[hb uk`hon
[hbuk` honr`
r`h
h lf \fh
fhrr¼ľn Fbfktr
Fbf ktrhdn
hdneo¼
eo¼
f
ft`kn
t`kn lf
U`bb`nd A. Anyt, Cr. ([¼ fpt`dn
fpt`dn fl`k`¼h
ho)
o)

Wfsufbth phr3

Ndfoln˒ o
ohh B
Bu`s,
u`s, Noenrn Chs¼ff,, Nrdns Cuno, Kngr
Kngrfrn
frn Cuno, Kngrf
Kngrfrn
rn Why, Knotu˒o
onn
Dnr¼¼ľn, Knrvn
Dnr Knrvncnb
cnb [not`ne
[not`neh,
h, K
Kntne
ntne˒
o
on
˒n Chs¼f,
f, Kfvnbbhs Aueh, Kanbkh Chref, Kanvfz
]ngbh, Kanvfz Fr`ki, Kuonbntn Kr`st`no, Lhd`oeufz D`kafbbf, Frnzh Lno`fb,
Fsp`ofb Fl`sho, Fsp`ohsn U`bb`no, Jbhrfs Knrbhs, Ehoznbfs Knrbhs, Eundno` Ifv`o,
C`ofz Dnr`h, Dflrnoh Ofy, Dhotnbvh Wfonth, O`khbnblf Lno`fbn, Hrt`z Nbno, ]f˒o onn
Gryno, ]`dgh Engr`fb, ]`ozn Kfsnr, ^u`sapf Ifv`o, Wnd`rfz Nolrfs, Wndhs Cuno,
Whlr`eufz Gryno, Whdno ]nub, [nbnznr Gyrho, [nbnznr Dnrkh, [nokafz Kar`st`no,
[hthdnyhr Ofbsho, \frno Fr`in, Znbfok`n Chs¼f,
f, Z`bbnerno ]nub, Pud`sfgn Knrbn
Jnkubtnl
Jnkubtn l lf
l f @@oef
oefo`fr¼
o`fr¼ľn
ľn Fb¼fktr`kn
fktr `kn y Fbfkt
F bfktr¼
r¼ho`kn,
ho`kn, Fskufbn ]hb`t¼fko`kn
fko`kn Onk`honb,
Onk`ho nb, ^u`th,
^ u`th,
Fkunlhr
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knp¼ľtubh ;
;.> Vo ghtf dft¼ nb`kh
nb`kh lf p`oturn, vnk¼
nk¼ľh, sf khbhkn shgrf uon
dfsn lf d¼ nrdhb,
nrdhb, bn tnpn sf rft`rn y ndgns pnrtfs sf lfsknr-
eno fb¼
fktr`kndfotf
fktr`kndfotf ank`folh t`frrn. [f pfen uo a`bh lf on`bho
fo fb kfotrh lf bn tnpn, y sf nla`frfo nb a`bh uon dhofln lf
> kfotn
kfotnvvh, htrn
htrn lf 6 y uon d¼ ns
ns lf >= kfo
kfotn
tnvvhs, s`o quf sf
thqufo uon kho htrn. N bn dhofln lf 6 kfotnvhs sf bf ln uon
knren lf +6oK, d`fotrns quf bns htrns lhs pfrdnofkfo lfs-
knrenlns. \hlh fstf nrrfebh sf gncn lfotrh lfb ghtf lf dhlh
quf bns dhoflns kufbeufo s`o thknr bns pnrflfs y sf nsfeurn
bn tnpn.
tnpn. Fb fxtfr`hr
fxtfr`hr lfb ghtf sf phof dhdfo
dhdfot¼ t¼
nofndfot
nofndfotf f an-
k`folh t`frrn. Fb l`sphs`t`vh sf lfsnrdn ku`lnlhsndfotf kho
eunotfs y afrrnd`fotns n`sbnotfs.
n) ¸^u¼
f knrens sf fokufotrno
fokufotrno fo knln uon lf bns k`okh p`fzns dft¼nb`kns8
nb`kns8

g) [` n bn dhofln lf > kfotnvh sf bf an lnlh uon knren lf +7oK y n bn lf 6 kfotnvhs

uon knren lf >oK, ¸ku¼nb
nb sfr¼
sfr¼ľn fb nrrfebh ﬎onb lf knrens8

[hbuk`¼
h
ho
o
n) \hlns bns dhoflns jufrho n`sbnlns
n`sbnlns lurnotf thlh fb prhkfl`d`foth,
prhkfl`d`foth, phr bh quf khosfr-
vnr¼
no
no sus knrens hr`e`onbfs3 > kfotnvh3 +6oK9 6 kfotnvhs3 =9 >= kfotnvhs3 =. Bn knren
lfb kfotnvh angr¼n `oluk`lh uon knren ofent`vn `eunb y hpufstn (-6oK) fo bn pnrfl
`otfr`hr lf bn bntn y bn tnpn. Fsth lfc¼h uon knpn lf knren lf +6oK fo bn supfr﬎k`f
fxtfr`hr quf juf ofutrnb`znln phr bn khofx`¼hoho n t`frrn. ]hr bh tnoth, bn bntn rftuvh
uon knren oftn lf 6oK lfspu¼ fs
fs lfb lfsdhotncf.

g) Oufv
Oufvndfo
ndfotf,
tf, lnlh quf bns dhoflns
dhoflns fst¼no
no n`sbnlns, rft`fofo sus knrens hr`e`onbfs.
hr`e`onbfs. Bn
knren `oluk`ln fo bn pnrfl `otfr`hr lf bn bntn y bn tnpn fs `eunb nb ofent`vh lf bn
sudn lf bns knrens lf dhoflns, h 7oK. Fstn fs bn knren quf rft`fof fb nrt`bue`h lf
bn bntn / tnpn lfspu¼ffss lf bn khofx`¼
ho
ho n t`frrn y fb lfsdhotncf.

;.7 Von knren puotunb lf   7=oK   sf fokufotrn fo   (<, >, ;)   y ∗

 ∗
uon knren b`ofnb uo`jhrdf lf 76oK/d  sf fxt`folf n bh bnreh
lf bn `otfrsfkk`¼ ho
ho lf bhs pbnohs   x  4
 4 <   y   z  4 ∗
 4 :. n) Knbkubnr   L
fo   (;, >, =). g) ¸^u¼
∗ f knot`lnl lf ﬇uch fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh ngnolhon bn
supfr﬎k`f lf uon fsjfrn lf rnl`h   6  y kho kfotrh fo fb hr`efo8
k) Wfpft`r bn pnrtf g) s` fb rnl`h lf bn fsjfrn fs lf   >=.
n). Bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch thtnb fo fb puoth lfsfnlh fs3

  ^
L  4 ; nr
<ύr 7

(;,, >, =) 4   7= >=

L(; ∗ µ ∗0
<ύ (> + 0)
nx ;nz
 ∗∓  ∗  ∗
>+0
  76 >=∗0
∓ µ
7ύ <0 + ;:
5nx :nz
 ∓  ∗ 
<0 + ;:

7
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

g). Fsth sfr¼n fqu`vnbfotf n bn knot`lnl lf knren quf any lfotrh lf bn fsjfrn. ]r`dfrh, bn
knren puotunb fst¼n n uon l`stnk`n lfb hr`efo lnlh phr3

W p  4
 x7 + y 7 + z 7
∓ 
W p >: + > + 0
W p  4 6,>
Fothokfs fst¼n njufrn. [feuolh, fb puoth d¼ns
ns kfrknoh fo bn knren b`ofnb nb hr`efo fst¼n n

uon l`stnok`n3 Wb  4
  x7 + z 7
Wb  4
∓ >: + ;:
Wb  4 5,7
Fothokfs bn lf bn b¼ľofn tndg`¼fo
fo fstn jufrn lf bn fsjfrn, phr
p hr bh tnoth
t noth bn rfspufstn fs3  kfrh

k). ]r`dfrh lfslf bn pnrtf g), bn knren puotunb nahrn fstnr¼n lfotrh. Bufeh tfofdhs quf
bn bhoeu`tul lf bn knren b`ofnb quf sf fokufotrn lfotrh lf bn fsjfrn fstnr¼n lnln phr 7y
7y= ,
lholf y
lholf  y =  snt`sjnkf bn fkunk`¼ho3
ho3
  >: + y=7 + ;: 4 >=

>: + y7 + ;: 4 >==

=
y=7   4 <1
y=  4 :,0; ⇗ 7y=  4 >;,
>;,1:
Bn knren thtnb lfotrh lf bn fsjfrn, fs lfk`r fb ﬇uch ofth lf snb`ln, fs nahrn3

Ϊ 4  ^ fok  4 Y7= ∗ (76 ∕ >;

>;,,1:)T 4 ∗;7:
;7:oK 
oK 

;.; Bn sup
supfr﬎
fr﬎k`f
k`f k`b¼ ľolr `kn   ώ  4 1  kd khot`fof uon lfos`lnl lf
k`b¼ľolr`kn
knren supfr﬎k`nb  ώ [   4 6f∗7=|z|  oK/d7 . n) ¸Ku¼nb
nb fs bn knot`lnl
knot`l nl lf
knre n prfsfotf
knren prf sfotf8 8 g) ¸^u¼ f knot`lnl
knot`l nl lf ﬇uch
﬇uchh fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr `kh
h
ngnolhon
ngno lhon
bn supfr﬎k`f   ώ  4 1   kd,   >kd 2 z 2  6 kd,   ;= 2 ϊ 2  0= 8
n) ¸Ku¼nb
nb fs bn knot`lnl thtnb lf knren prfsfotf8 @otferndhs shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f pnrn
fokhotrnr3

^ 4
   
  ∟   7ύ
6f∗7=z
7=z
(=,
(=,=1)
=1)lϊlz
lϊlzYYoK T
= =

4 7=
7=ύ
ύ (=
(=,,=1)
∗ >
f∗7=z
7=z ∟
|=
7=
4 =,76Y
76YoK 
oK T

g) [`dpbfdfotf `otferndhs bn lfos`lnl lf knren fo fsn supfr﬎k`f pnrn fokhotrnr fb

﬇uch quf bn ngnolhon.

;
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Ϊ 4   ^

4
   
  =,=6   0=h
6f∗7=z
7=z
(=,
(=,=1)
=1)lϊlz
lϊlzYYoK T
=,=> ;=h

4
 ∗ 
0= ;=
7ύ 6 =,=1
∕ ∕
∗ >
f∗7=z
7=z
|==,,=>=6
;:= 7=
4 0,<6
<6xx>=∗; YoK T
4 0,<6Y pK 
 pK T

;.< Fo khhrlfonlns k`b¼ k`b¼ľolr`kns sfn   L   4 (ώnώ   +   zn z )/Y<ύ (ώ7 +

z 7 )>,6T.Lftfrd`onr fb ﬇uch thtnb quf ngnolhon3 n) bn supfr﬎k`f
k`b
k` b¼ľolr`kn   ώ   4 5  lf bhoe`tul `o﬎o`tn9 g) fb k`b`olrh ﬎o`th,   ώ   4
||
5, z   >=
n) Bhoe`tul `o﬎o`tn kho ώ
kho  ώ 4
 4 5

Ϊn  4
   L l[   4
µ
   
  +∟  5
ώh n p + zn z
; nώώh lϊlz
∗∟ = <ύ (ώh7 + z 7 ) 7
  +∟
lz
Ϊ  4  ώ
n =  ∗∟ (ώ7h  + z 7 ) 7;
  z
Ϊn  4   ώ7h  + z 7
g) ]nrn fb k`b`olrh ﬎o`th ώ
﬎o`th  ώ 4
 4 5, z | |  >=
Ϊg  4
      zh   7ύ
ώh n p + zn z
; nώώh lϊlz
lϊlz++
∗ hz = <ύ (ώ7h  + z 7 ) 7
   
  7ύ   ώh
zh n p zn z
; nώώh lϊlz
lϊlz++
= = <ύ (ώ7h  + z 7 ) 7
    ∗
  7ύ   ώh
zh n p zn z
; nώώh lϊlz
= = <ύ (ώ7h  + z7) 7
4>

;.6 [fn   L   4 <xynx + 7(x7 + z 7)ny  + < yz

yznnz K /d7. Fvnbunr bns `otf-
ernbfs lf supfr﬎k`f y fokhotrnr bn knren thtnb fokfrrnln fo fb
pnrnbfbf
pnrn bfbfpp¼ľpflh
ľp flh rfktnolu
rfkt nolubnr
bnr   =  2 x 2  7 ,   =  2 y 2  ; ,   =  2 z 2  6   d.
\hdndhs bn bfy lf Enuss   L ls
  µ
Notfs lf prhkflfr n `otfernr nonb`zndhs L fo bhs pbnohs  y  4 = y  y  4 ;
Khdh l`kan `otfernb dnot`fof uo prhlukth puoth, bn ¼u uo`kn
o`kn khdphofotf
khdp hofotf lf bn b¼ľofn lf ﬇uch
﬇u ch
quf oh sf ankf = fs bn khdphofotf   ny , lf fstn jhrdn ohtndhs quf fb d¼hlubh hlubh lfb ﬇uch
7(
7(x7 7
x +  z )ny  tnoth fo bn supfr﬎k`f 
supfr﬎k`f   y   4 = y   y  4 ; fs `eunb bh quf prhvhknr
prhvhknr¼¼ľn quf ndghs

﬇uchs sf knokfbfo.
Dnotfo`folh bn `lfn lf quf fb ﬇uch fo knln pbnoh shbh nktun bn khdphofotf kuyh vfkthr
uo`tnr`h fs `eunb, tnoth fo fb pbnoh x
pbnoh  x 4
 4 = khdh z
khdh  z 4
 4 = fb ﬇uch L
﬇uch L((x  4 =) 4 = y L
y  L((z  4 =) 4 =
phr bh quf fstns supfr﬎k`fs oh khotr`guyfo.

<
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

J`onbdfotf, shbh quflno bns supfr﬎k`fs   x   4 7 y   z   4 6 n bns npb`knrfdhs bn `otfernb

supfr﬎k`nb.

^  4
   
 ;  6
L(x  4 7) nx lzly
lzly +
 + µ
   
 ;  7
L(z  4 6) nz lxly
µ
= = = =

Fb ﬇uch fo fb pbnoh x oh lfpfolfo lf z y fo fb pbnoh z oh lfpfolf lf x. @otferndhs fsths

t¼frd`oh
frd `ohss pr`dfr
pr` dfrhh

^  4
  ;
<(7)(yy )Y6
<(7)( ∗ =Tly
=Tly +
 +
   ;
<(6)yy Y7
<(6) ∗ =Tly
=Tly
= =

^  4 <=
  ∗    ∗ 
0
=  + <=
0
=  4 ;:=YK 
;:=YK T
7 7

;.: Vo vhbudfo lf knren lf lfos`lnl phostnotf   ώv   4  ώ h  fs

 fst¼
n
fo fb fspnk`h b`grf lfotrh lf bn rfe`¼
ho
ho  2 x 2 ,  2  ∗∟  ∟   ∗∟
y 2 , l/7  2 z 2 l/7. Fokhotrnr L y F fo kunbqu`fr pnrtf.
∟  ∗
]hr s`dftr`n
s`dftr`n lfb prhgbfdn suphofdhs
suphofdhs quf fb kndph fstnrn fo thlns pnrtfs fo l`rfkk`ho
z y sfr¼n uo`jhrdf fo fbf fcf Q y P nlfd¼ns
ns fo S fs ﬎ch.
Nahrn pnrn fokhotnr fb kndph lfotrh lf bn knren sf fb`cf uon supfr﬎k`f enuss`non
nprhp`nln pnrn fstf knsh sf rn uon quf fok`frrf bn knren fo uon supfr﬎k`f rfktnoeubnr kho
 ∗  ∗
bhs b`d`tfs >   2 x 2   >, >   2 y 2   > y l/
l/77  2 z 2 l/7,  ∗
l/7, fothokfs fb ﬇uch fxtfroh lf bn
knren fstnr b`d`tnlh phr bns lhs supfr﬎k`fs sfpnrnlns phr +-z.
]hr bn bfy lf Enuss sngfdhs quf3

ϊsnbf  4
  Llx 4
Llx  4 ^
 ^ fokfrrnln
K 

lnlh quf bns tnpns pnrnbfbns kho fb fcf x y y sho kfrh phr sfr pfrpfol`kubnrfs
pfrpfol`kubnrfs ohs quflndhs
shbh kho bns tnpns lfb fcf z fothokfs3

ϊsnbf  4 7
       >  >
Lz lxly
lxly 4
 4 ώZ  lZ 
∗ > ∗ > Z 

ϊsnbf  4 7
    >      
 >
Lz lxly
lxly 4
 4
 z  >  >
ώ= lxlylz
∗ > ∗ > ∗z ∗ > ∗>
Fb lhs fs phr bns lhs supfr﬎k`fs
supfr﬎k`fs fs phr bns quf nktun fb ﬇uch Nahrn lnlh quf ώ
quf  ώ=  fs khostnotf
y  L z  fs khsotnotf fb kndph L4ώ 7
L4 ώ= Sn S   K/d y F4(ώ
F4(ώ= /= )S nS   K/d . 7

Jufrn
ufrn lf bn knren,
knren, bn supfr﬎k
supfr﬎k`f`f enuss`
enuss`non
non fs bn d`sdn,
d`sdn, fxkfpt
fxkfpthh kunolh
kunolh bhs b¼ľd`tfs
ľd`tfs
 ¾
pnrnbfbhs fo z hkurrfo fo z   ? l/  | |
l/7.
7. Khdh rfsubtnlh, fb k¼nbkubh
nbkubh fs kns` fb d`sdh quf
notfs, kho Fb uo`kh
¼uo`kh kndg`h
kn dg`h sho bhs b¼ľd`tfs lf bn knren
kn ren thtnb `otfernb3
Fothokfs pnrn fokhotrnr L kho  S ? l/73 l/73

ϊsnbf  4 7
   
 >  >
Lz lxly
lxly 4
 4
     
  l/
l/7
7  >  >
ώ= lxlylz
∗ > ∗ > ∗ l/
l/77 ∗ > ∗ >

  l/
l/7
7

7 7 7Lz   4
∕ ∕ ∕ 7ώ=lz
  ∗l/77
l/7

1Lz   4 (l/
l/77 + l/7) ∕ <ώ=
l/7)

6
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

fothkfs L fs `eunb n3
Lz   4 (lώh )/7nz
pnrn  z ? l/7
pnrn z l/7
Fothokfs pnrn fokhotrnr L kho  S 2 l/73
l/73

ϊsnbf  4 7
   
 >  >
Lz lxly
lxly 4
 4
     
  ∗ l/
l/7
7  >  >
ώ= lxlylz
∗ > ∗> l/
l/7
7 ∗ > ∗ >

  l/
l/7
7
7 7 7Lz   4
∕ ∕ ∕   7 7ώ= lz
∗l/
l/7
7

1Lz   4 (∗l/
l/77 ∗ l/
l/7)
7) ∕ <ώ=
fothkfs L fs `eunb n3
Lz   4 ∗(lώh)/7nz
pnrn  z 2 l/7
pnrn z l/7
F4( ώ= /= )Sn S   K/d 7 .
Nonbhendfotf sf fokufotrn F sng`folh quf F4(ώ
fothokfs pnrn z
pnrn  z ? l/73
l/ 73

∕
F z   4 (l ώh )/(7 = )nz ∕
pnrn z
pnrn  z 2 l/73
l/73

F z   4 ∗(l ∕ ώh)/(7 ∕ =)nz

;.5 Von lfos`lnl
lfos`lnl vhbud
vhbud¼ ¼
ftr`kn
ftr`kn lf knren
knren sf fokufotr
fokufotrn n fo fb
fspnk`h b`grf khdh   ώv   4 7f∗>==
>==rr
oK/d; pnrn   =  2 r 2  > dd   y   ώv   4
fo kunbqu`fr htrn pnrtf. n) Fokhotrnr bn knren thtnb fokfrrnln
phr bn supfr﬎k`
supfr﬎k`ff fsj¼
fsj¼f
fr`kn
r`kn r 4 > dd. dd. g) Vt`b`z
Vt`b`znol nolh h bn bfy lf
Enuss, knbkubnr fb vnbhr lf   Lr  shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f r 4 > dd.
[hbuk`¼
ho3
ho3
n)
  7ύ  ύ   =,==>
^  4 7f∗>===
>===rr 7
r s`o αlrlαlϊ
 ∗      
=

r7 f
>===r
∗
= =
=,==>
7f∗>==
>==rr ( >==
>==rr∗ ∗ >)  
=,==>
^  4 1ύ  +
>=== >==(>==)7 =
=

∗ 0
⇗ ^ 4 < Õ 7= oK 
g)

 ^   < >=∗0 Õ ∗ < oK 

Lr  4  4   4 ;, 7 Õ >=
<ύr 7 (=,, =>)7
<ύ (= d7

:
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

;.1 Npb`
;.1 Npb`knknrr bn bfybfy lf enus
enusss fo su jh
jhrd
rdn
n `otf
`otfer
ernb
nb pnrn
pnrn lf-
lf-
dhstrnr quf uo kndph lf l`stnok`n `ovfrsn fo khhrlfonlns
fsjfr`kns   L   4   Nnrbr   lholf N fs uon k`ostnotf ,rfqu`frf quf
knln k`rkubh fsjfr`kh lf >d lf nokah khotfo`folh n khubhdgs
lf knren ¸Fsth `ol`kn uon l`str`guk`ho lf knren khot`oun 8 s`
fs ns` ,fokhotrnr bn vnr`nk`¼ h
hoo lf bn lfos`lnl lf lf knren kho
r

ϊ  4
 4 L.ls
 
 L.ls 4
 4
  7ύ
N
 .nr.r7 sfoαlϊ
sfoαlϊ 4
 4 < 4  ^fok
= r

^fok 4
^fok  4 <ύN
ύN 4
 4
       
  7ύ   p`  r
 
ώ r ώr sfolr lαlϊ
lαlϊ 4
 4 <έ 
  r
(ώ(r  )r7  )lr
= = = =
 N
 p(
 p(r) 4
r7

;.0 Von lfos`lnl

lfos`l nl lf knren vhbud¼ ftr`kn uo`jhrdf lf   1=¶K/d;
ftr`kn
fstn prfsfotf fo bn rfe`¼
h
hoo 1 dd 2 r 2  >= dd. [fn ώ v   4 =pnrn =  2
r 2   1dd. n) Fokhotrnr bn knren thtnb lfotrh lf bn supfr﬎k`f
fsj¼fr`kn   r   4 >=dd. g) Fokhotrnr   Lr   fo   r   4 >=dd. k) [` oh
fx`stf knren fo   r ?  >=dd, fokhotrnr   Lr   fo   r  4 7=dd
n)
]nrn hgtfofr
h gtfofr bn knren npb`kndhs bn jhrdubn vhbud¼ftr`kn
ftr`kn

^  4
     
  7ύ  ύ   =,=>
(1=x
(1= :)r 7 s`o αlrlαlϊ
x>=∗ :)r
= = =,==1

r;
^  4 <ύ (1=
(1=xx>=∗:)
;
 |==,,=>==1
^  4 >, :<Y pK 
 pK T
g)
tfofdhs quf
L ∗>1
r(>=
(>=dd )4 >,:<x>=
dd)4
<ύ(=,=>)7

∗5 7
Lr(>=dd))  4 >, ;x>= YK/d T
(>=dd

Lr(>= >;:YoK/d7 T
dd))  4 >;:YoK/d
(>=dd

k)
Nb `eunb quf fb b`tfrnb g)
L ∗>1
r(>=
(>=dd )4 ><,:<
dd)4 x>=
ύ(=,=7)7

Lr(>=dd))  4 ;, 76
(>=dd x>=∗1 YK/d7 T
76x
Lr(>=dd))  4 ;7
(>=dd 6YoK/d7 T
;7,, 6YoK/d

5
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

;.>= Von lfos`l

lfo s`lnl
nl lf knren
knre n vhbud¼ ftr`kn
ftr` kn fo khhrlf
kh hrlfonl
onlns
ns fsj¼
fr`-
fr` -
  ώ sfo
sfo((ύr)
ύr )
kns vnr`n khdh   ώZ    4 r   , lhlholf   ώhfs uon khostnotf. Fo-
olf=
7

khotrnr bns supfr﬎k`fs fo bns quf L4=.

