GAMETES

Embryology
 Study of the anatomical and functional
development of the individual species.
 Processes and events involved from the
fertilization up to childbirth.

Gametes

 Germ or sex cells

 Female: OVUM—produced in the ovary; egg GAMETOGENESIS
cell & oocytes.
 Process of production of gametes
 Male: SPERMATOZOA—produced in the  Meiosis
testes; sperm.  Product: haploid cells

OVUM SPERMATOGENESIS

Corona radiata – multicellular - development of sperm cells

- Spermatozoa arises from the spermatogonia
Zona pellucida – non-cellular; secondary membrane; which invest the walls of the tubules of testis.
thick glycoprotein.
Cytoplasm – “ooplasm”, granular and has few non-
living yolk granules, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
centrosome
Nucleus - surrounded by the nuclear membrane contains
chromatin network and one or more nucleoli.

OOGENESIS
- development of an ovum
SPERMATOZOON - The ova arises from oogonia which proliferate
from the layer of cells of the germinal
Head – oval, pear-shaped on profile contains nuclear
epithelium lining the surface of the ovary.
elements and vacuole
Neck – possess neck granules in contact with the head
and extends to the anterior centriole
Body – connecting piece; possess two centrioles,
mitochondrial granules
Tail – chief piece – 3/4th total length of sperm,
cytoplasmic sheath.
 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
3 Phase of Prenatal Development

1. Germinal
2. Embryonic
3. Fetal

GERMINAL PHASE
5 STAGES OF OOGENESIS
Begins at fertilization and spans the first 4 weeks of
1. Diploid oogonia
development
2. Primary oocytes
3. Secondary follicle – Graafian follicle  Involves cellular proliferation and migration
4. Secondary oocyte with some differentiation of cell populations
5. Ovum and second polar body
Fertilization – fusion of male and female sex cells.
Occurs in the upper end of the oviduct within 24 hours
after ovulation resulting to a fertilized egg (zygote)
- Spermatozoon penetrates the ovum
Blastomere – any cell that results from division of a
fertilized egg

MORULA
o Blastomeres form a solid mass (16-32 cells)
o Short duration only (3-4 days post fertilization)

BLASTULA
o Blastomeres formed during cleavage will
arrange themselves to differentiate into various
groups and layers
o Circular, hollow, cluster of cells produced at the
DIFFERENCE OF SPERMATOGENESIS AND
same time as an embryo is developing
OOGENESIS

LAYERS OF BLASTULA
1. Embryoblast (Inner Cell Mass)
- Mass of cells within a primordial embryo that
will eventually develop into the distinct form of
a fetus

2. Trophoblast (outer layer)

SIMILARITIES - Contribute to the placenta and nourish the
embryo
 Occurs in reproductive organs
 Both produces (n) gametes
 Involve meiosis
 EMBRYONIC PHASE

 3rd week of development

 GASTRULATION – cells in the blastula
rearrange themselves spatially to form three
layers of cells:

1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm

IMPLANTATION
o “Nidation”
o Involves the blastocyst to the surface epithelial
cells of the late secretory phase endometrium
and its proteolytic penetration through this
epithelium into the underlying stroma
o Last about three days
o 9th day – after ovulation, the embryo is totally
implanted in the endometrium and derives
nutrients from blood and secretions there.
Cells of Embryoblast rearrange into two layers:
 DIFFERENTIATION – process by which
1. Amnion unspecialized cells become specialized
- Contains the amniotic fluid which protects,
regulates the temperature and contains
antibodies for fetal development.
2. Yolk Sac
- Provides nutrition and gas exchange between the
mother and the developing embryo

ECTODERM – skin & nervous system

MESODERM – bone, muscle & connective tissue
ENDODERM – linings of the digestive and respiratory
system, and form organs such as the liver and pancreas.
 FETAL PHASE
 8th week of pregnancy – embryo develops into a
fetus
 Pregnancy divided into three stages called
trimesters
1. First trimester
2. Second trimester
3. Third trimester

FOLDING OF THE EMBRYO

 Determines the formation of the primitive
stomodeum or oral cavity
 onset at 24 days
 the head fold – establishes the oral cavity
bounded by the developing brain and cardiac
plate

BRANCHIAL ARCHES
 series of rounded, mesodermal ridges on each
side of future head and neck region that begin to
develop about 4th week of embryonic life

