionarehigh the Flow
up-folding and/or arching of sedimentary layers.
T alteration
metamorphic rock is formed.
MULCH AND COMPOST METHOD is one The shape, size, and ofarrangement
the simplest of Synclines down folds or troughs. There is a single slope
grains • in
When
the magma
rock may emerges
change at
andthenew surface,
minera it is called lava Shock extreme high P. attending a bolide impact
method to dispose waste at homes.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
may• The
Is SOURCE grow. melting temperature ofmay
The transformation
REDUCTION-
rocks could
refers to take
range from
thousands
the method
800°Cof
to millions
of designing,
to 1400°C
manufacturing, purchasing, using, and reusing materials so that the *Orogenesis - Process of Mountain building.
years and would involve several processes:
1. amount
•Where of waste or
is its
does formation
Recrystallization thetoxicity is reduced.
of magma
metamorphic takes place?
process by which crystals *Crustal root-Thickened crust that gives the continental crust
areRECYCLING-
packed togetheriscreating a new crystal structure. With enough buoyancy.
ASTHENOSPHERE the method
The lower of collecting
part of earth's throwaway
crust materials
and in thethe and
recrystallization
turning themofintothe mineral's
useful size and shape may change, but
upper portion
basic composition mantle.products.
theremains unchanged. This is seen when limestone * Uplift-Process by which the Earth's surface moves from lower
recrystallizes intoformed?
marble elevation to higher one
HowTHE RESOURCE
is magma CYCLE- is the process involving the
transformation of a raw material into a usable or consumable product * Isostasy is the rising or settling of aportion of the Earth's
2. Phase
There
and arechange
its is the process
three principal
disposal. ways that rochtransforms
behavior crossesa grainto ofthe
oneright
mineral
of
into a grain of another mineral having the same composition but lithosphere to maintain equilibrium between buoyancyvforces that
the green solidus line to create molten magma push the lithosphere upward and gravity forces that pull
different crystal structure.
THE RESOURCE CYCLE-For example quartz changes
is the process involving into
thecoesite-
both are SIO
1. transformation
decompression melting
of caused byinto
a raw material lowering
a usable consumable product thevlithosphere downward.
theorpressure.
and its disposal. FAULTING
3.
2. Neo-crystallization
heat-induced metting is caused
the growth of new minerals
by increasing that differand
thetemperature, from
those in the protolith Chemical reactions digest the existing minerals
WASTE MANAGEMENT- Waste management in homes schools, *There are three types of fault/stress force which are caused by
3. communities,
to flux
producemelting
newcaused
minerals,by sometimes
adding
and industries canvolatiles.
bewith
donethe aid the
using of hydrothermal
WASTE different endogenic
fluids (hot
MANAGEMENT.
VOLCANOES water solutions).
•T'ensional stress
4.
Are Pressure
visible solution
HIERARCHY OF refers to
of the
OPTION-
manifestations the dissolution ofofrock
most effective
processes mineral
way tograins
reducewhen
formation. Itwaste,
is is
aa rock
vent is squeezed
to reduce
that asdominantly
the waste
serves at conduit
the inofone
the sources. direction
Java at relatively
or the molten low
rock that •Shear stress
temperature and pressure and in the presence of water.
reaches the earth's surface. The event when lava is spewed out is The
dissolved mineral migrates and precipitates elsewhere with aid of •;Confining stress
an ERUPTION
water. This can cause grains to change shape shorter in one direction
LESSON: ENDOGENIC PROCESS * Faulting forms two major landforms block mountains and rift
and
TYPES longerOFinERUPTION
the other.
valleys.
•en do ge nic
5. Plastic deformation occurs when some minerals
•EFFUSIVE-An eruption dominated by the outpouring of lava become flattened
TENSIONAL
or
ontoelongated without changing either the composition or crystal
the ground.
•ENDO-INSIDE/WITHIN
structure due to their plastic behavior when exposed to high Rocks are pulled apart. Rocks may separate in opposite directions
•EXPLOSIVE-Referred
temperature and pressure to as a violent eruption that ejects ashes or move farther away from one another. This type of stress is what