=  2 r ≬r   =  2 α α   =  2 ϖ ≬ϖ
  4   >
L
   ≬  •
  ώZ  rn r
  lv
<ύ W7

  4   >
L
      ώ= sfo (ύr)
ύr )  n r 7 •
  r sfo (α ) lr lα lϖ •
<ύ 7
r r7 •
L  4
  ώ=
      sfo (ύr)
ύr )
  sfo (α) lr lα lϖ •
<ύ r7
Wffdpbnzndhs bn khol`k`¼ho3
ho3 L4=

=4
      sfo (ύr)
ύr )
  sfo (α) lr lα lϖ •
r7

= 4  ϖ ( •∗ khsα))α=
khsα •
   r
sfo (ύr)
ύr )
  lr
= r7
ύr ) ∗ ύK `(ύr))
(sfo (ύr) ύr ))
= 4  ϖ
 ϖ(>
(> ∗ khsα
khsα))   n r
r
Fothokfs, L4= pnrn bns supfr﬎k`fs lholf ϖ
lholf  ϖ 4
 4 = h pnrn
pnrn α
 α  4 7ύ

;.>> [fn   ώv   4 =   pnrn   ώ 2   >dd,   ώv   4 7sfo(7===ύώ )oK/d; pnrn

>dd2 ώ 2>,6dd   y   ώv   4 =   pnrn   ώv   ?   >,6dd   fo khhrlf
khhrlfonlns
onlns
k`b¼
k`b¼ľolr`kn
ľolr`kns.
s. Fokhotrnr L fo kunbqu`fr
kunbqu`f r buenr.
[hbuk`¼
h
ho
o

Khdh bn knren vnr¼ nr¼ľn shbh kho fb rnl`h, y t`fof bn jhrdn lf uo k`b`olrh,
k`b`olrh, bn s`dftr¼
s`dftr¼ľn ohs
l`kf quf bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fstnr¼n l`r`e`ln rnl`nbdfotf y sfr¼n khostnotf shgrf uon su-
pfr﬎k`f k`b¼ľolr`kn
ľolr`kn lf uo rnl`h ﬎ch. Bn bfy lf Enuss npb`knln n l`kan supfr﬎k`f lf bhoe`tul
uo`tnr`n fo z ln3

n) ]nrn   ώ 2>
2 >dd, Lώ  4 = yn quf o`oeuon knren fst¼n fokfrrnln phr uon supfr﬎k`f
k`b
k`b¼¼ľolr`kn kuyh rnl`h sf fokufotrn lfotrh lf fstf rnoeh.

g) ]nrn >dd
>dd 2 ώ 2 >
2  >,,6dd
dd,, tfofdhs3

7ύώLώ  4 7ύ
   ώ
7 Õ >= ∗0
(7==ύώ  )ώ lώ
s`o (7==ύώ
=,==>

7ύώLώ  4 <ύ Õ >= 0

∗
   >
 s`o (7===
(7===ύώ)
ύώ ) ∗   ώ
 khs===ύώ
 khs===ύώ
 ώ

(7===ύ
(7=== ύ )7 7===ύ
7=== ύ =,==>

  >=∗>6
Lώ  4
7ύ 7 ώ
s`o (7===
(7===ύώ)
ύώ ) + 7ύ
7ύ > ∗ >=; khs (7===
(7===ύώ)
ύώ ) K/d 7

k) ]nrn   ώ ?   >,6dd
 
dd,, fb k`b`olrh enuss`noh nahrn sf fokufotrn fo uo rnl`h   ώ  jufrn lf

bn l`str`guk`¼
l`str`guk`¼ ho
ho lf knren, phr bh quf bn `otfernb quf fvnb¼un
un bn knren fokfrrnln nahrn
`okbuyff thln bn l`str`guk`¼
`okbuy l`str`guk`¼
ho
ho lf knren. ]nrn bhernr fsth, kndg`ndhs fb b¼ľd`tf
ľd`tf supfr`hr
supfr `hr

1
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

lf bn `otfernb lf bn pnrtf g lf  ώ  n >.6 dd, hgtfo`folh ﬎onbdfotf3

7ύώLώ  4 7ύ
    >,6
7 Õ >= ∗ 0
(7==ύώ )ώ lώ
s`o (7==ύώ
ώ

7ύώLώ  4 <ύ Õ >= ∗ 0

   >
 s`o(7==
 s`o (7====ύώ
ύώ)) ∗   ώ
 khs ===
===ύώ
 >,6

(7===ύ
(7=== ύ )7 7===ύ
7=== ύ ώ

Lώ  4
  7 ,6 Õ >=  >6 K/d7
∗

ύώ

;.>7 Fb [hb rnl`n uon phtfok`n thtnb lf 7 x   >=7: wntts (U). [`

sf pul`frn lftfrd`onr bn bnt`tul y bhoe`tul lf bn supfr﬎k`f
lfb [hb y sf pul`frn suphofr uon rnl`nk`¼ ho
ho uo
uo`jh
`jhrdf
rdf,, n) ¸qu¼
¸qu¼
f
phtfok`n
phtf ok`n rnl`nr¼ ho kuyn bnt`tul jufrn   6=h O y   :=h O
rnl`nr¼ľn bn rfe`¼
ho
y uon bhoe`tul lf   >7h H y   75h H8 g) ¸Ku¼ nb
nb fs bn lfos`lnl lf
phtfok`n
phtfok` n shgrf uon supfr﬎k`f
supfr﬎k`f fsj¼
fsj¼
fr`kn
fr`kn n uon l`stnok`n
l`stnok`n lf 0;
=== === d`bbns lfb [hb fo U/d78
n) 6== O lf bnt`tul y :=h O lf bnt`tul khrrfspholfo rfspfkt`vndfotf n   α   4 <== yα   4
;== >7h y 75h khrrfspholfo l`rfktndfotf n bhs b¼ľd`tfs lf 
lf   ϊ  Pn quf fb shb pnrn oufstrhs
prhp¼hs`ths
hs`ths fs fsj¼
fr`kndfotf
fr`kndfotf s`d¼
ftr`kn,
ftr`kn, bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fd`t`ln phr fbbn fs3

7:
@   4   ;,1:x
1:x>=
<ύr 7
  nr  d
U 
7

] >  4
    ∕
  75   <=
;,1: >=7:
  nr .nr r 7 sfoαlαlϊ
<ύr 7
>7 ;=

] >  4
  ;,1: >=7:
∕    ∗  
khs ;== khs <== (75h ∗ >7h)
 
 7ύ
 7 ύ
<ύ ;:=

] >  4 1,> >=7;

>=7;U 
U  ∕
g) \hdndhs fo kufotn quf 0; === === d`bbns 4 >66 === === id4>.66x>=>>d
id4>.66x>=>> d. Vsnolh
fstn l`stnok`n fo bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho lf bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch notfr`hr hgtfofdhs3

  ;,1: >=7: ∕
@   4
(>,,66 >=>> )7
<ύ (> ∕
U 
@  4
  4 >7==n
>7==nr
d7

;.>; \rfs
\rfs supfr﬎k`fs fsj¼ f
fr`kns
r`kns ug`knlns fo r 4 7, < y : d t`f-
ofo lfos`lnlfs uo`jhrdfs lf supfr﬎k`f lf knren lf 7=  oK/d7,
∗ <oK/d7 y   ώ[ = , rfspfkt`vndfotf.n) Fokhotrnr L fo r 4 >, ;
y 6 d. g) Lftfrd`onr   ώ[ =  tnb quf L 4 = fo r 4 5 d.
n)Hgsfrvnolh quf bns knrens sho fsj¼fr`kndfotf
fr`kndfotf s`d¼ftr`kns,
ftr`kns, lftfrd`ondhs quf L fs-
tnr¼n l`r`e`ln rnl`nbdfotf y vnr`nr¼n shbh kho fb rnl`h. ]hr bh tnoth, npb`kndhs bn bfy

0
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

lf Enuss n bhs lfp¼hs`ths

hs`ths fsj¼fr`khs
fr`khs fo bns
b ns s`eu`fotfs
s `eu`fotfs rfe`hofs3
rfe`h ofs3 r ¡¡73
73 Nqu
N qu¼¼ľ, oh
o h sf `okbuyf
o`oeuon knren, phr bh quf Lr 4 =.
∗ 0
7  2 r 2  < 3 <ύr 7 Lr   4 <ύ 77 (7=
(7=x x>=∗0 ) Lr   4   1=x
1=x>=
↗ r7
  Y  dK 7 T
1 ,0x>=∗0 Y  dK 7 T
[ h Lr (r  4 ;) 4 1,
>:x>= 0   K  ∗

<  2 r 2  : 3 <ύr 7 Lr   4 <ύ 77 (7=

(7=x <ύ <7 ( <x>=∗0 ))
x>=∗0 + <ύ ∗ Lr   4   >:x ↗
r7
  Y d7 T
∗>=   K 
Õ
: ,< >= Y d7 T
[ h Lr (r  4 6) 4 :,

g) Khdh bhs kndphs l`sd`ou`r¼no

no khdh >/r
>/r77 , bn prfeuotn phlr
p hlr¼¼ľn rfjhrdubnrsf pn
pnrn
rn

pfl`r
pfl`r ώ
kndph  ώ [ 
=  lf dhlh quf L 4 = fo thlhs bhs puoths lholf r
thtnb sfr¼n3
n3 lholf  r ?  : d. Fo fstn rfe`¼ho,
ho, fb

  >:x>=∗0  ώ [ = :7
>:x
Lr (r ?  :) 4   +
r7 r7
<   K 
4 x>=∗0 Y 7 T
 ∗
0 d

 ∗  ∗
;.>< Fb pbnoh x  + ;y :z   4 :   d   khot`fof uon l`str`guk`¼ h
hoo
uo`jhrdf lf knren   ώs   4 =,6;   oK/d7 . Fokufotrf F fo fb bnlh
quf khot`fof fb hr`efo.

O  pbnoh  4 ∗
∗∗∗∗↗ ∅ µ j (x,y ,z)
↗ ,z)

∗∗∗∗↗
O  pbnoh  4
 4 n ↗
∗ ;n   ∗ :n
 n   + ;n ↗
∗ ↗
∗
x y z
∗↗
O 
O    kho rfspfkth n (=,
(=, =, =)
∗∗∗∗↗
O   4 n
 4  n
(=
(=,,=,=) x   + ;n
∗
↗ ;n∗
↗
y   ∗ :n z
↗
∗

k) Kndph lfg`lh n uon b¼nd`on

nd`on kho knren r
knren  rah 6;  oK/d7
ahs  4 =,6; oK/d
∗↗
F 
F    4
  ώs ∗
n↗
r
7ζh
∗↗
F 
F (=
(=,, =, =) 4
  ώs ∗
↗
n O  (=,
(=,=,=)
7ζh
  =,6;(>=) 0 n∗
  µ ↗x∓  ∗ ;n y   + :n
:n z
∗
∗↗
F 
F    4
↗
∗ ↗
∗

7ζh >7 + ; 7 + : 7
∗↗   ;=
F    4 ∓  µ (n x  ∗ ;n y   + :n
F  ↗
∗ :n z  )↗
∗ ↗
∗
<=
∗↗
F 
F    4 (<
(<,,<7
<7nn x  ∗ >;
↗
∗ >;,,75
75nn y   + 7:,
↗
∗ 6<n z  )
7:,6<n ↗
∗

;.>6 Von lfos`lnl vhbudftr`kn lf knren fstn bhknb`znln lf bn

jhrdn s`eu`fotf3   ώv   4 =   pnrn   ώ 2   >dd   y pnrn   ώ ?   7dd,ώv   4
<ώ¶K//d7 pnrn   >  2 ώ 2  7 dd.
n.Knbkubnr bn knren thtnb fo bn rfe`ho = 2
=  2 ώ 2 ώ> , =  2 z 2 B,
B, lholf > 2
>  2 p>  2
 2 7
 7dd
dd..

^  4
     
 B   7ύ   ώ>
<ώώlώlϊlz
ώώlώlϊlz 4
 4
  1ύB ;
  (ώ> ∗ >= ∗
0)¶K 
0)¶K 
= = =,==> ;

>=
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

g.Vt`b`znr bn bfy lf Enuss pnrn lftfrd`nr  L p   fo ώ

fo  ώ 4
 4 ώ
 ώ> .

  <(ώ;>
<(ώ ∗ >= ∗
0)
Lώ (ώ> ) 4 ¶K/d7
; ώ>
k.Fvnbunr   Lώ   fo
k.Fvnbunr fo ώ
 ώ 4
 4 =,1, ώ
1,  ώ 4
 4 >,: y  ώ 4
 ώ  4 7,<

  <(ώ;>
<(ώ ∗ >= ∗
0)
Lώ (ώ> ) 4 ¶K/d7
; ώ>

Fo
4 =.ώ  4
Fo= ώ 4
Fo ώ,1 4
dd o`oeuon
>,:dd, knren fstn fokfrrnln
bh fvnbundhs phr bnhgtfo`ln
fo bn fkunk`ho supfr﬎k`ffok`b`olr`kn,
fb b`tfrnb fothokfs
g3 Lώ (=,
(=,1dd
dd))

<(=,==>:; =,==>=; )
  <(=, ∗
Lώ (>
(>,,:dd
dd)) 4   4 ;,:x>=∗:¶K/d7
;(=,,==>:)
;(=

;.>: Von lfos`l

lfo s`lnl
nl vhbud¼ ftr`kn
ftr `kn lf knren
knre n fo khhrlf
kh hrlfonl
onlns
ns fsj¼
fr`-
fr` -
kns lf   ώδ   4 >=f∗7r K/d ; sf fokufotrn prfsfotf. n) Lftfrd`onr
L . g) Zfr`﬎knr fb rfsubtnlh lfb `ok`sh n) fvnbunolh  L  ∅µ
Nb tfofr bn lfos`lnl vhbud¼
ftr`kn
ftr`kn fo khhrlfons fsj¼fr`kns,
fr`kns, sf t`fof bn knren lnlh phr3

^  4
 4 ώ
 ώv lZ 

Khdh
Khdh   lZ  fs
lZ  fs uon
khhrlfonlns `otfernb
fsjfr`kns, tr`pbf
lholf (vhbudfo),fs r
fb Cnkhg`noh fsfothokfs,
s`o(αα) ut`b`zndhs fb kndg`h lf vnr`ngbf lf
 r 7 s`o(

^  4
     
  7ύ  ύ  r
r 7 s`o(
s`o(αα)ώv lrlαlϊ
= = =

khdh ώ
khdh >=ff∗7r K/d ;
 ώ δ   4 >=

^  4
     
  7ύ  ύ  r
r7 s`o( )>=ff∗7r lrlαlϊ
s`o(αα )>=
= = =

Wfshbv`folh         7ύ  ύ  r
^  4 >= s`o(αα)
s`o( r7 f∗7r lrlαlϊ
= = =
Wfshbv`folh bn `otfernb phr pnrtfs lf lr
lf  lr  y fvnbunolh lf = n r

^  4 6
    ∗
  7ύ  ύ
s`o(αα)
s`o( 7
r f ∗ 7r
∗ rf ∗ ∗ 7r  > ∗7r
(f ∗ >)
 lαlϊ
= = 7

^  4 6
∗ ∗ ∗ 7
r f ∗ 7r
rf ∗ 7r  > ∗7r
(f ∗
    
>)
  7ύ  ύ
s`o(αα)lαlϊ
s`o(
7 = =
Nahrn fb sfoh

^  4 6
∗ r7 f∗7r ∗ rf 7r ∗  >7 (f
∗ ∗ 7r
∗

>)
  ∗
  7ύ
∗ (khs(ύ
(khs(ύ) khs(=))lϊ
khs(=)) lϊ
=

^  4 >=
∗ 7
r f ∗ 7r
∗ rf ∗ 7r
∗  > ∗7r
(f∗
   >)
  7ύ
lϊ
7 =

^  4 7=
7=ύύ ∗r7f 7r ∗ rf 7r ∗  >7 (f 7r ∗ >)
∗ ∗ ∗

Nahrn, pnrn hgtfofr L


hgtfofr  L,, sf ut`b`zn bn fkunk`ho 7

 ^
L  4 nr
<ύr 7

>>
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Vt`b`znolh
Vt`b`znolh bn fkunk`¼
fkunk`ho
¼h o > fo 7

Lr  4  L
 L 4
 4 6
∗ r 7 f∗7r ∗ rf 7r ∗   >7 (f 7r ∗ >)
∗ ∗

r7
g) Nahrn, npb`kndhs bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf Dnxwfbb

∅ µ L  4  r>7 ∇r∇  r7Lr

∅ µ L  4  r>7 ∇r∇  6 ∗r7f 7r ∗ rf 7r ∗  >7 (f 7r ∗ >)
 ∗ ∗ ∗ 
∅µ   6 ∇  ∗7r
L  4 7 f
 ∗ r 7
∗ ∗

r
 >
r ∇r 7

∅µ  6

L  4 7 f∗7r ( 7r ∗ ∗ >) ∗ 7f ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ 
7r
r7 r
 >
r 7

∅ µ L  4  r67 f ∗7r
( 7r 7 r7 + 7r
∗ ∗ > + 7r 7r  + >)

Fothokfs, s`dpb`﬎knolh
∅ µ L 4  r67 f ∗ 7r
(7rr7 ) 4 >=f
(7 >=f∗7r

J`onbdfotf, sf t`fof quf

L  4
 4 ώ >=f∗7r
 ώv  4 >=f
∅µ
;.>5 Vo kugh fst¼ n lf﬎o`lh phr >   2  x, y, z2>.7.[` L 4 7x7ynx
+ ;x7y7ny K/d7. n) Npb`knr bn bfy lf Enuss pnrn fokhotrnr
fb ﬇uch thtnb quf ngnolhon bn supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln lfb kugh. g)
Fvnbunr   ∊  L fo fb kfotrh lfb kugh. k) Fst`dnr bn knren thtnb
fokfrrnln lfotrh lfb kugh ut`b`znolh bn fkunk`¼ ho
ho (1).

ϊ  4 ^
 4  ^ 4
 4
     
  L∊ln
ln 4
 4
    ∗   >,7   >,7
7(>,,7)7 ylylz
7(> ylylz +
 +
  >,7   >,7
7(>)7 ylylz
ylylz +
 + ...
> > > >

  >,7   >,7   >,7   >,7

... +     ∗     ;x7 (>)7 lxlz
lxlz +
 + ;x7 (>,
(>,7)7 lxlz
lxlz 4
 4 =,>=71
>=71K 
K 
> > > >
G)
   L  4 <xy + : x7
xy + :x (>
(>,,>,>)
<(>,>)7 + :(>,
 4 <(>, :(>,>)7 4 >7,
>7,1;

K)
^  4 L ∕ ∊Z  
Z   4 >7 (=,, 7)7 4 =,>=7:
>7,,1; ∕ (= >=7:Kfrrnlh
Kfrrnlh

;.>1 Fb rnl`knb lf l`str`guk

l`str` guk¼
¼ľho fo fb fspnk`h vnk¼
nk¼ľh fs3
  rώ=
F   4
4
;=
nr    pnrn (r ≬ n),
  (7n;
(7n r; )ώ=
F   4   nr    pnrn (n r g),
;= r7
∗∗ ≬ ≬
  (7n; g; )ώ
(7n =
F   4   nr    pnrn (r ≦ g)
;= r7
lholf n , g , ώ
,  ώ =  sho khostnotfs. Fokhotrnr bn lfos`lnl lf knren (ώ
( ώ).

>7
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Lfsnrrhbbh3

>)  ]nrn (r
>) ]nrn (r ≬ n)
Bn fxprfs¼ľho
ľho quf ohs nyuln n lftfrd`onr bn lfos`lnl lf knren fs3

ώ  4 ∅F 
Nlfd¼ns
ns sf sngf quf bn l`vfrefok
l`vfrefok`n
`n fo khrlfonlns
khrlfonlns fsj¼
fsj¼ffr`kns
r`kns v`fof lnln phr bn s`eu`fotf
s`eu`fotf
fxpr
fx prfs¼
fs¼ľľho3
h o3

  > ∇    > ∇    > ∇ 

 4 7 (r 7 F r ) +
∅F  4 (s`o
s`o((α)F α ) + (F ϊ )
r ∇r r s`o(
s`o(αα) ∇α r s`o(
s`o(αα) ∇ϊ

Ohtfdhs quf fb kndph F shbh t`fof khdphofotf fo fb fcf ohrdnb, fothokfs rffdpbnznolh
bn fkunk`¼ho
ho (7) fo (>) sf t`fof3

  > ∇  7
ώ 4 (r F r )
r7 ∇r

Wfdpbnznolh fb vnbhr lf bn khdphofotf rnl`nb lfb kndph tfofdhs3

  > ∇  rώ =
ώ  4 7 (r7 ( ))
r ∇r ;=
Hpfrndhs,
  > ∇  r; ώ=
ώ  4 ( )
r 7 ∇r ;=
Lfr`vndhs pnrk`nbdfotf rfspfkth n  r 

  > ;r 7 ώ=
ώ  4 ( )
r 7 ;=
[`dpb`﬎knolh,
  ώ=
ώ  4

=
J`onbdfotf tfofdhs quf bn lfos`lnl lf knren pnrn (r
(r ≬ n) fs3
  ώ=
ώ  4
=
7)  ]nrn (n
7) ]nrn (n ≬ r ≬ g)
  > ∇  7
(r F r )
ώ 4
r7 ∇r
Wfdpbnznolh fb vnbhr lf bn khdphofotf rnl`nb lfb kndph tfofdhs3

  > ∇  7 (7
(7nn; r ; )ώ= ∗
ώ  4 7 (r (   ))
r ∇r ;= r 7
Hpfrnolh tfofdhs,
tfofdhs,
  > ∇ 
ώ  4 7
(7n ; ώ=
(7n ∗ r ; ώ= )
r ;= ∇r

>;
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Lfr`vndhs pnrk`nbdfotf rfspfkth n  r 

  >
ώ  4 ( ;r7 ώ= )
∗
r 7 ;=
J`onbdfotf s`dpb`﬎knolh, sf t`fof quf bn lfos`lnl lf knren pnrn (n
(n ≬ r ≬ g) fs3
ώ 4
 ∗ώ=
=

;)  ]nrn (r
;) ]nrn (r ≦ g)
  > ∇  7
ώ 4 (r F r )
r7 ∇r
Wfdpbnznolh fb vnbhr lf bn khdphofotf rnl`nb lfb kndph tfofdhs3

  > ∇  7 (7n; g; )ώ=

(7n ∗
ώ  4 7 (r (   ))
r ∇r ;= r 7
Hpfrnolh tfofdhs,
tfofdhs,
  > ∇  (7n; g; )ώ=
(7n ∗
ώ  4 7 (( ))
r ∇r ;=
Lfr`vndhs pnrk`nbdfotf rfspfkth n  r 

ώ  4   >7 (=)
r
J`onbdfotf sf t`fof quf bn lfos`lnl lf knren pnrn (r
(r ≦ g) fs3
ώ  4 =

><
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

;.>0 Von supfr﬎k`f fsj¼ fsj¼

f
fr`kn
r`kn lf rnl`h `eunb
`eunb n   ;dd   y kfotrh
] (<, >, 6)   fstn fo fb fspnk`h b`grf. [fn   L   4   nn x YK/d 7T. Vt`b`znr
bhs rfsubtnlhs lf bn sfkk`¼ h
hoo ;.< pnrn knbkubnr fb ﬇uch fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh
ofth quf ngnolhon bn supfr﬎k`f lf bn fsjfrn

\fofdhs
 4  x n x YK/d 7 T
L  4 x
 <
Z   ύr r;
Z   4 ύrr
;
phr htrh bnlh tfofdhs
Ϊ 4 L∊v∅
  ∇x n x  ∇ xn x  ∇ xn x
∅ L  4
∇x
 +
∇x
 +
∇x
>YK/d; T
L  4 >YK/d
∅Ϊ 4 ∅L∊v
<
Ϊ 4 >( ύrrύr r ; )
;
<
(7,, 5x>=∗; ))
Ϊ 4 >( ύ (7
;
Ϊ 4 >, >;x>=∗5 YK T 4 >>;YoK 
>;x >>;YoK T

;.7= [uphofr quf bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fbfktr`kh fo khhrlfon-

lns k`b`olr`kns fs   L   4   L p   n p . Lfskr`g`r bn lfpfolfok`n lf bn
lfos`lnl lf knren   pv  fo khhrlfonlns p,   ϊ   y z.