FETAL PHASE
 38 weeks – fetus normally ranges from 36 to 51
centimeters (14-20 inches) in length and weighs
between 2.7 and 4.6 kilograms (about 6-10
pounds)
MUSCLE TISSUE
 For contraction which permits locomotion,
constriction, pumping, and other propulsive
moments.
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
 Composed of bundles of very long, cylindrical
multinucleated cells that show cross-striations
 Contraction: quick, forceful, and usual under
voluntary control
CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
 Has cross-striations and is composed of
elongated, irregularly branched individual cell
that lie parallel to each other
 Contraction: involuntary, vigorous, and
rhythmic
SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
 Composed of grouped, fusiform cells with weal,
involuntary contractions.
 The density of intercellular packing see
MUSCLE CELL
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – smooth ER
Sarcolemma – cell membrane
MUSCLE FIBER
Sarcomere – functional/contractile unit of muscle fiber;
Z line to Z line
During muscle contraction – sarcomere shortens when
thick and thin filaments slide over each other
Myofibrils – actin and myosin – are the contractile
elements of skeletal muscle
A band – thick myosin filaments
I band – thin actin filaments
H Zone – lighter zone; a region consisting only of the
rod-like portions of the myosin molecule with no thin
filaments present
M Line – a region where lateral connections are made
between adjacent thick filaments (less characterized
myosin filaments)
Z disc – dark, thin line in the center of I band
Actin filaments – thin(5-8nm) myofilaments are
composed of:
1. Actin – G-actin molecules arranged into double
helical chains called F- actin
2. Tropomyosin – long thread like molecules lie along
the surface of F actin strands and physically cover actin
binding sites during resting state
3. Troponin – a small oval shaped molecule attached to
each tropomyosin
Myosin filaments – thick(12-18nm) myofilaments are
composed of:
1. Light meromyosin (LMM) – makes up the rod-like
backbone of myosin filaments
2. Heavy meromyosin (HMM) – forms the shorted
globular lateral cross-bridges, which link to the binding
sites on the actin molecules during contraction.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Myoblasts – embryonic mesenchymal cells
Satellite Cell – proliferate and produce new muscle
fibers following muscle injury
MUSCLE REGENERATION
Skeletal Muscle – satellite cells become activated after
injury, proliferating and fusing to form new skeletal
muscle fibers
Cardiac Muscle - lacks satellite cells and has no
regenerative capacity early childhood
Smooth Muscle – capable of a more active regenerative
response.
NERVE TISSUE
Neurons – nerve cells
Glial Cells – supporting cells
Nerve Ending – structure in which the distal end of the
axon of a nerve fiber terminates
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - cranial, spinal, and
peripheral nerves conducting impulses to and from the
CNS (motor and sensory nerves respectively) and
ganglia which are small groups of nerve cells outside the
CNS
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE
 Nerve tissue originated from ectoderm
1. Neural folds and neural groove form from the
neural plate
2. Neural folds elevate and approach one another
3. As neural folds prepare to fuse and form the
neural tube and dorsal epidermis, neural crest
cells loosen and become mesenchymal
4. The mass of neural crest cells initially lies atop
the newly formed neural tube
 GLIAL CELL

OLIGODENDROCYTE
 Produce the myelin sheath that provides the
electrical insulation for neurons in the CNS
 Extend processes that wrap around parts of
several axons, producing a myelin sheath.

NEUROLEMMOCYTES

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
1. MULTIPOLAR NEURONS – have one axon
and two or many dendrites
2. BIPOLAR NEURONS – with one dendrite and
one axon
3. UNIPOLAR/PSEUDONIPOLAR NEURONS
– single process that bifurcates close to the
perikaryon, with the longer branch extending to
a peripheral ending and the other toward the
CNS. Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
- Found only in the PNS and have trophic
interactions with axons and allow for their
myelination like the oligodendrocytes of the
CNS
ASTROCYTE
- most numerous glial cells of the CNS and are
characterized by numerous cytoplasmic processes.
- regulate constituents of the extracellular environment,
absorb local excess of neurotransmitters, and secrete
numerous metabolites and factors regulating neuronal
activities.
MICROGLIAL CELL
- monocyte-derived, antigen- presenting immune
cells of the CNS and are evenly distributed in
both gray and white matter.
- secrete several immunoregulatory cytokines and
constitute the major mechanism of immune
defense in CNS tissues
MYELIN
- whitish lipoproteins complex whose abundant
lipid component is partly removed by standard
histologic procedures, as in all cell membranes
- By acting as an electrical insulator, myelin
greatly speeds up action potential conduction
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
 an electrical impulse skips from node to node
down the full length of an axon, speeding the
arrival of the impulse at the nerve terminal in
comparison with the slower continuous
progression of depolarization spreading down an
unmyelinated axon.
BLOOD AND ITS COMPONENTS
Blood
 specialized connective tissue in which cells are
suspended in fluid extracellular material
(plasma)
 Average Adult – five liters of blood moves
unidirectionally within the closed circulatory
system.
- Distributing vehicle, Transporting O2, CO2,
metabolites, hormones, and other substances to
cells throughout the body
 Formed Elements
- ERYTHROCYTES – red blood cells
- LEUKOCYTES – white blood cells
- THROMBOCYTES – platelets
BLOOD COMPOSITION
Plasma
 an aqueous solution, pH 7.4, containing
substances of low or high molecular weight that
make up 8–10% of its volume.
 The composition of plasma is usually an
indicator of the mean composition of the
extracellular fluids in tissues.
Blood Cells
 Studied in smears
 Prepared by spreading drop of blood in a thin
layer on microscope slide
 AZURES – mixture of acidic (eosin) and basic
(methylene blue) dyes; useful in staining
cytoplasmic granules containing charges
proteins and proteoglycans
Erythrocytes
 Red blood cells
 terminally differentiated, lack nuclei, and are
packed with the O2 carrying protein
hemoglobin.
 Under normal conditions, these corpuscles never
leave the circulatory system.
 Flexible biconcave disk
 The plasmalemma of the erythrocyte, because of
its ready availability, is the best-known
membrane of any cell.
 It consists of about 40% lipid, 10%
carbohydrate, and 50% protein
 Erythrocyte cytoplasm is densely filled with
hemoglobin, Thrombocytes
 lasts only for 120 days
 Platelets
 Cell fragments derived from
megakaryocytes of bone marrow.
 Function: rapidly release the content of their
granules upon contact with collagen to
begin the process of clot formation and
reduce blood loss from the vasculature.

