ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
OF ORGAN SYSTEMS
From the moment of fertilization, the zygote
and later the embryo to fetus is composed
of active, growing cells.
 Germinal (0-2 Weeks) –
CONCEPTION AND
IMPLANTATION
 Embryonic (3-8 Weeks) – ORGAN
DEVELOPMENT
 Fetal (9 Weeks – Birth) – MORE
DEVELOPMENT; SENSORY
EXPERIENCES AND LEARNING
STEM CELLS
 1ST 4 DAYS OF LIFE – Zygote
cells = totipotent stem cells, or
cells that are so undifferentiated
that they have the potential to
form a complete human being
 After another four days, as
structure implants and becomes
an embryo, cells begin to show
differentiation and are no longer
capable of becoming any body
cell
 Become specific body cells such
as nerve, brain, or skin cells =
pluripotent stem cells
 Another few days, cells grow so
specific = multipotent stem cells
– evident what body organ they
will create
Totipotent = this cell can form the
embryo and placenta
Pluripotent = this cell can just form
the embryo
Multipotent = fully mature
 If nucleus is removed from an
oocyte, and adult nucleus is
transferred in the oocyte = embryo
has the potential to grow into an
infant that is identical to the adult
donor – Reproductive Cloning
 If pluripotent stem cells are removed
and allowed to grow in the
laboratory = has the potential to be
able to supply any type of body cell
needed by the adult donor –
Therapeutic Cloning
Growing Stem Cells
 Stem cells, from which all human
tissues develop, may provide
powerful tools in the treatment of
disease. To explore their potential
uses, scientists can theoretically
grow stem cells from leftover eggs
fertilized by sperm during laboratory
fertility treatments. After several
days, the fertilized egg forms a mass
called blastocyst and grown in
laboratory dishes into specialized
body cells. Scientists have reported
success in growing nerve, bone,
muscle, blood, and skin cells.
Zygote Growth
 Development proceeds in a
cephalocaudal (head-to-tail)
direction
 Head development occurs
first, followed by the
development of the middle
and, finally, the lower body
parts
 As a fetus grows, body organ
systems develop from specific tissue
layer called Germ Layers
Primary Germ Layers
 Time of implantation – blastocyst
already has differentiated to a point
at which;
 2 separate cavities appear in the
inner structure = Amniotic Cavity
and Yolk Sac
Amniotic Cavity
 large one
 lined with a distinctive layer of cells
– Ectoderm
Yolk Sac
 smaller cavity
 lined with – Entoderm
 supply nourishment only until
implantation
 after, it provides a source of RBC
until the embryo’s hematopoetic
system is mature enough to perform
this function – about 12th week of
intrauterine life
  it then atrophies and remains only as
a thin white streak discernible in the
cord at birth
THREE LAYERS
 Ectoderm - lines the
amniotic cavity
 Entoderm – lines the yolk
sac
 Mesoderm – found between
amniotic cavity and yolk sac
 These three layers meet, embryo
starts to develop = embryonic shield
 Each of these germ layers of primary
tissue develops into specific body
systems
 Knowing which structures arise from
each germ layer is important –
because co-existing congenital
defects found in newborns usually
arise from the same layer
Origin of Body Tissues
 Ectoderm
 CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord)
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Skin, hair, nails
 Sebaceous glands
 Sense organs
 Mucous membranes of the
anus, mouth and nose
 Tooth enamel
 Mammary glands
 Mesoderm
 Responsible for the formation
of supporting structures of
the body;
 Connective tissue
 Bones, cartilage
 Muscle
 Ligaments, tendons
 Dentin of teeth
 Reproductive system
 Heart
 Circulatory system
 Blood cells
 Lymph vessels
 Upper portion of the urinary
system (kidney, ureters)
 Entoderm
 Develops into the lining of;
 Pericardial and peritoneal
cavities
 GI Tract
 Respiratory Tract, tonsils
 Parathyroid, thyroid, thymus
glands
 Lower urinary system
(bladder and urethra)
Rubella Infection (So serious in
pregnancy)
 Virus is capable of infecting all three
germ layers
 Causes congenital anomalies in
numerous body systems
Co-existing Congenital Defects
 Fistula bet. Trachea and
esophagus – both arise from the
entoderm
 Heart and kidney defects – both
arise from mesoderm, commonly
seen together
 Malformation of the heart
(mesoderm) and lower urinary tract
(bladder and urethra – entoderm –
Rare
Organogenesis
 All organ systems are complete at
least in a rudimentary form – at 8
weeks gestation (end of embryonic
period)
 Organ formation;
 growing structure is most
vulnerable to invasion by
teratogens (any factor that
affects the fertilized ovum,
embryo, or fetus adversely,
such as alcohol, etc.)