[`3
 >
n)L p  4
 4 j 
 j ((ϊ, z )   g)L p  4   j (ϊ, z )   k)  L p  4
 4 j 
 j (( p
 p))
 p

>6
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

L p  4
 4 j 
 j   (ϊ,
( ϊ, t)
∅ (ϊ, z) 4 ∅ (ϊ) + ∅(t)
∅ (ϊ) 4 Lj 
Lj    4  j   (ϊ,
Lj  (ϊ, t)
L p  4   p> ∕ j   (ϊ,
( ϊ, t)
 >
] 
]    4
j 

j   4   >
] 
∅ ∅
j   4 j   (ϊ,( ϊ, t)
 >
L p  4  ∕ j   (ϊ,
(ϊ, t)
 p
L p  4 j 
 4  j (( p
 p))

j   (ϊ,
( ϊ, z ) 4  j  p
L p  4 j 
 4  j (( p)
 p)

;.7> Knbkubnr  ∅ • L  fo fb puoth fspfk`﬎knlh s`3

n)  L  4  z>7 Y>=
n) L Y>=xyzn
xyznx  + 6x ∗ 6x7y)nz T
6 x7 zn y  + (7z
(7 z ;

g)L  4 6z 7 nώ  + >=ώz
g)L >= ώz nz  fo fb puoth ]4(;,∗<6h ,6)

k)   L  4 7rsfoαsfoϊnr  + rkhsαsfoϊn α  + rkhsϊnϊ  fo fb puoth ]4(;,<6h , <6= )

k)  ∗
n) ]nrn khhrlfonlns rfktnoeubnrfs
rfktnoeubnrfs33

∅ • L  4 ( ∇L
∇x
x
 +
 ∇ Ly  ∇ Lz
∇y
 +
∇z
 )

Knbkubnolh fb ernl`fotf fo knln khdphofotf3

∇L x ∇ Y  z>7 (>=

(>=xyz )T   ∇ Y z> >=xy
xyz)T >=xyTT y
∇x   4 ∇x   4 ∇x   4 >= z
∇L y ∇ Y  z>7 6x7 z T
 4   4=
∇y ∇y
∇L z ∇ Y  z>7 (7
(7zz ; 6x7 y )T
∗ ∇ Y7z
Y7z ∗  z> (6x
7 (6x7 y)T  >=x
 >= x7 y
 4   4   4 7+
∇z ∇z ∇z z;

Wffdpbnznolh fo  ∅ • L3
  >=
>=yy  >=x
 >= x7 y
∅• L  4   +7+
z z;
 >=yy
 >=  x 7
L  4 7 +   (> + 7 )
∅• z z
Fvnbunolh ]4(-7,;,6)3
7
∅ • L  4 7 +  >=(;)
6
  (> +
 ( ∗7)
67

>:
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

∅ • L  4 1,0:
g) ]nrn khhrlfonl
khh rlfonlns
ns k`b¼
k`b¼ľolr`kns3
ľolr`k ns3

∅ • L  4 ( ώ> ∇ (ώL
∇x
ώ)
  +
  > ∇L ϊ  ∇ Lz
ώ ∇ϊ
 +
∇z
 )

Knbkubnolh fb ernl`fotf fo knln khdphofotf3

> ∇ (ώLώ )   > ∇ (ώ6z 7 )   6z 7

  4   4
ώ ∇ώ ώ ∇ώ ώ
> ∇L ϊ   > ∇ (=)
(=)
 4  4=
ώ ∇ϊ ώ ∇ϊ
∇L z   ∇ (>=ώz
(>=ώz))
 4   4 >=ώ
>=ώ
∇z ∇z
Wffdpbnznolh fo  ∅ • L3 7
∅ • L 4   6ώz   + >=ώ
>= ώ

Fvnbunolh ]4(;,-<6h ,6)3 

  6 67
∅• L  4
;
  + >=(;)

∅• L  4 5>
5>,,:5

k) ]nrn khhrlfonl
khh rlfonlns
ns fsj¼fr`kns3
fr`kns 3
 > ∇ (r 7 Lr )   > ∇ (sfoαLα )   > ∇L ϊ
∅• L  4 ( 7   +   +  )
r ∇r rsfoα ∇α rsfoα ∇ϊ

rsfoαsfoϊTT   > ∇r ; sfoαsfoϊ   > 7

> ∇ (r 7 Lr )   > ∇ Yr 7 7rsfoαsfoϊ
  4 7   4 7   4 7 :r sfoαsfoϊ
sfoαsfoϊ 4
 4 :sfoαsfoϊ
r7 ∇r r ∇r r ∇r r

> ∇ (sfoαLα )   > ∇ Ysfoα

sfoα((rkhsαsfoϊ
rkhsαsfoϊ)T
)T
  4
rsfoα ∇α rsfoα ∇α
  > ∇ (rsfoϊsfoαkhsα
rsfoϊsfoαkhsα   )
4
rsfoα ∇α
 sfoϊ
4 sfoα (khs7 α sfo7 α)
∗
  sfoϊ
 khs(7αα)
 khs(7
4
sfoα
> ∇L ϊ   > ∇ (rkhsϊ
rkhsϊ))   >
rsfoα ∇ϊ
 4
rsfoα ∇ϊ
  4
rsfoα
 ( rsfoϊ)
rsfoϊ) 4 ∗ ∗ sfoϊ
sfoα
Wffdpbnznolh fo  ∅ • L3
∅ • L  4 :sfoαsfoϊ +  sfoϊ
sfoα
 khss (7α
 kh (7α) ∗
 sfoϊ
sfoα

∅ • L  4 :sfoαsfoϊ +  sfoϊ
sfoα
(khs (7α) ∗ >)
(khs (7α

Fvnbunolh ]4(;,<6h ,∗<6h )3

 sfo((∗<6)
 sfo
∅ • L  4 :sfo
sfo(<6)
(<6)sfo
sfo((∗<6) +   (khs
khs0=
0= ∗ >)
sfo(<6)
sfo(<6)
∅ • L 4 ∗7
>5
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

;.7; Von knren puotunb   ^   fstn fo fb hr`efo. Lfdhstrnr quf

l`vL  fs kfrh fo kunbqu`fr pnrtf quf oh sfn fb hr`efo. g) Wfd-
pbnznr bn knren puotunb kho bn lfos`lnl lf knren vhbud¼ vhbud¼ftr`kn
ftr`kn
uo`jhrdf lf   ώvh   pnrn   =  2 r 2 n. Fstngbfkfr uon rfbnk`¼ h
hoo fo-
trf   ώvh   y   ^   y   n  lf tnb jhrdn quf bn knren thtnb sfn bn d`sdn.
Fokhotrnr   l`vL  fo kunbqu`fr puoth.

n)
∅L 4  r>7 ∇r∇  (r7 <  ύr
^
7
)4=

Fsth fs vfrlnlfrh s`fdprf y kunolh  r ?  =. Kunolh r

Kunolh  r  4 = tfofdhs uon s`oeubnr`lnl fo L
fo  L
g)
<
( )ύn ; ώvh  4 ^
 4  ^
;
  ;^
ώvh  4
<ύn ;
 <
<ύr 7 Lr   4 ύn ;
;
  ^;r
ώvh  4
n;

Lr  4  <^r
ύn ;
;
∅L  4  r>7 ∇r∇  ( ^r
<ύn ;
) 4
  ;^
<ύn ;
  <
L  4  
nr
<ύr 7
Kunolh bn knren fstn jufrn lf bn fsjfrn bn l`vfrefok`n fs =

;.7< Lfotrh lf `o k`b`olrh ,;   2 p 2   <d,fb ﬇uch lf lfos`lnl

fbfktr`kh fstn lnlh phr

L  4 6(
6( p
 p ∗ ;);
Kunb fs fb vhbudfo ,lfos`lnl lf knren fo p 4 <d8

 >  l   >  l 6( p ∗ ;)

  6( p 7
 pZ    4
 pZ  .L
.L 4
 4 . (ώLώ
ώLώ)) 4 . (6 ώ( p ∗ ;)7 ) 4
(6ώ   .(<ώ
(<ώ ∗ ;) 4 >:,
>:,7
ώ lp ώ lp ώ
Kunb fs bn lfok`lnl lf ﬇uch fbfktr`kh n 4 <d

L(<) 4 6=ώ
6=ώ

^uf tnoth lf ﬇uch fbfktr`kh lfch bn supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln ; 2

;  2 ώ 2  5,
 5 , =  2 ϊ 2  7ύ, ∗
 7 ύ, 7,6  2 z 2  7,
 7 ,6

ϊ  4 Y7,
Y7,6 ∗ 7,6T ∕ 7ύ ∕ < ∕ 6 4 7==ύk
7==ύk

Kunotn knren
]hr bn fst¼
bfy lf n khotfo`ln
enuus sfn bh fo fb vhbudfo
d`sdh lfb htrhusnlh
﬇uch fo f8oufvh 7==ύk
h lf 7== ύk

>1
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

;.76
.76 Lfo
Lfotrh
trh lf bn ¼ h
hrg`tn
rg`tn fsj¼
fsj¼
f
fr`kn
r`kn lf﬎o`ln
lf﬎o`ln phr ;   2r   2<d,
bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh fst¼ n lnln phr L 4 6(r-;);   nr
K/d7. n) ¸Ku¼ nb
nb fs bn lfos`lnl vhbud¼
vhbud¼ftr`kn
ftr`kn lf knren fo r 4
<8 g) ¸Ku¼
¸Ku ¼
nb
nb fs bn lfos
lfos`l
`lnl
nl lf ﬇uch
﬇uc h fb¼
fktr`
fktr`kh
kh fo r 4 <8
< 8 k) ¸^u¼
¸^u¼
f
knot`l
kno t`lnl
nl lf ﬇uch
﬇uch fb
fb¼
¼
fktr`k
fktr`khh ngnolh
ngnolhon on bn fsjfrn
fsjfrn fo r 4 <8 l)
¸Ku¼ notn
notn knren fst¼ n khotfo`ln fo bn fsjfrn r 4 <8.

L  4 6(
6(rr ∗ ;);hr d  k7
n)

] v  4 .L
 > l
4 7 (r7 Y6( Y6(rr ;)7 T)
∗
r lr
 6  k
] v  4 (r ;)7 (6
∗ (6rr :) ; ∗
r d
r  4 <
] v  4 6(< ∗ ;)7(7= ∗ :)
4 >5
>5,,6=
g)
L  4 < fo r 4
r  4 <
;  k
L(<) 4 6(< ∗ ;) 46
d7
k)
Ϊ 4 <ύ (r 7 )L
Ϊ 4 <ύ (r7 )(6)
Ϊ 4 ;7=ύ
;7=ύ YK T
l)
  ^
L  4 nr
<ύr 7
6(<ύ )(<)7 4 ;7=ύ
^  4 6(<ύ ;7=ύ

;.7: Lnlh fsb kndph

  6sfoαkhsϊ
  nr K/d 7
L  4
r
Knbkunbnr. n)Bn lfos`lnl lf knren vhbudftr`kn. g) Bnknren
thtnb khot`o`ln lfotrh lf bn rfe`ho pnr r  7d. k) Fb vnbhr lf ≬
L fo bn supfr﬎k`f r47.l) Fb ﬇uch fbfktr`kh thtnb quf snbf lf
bn supfr﬎k`f r47.
]nrn hgtfofr fb vnbhr lf bn lfs`lnl lf knren vhbudftr`kn tfofdhs quf3

ώv   4  l`v
 l`vLL

Lnlh quf fb kndph L sf fokufotrn fo khhrlfonlns fsjfr`kns nlfdns phr su fxprfs`ho

shbh prfsfotn nphrtf bn khhrlfonln rnl`nb tfofdhs quf bn l`vfrefok`n lf L fs3

>0
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

  > ∇  r 7 6sfoαkhsϊ   6sfoαkhsϊ

l`vL
l`v L  4 7 (   )4 7
  K/d ;
r ∇r r r
Lf lholf sf t`fof quf bn lfos`lnl lf knren vhbudfotr`kn fs3
  6sfoαkhsϊ
ώv   4 7
  K/d ;
r
]nrn hgtfofrb fb vnbhr lf bn knren lf bn fkunk`ho (7=) khohkfdhs fb vnbhr lf bn lfsos`lnl
lf knren vhbudftr`kn nlfdns sngfdhs quf3

lq  4 ώ
 4  ώ v lv

Lholf fb l`jfrfok`nb lf lv fs fskr`th khdh3

lv
lv 4  r 7 lrlαlϊ
 4 r

Lf lholf `otfernolh bn fkunk`ho (7>) khohk`folh bn fxprfs`ho lfb l`jfrfok`nb lv tfofdhs

quf bn knren fstn lnln phr3

^  4
     
  7ύ  ύ  7
6sfoαkhsϊ 7
µ µ µ
  r lr lα lϊ
ϊ4= α 4= r4= r7

ohtfdhs quf fo bn fkunk`ho < phlfdhs s`dpb`﬎knr fb vnbhr lf  r 7 quflnolnolhohs3

  7ύ  ύ  7
^  4 6sfoαkhsϊ lr lα lϊ
     
ϊ4= α4= r4= µ µ µ
]hr htrh bnlh ohtfdh quf fb  khsϊ
 khsϊ fstn
 fstn vnr`nolh fo = y 7ύ
7 ύ  phr s` sf `otfern phr `otfernbfs
`tfrnl fstn ohs lnrn fb vnbhr lf kfrh phr bh kunb tf ofdhs quf3

^  4 =K 

Ohtfdhs quf pnrn kunbkubnr L

kunbkubnr  L pnrn
 pnrn r47 gnstn kho rfdpbnsnr fb vnbhr lf r fo bn fkunk`holf
fb kndph lnlh quf fstf sf fokufotrn fo juko`ho lf r.
  6sfoαkhsϊ
L  4   nr K/d7
r
\fofdhs pnrn r473
  6sfoαkhsϊ
L(r  4
 4 7
 7)) 4   nr K/d 7
7

]nrn hotfofr fb vnbhr lf ﬇uch fbfktr`kh shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f r47 fdpbfndhs bn s`euf`otf
fkunk`ho3  
ρ  4 Ls l[ 4  4 knrensupfrj`k`nb
 knrensupfrj`k`nb 4
 4 ^
 ^
s
Lf lholf lnlh quf bn fkunk`ho (76) prfsfotn rf bn k`ho kho bn knren ^
knren  ^ y
 y fstn thdn fb vnbhr
lf = phlfdhs khdkbu`r quf fb ﬇uch shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f kunolh r47 tndg`fo sfrn =.

ρ  4
  Ls l[  4 =
s

;.75 [fn   L   4 6,==r7 nr dK/d7 r  ≬   =,=1d   y   L   4 =,7=6nr /r7uK/d7

≦
pnrn   r =,=1d
n)Fokhtrnr   pv  pnrn r 4 =.=:d

g) Fokhtrnr   pv  pnrn r 4 =.=1d

n)
∗
  i
>= Õ >= >7 4
>=∗i

7=
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

∗
K 
I   4
47 Õ >= >6
d
ώv   4 ∊.L

  >  l
ώv   4 . (ώ.Lώ
ώ.Lώ))
ώ lώ
  >  l
ώv   4 . (7= ώ< )
(7=ώ
ώ lώ
  K 
ώv  4 1=ώ7
1=ώ
d;
g)
 > l i
ώv   4 (ώ )
ώ lp ώ
ώv   4 =

;.71 [fn   L   4 7=ώ7n p   Yo/Kd7T. n) ¸Ku¼

;.71 [fn ¸Ku¼
nb
nb fs bn lfos`l
lfos`lnl
nl vh-
bud¼ftr`kn lf knren fo fb puoth   ] (=,69:==9 7)8)
ftr`kn

L  4 ώ
 4  ώv

∅ µ L  4∅  µώ> ∇ώ∇  (ώ ∕ 7=ώ

7=ώ7 )

∅ µ L  4   ώ> ∇ώ∇  (7=ώ; )

(7=ώ

∅ µ L  4   ώ> (:=
(:=ώώ7 )

∅ µ L 4 := ώoK/d;
:=ώoK/d
Fo   ] 
Fo (=,,69:=h 9 7)
] (=
∅ µ L  4 :=(=,
:=(=,6) oK/d;
6)oK/d
∅ µ L  4 ;= oK/d;
;=oK/d

;.70 Fo uon rfe`¼ h

hoo  7lfb fspnk`h b`grf sf fokufotrn
  K 
fb vhbudfo
7  2 x, y,  z 2  ; , L 4 z (yzyzn
7nx + xzn y 7xynz ) d  . n) Fvnbunr fb bnlh
∗ 7

lf bn `otfernb vhbud¼ ftr`kn

ftr`kn lfb tfhrfdn lf l`vfrefok`n
l`vfrefok`n pnrn fb
vhbudfo
vh budfo lf﬎o`lh
lf﬎o`lh nqu¼ nqu¼ľ. g) Fvnbunr
Fvnbunr fb bnlh lf bn `otfern
`otfernbb lf
supfr﬎k`f pnrn bn supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln khrrfsphol`fotf.
n) Fvnb¼
u
uff fb bnlh `otfernb lfb vhbudfo lfb tfhrfdn lf l`vfrefok`n pnrn fb vhbudfo
lf﬎o`lh notfr`hrdfotf3 fo knrtfs`noh, fokhotrndhs .L  4   1zxy
.L 4  ∅
;   . Fb bnlh `otfernb
`otfernb lfb
vhbudfo fs nahrn3
  ∅ µ Llv   4
     
 ;  ;  ;
1xy
  lxlylz
vhb 7 7 7 z;
>  >
4 (0 <)(0 ∗ ∗ <) < 0
  ∗ 
4 ;,<5Y
<5YK 
K T

7>
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

g) Fvnb¼
uf
uf fb bnlh `otfernb lf bn supfr﬎k`f pnrn bn supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln khrrfsphol`fotf3
bbndndhs n bns supfr﬎k`fs fo x 4 ; yx 4 7 bns supfr﬎k`fs jrhotnb y phstfr`hr rfs-
pfkt`vndfotf, bns lf y 4 ; f y 4 7 bns supfr﬎k`fs lfrfkan f `zqu`frln, y bns lf z
4 ; y z 4 7 bns supfr﬎k`fs supfr`hr f `ojfr`hr. ]nrn fvnbunr fb bnlh `otfernb lf bn
supfr﬎k`f, `otferndhs L   o fo bns sf`s supfr﬎k`fs y sudndhs bhs rfsubtnlhs
 rfsubtnlhs.. \foen
\foen
fo kufotn quf lnlh quf fb khdphofotf x lf L oh vnr¼ vnr¼ľn kho x, bhs ﬇uchs fxtfrohs
lfslf bns supfr﬎k`fs jrhotnb y phstfr`hr sf knokfbnr¼nono fotrf s¼ľľ.. Bh d`sdh fs k`frth
pnrn bns supfr﬎k`fs
sup fr﬎k`fs `zqu`frln ;: y lfrfkan, yn quf Ly oh vnr¼
vnr¼ľn kho y. Fsth lfcn shbh
bns supfr﬎k`fs supfr`hr f `ojfr`hr, lholf fst¼no
no bhs ﬇uchs3

    L l[    4
µ
    ∗
 ;
<xy
 
 ;
lxly
 ;
∗
    ∗ ;
<xy
  lxly
7 7 ;7 7 7 ;7

4 (0 <)(0 <) ∗ >  >

∗
  ∗ 
< 0
4 ;,<5Y
<5YK 
K T

;.;= [fn L  4 7=ώ7 nώ  o /Kd7 . n) ¸Ku¼

¸Ku¼ nb
nb fs bn lfos
lfos`l
`lnl
nl vhbud¼
vhbud¼ftr`
ft r`--
kn lf knren fo fb puoth   ] (=,6, :=◪ , 7)8 g) Vt`b
Vt`b`znr
`znr lhs d¼fthlhs
fth lhs
l`jfrfotfs pnrn fokhotrnr bn knot`lnl lf knren lfotrh lf bn
supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln b`d`tnln phr   ώ  4 ;,   = z  7
≬  ≬
n) Vsnolh bn pr`dfrn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf Dnxwfbb  ∅  . L 4 ώv , tfofdhs
ώv   4 ∅ µ L 4  ώ>7 lώl (ώ7Lώ) 4  ώ>7 lώl (7=
(7=ώώ< ) 4 1=ώ  dK//d;
1=ώ  dK

khdh ώ
khdh  ώ 4
 4 =,6
ώv  4 1=(=, dK/d;
1=(=,6) 4 <= dK/

g) Vsnolh bfy lf Enuss ^

Enuss  ^ 4
 4
  [  L.l[ , tfofdhs
s`
s` ώ
 ώ 4
 4 ;

^  4
   
 7   7ύ
7
7=(;) (;)
(;)lϊlz
lϊlz 4
 4 6<=
   
 7   7ύ
lϊlz 4
lϊlz  4 6<=(<ύ
6<=(<ύ ) 4 :516,
:516,1< K
= = = =

;.;> Lnln bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch L   4   >: r   khs(7α )n α K/d 7