Blood Clot Formation

PRIMARY AGGREGATION – platelet plug
formation
Histopathology (RBC)
SECONDARY AGGREGATION – increased platelet
 ANEMIA – decreased number of erythrocytes, aggregation
pathologic condition characterized by blood
concentrations of hemoglobin below normal BLOOD COAGULATION – fibrinogen from plasma,
values von Willebrand factor promotes cascade forming a
 SICKLE CELL ANEMIA – inherited disorder thrombus or blood clot.
caused by a mutation of one nucleotide in the
CLOT RETRACTION – interaction of platelet myosin
gene for hemoglobin beta chain
and actin
Leukocytes
CLOT REMOVAL – plasminogen activators,
 White blood cells plasminogen
 Diapedesis – migrate to the tissue where they
become functional and perform various
activities.
 Key players in the defense against invading
microorganisms, and in the repair of injured
tissues
 CHEMOTAXIS – process of attraction of
neutrophils to bacteria which involves chemical
mediators.
 Two Group:
1. Granulocytes
 polymorphic nuclei with two or more
lobes; neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils
 Golgi complexes and rough ER –
poorly developed.
 They have few mitochondria and depend
largely on glycolysis for their low
energy needs.
2. Agranulocytes
 do not have specific granules, but they
do contain azurophilic granules
(lysosomes).
 The nucleus is round or indented.
lymphocytes and monocytes
Circulatory System
 Includes blood and lymphatic vascular system
 Blood vascular system, cardiovascular system
 HEART – organ that pumps blood
 ARTERIES – series of efferent vessels that
become smaller as they branch. Function: carry
the blood, with its nutrients and oxygen, to the
tissues.
 CAPILLARIES – smallest blood vessels,
constituting a complex network of thin tubules
that branch profusely in almost every organ and
through whose walls the interchange between
blood and tissues takes place. Structural Plan of Blood Vessels
 VEINS – result from the convergence of
Tunica intima
capillaries into a system of larger channels that
continue enlarging as they approach the heart, - Has one layer of endothelial cells supported by a
toward which they convey the blood to be thin subendothelial layer of loose connective
pumped again. tissue with occasional smooth muscle cells
HEART Tunica Media
- The middle layer, consists chiefly of concentric
layers of helically arranged smooth muscle cells.
Interposed among the smooth muscle cells are
variable amounts of elastic fibers and lamellae,
reticular fibers of collagen type III,
proteoglycans, and glycoproteins, all of which is
produced by these cells
Tunica Adventitia
- “Tunica externa”, consists principally of type I
collagen and elastic fibers. This adventitial layer
is gradually continuous with the stromal
connective tissue of the organ through which the
blood vessel runs.

Lymphatic Vascular System

Vessels of Microvasculature
Microvasculature – arterioles, capillaries, and venules-
which can only be seen on the microscope.
 System of thin-walled endothelial channels that
collect excess interstitial fluid from the tissue
spaces and return it to the blood.
 LYMPH – flows in only one direction, toward
the heart.

 Site of interchanges between blood and the

surrounding tissues both under normal
conditions and during inflammatory processes.