 teach women to minimize
exposure to teratogens
Cardiovascular System
 one of the 1st systems to become
functional in intrauterine life
 simple blood cells joined the walls of
the yolk sac progress to become a
network of blood vessels and a single
heart tube – which form as early as
the 16th day of life
 beats as early as 24th day
 septum that divides the heart into
chambers – develops during the 6th or
7th week
 heart valves begin to develop in the
7th week
  heartbeat may be heard with a
Doppler instrument – 10th – 12th
week of pregnancy
Fetal Circulation
 electrocardiogram (ECG) may be
recorded on a fetus – as early as 11th
week
 more accurate about the 20th
week of pregnancy
(conduction is more
regulated)
 heart rate of fetus is affected by:
 fetal oxygen level
 body activity
 circulating blood volume
Fetal Circulation
 3rd week of intrauterine life – fetal
blood begins to exchange nutrients
with the maternal circulation across
the chorionic villi
 Fetal circulation differs from
extrauterine circulation in several
aspects: (Difference)
 Fetus derives oxygen and
excretes carbon dioxide not
from oxygen exchange in
the lungs but from the
placenta
 Blood does enter the blood
vessels of the lungs while the
child is in-utero, but this
blood flow is to supply the
cells of the lungs themselves,
not for the oxygen exchange
 Specialized structures
present in the fetus shunt
blood flow to supply the
most important organs of
the body, the brain, liver,
heart and kidneys
Normal Blood Circulation (Step by step)
 Unoxygenated blood from all parts
of the body empty into the SVC and
IVC
 Right atrium
 Tricuspid valve
 Right ventricle
 Pulmonary artery
 LUNGS;
 Oxygenated blood will empty into
the Pulmonary veins
 Left atrium
 Mitral valve
 Left ventricle
 Aorta to deliver oxygenated blood to
the different parts of the body
 Blood arriving at the fetus from the
placenta is highly oxygenated enters
through the umbilical vein
 Blood is carried into the inferior
vena cava through an accessory
structure – ductus venosus, allowing
oxygenated blood to be supplied
directly to the fetal liver
 Oxygenated blood empties into the
inferior vena cava, then, carried to
the right side of the heart
 Because there is no need for the bulk
of the blood to pass through the
lungs, it is shunted as it enters the
right atrium (extrauterine circulation;
pass through the right ventricle –
lungs).
 Into the left atrium through an
opening in the atrial septum, called
the foramen ovale
 Follows the course of normal
circulation into the left ventricle and
into the left ventricle and into the
aorta; small amount – returns to the
heat via vena cava does leave the
right atrium by the adult circulatory
route; larger portion of this blood is
shunted away from the lungs thru an
additional structure – ductus
arteriosus directly into the
descending aorta
 Transported by the umbilical
arteries back through the umbilical
cord
 Placental villi to maternal circulation
– where new oxygen exchange takes
place
 When the umbilical cord is clamped
this stops blood flow through the
umbilical vein. Therefore, the ductus
venous is no longer needed and it
seals off. Oxygenated blood will
NOT enter into the IVC.
 When the placenta is no longer
functioning, the levels of
prostaglandins drop. In addition,
when the lungs is removed and the
alveoli sacs open up (place where
gas exchange occur). The baby’s
blood oxygen levels start to increase.
Furthermore, the resistance in the
lung decreases, which in turn will
decrease the pressure on the right
 side of the heart compared to the left
side.
 This causes the foramen ovale to
Important Respiratory Developmental
close along with the ductus
Milestones
arteriosus, this is very sensitive to
prostaglandins and when the levels
drop the structure seals off.