, ut`b`znr
lhs d¼ fthlhs
fthlhs l`jfrfotfs
l`jfrfotfs pnrn fokhotrnr
fokhotrnr bn knren thtnb lfotrh
ho   >  2 r 2  7 d,   >  2 α 2  7 rnl,   >  2 ϊ 2  7 rnl .
lf bn rfe`¼
ho
[hbuk`¼
h
ho
o

Vsndhs fb tfhrfdn lf bn l`vfrefok`n y pr`dfrh fvnbundhs fb bnlh lf bn `otfernb lf su-

pfr﬎k`f.. Fstndhs fvnbunolh
pfr﬎k`f fvnbunolh fb ﬇uch fxtfroh
fxtfroh ofth n trnv¼
trnv¼ffss lf uo kugh±
k±ugh±kurv`b¼
kur v`b¼ľofh,
ľofh , kuyhs
kuyh s
b¼ľd
ľd`t
`tfs
fs fst
fst¼no
¼no lf﬎o`lhs phr bhs rnoehs fspfk`﬎knlhs. [`o fdgnreh, bns khotr`guk`hofs lf
﬇uch sfr¼no
no shbh n trnv¼fs
fs lf bns supfr﬎k`fs lf khostnotf α
khostnotf α,, yn quf L
quf  L  shbh t`fof uon khdph-
ofotf   α. Fo uon supfr﬎k`f 
ofotf supfr﬎k`f   α  khostnotf, fb ¼nrfn
nrfn l`jfrfok`nb fs 
fs   ln
ln 4
 4  rs`oα
 rs`oαlrl
lrlϊϊ, lholf 
lholf   α   sf
﬎cn fo bn ug`knk`¼hoho lf bn supfr﬎k`f. Oufstrh ﬇uch `otfernb sf khov`frtf fo3

77
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

  •
  L l[   4
4 ∗
 
 7   7
>:
  khs (7
(7))r s`o
s`o (>)lrlϊ
(>)lrlϊ +
   
 7  7
>:
  khs (<)
(<)r s`
s`o
o (7)lrlϊ
(7)lrlϊ
> > r > > r
   α4>
    α47
 
4 ∗>:Ykhs(7)s`o(>) ∗ kh
khss (<)s`o (7)T
(7)T

4 ∗;,0>
0>K 
K 

Bufeh fvnbundhs fb bnlh `otfernb lfb vhbudfo lfb tfhrfdn lf l`vfrefok`n, lholf fo fstf
knsh3

∅ • L  4 r s`o>αlα lαl (s`o αLα )

4
  > l >:

  khs7
khs7αα s`o α

r s`o αlα lα r

4 7

  >: khs7α
khs7α khs α
  ∗ 7s`o7
7s`o7αα

r s`o α

Nahrn fvnbundhs3

  ∅ •       
L  4
 7  7  7
>: khs7α
khs7α khs α
  ∗ 7s`o7
7s`o7αα
 r 7 s`o αlrlαlϊ
vhb > > > r7 s`o α

      4
 7  7  7
>:Ykhs7αα khs α
>:Ykhs7 ∗ 7s`o7
7s`o7αα s`o αT lrlαlϊ
> > >

  ∗ 41
 7
Y;khs;αα
Y;khs; khs αT lα
>

4 ∗;,0>
0>K 
K 

7;
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knp¼ľtubh <
<.> Fb vnbhr lf F fo   ] (ώ  4 7, ϊ  4 <=◪ , z   4 ;)  fs
 fst¼
t¼
n lnlh
lnlh phr
F  4 (>==nώ 7==nϊ  + ;==nz )Z /d  Lftfrd`onr fb trngnch `okrf-
∗
dfotnb rfqufr`lh pnrn dhvfr uon knren lf  7=¶K  uon   uon l`stnok`n
lf   :¶d3

n) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n ώ
g) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n ϊ

k) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n z

l) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf F
lf  F

f) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf F
lf  F  4 (7
(7n
nx ∗ ;ny + <n
< nz )

[hbuk`¼
h
ho
o

n) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n ώ 3

Fb trngnch `okrfdfotnb fst¼n lnlh phr   lU  

lU   4  ∗q F µ lB, lholf fo fstf knsh,   lB   4
lώ
lώnnώ  4 : >=∗: nώ . Ns¼ľ3
Õ
:
lU   4
lU   ∗(7= Õ >= ∗
K )(>==Z
)(>==Z /d)(:
/d)(: Õ >=:d)
∗ 0
4 ∗>7 Õ >= C 

4 ∗>7
>7oC 
oC 

g) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n ϊ 3

Fo fstf knsh, l
knsh,  lB
B  4 7lϊ
lϊn
nϊ  4 : Õ >= :n
∗
ϊ. Fothokfs3
∗: :
lU    4
lU  ∗(7= Õ >= )( 7==)(:
∗ Õ >= )
∗ 1
4 7,< Õ >= C 

4 7<
7<oC 
oC 

k) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf n
lf  n z 3

Nqu¼ľ,  l
 lBB  4 7lzn
lz nz   4 : Õ >= :n .
∗
Fothokfs3
ϊ

:
lU    4
lU  ∗(7= Õ >= ∗
)(;==)(: Õ >=:)
∗ 1
4 ∗;,: Õ >= C 

4 ∗;:
;:oC 
oC 

7<
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

l) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf F
lf  F33

Nqu¼ľ,  l
 lBB  4 : Õ >= :n .
∗
Lholf3
F 

  >==n
>==nώ
nF   4 ∓  ∗7 7==
7==nnϊ  + ;==n
7
;==nz
7
>== + 7== + ;==

4 =,7:5
7:5nnώ ∗ =,6;6
6;6nnϊ  + =,
= ,1=7
1=7nnz

kho bh quf

:
∗ :
∗
lU    4
lU  ∗(7= Õ >= )Y>==n
)Y>==nώ ∗ 7==
7==nnϊ + ;==n
;==nz T µ Y=,
Y=,7:5
7:5n
nώ ∗ =,6;6
6;6nnϊ  + =,
= ,1=7
1=7nnz T (: Õ >= )

4 ∗<<
<<,,0oC 

f) Fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho lf E
lf  E 4
 4 (7
(7nnx ∗ ;ny + <n
< nz )3

Fo fstf knsh, l
knsh,  lB
B  4 : Õ >= :n .
∗
Lholf3
E

nE  4 ∓  ∗
  7nx ;ny  + <n< nz
77 + ; 7 + < 7

4 =,;5>
;5>nnx ∗ =,665
665nny  + =,
= ,5<;
5<;nnz

P nahrn

:
∗ ∗ :
lU    4
lU  ∗(7= Õ >= )Y>==n
)Y>==nώ ∗ 7==
7==nnϊ + ;==n
;==nz T µ Y=,
Y=,;5>
;5>n
nx ∗ =,665
665nny  + =,
= ,5<;
5<;nnz T (: Õ >= )

:
∗ :
∗
4 ∗(7= Õ >= )Y;5,,>(
)Y;5 >(nnώ nx )µ ∗ 66
66,,5(nώ µ ny ) ∗ 5<,
5(n 7(nϊ µ nx ) + >>>,
5<,7(n <(nϊ µ ny ) + 777,
>>>,<(n 777,0T(: Õ >= )

Lholf, n ], (n
(nώ nx ) 4 (nϊ ny ) 4  khs (<=◪ ) 4 =,5::
 khs(<=
µ µ
µ
(nώ ny ) 4  s`o (<=◪ ) 4 =,:<;
 s`o(<=

◪
(nϊ µ nx ) 4 ∗s`o(<= ) 4 ∗=,:<;
s`o(<=

[ust`tuyfolh fsths rfsubtnlhs3

lU    4
lU  ∗(7= Õ >=:)Y71
)Y71,,< ∗ ;6
;6,,1 + <5,
<5,5 + 16, 777,0T(: Õ >=: )
16,; + 777,

4 ∗<>
<>,,1oC 

76
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.7 Vo kndph
kndp h fst¼ n lnlh p hr3  F   4 >=fy (sfo(7z )nx +xsfo(7z )ny +
∗
7xkhs(7z )nz )  n) Fokhotrnr F fo ](6,=,ύ/ >7) g)¸Kug)¸Ku¼ ¼
noth
noth trngn
trn gnchch
sf rfnb`zn fo dhvfr uon knren lf 7oK n uon l`stnok`n `okrf-
dfotnb lf >dd lfslf ] fo bn l`rfkk`¼ ho
h o lf   nx 8 k)¸lf   ny 8 l)
¸lf   nz 8 f) ¸lf   (nx +  ny  +  nz )8

n)  F ]]    4 ∗>=
>=ff= sfo 7   ύ nx  + 6sfo
 ∕  ∕  6 sfo 7   ύ ny  + 7(6)khs
∕   7(6)khs 7   ύ nz
>7 >7 >7

F ]]    4

>= sfo
∗
    ύ  
nx  + 6sfo
6 sfo
ύ
ny  + >=khs
>= khs
ύ
nz
: : :
    ∓   
>  > ;
F ]]    4∗ >= ∕ nx  + 6
∕ ny  + >= nz
7 7 7
∓ 
F ] 
]   4 ∗Y6n
Y6nx  + 76n
76 ny  + 6= ;nz T

g)  lU x  4
∗qF .lB nx
U x  4 ∗7 ∕ >= 0 (∗6)(>= ; d)
∗ ∗

U x  4 > >=∗>> C 

∕∕
U x  4 >= >=∗>7 C 
U x  4 >= pC 

∗qF .lB ny
k)  lU y   4
U y   4 ∗7 ∕ >= 0 (∗76)(>= ; d)
∗ ∗

U y  4 6 ∕ >= >> C  ∗

U y   4 6= ∕ >= >7 C  ∗

U y   4 6=
6= pC 
 pC 

l)   lU z   4 qF .lB nz
U z   4 ∗7 ∕ >= 0∗(∗6=∓ ;)(>=
∗ ∗;
d)
∓ 
U z   4 ; ∕ >= >= C  ∗

∓ 
U z  4 >== ; ∕ >= >7 C  ∗

∓ 
U z  4 >== ; pC 

f)  lU xyz
xyz   4 ∗qF .lB   (nx + ∓ 
ny  + nz )
;
Khovfrt`dhs nb vfkthr fo uo vfkthr uo`tnr`h3

  (>= + 6= + >== ;)
∓ 
U xyz
xyz   4
;
∓ 
U xyz
xyz  4 >;6 pC 

7:
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.; [`  F 4 >7=nώ Z/d, fokhotrnr bn knot`lnl lf trngnch `okrf-

dfotnb rfnb`znlh pnrn dhvfr uon knren lf 6=   ¶K  uon l`stno-
k`n lf 7 dd lf3   n )   ] (>, 7, ;)  ank`n   ^(7, >, <)   9   g)   ^(7, >,   <)  ank`n
] (>, 7, ;)   .
[` F 4 >7=nώ Z/d, fokhotrnr bn knot`lnl `okrfdfotnb lf trngnch rfnb`znlh nb dhvfr uo
6=
6= ¶
 ¶d
d knrenr uon l`stnok`n lf 7 dd lfslf3

n)   ] 
n) ] (>
(>,, 7, ;)
;)   ank`n 
ank`n   ^(7
(7,, >, <)
<)   3

Fb vfkthr n bh bnreh lf fstn l`rfkk`¼ho

∓  ho sfr¼n  ^ ]   4 (>,
∗ ]   (>,   ∗>, >) n pnrt`r lfb kunb n ] ^  4
Ynx ny  + n z T/ ;. Nahrn fskr`g`dhs
∗
lU    4
lU  ∗q F µ lB 4 ∗(6= Õ >= ∗ :
)Y>7=nώ µ  (n x ∗∓ n;y + n z T(7 Õ >= ;
∗
)

:  >
4 ∗(6= Õ >= ∗
∗ (nώ µ ny )T ∓ 
)(>7=)Y(nώ nx ) µ (7 Õ >= ; ) ∗

;
N ], ϊ  4 tno∗ > (7
(7/ :;,<h . ns¼ľ (nώ µnx ) 4 khs(:;,
/>) 4 :;, khs(:;,<) 4 =,
=,<<5 y (nώ µny ) 4 s`o(:;,
s`o(:;,<) 4 =,
=,10<.
[ust`tuyfolh fsths, Hgtfofdhs quf lU 
quf  lU    4 ;,>¶C.

g)   ^(7
g)  (7,, >, <) 
<)   ank`n 
ank`n   ] 
] (>
(>,, 7, ;)
;)33

Nqu¼ľ fs ofkfsnr`h pfosnr uo p

Nqu¼ phkh3
hkh3 tfoen fo kufotn kufotn quf fb kndph shbh t`fof uo khdph- ∓ 
ofotf rnl`nb y oh lfpfolf lf  lf   ϊ   h   z . Ohtf tndg`fo quf  quf   ]  
]   y   ^  sho lfb d`sdh rnl`h ( 6)
lfslf fb fcf z
fcf  z  , pfrh sf t`fof l`jfrfotfs khhrlfonlns ϊ
khhrlfonlns  ϊ  y  z  z.. \ndg`¼fo fo phlr¼
ph lr¼ľľndhs
nd hs khb
khbhk
hknr
nr bhs
lhs puoths fo bn d`sdn ug`knk`¼ug`knk`¼ho z
ho  z  y fb prhgbfdn
prhgb fdn oh kndg`nr¼ľn. ľn. [` fsth jufrn ns¼
ns¼ľ, fothokfs
dhvfrsf
dhv frsf n bh bnreh lf uon b¼ľofn rfktn fotrf fotrf   ] 
∓  ]    y   ^   `dpb`knr¼
`dpb`knr¼ľn dhvfrsf n bh bnreh lf uo
nkhrlf lf uo k¼ľrkubh kuyh rnl`h r nl`h fs 6. N bn d`tnl lf fstn b¼ľofn any uo puoth lf s`dftr¼ľn ľn
fo fb kndph (anen uo ghkfth gh kfth pnrn vfr fsth). Fsth s`eo`﬎kn quf nb khdfoznr lfslf kunbqu kunbqu`fr
`fr
puoth, bn jufrzn `o`k`nb sfr¼n bn d`sdn. Fothokfs bn rfspufstn fs fs   lU  
lU   4 ;,>¶C khdh fo bn
pnrtf   n. Fsth tndg`¼
pnrtf fo
fo sf fokufotrn
fokufotrn nb pnsnr phr p hr fb d`sdh prhkfl`d`foth
prhkfl`d`foth quf fo bn pnrtf
n, pfrh kho bn l`rfkk`¼ho ho (rhbfs lf ] 
lf  ]    y  ^)
 ^ ) `ovfrt`lhs.

<.< [f an v`sth quf bn fofre¼

fofre¼ľn ofkfsnr`n
ofkfsnr`n pnrn bbfvnr
bbfvnr uon knr-
en lf   <   ¶K   lfslf
lfslf fb hr`e fo   (x9=9=)   n bh bnreh lfb fcf x fs
hr`efo
l`rfktndfotf prhphrk`honb nb kunlrnlh lf bn bhoe`tul lf bn
trnyfkthr`n. [`   F x   4 5   Z /d   fo  (>9=9=), lftfrd`of   F x   shgrf fb
fcf x khdh juok`¼ ho
h o lf x.

F  4 Q  ∗↗
 4  Q nx  + P ny  + S nz ∗↗ ∗↗
U 
U    4 ∗
  µ
q    F  lB
lB 4
 4 ∗>= ∗ >:
  =
µ
x lx +
 
 =
µ
y ly
ly +
 +
 
 =
µ
z lz
lz 4
 4 >,6Y¶C 
6Y¶C T
> > >
Fo ώ
Fo  ώ 4
 4 79
79 ϊ
 ϊ 4
 4 =9 ώ
=9  ώ 4
 4 79 ϊ  4 0=µ
79  ϊ 4
  ύ
7
∗>=
U 
U    4 (Q ∗↗x + P ∗↗
n ∗:
ny  + S ∗
↗
nz )ώlϊnώ
=

Kunolh ώ
Kunolh  ώ 4
 4 79, n
 
79,  n x µ nϊ  4 ∗ s`o ϊ  y  n z µ nϊ  4 = nlfd¼ns x
ns  x  4 7 khs
khs ϊ  y  y  4 7s`o ϊ.
  ∗  ύ
7
:
U 
U    4 ∗>= ∗
Y (7)7 khs ϊ s`o ϊ + 77 s`
s`o
o ϊ khs ϊTnϊ  4 =
=

75
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.6 Kn
<.6 Knbk
bkub
ubnr
nr fb vnbhr
  ] 
] 
nbhr lf N   E lB   pnrn   E   4 7yn x   kho N(>
N(>,-µ
,-
>, 7) y ](7,>,
](7,>,7)
7) ut`b`z
ut`b`znol
nolhh bn trny
trnyfkthr`
fkthr`n3
n3 n) [fedfo
[fedfoth thss lf
b¼ľofn rfkths fotrf bhs puoths N(>,->,7) n G(>,>,7) n ](7,>,7)
g) [fe
[fedf
dfot
oths
hs lf b¼ľofn
ľofn rfk
rfkth
thss fotrf
fotrf bhs puoths
puoths N(>,-
N(>,->,7
>,7)) n
K(7,->,7) n n ](7,>,7)
]nrn bhs lhs knshs, lfg`lh n quf shbh any bn khdphofotf fo x, gusknrfdhs lf quf puoth

n quf puoth fx`stf uo kndg`h fo x3

 
  ] 
E lBµ
lB 4
 4
    ] 
7ylx
N N
n) Fb kndg`h fo bn khhrlfonln sf ln kunolh sf pnsn lf G n ]
    ] 
E lBµ
lB 4
 4
    ] 
7ylx
ylx 4
 4
   7
7(>)lx
7(>) lx 4
 4 7
N G >
g) Fb kndg`h fo bn khhrlfonln sf ln kunolh sf pnsn lf N n K
 
  ] 
E lBµ 4
lB 4
    K 
7ylx  4
ylx 4
   7
7( >)lx
∗>)lx 4
 4 ∗7
N N >

   
<.: Vo kndph
lnlh   Z  (> fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr`kh fstn lnlh khdh
 (>, >, >) 4 >=   YZT. Lftfrd`onr   Z  (; F   
 (;, ;, ;).4  xn x  + < z ny  + <yn z ,

Bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb fstn lnln khdh3

∊Z  
Z   4  Z (;
 Z  (;,, ;, ;) ∗ Z (>
Z (>,, >, >)

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
    ;,;,;
    
F  lb
µ
>,>,>

[f sngf quf  lb

   khrrfspholf n uo l`jfrfok`nb lf bhoe`tul lf﬎o`lh khdh3
lb khrrfspholf
   4 lxn
lb
lb 4  lxn x  + lyny  + lznz

Wffdpbnzndhs
Wffdpbnzndhs bns fxprfs`hofs
fxprfs`hofs pnrn  F 
   y  lb
lb fo
   fo bn fkunk`¼ho
ho (>)3

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
    ;,;,;
(xnx  + <zn
< zn y  + <yn
< ynz ) (lxnx  + lyny  + lzn z )
µ
>,>,>

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
    ;,;,;
< zlyny  + <ylzn
xlxnx + <zlyn < ylznz
>,>,>

L`v`l`rfdhs bn `otfernb fo bns s`eu`fotfs ; `otfernbfs3

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
    ;,;,;
xlx + <zly
<zly +
 + <ylz
< ylz
>,>,>

 ;  ;  ;
∊Z  
Z   4 ∗   xlx +
     <zly
zly +
 + <ylz
> > >

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
    ;     
xlx + <z
<z
 ;
ly
ly +
 + <y
<y
 ;
lz
> > >

71
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

@otfernolh
@otfernolh (7) hgtfofdhs
hgtfofdhs bn s`eu`fotf
s`eu`fotf fxprfs`¼
ho3
ho3

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗(< + <z
<z (7) + <y
<y(7))

Z   4 ∗(< + 1z
∊Z   1z  + 1y
1 y)

[f khohkf quf z
quf  z  4 ; y  y  4 > phr fb fouok`nlh, phr folf nb rffdpbnznr fsths vnbhrfs fo

(;) hgtfofdhs ∊Z 

∊Z 33 ∊Z  
Z   4 ∗(< + 1(;) + 1(>))
∊Z  
Z   4 ∗;:Y
;:YZ 
Z TT

]hr bn fkunk`¼ho
ho (>) sf sngf quf bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb vfolrn lnln phr3

∊Z  
Z   4  Z (;
 Z  (;,, ;, ;) ∗ Z (>
Z (>,, >, >)

Wffdpbnznolh fb vnbhr pnrn bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb hgtfo`lh anbbndhs quf3

∗;: 4 Z (;
 Z  (;,, ;, ;) ∗ Z (>
Z (>,, >, >)

Z (;
Z (;,, ;, ;) 4 ∗;: + >= 4 ∗7:Y
7:YZ 
Z TT

<.5 [fn   E   4 ;xy   + 7nx + 7zny . Lnlh uo puoth `o`k`nb ](7, >,
>) y uo puoth ﬎onb ^(<, ;, >), fokhotrnr   E lB   ut`b`znolh µ
bn trnyfkthr`n3 n) b¼ľofn rfktn3   y   4   x >, z   4 >9 g) pnr¼
pnr ¼
nghbn
ng hbn33 ∗
:y   4  x 7 + 7 , z   4 >
n)
  µ  
  E lb
lb 4
 4
 <
7
;xy lx +
   ;
7zly
7 >
 <  ;
4  ∗ ;x(x >)7 lx +   7(>)ly
7(>) ly
7 >
4 0=
g)
 4  x 7 + 7   , z  4 >   sf
:y  4 x sf hgt`foff  3
hgt`fo
  µ  
  E lb
lb 4
 4
 <
;xy 7 lx +
µ
   ;
7z.ly
7 >

4
   <
>
(x + 7)7 .lx +
  ;
7(>).ly
7(>).ly
7 >7 >
4 17

70
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

 ∗
<.1 Lnlh uo F 4 xnx + yn y  Fokhotrnr fb trngnch pnrn dhvfr
uon knren uo`tnr`n phs`t`vn fo uo nrkh k`rkubnr kfotrnlh fo
 n
fb hr`efo lfslf x4n anstn x4y4 ∓  7

U 
U    4 ∗
 
^   F.lb

rffdpbnznolh
rffdpbnznolh sf t`fof3
t`fof3

U 
U    4 ∗^
    ^>
lrrˊ + rlα αˊ + r s`o(
nr   lrˊ s`o(αα)lϊϊˊ
<ύζ= r 7
Lnln bn s`dftr¼
s`dftr¼ľn, sf rflukf fo, y puflfo snb`r bns
bn s khostnotfs jufrn lf bn `otfernb, khdh
s`euf9

U 
U    4
 ∗^^>    lr
<ύζ = r7
@otfernr kho sus rfspfkt`vhs
rfsp fkt`vhs b¼ľd`tfs3

U 
U    4
 ∗^^>  
  rg
lr
<ύζ= rn r7
J`onbdfotf,

U 
U    4   ^^>  >
 ∗  r>g 
<ύζ= rn

<.0 Von
Vo n lfos`lnl
l fos`lnl vhbud¼ ftr`kn sup fr﬎k`f uo`jhrdf lf 7=oK/d7
ftr`kn lf supfr﬎k`f
sf fokufotrn fo bn supfr﬎k`f lf bn fsjfrn lf rnl`h   r   4 =,:kd
fo fb fspn
fspnk`
k`h
h b`gr
b`grf.
f. n) Fokh
Fokho otrnr
trnr fb phtfo
phtfok` k`nb
nb ngsh
ngshbubuth
th fo
] (r   4 >kd,α  4 76◪, ϊ  4 6=◪ ). g) Fokhotrnr   Z NG NG  lnlhs bhs puoths
N(r  4 7kd,α   4 ;=◪, ϊ  4 :=◪)   y   G (r   4 ;kd,α  4 <6◪ , ϊ  4 0=◪ ).
n) Lnlh quf bn lfos`lnl
lfos`lnl lf knren fs uo`jhrdf
uo`jhrdf y fs fsjfr`kndfo
fsjfr`kndfotf
tf s`d¼ftr`kn,
ftr`kn, bns khhr-
lfonlns noeubnrfs oh `dphrtno.
Bn juok`¼ho
ho phtfok`nb pnrn r
pnrn  r ?  =
 =,,:kd
kd sfrn lf  ^  4 <ύn 7 ώs   h
 sfrn bn lf uon knren puotunb lf ^

  <ύ (=
(=,,:x>=∗7 (7=
(7=xx>=∗0 )
Z (
Z (r ) 4
<ύ = r
  =, =1>
Z (
Z (r) 4   Z 
r
kho  r  fo dftrhs.
kho r
Fo   r  4 >kd
Fo kd tfofdhs
 tfofdhs quf
Z (
Z (r  4 >kd
kd)) 4 1,><Y
><YZ 
Z TT
g) Oufvndfotf bhs noeubhs
¼noeubhs oh `dphrtno lfg`lh n bn s`dftr¼
s`dftr¼ľn fsj¼fr`kn.
fr`kn. Vsndhs n) pnrn
hgtfofr fb rfsubtnlh lf dnofrn quf

Z NG   4  Z N
NG ∗ Z G
 >  >
Z NG   4 =, =1>( =,=7
NG  ∗ =,=; )
Z NG   4 >, ;:Y
NG ;:YZ 
Z TT

;=
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.7= Fxprfsf fb kndph lf phtfok`nb lf uon knren b`ofnb `o-

﬎o`tn n) kho bn rfjfrfok`n kfrh fo   ώ   4   ώ= 9 g) kho   Z   4   Z =   fo
ώ  4  ώ =. k) ¸]uflf bhknb`znrsf bn rfjfrfok`n kfrh fo fb `o﬎o`th8
¸]hr
]hr qu¼f8
n) ]nrn rfnb`znr fb knbkuh lfb kndph lf phtfok`nb tfofdhs bn s`eu`fotf fxprfs`ho.

Z b  4   F  lb lb  4
 4   lώ lώ F 

[f t`fof quf lb
quf  lb 4
 4 lώ
 lώ yn
∗   •
 yn quf fb kndph lf uon knren b`ofnb sf l`str`guyf fo l`rfkk`ho rnl`nb.

Nahrn lfgfrfdhs knbkubnr fb kndph F pnrn dnyhr jnk`b`lnl sf knbkubnrn phr enuss
  •
  F  lN
lN 4
 4
  ώb (b)
lN  F 
=
 
F    lN 4
lN  4
  ώb (b)
=
  ώ (b)
7ύώb)) 4 b
F ((7ύώb
=
  ώb
F   4
4
7ύώ=
Wfdpbnznolh (6) fo (>)
Z b (ώ) 4
  ώb lώ ∗  
7ύώ=
[nknolh thlns bns khostnotfs lf bn `otfernb knbkubnrfdhs bn `otfernb `oprhp`n bn kunb fstn
lnl phr3
  ώb
Z b (ώ) 4 bo
bo((ώ) + K >
∗
7ύώ =
Pn quf Z fs `eunb n = fo ώ
fo  ώ4
4ώ=  knbkubndhs
 knbkubndhs K   K >
  ώb
=4
7ύώ=
bo ∗
bo((ώ= ) + K >

  ώb
K >  4 bo
bo((ώ= )
7ύώ =
Wffdpbnznolh (0) fo (5) y npb`knolh bfyfs lf bhenr`tdhs tfofdhs3 g) ]nrn knbkubnr bn
lfos`lnl lf knren vhbudftr`kn sf t`fof quf3

Z b (ώ) 4   ώb bobo(( ώ= )

7ύώ = ώ
g) [f dnotfolrn thlh fb kndph phtfok`nb fxfpth bn khostnotf yn quf fs htrn `otfernb

Z b (ώ) 4 ∗ 7 ύώ

ώb
=
bo
bo((ώ) + K 7

Kho Z 
Kho  Z    4  Z =   fo
fo ώ
 ώ 4
 4 ώ
 ώ = .
Z =  4 ∗ 7 ύώ
ώb
=
bo
bo((ώ= ) + K 7
  ώb
K 7  4  Z = +
bo
bo((ώ= )
7ύώ=
Wfdpbnznolh (>;) fo (>>) y npb`knolh bfyfs lf bhenr`tdhs.
  ώb ώ=
Z b (ώ) 4 bo
bo((  ) + Z =
7ύώ= ώ
k) Oh sf puflf bhknb`znr bn rfjfrfok`n fo fb `o﬎o`th yn quf fb bhenr`tdh qufln lf bn jhrdn
bo ∟
ώ   fsth ohs ln  ∟
 bh kunb oh fstn lfe﬎o`lh phr bh tnoth oh sf puflf ug`knf bn rfjfok`n
fo fb `o﬎o`th

;>
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.7; [f sngf quf uo phtfok`

<.7; phtfok`nb
nb fst¼
fst¼ lnlh phr   Z    4 1=ώ=,: Z.
n lnlh
[upho`folh khol`k`hofs fo fb fspnk`h b`grf, fokhotrnr3 n) F9
g) bn lfos`lnl
lfos`l nl lf knren vhbud¼ftr`kn fo   ώ  4 =,6  d9 k) bn knren
ftr`kn
thtnb lfotrh lf bn supfr﬎k`f kfrrnln   ώ  4 =,:,   =  2 z 2  >
n) ]nrn knbkubnr fb kndph F sf sngf quf

F   4
4 Z 
∗∅
Lnlh quf Z t`fof shbh uon khdphofotf rnl`nb phlfdhs vfr n Z khdh3

Z  
Z   4 1=
1=ώώ=,: n ώ  + =  n α  + =  n z

Npb`knolh fb ernl`fotf fo khrlfonlns k`b`olr`kns nb phtfok`nb Z tfofdhs quf3

   4
F  4∗ ∇ώ∇  (1=
(1=ώώ=,: )  n ώ

 4 ∗<1
F  4 <1ώ ώ =,< Z/d
∗

g) ]nrn knbkubnr bn lfos`lnl lf knren vhbudftr`kn sf t`fof quf3

4   ώ=v
l`vF   4 y   l`vF   4
4 F 

Lnlh quf F t`fof shbh uon khdphofotf rnl`nb phlfdhs vfr n Z khdh3
∅•
  4
F  4 ∗<1
<1ώ
ώ ∗ =,< n ώ  + =  n α  + =  n z

Npb`knolh bn l`vfrefok`n fo khrlfonlns k`b`olr`kns nb phtfok`nb Z tfofdhs quf3

∅ • F  4 4   ώ> ∇ώ∇ 

(ώF ώ )

 4   ώ> ∇ώ
∅ • F  4 ∇ 
<1ώ=,: )
(∗<1ώ

ώv   4 ∗71 71,,1= ώ >,< ∗

Fvnbunolh  ώ
 ώ 4
 4 =,6d  fo  ώ v
ώv   4 ∗:5; pK/d;
:5; pK/d
k) ]nrn knbkubnr bn knren thtnb lfotrh lf bn supfr﬎k`f pr`dfrh lfvfrfdhs fvnbunr  ώ v   4
=,: fo
fo F 
 F   pp

F ώ  4 <1(=,, :) =,< Z/d

∗<1(= ∗

F ώ  4 ∗61
61,,11 Z/d

]hr bn Bfy lf Enuss tfofdhs quf

  •
  F  lN  4   ^`ot
lN 4 =

Khdh F y lN sho pnrnbfbns fo thlhs bhs puoth F snbf lf bn `otfernb

lN  4   ^`ot
F    lN 4   lN 4
lN  4 7ύώa
  =  
^`ot  4 7ύ ( 61
61,,1)(=∗
1)(=,,:)(>)
:)(>)=

^`ot  4 ∗>,0:
0:¶K 
¶K 

;7
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

<.7< Bn supfr﬎k`f quf lf﬎of bn fkunk`¼ ho   x; +  y 7 +  z   4 >===,

ho
lholf   x,y   y   z  sho phs`t`vns, fs uon supfr﬎k`f fqu`phtfok`nb
fo bn quf fb phtfok`nb fs lf   7==Z . [` F  4 6=Z /d  fo fb puoth  | |
] (5, 76, ;7)  shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f, fokhotrnr F fo fsf puoth.
[ngfdhs quf fb phtfok`nb lfgf tfofr bn jhrdn

Z (x,y,z  4  i > (x; + y 7 + z ) + I 7

x,y,z))  4 i

lholf  i >   y  i 7  sho khostnotfs quf lfgfo sfr hgtfo`lns, s`o fdgnreh  i 7  pnrn fb fcfrk`k`h oh
lholf i
fs ofkfsnr`h.
Anbbndhs
Anbbnd hs fb kndph
kndp h fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh
  ∇Z   ∇ Z   ∇ Z 
F   4
4 ∗∅Z  
Z   4
∇x
 n x  +
∇y
 n y  +
∇z
 n z

4 ;i> x7 n x + 7i
F   4 7 i> yn y  +  n z
Anbbndhs bn dneo`tul lf F   | |
|F | 4 i>
  0x< + <y
<y 7 + >

y khdh sngfdhs quf F  4 6=

6=Z
Z /d fo
/d  fo fb puoth (5,
 | | (5, 76,
76, ;7)

|F | 4 i>   0(5)< + <(76)7 + > 4 6=

0(5)
  6=
i>  4   4 =, ;77
>66,, 75
>66
lf   i>  y fb puoth ] 
n pnrt`r lf  puoth  ] (5
(5,, 76
76,, ;7)

Fp 4
Fp  4 (=,, ;77)(;(5) 7 n z  + 7(76)n y  +  n z
∗(=
Fp  4 ∗(=
Fp 4 (=,, ;77)(><5n z  + 6=n y  +  n z
Fp 4
Fp  4 ∗(<5
(<5,, ;;n z  + >:,
>: , >n y  + =,
= , ;7n z )

<.7: [up¼ hoensf

hoensf quf sf t`fof uo pbnoh kholukthr `dpfrjfkth
lf jhrdn kunlrnln duy lfbenlh lf 7 d lf bnlh, ug`knlh fo fb
pbnoh z 4 = kho uon fsqu`on fo fb hr`efo lf tnb jhrdn quf sf
bhknb`kf thtnbdfotf lfotrh lfb pr`dfr kunlrnotf. Fb phtfok`nb
fo kunbqu`fr puoth lf bn pbnkn fst¼ n lnlh phr Z4 f∗x sfo(y). ∗
n) Vo fbfk
fbfktr
tr¼
h
¼
hoo `oerfsn n bn pbnknphr fb puoth x 4 =, y 4
ύ /; kho uon vfbhk`lnl
vfbhk`lnl `o`k`nb
`o`k`nb lf kfrh9
kfrh9 ¸fo qu¼ f l`rfkk`¼
l`rfkk`¼ho
h o fs
su dhv`d`foth
dhv`d`foth `o`k`nb8 g) Lfg`lh n khb`s`hofs kho pnrt¼pnrt¼ľkubns
fo bn pbnkn fb fbfktr¼h
hoo nbknozn uon vfbhk`lnl rfbnt`vndfotf
gncn y phkn nkfbfrnk`¼ ho
h o (fb trngnch quf fb kndph rfnb`zn fo
fbbn sf khov`frtf fo su dnyhr pnrtf fo knbhr). ]hr bh tnoth, fb
fbfktr¼ho
ho sf dufvf nprhx`dnln
nprhx` dnlndfotf
dfotf fo b¼ľofn rfktn.
rfkt n. ¸Fo qu¼ f
pnrtf fb fbfktr¼
h
ho
o ngnolhon bn pbnkn y fo qu¼
f l`rfkk`¼
ho
ho sf fst¼
n
dhv`folh8
N) ]r`dfrh fokhotrndhs fb fbfktr¼hho
o nshk`nlh quf ln bn phtfok`n.

;;
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

∗ x
F  4
 4 ∗  Z  
Z   4 ∗f Ysfo
sfo((y )nx + khs
khs((y)nyT
nyT
Lfslf quf tfofdhs fb fbfktr¼ho
ho
∓ ;
∗Fnt
Fnt(=
(=,, ύ/;)
ύ/ ;)hh
7
  nx ∗  >7 ny
G)
Fy   ly khs((y )
khs
 4  4   44?
44? x  4   tno(
tno(y)ly
ly 4
 4 @
 @ o(khs
khs((y )) + k
Fx lx sfo((y )
sfo ∗ ∗  
Fo fb puoth (=,
(=, ύ/;),
ύ/ ;), tfofdhs = 4 @
4  @ o(khs
khs((ύ/;))
ύ/ ;)) + K,
+ K, K   4 =, :0. Nahrn kunolh 
kunolh   y   4 =,
fokhotrndhs
x4=,:0 y (=.:0 , =) fb puoth lf snb`ln.
Lfslf bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho fvnbunln fo fb puoth lf snb`ln fokhotrndhs bn l`rfkk`¼ho ho quf fs -ny.

<.75
.75 LhLhss knre
knrens
ns puo
puotun
tunbfs
bfs lf > oK fo (=,= =,=,=.>
,=.>)) y -> oK
(=,=
(=,=,-
,-=.
=.>)
>) sf foku
fokufo
fotr
trno
no fo fb fspn
fspnk`
k`hh b`
b`gr
grf.
f. n) Knbk
Knbkub
ubnr
nr Z
 |  |
fo ](=.;,=,=.<). g)   F  fo ]. k) [up¼h
hoensf
oensf quf bns lhs knrens
jhrdno uo l`phbh fo fb hr`efo, knbkubnr Z fo ]
]nrn lftfrd`onr fb phtfok`nb fo fb puoth ] lfgfdhs hgtfofr fb vfkthr W nb kunb kf
fokufotrn bns knrens rfspfkth lfb puoth ] ns
ns¼¼ľ3
W+ 4(=.;,=,=.<)-(=,=,=.>)4(=.;9=9=.;)
| W + 4=.<7<
|
W∗ 4(=.;,=,=.<)-(=,=,-=.>)4(=.;9=9=.6)
| W + 4=.61;
|
knbkubndhs fb phtfko`nnb khdh 3
  q 
Z  
Z   4
<ύ = W+
 ∗ < ύq =W+
[` rfdpbnzdhs bhs vnbhrfs hgtfo`lhs notfr`hr dfotf sng`folh quf q4 >oK tfofdhs

  >∗0   >∗0
Z  
Z   4
<ύ= =,<7< ∕  ∗ <ύ = =,61;
∕   4 6,51Z 
51Z 

Knbkubndhs fb kndph khdh3

  q 
F   4
4
<ύ = W+
 ∕ nr+ ∗ < ύq =W+ ∕ nr ∗

[` rfdpbnzdhs bhs vnbhrfs hgtfo`lhs notfr`hr dfotf sng`folh quf q4 >oK y bhs uo`tnr`hs
rfspfkt`vhs sf t`fof3

  > >=∗0
∕ ∕   > >=∗0
F   4
4  ∕ (=
(=,,;nx + =,
=,;nz)
nz ) ∗  ∕ (=,
(=,;nx + =,
=,6nz
nz))
<ύ = =,<7<∕ <ύ = =,61;

  > >=∗0
∕ Z 
F   4
4 ∕ Y7,
Y7,<7
<7nx
nx + >,
>,<>nz
<>nzTT
<ύ = d
Ns` fb dhlubh lfb kndph F fs3

Z 
F   4
4 76
76,,6
d
Nahrn s` trntndhs bns lhs knrens khdh uo l`phbh fo fb fb hr`efo, fo khhrlfonlns
Fsjfr`kns tfofdhs3

;<
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

r  4
  =,;7 + =,
=,<7 4 =,6
=,;
α  4  sfo∗> (
 4 sfo ) 4 ;:,
;:,0
=,6
Nsud`folh uo l`phbh fo kndph bfcnoh tfofdhs3

  ql khs(
khs(αα)
v p  4
<ύ= r 7
Fvnbundhs bhs vnhrfs fo bn fkunk`ho3
  > >=∗0 =,7 khs(;:
∕ khs(;:,,0)
∕
v p  4
<ύ= =,67

v p  4 6,5:
5:Z 
Z 

<.71 Vt`b
Vt`b`znr
`znr bn `otfos`l
`otfos`lnl
nl lf kndph kndph fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh lfb l`phbh lf
bn Ysfkk`¼
ho
ho <.5, fkunk`¼ho
ho (;:)T pnrn fokhotrnr bn l`jfrfok`n lf
phtfok`nb fotrf puoths   αn   y   αg , knln uoh lf fbbhs tfo`folh bns
d`sdns khhrlfonlns r y   ϊ. ¸Fo qu¼ f khol`k`hofs
khol`k`ho fs bn rfspufstn
rfspuf stn
kudpbf kho bn fkunk`¼ ho
ho (;<) pnrn fb phtfok`nb fo   αn   8
[fno N y G lhs puoths kho α
kho  α n   y  α g  rfspfkt`vndfotf y kho d`sdns khhrlfonlns fo r y
ϊ.
Fxprfsnrfdhs N y G khdh3
  4
N  4 r   r  + αn   
 r N   ϊ
Nα  + ϊN
y

  4
G  4 r   r  + αg G
 r G   α  + ϊG
  ϊ

[f t`fof quf bn `otfos`lnl lf kndph fb¼fktr`kh

fktr`kh lfb l`phbh fs3

  4   ^l
F  4  (7 kh
khss α n r  + s`o αn α )
<ύ = r ;
Khdh sf sngf bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb fotrf lhs puoths N y G sf hgt`fof khdh3

Z NG 4
NG ∗
   N
  lB
F    µ
G

Pn quf l   fo khhrlfonln

quf  l B khhr lfonlnss fsj¼fr`kns
fr`kn s fs l   4
fs  l B  4 lr
 lr n r  + rlα 
nα  + r s`o αlϊ 
nϊ

F  µ  4   ^l  (7 kh
  lB khss α n r  + s`o αn α ) lr n r  + rlα 
nα  + r s`o αlϊ 
µ nϊ
<ύ = r ;

F    4   ^l  (7 kh
  lB
µ khss αlr
αlr +
 + r s`o αlα )
<ύ = r ;
Ns¼ľ3    
 N  N
  lB
  4 ^l
Z NG 4
NG ∗ F  µ  (7 khs
khs αlr
αlr +
 + r s`o αlα )
G G <ύ = r ;

Khdh fotrf fb puoth N y G oh fx`stf vnr`nk`¼ho

ho fo r bn fkunk`¼ho
ho sf s`dpb`﬎kn y qufln khdh3

Z NG 4
NG ∗
   N
  lB
F    4
µ
    αn
^l
r s`o αlα
G αg <ύ = r;

;6
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Z NG 4
NG ∗   ^l
   αn
s`o αlα
<ύ = r7 αg
  ^l
Z NG 4
NG 7
Ykhs αT  αn
<ύ = r αg
  ^l
Z NG 4
NG  khs αn ∗ khs αg
<ύ = r7
]nrn quf sf kudpbn bn s`eu`fotf fkunk`¼ho
ho pnrn fb phtfok`nb fo  α n

Z   4   ^l khs7α
Z  
<ύ = r
[f lfgfr¼n kudpb`r quf α
quf  α g  4 = fo bn fkunk`¼hho
o (>
(>>)
>),, ns¼ľľ33

  ^l khs αn
Z NG 4
NG
<ύ= r 7

<.70 Vo l`phbh t`fof uo dhdfoth   p   4 ;nx 6ny  + >=nz   oK  d ∗   µµ

y sf bhknb`zn fo   ^(>
(>99 79 <)  fo fb fspnk`h b`grf. Fokhotrnr Z fo
∗
] (79;9<)


  p(r
∗r )
Z  
Z   4 ; 

<ύζ |r ∗ r |
h


lholf (r
(r ∗ r ) 4 ]  ∗
 ∗ ^ 4 (>9 (>9 >91)

  (;
(;nnx ∗ 6ny  + >=n
>= nz ) µ (nx  + ny  + 1n
1 nz ) ∗ 0
Z  p  4 ;∕ >=
<ύζh (>7 + >7 + 17 ) 7

Z  p  4 >,;=5Y
;=5Yvv T

<.;= Vo l`phbh pnrn fb quf  p 4 >==nz K d  sf ug`kn fo fb hr`efo. µ

¸Ku¼nb
nb fs bn fkunk`¼
ho
h o lf bn supfr﬎k`f fo bn quf   F z   4 =   pfrh

F 4 =8
]r`dfrh any quf fokhotrnr bn khdphofotf z
khdphofotf  z 3
  >=   6
F z   4 F nz   4
µ ;
Y7khs α(nr nz ) + s`o α(nα nz )T 4
µ ;
Y7khs7 α
µ ∗ s`o7 αT
<ύr 7ύr
vufbvf kfrh kunolh Y7 khs7 α‛s`o7
Fsth sf vufbvf ‛s`o7 α
 αTT 4 =. Vsnolh bns `lfot`lnlfs sf fskr`gf khdh3
 >
7khs7 α‛s`o7
‛s`o7 α
 α  4 Y> + ; khs(7
khs(7αα)T
7
Bh notfr`hr sf khov`frtf fo kfrh fo bns supfr﬎k`fs k¼hho`kns, α 6<,5h y   α  4 >76,
o`kns,  α  4 6<, >76,;h .