Fetal blood O2 saturation level
 80% of a newborn’s saturation level
Rapid fetal heart rate during pregnancy
 120-160 beats/min is necessary to
supply the O2 to cells because the
RBC’s are never fully saturated
Fetal Hemoglobin
Differs from adult hemoglobin in several
ways:
1. Fetal hemoglobin has a different
composition;
 Fetus: 2 alpha and 2 gamma
chains
 Adult: 2 alpha and 2 bets
chains
2. It is more concentrated and has
greater oxygen affinity – 2 features
that increase its efficiency
3. Newborn’s hemoglobin level: 17.1
g/1000ML
Adult;s Normal Level: 11g/100 ML
4. Newborn’s Hematocrit: 53%
Adult’s Normal Level: 45%
Respiratory System
 3rd week of intrauterine life –
respiratory and digestive tract exists
as a single tube; initially it is a solid
structure – then canalizes (hollows
Nervous System
out)
 End of 4th week – a septum begins to
divide the esophagus from the
trachea; lung buds appear on the
trachea
 7th week of life – diaphgram does not
completely divide the thoracic cavity
from the abdomen
 If it fails to close completely,
the stomach, spleen, liver or
intestines may enter the
 thoracic cavity
 Child will be born with
Diaphragmatic hernia or with
intestine still present in the
chest – compromising the
lungs and perhaps displacing
the heart
 Alveoli and capillaries begin to form
between 24th and 28th weeks – both
development must be complete
before gas exchange can occur
 Spontaneous respiratory practice
movements begin at 3 months
gestation and continue throughout
pregnancy
 Specific lung fluid with a low
surface tension and low viscosity
forms in alveoli to aid in expansion
of the alveoli at birth
 24th week (6 months) of pregnancy,
alveolar cells secrete = surfactant
 Surfactant is a phospholipid
substance
 Decreases the alveolar
surface tension on expiration,
preventing alveolar collapse
and improving the infant’s
ability to maintain
respirations in the outside
environment
 Components of surfactant;
(1:2)
- Lecithin (L)
- Sphingomyelin (S)
 Lack of surfactant is a factor
associated with the development of
the respiratory distress syndrome
 3rd to 4th weeks of life
 Active formation of the
nervous system and sense
organs
 Requires vast quantity of
glucose during this time –
embryo takes glucose,
leaving mother with mild
hypoglycemia -dizziness
and vomiting
 A neural plate (thickened
portion of the ectoderm)
is the apparent by the 3rd
week of gestation
 - Its top portion
differentiates into the
neural tube
- Will form the central
nervous system (brain and
spinal cord)
- And the neural crest will
develop into the
peripheral nervous system
 8 week
th
 Brain waves can be detected
on the EEG
 All parts of the brain
(cerebrum, cerebellum, pons,
and medulla oblongata) form
in utero
- Not completely mature at
birth – growth proceeds
rapidly during the first
year and continues at high
levels until 5-6 years of
age
- Eye and inner ear develop
as projections of the
original neural tube
 24 weeks
 Ears is capable of responding
to sound
 Eyes exhibit papillary
reaction, indicating sight is
present
Endocrine System
 As soon as the endocrine organs
mature in intrauterine life, function
begins, including the following
processes:
 Fetal adrenal glands supply
precursor/basis for estrogen
synthesis by the placenta
 Fetal pancreas produces the
insulin needed by the fetus
(insulin does not cross the
placenta from the mother to
the fetus)
 Thyroid and parathyroid
glands play vital roles in
metabolic function and
calcium balance
Digestive System
 4th week
 Digestive tract separates
from the respiratory tract
 Initially solid, tubes canalize
to become patent; then,
endothelial cells of GI tract
proliferate extensively,
occluding lumens, then
canalize again
 Proliferated cells shed in
the 2nd re-canalization
which form the basis for
meconium
 6 week
th
 Abdomen becomes too small
to contain the intestine and
portion of it;
 Guided by the viteline
membrane (a part of the yolk
sac);
 Intestine is pushed into the
base of the umbilical cord;
 Where it remains until about
the 10th week – when
abdominal cavity has grown
large enough to accommodate
all of the intestinal mass
 32 weeks
 Fetus weighs 1,500g; sucking
and swallowing reflexes are
matured enough
 36 weeks
 GI tract is able to secrete
enzymes essential to
carbohydrates and protein
digestion
 3 months after birth, amylase
matures – enzyme found in
saliva necessary for digestion
of complex starches