<.;> Vo kndph lf phtfok`nb fo fb fspnk`h b`grf sf fxprfsn

khdh   Z   4 7=/(xyz )   Z. n) Fokhot
Fokhotrnr
rnr bn fofre¼
fofre¼ľn thtnb nbdnkf-
onln lfotrh lfb kugh   >  2 x, x, y,z 2   7. g) ¸Ku¼nb
nb fs fb vnbhr quf
sf hgtfolr
hgtfolr¼ ¼ľn sup
supho`folh
ho`folh uon lfos`lnl
lfos`l nl lf fofre
fofre¼
¼ľn uo`jhrdf
`eunb n bn quf any fo fb kfotrh lfb kugh8
n) @otferndhs bn lfos`lnl lf fofre¼ľn
ľn shgrf fb vhbudfo lfb kugh,
kug h, lholf3

;:
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

 >
wF   4   L.F 
7
 >
wF   4   = F.F 
7
, y lholf3  
 >   >   >
F   4 ∅ Z   4 7= 7 nx  + 7 ny  +
Z   nz Z /d
x yz xy z xyz 7

Bn fofre¼ľn
ľn fs nahrn3
nahrn 3

wF  4 7==
7===
      
 7  7  7
  >
  +
  >
  +
  >
nz lxlylz

> > > x< y7 z 7 x7 y < z 7 x7 y7 z <

]hr bh tnoth3

wF  4 7==
7===
    ∗  
 7  7  >   >
  +
  >
  +
  > 7
lylz
> > ; x; y 7 z 7 xy< z 7 xy 7 z < >

wF  4 7==
7===
          
 7  7
 5  >
 +
>  >
 +
>  >
lylz
> > 7< y7 z 7 7 y< z 7 7 y7z<

wF  4 7==
7===
  ∗    ∗    ∗   
 7
 5  > >  > >  > 7
lz
> 7< yz 7 : y;z 7 7 yz < >

wF  4 7==
7===
        
 7  5   >  +
<1 z 7
 5   >  +
<1 z 7
>   > lz
< z<
>
 ⇗
7=== (;)
wF  4 7==
 5
wF  4 ;15 pC 
;15 pC 
0:
g). Fo uo puoth K(>.6, >.6, >.6) bn lfos`lnl lf fofre¼
fofre¼ľn fs3

wF  4 7==
7=== (;)
  >
 
(>,,6)< (>,
(> (>,6)7 (>,
(>,6)7

wF   4 7,=5 >=∗>= C/d;

∕
>   d; , prhl
Bufeh fsth dubt`pb`kndhs phr uo vhbudfo lf kugh lf >  p rhlukf
ukf uo vnbhr l
lff fofre¼
f ofre¼ľn
ľn
lf
lf 7=5
 7=5 pC

<.;7 Vsf bn Fkunk`¼

h
ho
o ;:, pnrn fokhotrnr bn fofre¼
fofre¼ľn nbdnkfon-
ln fo fb kndph l`phbnr fo bn rfe`¼
ho
ho   r ? n

  ^l khs(
khs(αα)
Z 
Z    4
<ύ= r ;

F   4
4 ∗Z 

F   4 ∗
 ∇Z 
 n r  +
 > ∇Z 
 +
 nα +
 nα
  > ∇Z 
nϊ

∇r r ∇α r s`o(α
s`o(α) ∇ϊ

  7^l khs(
khs(αα)  ^l s`o(
s`o(αα)
F   4
4 <ύ= r ;   nr  + <ύ = r;   nα

  ^l
F   4  (7 kh
khs(
s(αα)nr  + s`o(α
s`o(α)nα )   J`eurn >3 Kndph l`phbnr lholf r
lholf r ↗n
<ύ = r;

;5
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Npb`knolh bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lfb trngnch

U 
U    4
 >
  | |
= F  7 lv
7 v

 ύ   7ύ
  =   ∟
^l))7
(^l 7 7 7
U    4 7
U       
r4n α4= ϊ4= >:ύ 7 7= r : (<khs α + s`o α)r s`o αlϊlαlr
>:ύ

@lfot`lnl
@lfot`ln l cust`﬎kn
cu st`﬎knln
ln fo fb
f b np¼fol`kf
fol`kf

U 
U    4
^l))7
  (^l
     
  ∟  ύ   7ύ
>
(;khs7 α + >) s`
s`o
o αlϊlαlr
;7
;7ύύ 7 = r4n α 4= ϊ4= r <

U 
U    4
^l))7
  7ύ (^l
   
 ∟  ύ
>
(;khs7 α + >) s`
s`o
o αlαlr
;7
;7ύύ 7 = r4n α 4= r <

U 
U    4
^l))7
  (^l
∗   
 > ∟  ύ
(;khs7 α + >) s`
s`o
o αlα
>:
>:ύ
ύ= ;r ; n α 4=

U 
U    4
^l))7
  (^l
  >
=+ ;
 ∗ ;khs; α

∗ khs α ύ=
>:
>:ύ
ύ = ;n

^l))7
  (^l ∗ 
U 
U    4 khs; ύ ∗ khs ύ + khs; = + khs
khs =
<1 ύ = n;
<1ύ

 U 
U    4
^l))7
  (^l
YC T

>7 ύ = n;
>7ύ
g. ]hr qu¼f oh fs phs`gbf
p hs`gbf quf n
quf  n  sf nprhx`df
n prhx`df n = khdh b¼ľd`tf8

^l))7
(^l
b¼ľd
n↗= >7 ύ = n;
>7ύ
 4 ∟

;1
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knp¼ľtubh 6
6.> Lnln bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf C   4 ∗>=<Ys`o(7x)f∗7y +khs(7x)f∗7y T
 
IN
d7 .
n) Fokhotrnr bn khrr`fotf thtnb quf kruzn phr fb pbnoh   y  4 > fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho 
ho   ny   fo bn
rfe`¼ho
ho =  2 x 2  >9 =  2 z 2  7

@   4
   µ µ
  C  ls

4  C nx ls µ

4
   ∗ >=< khs(7x)f∗7y ls
khs(7x

4 ∗>= <
khs(7x
khs(7 x)f ∗ 7y
   
 >  7
khs(7x
khs(7x)lxlz
x4= z 4=

Kho y
Kho  y  4 >

4 ∗>= f< ∗ 7
Y7 ∗ =T
 
 >
khs7xlx@ 
khs7 xlx@   4 ∗>,7;D
7;D N
x4=

g) Fokhotrnr bn khrr`fotf thtnb quf ngnolhon bn rfe`¼ho

ho =   2 x9 y 2   >9 7   2 z 2   ; `otf-
ernolh C 
ernolh  µ µ
 C  ls shgrf
ls  shgrf bn supfr﬎k`f lfb kugh.

Bn juok`¼ho C 
ho  C  oh
 oh t`fof khdphofotfs fo
nz,, pnrn bn l`rfkk`¼ho
nz  ∗
ho nx,
nx,  x  4 = phr
tnoth C 
tnoth  C    4 =.

Kho3 = 2
=  2 x 2  > y 7  2 z 2  ;

]nrn
ny3 y
y3  y  4 >
-ny3 y
-ny3  y  4 =
nx3 x
x3  x 4
 4 >

Bn `otfernb lf supfr﬎k`f sf fxprfsn3

@   4
   C ny ls +   C 
µ
   ∗ ∗  
ny ls +   C nx ls
µ µ

;0
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

@   4
   ∗ <
>= khs(7
khs(7x
x)f 7lxlz
lxlz++ ∗
   ∗ <
>= khs(7
khs(7xx)f lxlz
lxlz++ =
   ∗ <
>= khs(7)
khs(7)ff 7y
∗
lylz 4
lylz  4 >= <
 
  Ykhs
Ykhs (7x
(7x) khs(7
∗ x)f∗
khs(7x

@   4 =YN
=YNT

k) Wfpft`r fb `ok`
`ok`sh
sh g) ut`b`znolh
ut`b`znolh \FHWFDN
 \FHWFDN LF BN L@ZFWEFOK@N.

@   4  C  µ

4
   ∇ 
nx +
  ∇ 
ny +
ny +
  ∇ 
nz
 µ ∗ >=< s`o(7x)f∗7y nx
s`o(7x ∗ >=< khs(7
khs(7x
x)f ∗ 7y
ny

∇x ∇y ∇z

4 ∗7 Õ >=< khs(7
khs(7x
x)f ∗ 7y
+7 Õ >=< khs(7
khs(7x
x)f ∗7y

@   4 =YN
=YNT

6.7 Von
Vo n k`frtn
k` frtn lfos`lnl
lfos`l nl lf l f khrr`fotf
k hrr`fotf fst¼ n lnln p hr C  4 >==f∗7z (ώnώ +
ln ln phr
nz )N/d7 . Fokho
Fokhotrn trnrr bn khrr`f
khrr`fot
otff thtnb
thtnb quf pnsnpnsn n trnv¼
trnv¼ fs
fs lf
bns supfr
supfr﬎k` fs3 n)   z   4 =, =   ώ   >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼
﬎k`fs3 h
ho  ≬  ≬
o   nz   9 g)
z   4 >, =   ώ   >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼
 ≬  ≬ ho
h o lf   nz 9 k) k`b`
k`b`ol
olrh
rh kfrr
kfrrnl nlh
h
lf﬎o`lh phr   = z  >, = ώ >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼
≬  ≬
 ≬ h
hoo snb`fotf.
≬ ≬
n) z4=, = ≬ ώ ≬ >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho n
ho  n z

@ n  4
  C.l[  4
 4
     7ύ  >
>==ff∗7(=) (ώnώ + nz ).nz ώlώllϊ
>== ώlώllϊ 4
 4 >==ύ
>==ύ
[  = =
g) z4>, = ≬ ώ ≬ >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho n
ho  n z
  7ύ  >
@ g  4   C.l[   4
4    >==ff∗7(>) (ώnώ  + nz ).nz ώlώllϊ
>== ώlώllϊ 4
 4 >==ύf
>==ύf∗7
[  = =
k) = ≬ z ≬ >, = ≬ ώ ≬ >, fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho
ho snb`fotf

@ \ 
\   4  @ g ∗
   
@ n  +
 >   7ύ
>==ff∗7(
>== 7(zz )
((>)n
((>) nώ + nz ).nrah (>)
(>)lϊlz
lϊlz
= =

@ \  >==ύ (f∗7

\  4 >==ύ ∗ >) + >==ύ
>==ύ (> ∗ f ∗ 7
)4=

6.; [fn   C  4 <==sfoα/(r7 + <) nr N/d7. n) Fokhotrnr bn khrr`fotf

thtnb quf ﬇uyf n trnv¼ fs
fs lf bn phr
phrk`¼
k`¼
ho
ho lf bn supfr﬎k`f
sup fr﬎k`f fsj¼
fr`kn
fr`kn
r4=.1, b`d`tnln phr   =,>ύ 2 α 2  = ,;ύ, =  2 ϊ 2  7 ύ  g) Fokhotrnr fb
vnbhr prhdfl`h lf C fo fb ¼
n
nrfn
rfn fo kufst`¼
ho.
ho.
[`folh
 <== s`o
s`o α
C4 7
  nr N/d7
r +<

<=
 

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

n) Fsth sfr`n

@   4
   µ |    
  C o [ ln
ln 4
 4
  7ύ   ;ύ
<,==sfo α 7
  (,1) sfo αlα lϊ
lϊ 4
 4
  <==(., 1)7 7ύ
<==(.,1)
 
  ;ύ
sfo7lα
sfo7 lα
= >ύ (1)7 + < <:< >ύ

4 ;<:,
;<:,6
   ;ύ
>
Y> ∗ khs(7
khs(7αα )T
)Tlα
lα 4
 4 55,
55,<N
>ύ 7
g) Fb Nrfn [fr`n3
  7ύ   ;ύ
Nrfn 4     (,1)7 sfo αlαlϊ
αlαlϊ 4
 4 >,<:d7
= >ύ
6;,=nr N/d7 .
Bn lfos`lnl prhdfl`h sfr`n C prhd  4 (55.</>.<:) nr   4 6;,

6.< [uphofr quf uo rnyh fbfktr¼ h

ho`kh
o`kh uo`jhrdf lf sfkk`¼ ho
ho k`r-
kubnr lf rnl`h =.7 dd bh efofrn uo k¼ n
nthlh
thlh fo x4= y bh rfk`gf
uo nohlh
nohlh fo x47= kd. Bn vfbhk`lnl
¼ vfbhk`lnl lf fbfktrhofs
fbfktrhofs vnr¼
nr¼ľn fo
juok`¼h o n x fo bn jhrdn   Z x   4 >=1 x=,6 d/s, lnlh x fo dftrhs.
ho
[` bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf
khrr`fotf fo fb ¼ n ohlh fs lf   >=< N/d7.
nohlh
n) Fokhotrnr bn lfos`lnl
lfos`ln l vhbud¼ ftr`kn
ftr`kn lf knren
g) Bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf khdh juok`¼ ho
h o lf x.

J`eurn 73 Knt`¼ho
ho y no`¼ho
ho sfpnrnlhs phr =.7d

n) Fb rfqu`s`th fs quf sf t`fof khrr`fotf khostnotf n trnv¼

fs
fs lf thlh fb rnyh fbfktr¼ho`kh.
ho`kh.

@   4
   µ µ
  C  ls 4
ls  4 C 
 
 C    ls 4
ls  4 C
 C [ 

  @ 
C   4
[ 
Khdh fb rnyh fs lf rnl`h khostnotf, sf khokbuyf quf bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf tndg`¼
fo
fo vn
n sfr khostnotf y fstnr¼n lnln phr3

 N
C   4 >=<
d7
g)[ngfdhs quf 
quf   C   4  ώv Z x
Wffdpbnznolh3
  >=<   K 
ώv  4 1 =,6   4 >=∗< x∗=,6 ;
>= x d
 <>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.6 [fn   C   4 76/pn p 7=/( p7 + =,==>)nz N/d7

∗
n)Fokhotrnr bn khrr`fotf thtnb quf kruzn fb pbnoh   z   4 =,7   fo
bn l`rfkk``¼ ho   nz  pnrn p2=.<
ho
g)Knbkubnr   μp v /μt
k)Fo
k)Fokh
khootrnr
trnr bn kh khrr
rr`f
`fo
otf snb`
snb`fo
fotf
tf quf
quf kruz
kruzn
n n bn supfr
supfr﬎k
﬎k`f
`f
kfrrnln lf﬎o`ln phr p4=.=>, p4=.<

J`eurn ;3 Lrfprfsfotnk`¼ho
ho lfb pbnoh z.

n)

@   4
  C.l[ 
s
76
76lώ
lώ
C.ls.((
C.ls.
ώ
  ∗ ώ 7 +7==,=,=> nz )()(ώlώlϊn
ώlώlϊnz )

C.l[   4 ∗ ώ7  +7==,=,=> ώlώlϊnz

@   4
    ∗
 7
ύ=
 <
  7=
ώlώlϊnz
= ώ7 + =,
=,=>
  7ύ  <
@   4 ∗7= ∗ ώ 7 +ώlώ=,=,=> lϊnz
= =
 ∗     
@   4
7=   7ύ  <
lu
  lϊ
7 = = u

∗
@   4
    >=
  7ύ  <
lu
  lϊ
= = u

@   4 ∗
 
>=
  7ύ
bo((ώ7 + =,
bo =,=>) <= lϊ |
=

<7 + =,
=,=>
@   4 ∗ >=
>=bo
bo((   )lϊ
=,=>
>:
>:,,=>
@   4 ∗>=
>=bo
bo((
=,=>
  )7ύ
)7ύ

@   4 <:;,,:=
<:; :=NN
g) ∗
lώv
lt
 4 ∗∊.C 
 <7

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

∗∊.C   4 ∗( >ώ ltl ( ώώ76  ) +  ltl ( ώ 7 ∗+7==,=,=> )

∗∊.C   4 ∗(= + =)=) 4 =
k)  
@   4 C.l[ 
[ 
 7   7ύ  7   7ύ
76 76
@   4 n p (ώlϊlzn p ) + (ώlϊlz n p )+
       ∗
  7ύ  <
= =
7=
rah
nz(
nz(ώlϊ ∗ nz)
nz) +
    
= =
  7ύ   <
rah
∗7= ∗nz
nz((ώlϊnz
ώlϊnz))
= = rah7 + =,
=,=> = = rah7 + =,
=,=>
@  4
 4 = + = + = + = 4 =N

6.: Bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`oftf fo uon k`frtn rfe`¼ ho

ho fs lf nprh-
:
x`dnlndfotf C   4 (=,>/r).f∗>= t nrN/d7 fo khhrlf
kh hrlfonln
onlnss fsj¼
fr`-
fr`-
kns. n) Fo t4 >¶s   ¸ qu¼f knot`lnl
knot`lnl lf khrr`fotf ntrnv`fsn
ntrnv`fsn bn
supfr
su pfr﬎k
﬎k`f
`f r46.
r46. g) Wfp`
Wfp`tn
tn bh notf
notfr`
r`hr
hr pnrn
pnrn r4:.
r4:. k) Vt`b
Vt`b`z
`znr
nr
bn fkunk`ho lf khot`ou`lnl pnrn fokhotrnr   ώv (r, t)  supho`folh
quf   ώv =  n dfl`lnl quf   t . l) Fokhotrnr uo fxprfs`ho
 ↗
pnrn bn vfbhk`lnl lf bn lfos`lnl lf knren. ↗∟
[ngfdhs quf bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf puf fskr`g`rsf khdh 3
  @ 
C   4
N
Lholf C fs bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`otf @ bn khrr`fotf y N fb Nrrfn lf bn supfr﬎k`f phr lholf
k`rkubn bn khrr`fotf, hgtfo`folh quf bn Khrr`oftf sf puflf knbkubns khdh3

@   4  C  N ∕ ∕

:
Khdh Bn supfr﬎k`f phr bn kunb uon khrr`oftf lf lfos`lnl   C   4 (=, /r)).f∗>= t nrN/d7 fs
(=,>/r
uon k`rkuojfrfok`n knbkubndhs su nrfn khdh3
7
N  4 ύ
 4  ύ ∕r
khdh r46 tfofdhs3
N  4
 4 ύ
 ύ ∕ 67
[` rfdpbnzndh fb lnth lf bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf lfb prhgbfdn fb vnrbhs lf r46,t4 > ¶s
¶s y
 y
bn fkunk`ho (;) fo bn fkunk`ho (7) tfofdhs3
: ∕>=∗:
@   4 (=
(=,,>/6) .f∗>=
6).f ∕ ύ ∕ 67
Ns` tfofdhs quf bn khrr`fotf fs3
@   4 7,;>
;>N
N
Nonbhendfotf nb prhkfsh notfr`hs knbkubndhs pnrn r4:
: ∗ :
@   4 (=
(=,,>/:) .f∗>=
:).f >=
∕
ύ :7
∕ ∕
Ns` tfofdhs quf bn khrr`fotf fs3
@   4 7,55
55N
N
 <;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

ohtfdhs quf bn fkunk`holf bn khot`ou`lnl fstn lf﬎o`ln khdh3

∅C 4 ∗ ∇ώ∇tv
khdh bn lfos`lns sf fokufotrn fo khhrlfons fsjfr`kns tfofdhs
  > ∇  r 7 =,> ∗>=: t
∅ C  4 7 (   f ) (>)
r ∇r r

Lfr`vnolh
Lfr`vnolh pnrk`nbdfo
pnrk`nbdfotf
tf rfspfkth lf r tfofdhs3
tfofdhs3
  =,> : ∇ώ v
C  4 7   f∗>= t 4
∅ ∗
r ∇t
\hdndhs bn `eunebnl3
∇ώ v   =,> ∗>=: t
  4 7  f
∗
∇t r
Lf lholf phlfhs `otfernolh bn fkunk`ho (1) sf t`fof3

ώv (r, t) 4 ∗
 
  =,> ∗>=: t
  f lt + j 
j (
(r ) 4
  >=∗5 ∗>=: t
 f + j 
j ((r)
r7 r7
Nahrn khdh ώ
khdh  ώ v ↗ = n dfl`lnl quf t
quf  t ↗ ∟  tfofdhs quf j(r)4= lf lholf sft`fof3

  >=∗5 ∗>=: t
ώ (r, t) 4  f K/d ;
v r7
J`onbdfotf pnrn hgtfofr bn bn fxprfs`ho lf bn vfbhk`lnl lf lfos`lnl lf knren tfofdhs3
 C
Z  
Z   4
ώv

Lf lholf s` rfdpbnzndhs fb vnbhr lf bn lfos`lnl C lfb prhgbfdn y bn fkunk`ho (>=) fo bn

fkunk`ho
fkunk`ho (>>) tfofdhs
tfofdhs
:
  (= /r)).f∗>= t nr
(=,,>/r
Z  
Z   4 >= 5 ∗>=: t
∗
4 >=: rnr d/s
r7
 f

6.5 [upho`folh quf oh any trnosjhrdnk`¼ ho

ho lf dnsn
dns n n fofr
fofree¼ľn
y v`kfvfrsn, sf puflf fskr`g`r uon fkunk`¼ ho
ho lf khot`ou`lnl pn-
rn bn dnsn. n) [` sf ut`b`zn bn fkunk`¼ h
hoo lf khot`ou`lnl pnrn bn
knren khdh fo f o oufstrh
oufst rh dhlfbh,
dh lfbh, ¸qu¼f knot`ln
knot`lnlfs
lfs khrrfspholfo
khrrfsp holfo
n   C   y n   ώv 8 g) Lnlh uo kugh lf > kd lf bnlh, nbeuohs lnths
fdp¼
fdp ¼ľr`khs
ľr`khs lfdufstr
lfdufstrnono quf bns vfvfbhk`lnl
bhk`lnlfsfs n bns quf bn dnsn
ngnolhon bns knrns sho >=.76, -0.16, >.56, -7.==, -<.=6 y <.<6
de/s. [` sf suphof quf fb kugh fs uo fbfdfoth lf vhbudfo
`okrfdfotnb,
`okrfdfo tnb, lftfrd¼
lftfrd¼ľofsf uo vnbhr nprhx`dnlh
nprhx`dnlh lf bn rnp`lfz
lf kndg`h lf bn lfos`lnl fo su kfotrh
[hbuk`¼
ho3
ho3

n)

dnsn lf lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch (Ie/d

(Ie/d ∗ s)
(Ie/d; )
lfos`lnl lf dnsn (Ie/d
 <<

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

g)      
lώd
lt
  lv
lv 4
 4 ∗ µ Cdlv 4
Cdlv  4 ∗ µ
  C d ls
v v

∗  
  C d ls 4
ls  4 >=
µ >=,,76 ∗ 0,16 + >,>,56 ∗ 7,== ∗ <,=6 + <,<,<6 4 =,=,66=
66=de/s
de/s

∗ ;
⇗   lpd
lt
 4
  =, 66= Õ >= e/s
>= : d;
∗
  4 ∗66= e/d ; ∗ s
66=e/d

6.1 Bn fkunk`¼ ho
ho lf khot`ou`lnl pnrn dnsn fqu`vnbf n bn
l`vfrefok`n lf bn vfbhk`lnl lf dnsn lfb ﬇uch (dnsn phr
sfeuolh phr dftrh kunlrnlh) nb ofent`vh lf bn lfos`lnl
(dnsn phr dftrh k¼ ug`kh).
ug`kh). Lfspu¼ fs
fs lf fstngbfkfr
fstngbf kfr uo s`stfdn
lf khhrlfonlns knrtfs`nons lfotrh lf uon fstrfbbn, fb
Knp`t¼
Knp `t¼
no
no I`ri
I`ri y su `otr¼
`otr¼fp`l
fp`lnn tr
tr`p
`pubn
ubnk`¼
k`¼
ho
ho rfnb`zno dfl`k`hofs
shgrf bns knrns lf uo kugh kfotrnlh fo fb hr`efo kho ghrlfs
lf <= id lf bnreh y pnrnbfbhs n bhs fcfs lf khhrlfonlns.
Fokufotrno quf bn tnsn lf dnsn lfb ﬇uch lf dntfr`nb ank`n
njufrn n trnv¼
trnv¼fs
fs lf bns sf`s knrns fs ->>>7,>>1;,7=>,->0:
->>>7,>>1;,7=>,->0:,>010
,>010
y >07=   ie; s
d

B`tfrnb n)Fst`dnr bn l`vfrefok`n lf bn tnsn lf ﬇uch lf dnsn fo fb hr`efo.

Ankfdhs bn fst`dnk`¼
Ankfdhs fst`dnk`¼
ho
ho ut`b`znolh bn lf﬎o`k`¼ho
ho lf l`vfrefok`n, pfrh
p frh s`o thdnr bhs b¼ľd`tfs
yn quf fb vhbudfo sf rflukf n kfrh

L`vC d  4
  µ
  C d l[ 
 v

L`vC d  4   (∗>>>7 + >>1; + 7=> ∗ >0:

;
+ >010 ∗ >07=)(<=) 7
(<=)
  ie
L`vC d  4 ;, :;
id;
s  µ
B`tfrnb g)Fst`dnr bn tnsn lf kndg`h lf bn lfos`lnl fo fb hr`efo.

Bn fkunk`¼hho
o lf khot`ou`lnl pnrn bfkturns lf dnsn fs3

L`vC d  4 ∗ ∇ώ∇td
phr bh tnoth, bn tnsn lf kndg`h lf lfos`lnl fo fb hr`efo sfr¼n shbh bn ofent`vn lfb
rfsubtnlh lf bn pnrtf n) , h

∇ώ d   ie
∇t
 4 ∗;, :; id ;
 µ s
 <6

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.0 Vt`b`znolh bhs lnths tngubnlhs fo fb Np¼ fol`kf

fol`kf K, knbkubnr
fb l`¼ndftrh
ndftrh quf sf rfqu`frf pnrn quf uo nbndnbndgrf grf lf o`krhdh
lf   7d   lf bhoe`tul l`s`pf uon phtfok`n prf dfl`h lf   <6=U 
kunolh sf bf npb`quf uo vhbtncf lf  >7= Z rds
rds   n   :=A z . g) Knbkubnr
fb vnbhr rds lf bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf fo fb nbndgrf.
n)
7
W  4   Z ώ   4 ϋύn
  bn7
ϋύ

n  4
    bώ
ϋύ Z 7
ϋύZ 
Bufeh pnrn fb l`¼ndftrh
ndftrh sf sngf quf

l  4 7r  4 7n  4 7
    bώ
ϋύ Z 7
ϋύZ 

l  4
 
  7(<6=)
>=: ύ >7=7
l  4 7, 1x>=∗< YdT

g) sngfdhs quf
] 
]    4  Z @ 
  ]    <6=
@   4   4   4 ;, 56Y
56YNNT
Z  >7=
Bufeh bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotf fs

@   4
      
C ls 4
ls  4 C ls 4
ls  4 C
 C s
s s
  @ 
C   4
[ 
  @    @ 
C   4   4
ύr 7 ύn7
  ;, 56
C   4 <
ύ ( 7,1x7>=   )7
∗

C   4 :x>=5 YN/d7 T

6.>= Vo nbndgrf shb`lh kho uon kholukt`v`lnl  ϋ >  y uo rnl`h n

t`fof uon kug`frtn lf uo dntfr`nb kho kholukt`v`lnl   ϋ7   kuyh
rnl`h `otfr`hr fs = y su rnl`h fxtfr`hr fs g. Dufstrf quf bn
rfbnk`¼
h
hoo lf bn lfos`lnl lf khrr`fotfs fo ndghs dntfr`nbfs fs
`olfpfol`fotf lf n y g.
Vo vhbtncf
vhbtn cf khostnotf fotrf bhs fxtrfdhs lf uo nbndgrf `dpb`kn quf fb kndph fb¼
ffktr`kh
ktr`kh
lfotrh lfb d`sdh lfgf sfr khostnotf n bh bnreh lf su sfkk`¼ho trnosvfrsnb.
[` bbndndhs F nb kndph, tfofdhs quf3

  C >   C 7
F   4
4 4
ϋ> ϋ7
  C >   ϋ>
↗C 7
4
ϋ7
]hr bh quf bn rfbnk`¼ho
ho sf dnot`fof y oh lfpfolf lf bns l`dfos`hofs lfb nbndgrf.
 <:

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.>5 Lnlh fb kndph   Z   4   >==

>==xz
xz
x +<   fo fspnk`h b`grf3 n) Fokhotrnr,
7

L fo z4=. g) Lfdhstrnr quf z4= fs uon supfr﬎k`f fqu`ph-

tfok`nb. [uphofr quf z4= fs kholukthr y fokhotrnr bn knren
 ∗
fo=  2 x 2  7 , ;  2 y 2  = .
n)

 l   x   >==x
>==x
F   4
4 ∗∅Z   >==zz lx x7 + < nx ∗ =ny ∗ x7 + < nz
Z   4 ∗>==     x
F@ z 4=  4 ∗>== ∕ ( 7 )nz
x +<
  x
L  4 ∗>==>==ζζ= ∕ ( 7 )  n z
x +<
g)
Z @ z4=  4 =
k)
  ∗>==ζ
>==ζ= x K 
ώs4 L @ z 4=  4
 | | x7 +< d7

^  4
    ∗
 =  7
>==ζ= x
>==ζ
  lx ly 4
ly  4 ∗=,07 oK 
07  oK 
∗; = x7 + <

6.>1
7
Vo kndph 7
lf7 phtfok`nb fst¼ n lnlh phr   Z   4 >==bo   Y(x + {
∗ }
>) + yT/Y(x >) + y T   Z . [f sngf quf fb puoth   ] (7, >, >)  f
 fsst¼
n fo
uon supfr﬎k`f kholukthrn y quf fb kholukthr sf fokufotrn fo
fb fspnk`h b`grf. Fo fb puoth   ]   fokhotrnr uo vfkthr uo`tnr`h
ohrdnb n bn supfr﬎k`f, ns` khdh fb vnbhr lf bn lfos`lnl lf
knren lf supfr﬎k`f fo fb kholukthr
[ngfdhs quf fb vfkthr ohrdnb fs fb vfkthr kndph fbfktr`kh
  ∇Z   ∇ Z   ∇ Z 
F   4
4 ∗∅Z  
Z   4  n x  +  n y  +  n z
∇x ∇y ∇z

pnrn   ∇Z 
∇x
∇Z    ∇  (x + >)7 + y7
 4 (>==bo
(>== boYY T)
∇x ∇x (x >)7 + y7
∗
∇Z  (x + >)7 + y7 7(7(x
x + >)Y(x
>)Y(x ∗ >)7 + y7T ∗ 7(x
7(x ∗ >)Y(x + >)7 + y7 T
>)Y(x
 4 >==( )(   )
∇x (x >)7 + y7
∗ Y(
Y(xx + >)7 + y 7 T7
∇Z  >)Y(x >)7 + y 7 T (x >)Y(
(x + >)Y(x ∗ x + >)7 + y 7 T
>)Y(x∗ ∗
  4 7==(   )
∇x Y(x >)7 + y7 TY(
Y(x ∗ x + >)7 + y7 T
TY(x
pnrn   ∇Z 
∇y
∇Z    ∇  (x >)7 + y7
∗
 4 (>==bo
(>== boYY T)
∇y ∇y (x + >)7 y7 ∗
∇Z  (x >)7
∗ ∗ y7 )( 7yY(Y(xx ∗ >)7 + y7T + 7y7 y Y(x + >) 7 + y 7 T
Y(x
  4 >==(   )
∇y (x + >)7 ∗ y7 Y(
Y(xx ∗ >)7 ∗ y 7 T7
∇Z    yY(x
Y(x ∗ >)7 + Y(x Y(x + >)7 T
  4 7==( )
∇y Y(x ∗ >)7 ∗ y7 TY(
Y(x x + >)7 ∗ y7 T
TY(x
 <5

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Npnrt`r lf   ∇Z    ∇Z 

∇x   y ∇y   tfofdhs F 
tfofdhs  F 

>)Y(x >)7 + y7 T (x >)Y(

(x + >)Y(x ∗ ∗ ∗ x + >)7 + y7 T
>)Y(x   yY(x >)7 + Y(x
Y(x Y(x + >)7 T
∗
F   4 ∗ 7==(
Y(x >)7 + y 7 TY(x
Y(x∗ TY(x + >)7 + y 7 T
  )n x 7==(
Y(
∗
x >)7 y7 TY(
Y(x x + >)7 y7 T
TY(x
∗ ∗ )n y
∗
Fvnbunolh fb kndph fo fb puoth  ] (7
 ] (7,, >, >)

F  p  4 <=n x  + 1= n y

Nahrn g`fo anbbndhs fb vfkthr uo`tnr`h ohrdnb

|F  p| 4
  <=7 + +1=7 4 10,
10, <<

  F  p
Z  O
O    4   4 =, <6n x  + =,
= , 10n y
F  p
| |
Nahrn g`fo fb vnbhr lf bn lfos`lnl lf knren lf bn supfr﬎k`f
 ώ
F  4
 4
=

ώ  4 F  h  44 10,
| | 10, <<(1 16x>=∗>7 )
<<(1,, 16x
ώ  4 5, 07x>=∗>7 YK/d 7 T
07x

6.>0 [fn   Z   4 7=x7 yz  >=z 7 Lftfrd`onr bns fkunk`hofs fqu`vn-
∗
bfotfs fo bhs quf   Z   4 =   y   Z   4 :=v  g).[uphofr quf sho supfr-
﬎k`fs kholukthrns y fokhotrnr bn lfos`lnl lf   Z   4 :=   fo   x  4 7
y   z   4 >  sf sngf quf   =   2 v 2   :=   fo bn rfe`ho. k)]rhphrk`honr
uo vfkthr uo`tnrf`h ohrdnb n bn supfr﬎k`f.
n)
= ↗ 7x7y ∗ z  4 = 33333 ώ.s
33333  ώ.s 4
 4 |L|

:=
:=xx ↗ 7x7y ∗ z  4   z:   33333333333 ώ.s
33333333333  ώ.s 4
 ok
 4 >,=< 7
d

g)
7x7 y ∗ z ∗  S :   4 =

7 77 y
∕ ∕ ∗>∗:4=

F   4
4 ∗.v

F   4
4 ∗<=
<=xyz.nx
xyz.nx ∗ 7=x7 ny ∗ 7=xy
7=x 7=xy((∗7=z
7=z )nz
 <1

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

L  4 ζ
 4  ζY5=
Y5=nx
nx + 1=ny
1= ny +
 + 6=nz
6= nzTT

k)
 L
no 4
no  4
L | |

no 4
no 4
 ∗5=
∓ nx ∗ 1ny ∗ 6nz
5=nx
57 + 07 + 67

no 4
no  4 ∗=,:=
:=nx
nx ∗ =,:1
:1ny
ny ∗ =,<;nz
<;nz

6.7= Lhs knrens puotunbfs lf >==ύ¶K  sf ug`kno fo (7, ->, =)  ∗

y (7, >, =). Bn supfr﬎k`f x 4 = fs uon supfr﬎k`f kholukthrn.
n) Lftfrd`onr bn lfos`lnl lf knren lf supfr﬎k`f fo fb hr`efo.
g) Lftfrd`onr   ώs   fo   ] (=, a, =).

J`eurn <3 Wfprfsfotndhs bhs lhs puoths fo fb pbnoh knrtfs`noh.

 ∗>==
>==ύύ
 (y ∗ >) ny ∗ 7nx  (
>)ny >) ny ∗ 7nx  (
 (yy + >)ny  (yy ∗ >)ny
>)ny +
 + 7nx
7 nx  (
 (yy + >)ny
>) ny +
 + 7nx
7 nx

L  4
<ύ
+; ∗ ; ∗ ; ;
((yy ∗ >)7 + <)
(( 7 ((yy ∗ >)7 + <)
(( ((yy + >) 7 + <)
(( 7 ((yy + >) 7 + <)
(( 7 7

   >   >

L  4 >== ; + ; nx
((
((yy ∗ >)7 + <) 7 ((yy + >) 7 + <) 7
((
n) kunolh p4(=,=,=)

] s  4
 4 L
 L ∕ nx|y4=  4 >==
   >
; +   >
;
 nx 4 >5, 0  ¶k
nx  4 >5,
((=∗>)7 +<) 7 ((=+>)7 +<) 7 d7

g) Kunolh ]4(=,a,=)

] s  4
 4 L
 L ∕ nx|y4a  4 >==
   >
; +   >
;
   ¶k
((a∗>)7 +<) 7
((a ((a+>)7 +<) 7
((a d7
 <0

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.7> [fn bn supfr﬎k`f  y   4 = uo kholukthr pfrjfkth fo fb fspnk`h

b`grf. Lhs knrens b`ofnbfs `o﬎o`tns y uo`jhrdfs lf ;= oK/d
fst¼
fs t¼
no
no ug`kn lnss fo   x  4 =,   y   4 >   y   x  4 =,   y   4 7. n) [fn   Z   4 =   fo
ug`knln
bn supfr﬎k`f   y   4 =, fokhotrnr   Z  fo ](>, 7, =). g) Fokhotrnr F
fo ].
n) Khdh yn sf t`fof quf 
quf   Z  
Z   4 = fo fb pbnoh   y   4 =, pnrn fokhotrnr   Z  
Z   fo
fo   ] (>
] (>,, 7, =) sf

t`fof quf3

Fo bn ﬎eurn, fb pbnoh fo   y  4 = fstn lf

khbhr kfbfstf d`fotrns quf bns b`ofns `o﬎o`tns
sf puflf nprfk`nnr fo bn `dnefo, pnrn fstf
prhgbfdn sf trngncn fb  d¼fthlh
ft hlh lf `d¼  .
`d nefofs 
¼ 

Kho fsth
Kho fsth,, bns
bns b¼ľofn
ľofnss sf rf﬇f
rf﬇fcno
cno fo fb
pbno
pbnoh,
h, prhlu
prhluk` k`fo
folh
lh knre
knrens
ns b`
b`of
ofnb
nbfs
fs lf -
 ∗
;=oK/d fo bhs puoths   x   4 =,   y   4 > y
x  4 =, 
=,   y  4 7.
∗
[f guskn fb phtfok`nb fo ] fvnbunolh fb
trgnch quf ankf uon uo`lnl phs`t`vn lf bn
knren lfslf fb pbnoh (hr`efo) n ].

Z ] 
 ∗ Z =,=,=  4 ∗
] 
  ώb
bo

  l.j`onb

7ύ= l.`o`k`nb
Khdh fo Z 
fo  Z =,=,=  4 =, tfo`folh bns < b`ofns knrenlns3
    ∓    ∓    ∓  
Z ]]    4 ∗ 7  ύ
ώb
=
bo
>
7
 + bo
∗ ∗ >
7
bo
>=
>
bo
>5
7

  ώb
   ∓    ∓    > >5
Z ] 
]   4
7ύ =
∓ 
bo (7) + bo
7
 + bo >=  + bo
7

Õ   ;= >=∗0
 ∓ ∓ ∓   >>== >5
>5
Z ]]    4 bo  4 >>01Z 
>>01Z 
7ύ = 7
Z ] 
]   4 >,7iZ 

g) ]nrn fokhotrnr F
fokhotrnr  F  fo ], sf t`fof quf

 ώ
F ]]    4 b

(>
(>,, 7, =) (= ∗
(=,, >, =)  (>
  +
 (>,, 7, =) (= ∗
(=,, 7, =)  (>
 (>,, 7, =) (=,  (>,, 7, =) ∗ (=,
∗ ∗   ∗  (>
(=, >, =) (=, ∗7, =)

7ύ= (>,, >, =) 7
(> | | (>,, =, =) 7
(> | |   ∗ |(>, ;, =) 7
(>,| (>, <, =)|7
|(>,
 ώ
F ]]    4 b
(>

(>,, >, =)  (>
  +
 (>,, =, =)
 ∗  (>
 (>,, ;, =)
 ∗  (>
 (>,, <, =)

7ύ = 7 > >= >5
L`v`l`folh
L`v`l`folh fo bns l`rfkk`hofs
l`rfkk`hofs x
 x  y  y   (fo z
(fo  z  oh any)

F   4 57;n
57;n >1
>1,,0n   Z /d
]  x ∗ y
 6=

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.77 Fb sfed
6.77 sfedfofothth lf b`of b`ofn n   x   4 =, >   y   >,   z   4 >   t`fof  ∗  ≬  ≬
uon lfos`lnl lf knren b`ofnb   ώBύ   y  ¶K//d. [fn   z   4 =   uon  |  |
supfr﬎k`f kholukthrn y lftfrd`onr bn lfos`lnl lf knren lf
supfr﬎k`f fo3   n(=, =, =)   y   g(=, >, =)

J`eurn 63 [fedfoth lf b`ofn jhrdnln phr bhs pbnohs x4= y z4> fo fb `otfrvnbh lf Y->,>T fo
y.

Khos`lfrndhs quf bn knren lf bn b¼ľofn fst¼

Khos`lfrndhs n khdpufstn phr uon sfr`f lf sfedfoths
l`jfrfok`nbfs lf bhoe`tul, ly, y lf knren   lq  
lq   4   ώBly.
ώBly. Vo sfedfoth lnlh fo bn ug`knk`¼ho
ho
(=, y, >) tfolr¼n uo khrrfsphol`fotf sfedfoth lf knren lf `dnefo fo bn ug`knk`¼ho
ho (=, y,->).
Bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch l`jfrfok`nb fo fb fcf y quf fst¼n nshk`nlh kho fb pnr sfedfoth-`dnefo
sfr¼
nn33
; ;
  ώBly Y(y  
∗ y )ny ∗ nz T ∗  ώBly Y(Y(yy ∗ y )ny + nz T 4   ∗ώBly nz
Y(y 7  7 

lL 4
lL  4 ;
<ϊY(y
Y(y y )7 + >T

Y(y y )7 + >T
<ϊY(y 7ύ Y(

Y(yy y )7 + >T  7

∗ sfedfoth lf knren y su∗ `dnefo prhlukfo uo ∗kndph ofth fo fb

Fo htrns pnbngrns, knln
quf bhs khdphofotfs
khdphofotfs ‐P‐ sf ano knokfbnlh.
knokfbnlh. Bn lfos`lnl
lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch thtnb lf bn knren lf b¼ľofn
y su `dnefo fs nahrn3

L(y) 4
   
  lL 4
lL  4
 > 
∗ύ|y |nz ly 

;
∗ Y(y ∗ y )7 + >T
> 7ύ Y(y  7

L(y ) 4
  nz
 
 >
y
; +
  y
; ly
7 = ∗ y )7 + >T T Y(Y(yy + y )7 + >T T
Y(
Y(yy  7  7

 
  nz   y(y ∗ y ) + >   y(y + y ) + > >
L(y ) 4  Y + ; T= ;
7 Y(y
Y(y ∗ y )7 + >T T Y(

Y(yy + y )7 + >T T
7  7

Nahrn fokhotrndhs bn lfos`lnl lf knren n trnvfs

(=,, =, =) 4  L.n z y   4   nz Y   > +   >

ώ(= | 70¶K/d7
∓  ∓  ∗ 7T 4 ∗=,70¶K/d
7 7 7
  nz  ;
(=,, >, =) 4  L.n z ( y  4 >) 4
ώ(= |   Y> + 7<¶K/d7
∓  ∗ 7T 4 ∗=,7<¶K/d
7 6
 6>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

6.7; Vo l`phb
6.7; l`phbh
h kuy
kuyh vnbhr
nbhr lf   p   4 =,>nz ¶K   d fst¼
n ug`knlh
ug`k nlh
fo N(>, =, =) fo fb fspnk`h b`grf y bn supfr﬎k`f x 4 = fs
pfrjfktndfotf kholukthrn.
n) Fokhotrnr Z fo ](7, =, >).
g)Fokhotrnr bn fkunk`¼
ho
ho lf bn supfr﬎k`f fqu`phtfok`nb lf 7==
Z fo khhrlfonlns knrtfs`nons
n) [f npb`kn fb d¼
fthlh
fthlh lf `dnefofs pnrn sust`
sust`tu`r
tu`r fb pbnoh kholukthr kho uo l`phbh
kho dhdfoth l`phbnr hpufsth nb hr`e`onb.

J`eurnn :3
J`eur : 3 D¼fthlh
fthl h lf
l f `dnefofs
`d nefofs

]nrn hgtfofr fb phtfok`nb fo ](7, =, >), sf ut`b`zn bn fxprfs`¼ho

ho pnrn fb phtfok`nb lf uo
l`phbh hgtfo`lh fo fb knp¼
knp¼ľtubh 6.

  pkhsα
Z  
Z   4
nύ= r7

J`eurn 53 Lhs l`phbhs, hgtfo`lhs usnolh fb d¼fthlh

fthlh lf `dnefofs

Fo fb l`phbh kho dhdfoth l`phbnr p3

 z
khsα>  4
r>

Fo fb l`phbh kho dhdfoth l`phbnr -p 4 d3

 z
khsα7  4
r7
 67

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

]htfok`nb fo uo puoth ]3

Z  
Z   4  Z  p + Z ∗ p  4
 pkhsα>  (  p
+
∗
 p))khsα7
<ύr > <ύr 7

  p  z
Z  
Z   4 (
<ύ= r>>,6
∗  r>z,6 )
7

Ohtndhs quf3 r
quf3  r>> 4 (x ∗ >)7 + z7 y   r7 4 (x + >)7 + z7
Z   4   p Y
Z     z  ∗ ((xx  + >)7z + z7)>,6 T
<ύ = ((x ∗ >)7 + z 7 ))>,6 ((
((x

[f sust`tuyf fb puoth ]4(7, =, >)3.

  p   >
Z  
Z   4 Y
<ύ = ((7 >)7 + >7 ))>,6
∗  ∗ ((7  + >)7> + >7)>,6 T
  =,> >=∗:   >
Z  
Z   4
µ
<ύ =
Y
7 7
∓  ∗ >=  ∓ 
>
>=
T 4 710,
710,<5Y
<5YZ 
Z TT

g)Wfdpbnzndhs fb vnbhr lf Z47== YZT fo (>)

  =,> >=∗:   z
7== 4
µ
<ύ =
Y
((x >)7 + z 7 ))>,6
((x ∗  ∗ ((((xx  + >)7z + z7)>,6 T
Lfspfcnolh3
  z
=,777 4
((
((xx ∗ >)7 + z 7 ))>,6
 ∗ ((((xx  + >)7z + z7)>,6

6.7< N k`frtn tfdpfrnturn, bns dhv`b`lnlfs lf fbfktrhofs y

aufkhs fo fb efrdno`h sho lf =.<; y =.7>   d7/Z Qs, rfspfkt`-
vndfotf. [` bns khokfotrnk`hofs lf aufkhs y fbfktrhofs sho lf
7,;x>=∗>0 d∗; , fokhotrnr bn kholukt`v`lnl n fsn tfdpfrnturn.
Kho bn dneo`tul lf bn knren lfb fbfktrho y lf bhs aufkhs lf >,
> ,: Õ >= ∗ >0 K, Bn kholuk-
t`v`lnl fo fstf knsh phlr`n sfr fskr`th lf dnofrn quf 3

| |
ϋ  4 ώf ¶f  + ώa ¶a
>0
ϋ  4 (>
(>,,: Õ >= ∗
)(7,,;
)(7 Õ >=>0)(=
)(=,,<; + =,
=,7>)
ϋ  4 7,;:[
;:[//d

6.76 Bns
6.76 Bns khok
khokfo fotr
trnk
nk`h
`hof
ofss lf fb
fbfk
fktr
trho
hofs
fs y aufkhufkhss sf `okr
`okrf-
f-
dfotno kho bn tfdpfrnturn. ]nrn fb s`b`k`h purh,   ώa   4 ώf   4  ∗
:7==\ >,6f∗5===
5===/\ 
/\ 
K/d; Bn lfpfolfok`n juok`honb lf bns dhv`b`ln-
lfs kho bn tfdpfrnturn
tfdp frnturn fst¼ n lnln phr  ¶ a   4 7,; >=6\ ∗7,5d7/Z s Õ µ
y   ¶f   4 7,> >=6\ ∗7,6d7/Z s,  lholf bn tfdpfrnturn   \ , fst¼
Õ µ n fo
ernlhs Ifbv`o. Fokhotrnr   ϋ  fo n) =◪ K9 g) <=◪ K9 k) 1=◪K.
Bn kholukt`v`l
kholukt`v`lnl
nl sfr¼
n3
n3
 6;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

ϋ  4 ∗ώf¶f + ώa¶a
:7==\ >,6 f∗5===
4 :7==\  5===/\ 
/\ 
Y7,
Y7,> Õ >=6\  ∗ 7,6
+ 7,
7 ,; Õ >=6\  ∗7,5
T

4
  >,;= Õ >=  0 f ∗ 5===/\ 
5===/\ 
Y> + >,
>,=06 \ ∗,7 T [/d
=06\ 
\ 
ϋ   fo3

n) =h K3 Kho \   4 75;h I, bn fxprfs`¼ho

Kho  \  4 ho sf fvnb¼
un
un khdh3 ϋ
khdh3  ϋ (=) 4 <,
< ,5 Õ >= 6
∗
[/d.

g) <=h K3 Kho \ 
Kho  \  4
 4 75; + <= 4 ;>;, bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho sf fvnb¼
un
un khdh3 ϋ
khdh3  ϋ (<=) 4 >,
>,>Õ >= ; [/d. ∗

k) 1=h K3 Kho \ 
Kho  \  4
 4 75; + 1= 4 ;6;, bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho sf fvnb¼
un
un khdh3 ϋ
khdh3  ϋ(1=) >,7 Õ >= 7 [/d.
(1=) 4 >, ∗

6.7: Von dufstrn lf sfd`kholukthr t`fof uon sfkk`¼ ho

ho trnos-
vfrsnb
frsnb rfktno
rfktnoeub
eubnr nr lf   >,6dd   phr   7,=dd   y uo
uon
n bhoe
bhoe`t
`tul
ul lf
>>dd. Fb dntfr`nb t`fof uon lfos`lnl lf fbfktrhofs y aufkhs
lf   >, 1 >=>1 y   ;,= >=>6Yd∗;T   rfspfkt`vndfotf
Õ Õ
d7 s d7 s
[` ¶ =,=17 v  
[`  ¶ f  4 y  ¶ a  4 =,==7> v   fokhotrnr
fokhotrnr bn rfs`stfok`n
rfs`stfok`n hjrfk`ln
hjrfk`ln fotrf bns knrns
knrns lf
bhs fstrfdhs lf bn dufstrn.

J`eurn 13 Khrtf trnosvfrsnb lfb sfd`kholukthr

ϋ  4 ∗ώf¶f + ώa¶a

4 >, : Õ >= ∗>0
  >, 1 Õ >=>1  (=

(=,,=17) + ;, = Õ >=>6  (=,
(=, ==7>)

ϋ  4 =,=7;:Y
=7;:Ys/d
s/dTT
Bn rfs`stfok`n sf fxprfsn khdh bhoe`tul lfb kholukthr shgrf fb khf﬎k`fotf lf rfs`stv`lnl ϋ
rfs`stv`lnl  ϋ
phr fb nrfn lf bn sfkk`¼ho
ho trnosvfrsnb.
 B
W  4 ϋN

  =, =>>
4
(=
(=,, ==7;:)(=
==7;:)(=,, =, ==>6)(=
==>6)(=,, ==7)
 6<

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

W  4 >66,
>66, ;:Y
;:YI 
I K
KTT
 66

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knp¼ľtubh :
:.7 Fokhot
Fokhotrnr
rnr bn khostno
khostnotf
tf l`fb¼
l`fb¼
fktr`kn
fktr`kn lf uo dntf
dntfr`nb
r`nb kuyn
kuyn
lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh fs kuntrh vfkfs dnyhr quf su ph-
bnr`znk`¼
ho.
ho.
]hlfdhs ut`b`znr bh s`eu`fotf
s`eu`fotf33
L  4
 4 
 = F   +
+ ] 
¼
lholf ] fs bn ]HBNW@SNK@ HO lfb dntfr`nb.

L  4
 4 
  = F  +
 +
 >
L
<
;
L  4
 4 
  = F 
<
 <
L  4 = F 
;
Lf lholf sf puflf `lfot`﬎knr quf bn khostnotf l`fb¼fktr`kn
fktr`kn fs3
 <
r   4
;

:.; Vo kholukthr lf kngbf khnx`nb t`fof rnl`h   n   4 =,1dd   y

g   4 ;dd   y uo phb`fst`rfoh l`fb¼ fktr`kh kuyh vnbhr   r   4 7,6:.
fktr`kh
[` ]   4 (7/ώ)nώ   oK/d7 , fo fb l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh fokhotrnr3
fokhotrnr3 n) L y F
fo juok`¼ h o lf   ώ9 g)   Z nngg   y   Q f . k) [` any   < >=>0 dh
ho dhb¼
b¼
fkub
fkubnsns phr Õ
dftrh k¼ ug`kh
ug`kh fo fb l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh fokhotrnr p(ώ).
n)
  ] 
F  4
= (r >)∗
Wffdpbnzh kho bhs lnths

  (7
(7/ώ
/ώ)) >=∗0   ><<,
><<,0 Z 
F  4 (1
(1,,16 Õ >=Õ >7)(>
)(>,,6:) nώ  4
∗
ώ   nώ   Y d T
Bufeh, sng`folh quf
L  4 
 4   h F  +
 + ] 
Wffdpbnzh F
Wffdpbnzh  F  y  ]

 7 Õ >= ∗0n  >   ;,71 >=∗0   K 

L  4
ώ
  Y  + >T 4
Õ
  nώ   Y 7 T
ώ >,6: ώ d
  ;,71 oK 
L  4   Y 7T
ώ d
g)
  =,;
><<,0
><<,  ;
Z ng
ng  4 ∗ ώ
  lώ
lώ 4
 4 ><<,
><<,0 bo( )
= ,;
∕
 
;
Z ng
ng   4 >07 YZ T
Z T
Nlfd¼
ns
ns tfoeh quf3
Q f  4
 4 
 r ∗ > 4 >,6:
 6:

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

k) \fo`folh quf3
dhbfkubns
D   4 < Õ >=>0 Y
d;
  T

P quf3
 ]
p(ώ) 4
D 
Fothokfs
Fothokfs rffdpbnzh, tnb quf3

  (7 >=∗0 /ώ)
/ώ)
p(ώ) 4 < >=>0   nώ
ÕÕ
p(ώ) 4
 6 Õ >=  70 nώ   YK  ∕ dT
∗

:.<. Khos
:.<. Khos`l
`lfr
frnr
nr uo dntf
dntfr` r`nb
nb kh
khdp
dpuf
ufst
sth
h fbfbngh
nghrnrnlh
lh kho
kho lh
lhss
fspfk`fs quf t`fofo lfos`lnlfs lf   O >   y   O 7  d
 dhhb¼fkubns/d; , rfs-
pfkt`vndfo
pfkt `vndfotf.
tf. Bhs lhs dntfr`nbfs
dntfr`nbf s fst¼ no
no dfzkbnlhs lf dnofrn
uo`jhrdf jhrdnolh uon lfos`lnl thtnb lf   O   4   O >   +  O 7. Bn
prfsfok`n
prfsf ok`n lf uo kndph
kndph fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh F `olukf
`olukf bhs dhdfodhdfoths
ths l`-
phbnrfs dhbfkubnrfs p >  y  p7  lfotrh lf bns fspfk`fs `ol`v`lunbfs,

dfzk
dfzkbnlns
dntfr`nbbnlnskhdpufsth
h oh. Lfdhstrnr
Lfdh strnr
fst¼ quf
n lnln bn  khostno
phr khos tnotf tf l`fb¼
l`fb¼
r   4   j r >  + (>
fktr`kn
fj ktr`
)r7kn lfb
, lho- ∗
lf   j   fs bn jrnkk`¼
ho
h o lf l`phbhs lf fspfk`f > y lholf   r>   y   r7
sho bns khostnotfs
khostnotfs l`fb¼fktr`kns
fktr`kns quf bns fspfk`fs oh dfzkbnlns
tfolr¼
tfolr ¼ľno s` knln uon tuv`frn uon lfos`lnl O.
[f khos`lfrn fb vfkthr lf phbnr`znk`¼ho
ho thtnb khdh3

] \ ht  4
 4 O 
 O > ] >  + O 7 ] 7
O >  O 7
]\ ht  4 O 
 4  O ((   ] > +   ] 7 )
O  O 

O Yj ]>  + (> j )]7 )T 4  j 

 j ]
]> + (> j )]7 )
∗
Fo tfrd`ohs lf bns suskfpt`g`b`lnlfs, fsth sf khov`frtf fo3
∗
 4  = Yj xf>  + (>
] \ ht  4  ∗ j )xf7T
lholf  x f>   y  x f7  sf fvnb¼
lholf x uno
uno fo fb o¼udfrh
udfrh lf lfos`lnl khdpufstn, O.
Bufeh3
L  4
 4  tht  4
 r = F + ] tht j ))xf7 T
 = Y> + j xf>  + (> j 
 4  ∗
@lfot`﬎knolh 
@lfot`﬎knolh   r  khdh sf vf, sf bh puflf rffskr`g`r n˒onl`folh
onl`folh y sustrnyfolh j 

r  4 Y> + j  ∗
 ∗ j   ++ xf> + (> ∗ j j ))xf7T 4 Yj (>
(> + xf> ) + (> ∗ j 
j )(>
)(> + xf7 )T

r  4  j r>  + (> ∗ j 
j ))r7
 65

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.6 Bn supfr﬎k`f   x  4 =  sfpn sfpnrn

rn lhs l`fb¼fktr`khs
fktr`khs pfrjfkths.
pf rjfkths. ]nrn
x ?   =, sfn   ζr>   4 ;  d`fotrns quf   ζr7   4 6   lholf   x 2   =. [`   F >   4
1=nx :=ny ;=nz Z /d, fokhotrnr3 n)   F O
∗ ∗ O  >9 g)   F \
\  >9 k)   F > 9 l) Fb
¼
noeu
no eubhbh fotr
fotrf f   F >   y bn ohrdnb n bn supfr﬎k`f9 f)   LO 79 j )   L\ 7
e)L7
[` sf t`fof uo gufo khohk`d`foth fspnk`nb, sf sngf quf bn supfr﬎k`f x4= sf jhrdn kho
bhs fcfs y y z, phr bh tnoth fo fstf pbnoh sf fokhotrnr¼n bn khdphofotf tnoefok`nb lf oufstrh
kndph.

n)Bn khdphofotf ohrdnb nb pbnoh x

pbnoh  x  4 = fs bn khdphofotf x lfb kndph fb¼ffktr`kh
ktr`kh

F O
O  > 4 1=n
1=nx
g) Bn prhyfkk`¼ho
ho lfb kndph fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh fo bn supfr﬎k`h x4 =, fs bn khdphofotf tnoefok`nb,
lfg`lh n khdh fst¼n fxprfsnlh fb kndph, fs dukan d¼ns ns sfok`bbh npb`knr fb tfhrfdn lf
]`t¼nehrns
nehrns fo bns khdphofotfs y y z y lfspufs knbkubnr su uo`tnr`h.
  ∓ 
|F \ \ >| 4 :=7 + ;= 7 4 ;= 6

Fstf rfsubtnlh fst¼n fo l`rfkk`¼ho3

ho3
:= ;=
nF \  >  4 ;= 6 nx  + ;= 6 nz
  ∗∓    ∗∓ 
k) Fs fb d`sdh lnth quf ohs prhphrk`hon fb fcfrk`k`h

l) Fb noeubh
¼noeubh fotrf F 
fotrf  F >  y bn ohrdnb sf knbkubn khdh3

  F \ 
∓ 
\ >  ;= 6
α  4 nrktno  4 nrktno   4 ;0,
;0, 01ernlhs
01ernlhs
F O
O  > 1=
]hrr khol`k
]h khol`k`hof
`hofss lf jrhotfr
jrhotfrnn sf t`fof
t`fof quf 
quf   F \ 
\ > 4   F \  \ 7 nlfd¼ ns
n s lf   LO >4
>4LLO 7, fsth fs
khdpbfdfot
khdpbf dfotnlh
nlh n quf 
quf  L  4
 4 ζ
 ζr F ,  L O   4  ζr F O
O    y  L \   4  ζ r F \ 
\ 
Fo pr`dfr buenr fs ofkfsnr`h knbkubnr L
knbkubnr  L O >

LO > 4 ;(1=)n
;(1=)nx  4 7<=n
7<=nx

f) [f t`fof pnrn L
pnrn  L O 7
LO 7 4  LO > 4 7<=n
7<=nx
j ) ]nrn bn khdphofotf tnoefok`nb lfb Jbuch Fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh sf t`fof quf usnr pr`dfr pr`dfrh
bn s`eu`fotf rfbnk`¼ho3
ho3
∓ 
F \ 
\ > 4  F \ 
\ 7 4 ;= 6

]nrn knbkubnr L
knbkubnr  L \ 7 ∓ 
L\ 7 4 6(;= 6) 4 ;;6,
;;6,<>

:.: Fb kndph fb¼ fktr`kh

fktr`kh fo uon pbnkn lf dntfr`nb l`fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr`kh
r 4>,:,r7 4= lnlh phr   Z 4-6===x
n) Fokhotrnr   F ,L,]   fo fb dntfr`nb3
g) Fvnbunr   ώ,ώg   y   ώt  fo fb dntfr`nb3
]nrn fb b`tfrnb n khohkfdhs quf3

F   4
4 ∗∅Z    (7)
 61

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knbkubnolh fb ernl`fotf lf Z 

lf  Z    tfofdhs quf3

F  4
 4 ∗∅(∗6===
6===x
x)

F  4
 4 ∅(6===
(6===x
x)
  4 6===∅x
F  4
Z 
F  4
  4 6===n
6===n
x d

[ngfdhs quf bn khostnotf l`fbfktr`kn 
l`fbfktr`kn   L  sf puflf knbkubnr khdh3

L  4
 4 
 h r F 

(1,, 1<0> >=∗>7 )>

L  4 (1 ∕ )>,, : 6===
6===nnx

5=,,1 ∕ >=
L  4 5= 0
∗
nx
∕   K 
d7

L  4 5=
5=,,1nx
 
εK 
d7

[f khohkf quf ] 
quf  ]  fs
 fs bn phbnr`znk`¼ho
ho lfb l`fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh y sf lf﬎of khdh3

]    4  υ f h F 
] 

Lholf υ
Lholf  υ h  sf lf﬎of khdh bn   suskfpt`g`b`lnl fbfktr`kn  sf bn puflf knbkubnr khdh3

r   4  υ f + >

r ∗ > 4 υf

[ust`tuyfolh fb vnbhr pnrn 

pnrn   r  sf t`fof quf3

υf  4 =, :

phlfdhs knbkubnr
knbkubnr ] 
 ] 33

]  :(1,, 1<0> >=∗>7 ) 6===n

]    4 =, :(1 ∕ 6===nx ∕
] 
]    4 7:
7:,,6<
6<n
nx
 
εK 
d7

]nrn fb b`tfrnb g tfofdhs bns fxprfs`hofs3

ώv   4 ∅µL
ώg  4 ∗∅ µ ] 
ώt  4 ∅ µ h F 
 60

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

rffdpbnzndhs bn fxprfs`¼hho
o pnrn
pnrn L
 L33

ώv   4 ∅ µ 5=
5=,,1nx

ώv   4 =

rffdpbnzndhs bn fxprfs`¼hho
o pnrn
pnrn ] 
 ] 33

ώg  4 ∗∅ µ 7:
7:,,6<n
6<nx
ώg  4 =

rffdpbnzndhs bn fxprfs`¼hho
o pnrn
pnrn ] 
 ] 33

ώt  4 ∅ µ h6===
6===nnx

ώt  4 =

:.5 Lhs
L hs l`fb¼
l `fb¼fktr`khs
fktr`khs pfrjfkths
pfr jfkths t`fofo pfrd`t`v`lnl
pfr d`t`v`lnlfs
fs rfbnt`vns
r> 4 7  y  r 7 4 1. Bn `otfrjnsf pbnonr fotrf fbbhs fs bn supfr﬎k`f
x y  + 7z   4 6. Fb hr`efo sf fokufotrn fo bn rfe`¼
∗ h o >3 [`   F > 4
ho
>==nx + 7==ny 6=nzZ/d, fokhotrnr F7.
∗
Fo >  4
 4 F 
 F > .o

o  4
  j    4  ∓ > .Ynx ∗ ny +
ny + 7nz
7 nzTT
|j | :
Fo >  4 ∗1>
1>,,:6
 ∓  
 >
.Ynx ∗ ny +
ny + 7nz
7 nzTT
:

4 ∗;; ;; ,;;ny ∗ ::,

;;,,;;nx  + ;;, ::,:5nz

F\    4  F >
F\  ∗ Fo >  4 >;;,
>;;,;nx  + >::,
>::,:ny  + >:,
>: ,:5nz

F\ >  4
 4 F
 F\ 
\ 7

  Fr >  >
Fo 7  4 .Fo >  4 Fo >
Fr 7 <
 >
F 7  4
 4 F
 Frr7 + Fo 7  4
 4 F
 F\ \ >  + Fo >
<

4 >;;,
>;;,;;nx  + >::,
>::,5ny  + >:,
>: ,:5nz ∗ 1,;nx + 1,1 ,;ny
4 ∗>:
>:,,:5nz

F 7  4 >76nz  + >56ny

 :=

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.1 Bn rfe`ho   x ?4 =  fs uo l`fbfktr`kh kho   F r> 4 7   d`fotrns

quf bn rfe`ho lhs   (x 2   =)   t`fof uo vnbhr lf   F r7 4 6   sfn   f> 4
7=nx >=ny  + 6=nz   .n) Fokhotrnr L7.g)fokhotrnr bn lfos`lnl
∗
lf fofre`n fo ndgns rfe`hofs.

Lx>  4
 4 Lx
 Lx 7

r>
F 7  4 7=( )nx ∗ >=
>=ny
ny +
 + 6=nz
6= nz
r7

F 7  4 1nx ∗ >=

>=ny
ny +
 + 6=nz
6= nz

L7  4
 4 
 r ,7.=  4 =,;6
;6nx
nx ∗ =,<<ny
<<ny +
 + 7,
7 ,7>nz
7>nz

 >  >  oc

wf>  4 r = F >.F > 4 ,7.= (7=7 + >=7 + 6=7 ),;===
;====  4 7:,
7:,: ;
7 7 d
 >  >  oc
wf7  4 r = F 7.F ; 4 ,6.= (17 + >= 7 + 6=7 ) 4 ::==
::===  4 60,
60,= <
7 7 d

   2 ϊ 2 ύ/
:.0
y  r7Lhs ku˒ons
ons ύ
  4 6  pnrn lf l`f
l`fb¼
/7  2
 ύ/ ϊb¼
fktr`khs
f2ktr
 7 ύ`khs
 f
 fst¼pfrjfk
pf
norjfkths
st¼
no ths ns
fokfrrnlns
fokfrrnl r >   4 phr
7  pnrn
bns =supfr﬎k`fs
sup fr﬎k`fs7
k`b
k` b¼ľolr`kns
kn s   ώ   4 <kd   y   ώ   4 0kd. [`   F >  4 (7===/ώ)n ώ Z /D , fokho-
trnr3 n)   F 79 g) bn fofre fofre¼ ¼ľn fbfktrhst¼
fbfktrhs t¼
nt`kn
nt`kn thtnb nbdnkfonln fo
uo dftrh lf bhoe`tul lf knln rfe`¼ ho
ho
n) Ohtndhs quf fb kndph fs fb d`sdh fo kunbqu`fr bnlh lf bhs b`d`tfs lfb pbnoh   ϊ,
fothokfs.
 7  4  F 
F   >

 7  4   7==  n ώ

F 
ώ
g)Fo efofrnb tfofdhs quf
 > 7  > 7
U    4 7 F  4 7   F 
F
F 
  r h
]nrn bn rfe`¼ho
ho > fo uo > dftrh lf bhoe`tul.

U F
F  >  4
 >
     
 >   ύ/
ύ/77  0
r h F 7 ώlώlϊlz
7 = = =

U F
F  >  4
     
  ο r ο h  >   ύ/
ύ/77  0
7===7
  ώlώlϊlz
7 = = = ώ7
  r h > ύ/ ύ/77
U F
F  >  4   Yz T = YϊT =   Ybo ώ T 0<
| | | ||
7
  7===7 (7)(7)= ύ 0
U F
F  >  4 bo(( )
bo
7 7 <
U FF  >  4 <6<6,, >Y¶C 
>Y¶C T
lf `eunb dnofrn pnrn bn rfe`¼ho
ho 7

U F
F  7  4
 >
     
 >   7ύ  0
r h F 7 ώlώlϊlz
7 = ύ/
ύ/77 <
 :>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

U F
F  7  4
  r h
     
 >   7ύ  0
7===7 ώlώlϊlz
7 = ύ/
ύ/77 <
  6= 7ϊ
U F
F  7  4   7===7 Yz T >= YϊT ύ/7
| |
ύ/ 7
Ybo ώ T 0<
| ||
7
  6= ;ύ 0
U F
F  7  4   7===7   bo
bo(( )
7 7 <
U FF  7  4 ;;1Y¶C 
;;1Y¶C T

  4 >==dd7 ,   l  4 ;dd   y   r  4 >7 pnrn uo knpnk`thr lf

:.>= [fn   [  4
pbnkns
pbnk ns pnrnbfbns.
pnrnbfbns. n) Knbkubnr
Knbkubnr bn knpnknpnk`tn
k`tnok`n.
ok`n. g) Lfspu
Lfspu¼ ¼
fs
fs lf
khofktnr uon gntfr gntfr¼ ¼ľn lf : Z fo fb knpnk`thr, knbkubnr F, L, ^
y bn fofre
fof re¼¼ľn fbfktrh
fbf ktrhst¼
st¼
n
nt`kn
t`k n thtnb
thtn b nbdnkfon
nbdn kfonln.
ln. k) Kho bn jufotf
n¼
uo
uo khofktnln sf rfduf rfdufvf vf ku`lnlhsndfotf
ku`lnlhsndfotf fb l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh s`-
tunlh fotrf bns pbnkns. Von vfz s`o fb l`fb¼ fktr`kh,
fktr`kh, rfknbkubnr
F, L, ^ y bn fofrefofre¼ ¼ľn fbfktrhs
fbfktrhst¼t¼nt`kn
nt`kn thtnb nbdnkfonln. l) [` bn
knren
knre n y bn fofre
fofre¼¼ľn fokhot
fokhotrnln
rnln fo fb `ok`sh k) sho dfohrfs
dfohrfs n
bhs vnbhrfs fokhotrnlhs fo g) (bhs kunbfs yn sf lfg`frho angfr
fokhotrnlh
fokh otrnlh), ), ¸qu¼ f bf pns¼ h n bn knren y n bn fofre¼
fofre¼ľn pfrl`lhs8
n) ]nrn knbkubnr bn knpnk`tnok`n fo juok`ho lf bhs lnths quf ohs lno tfofdhs3
[ 
K   4  i   i  4
 4 
  r =
∕
l
Wfdpbnznolh
>==Q >>==∗:
>==Q 
K   4 >7
>7=   4 ;, 6< pJ 
;Q >>==∗;
g) ]hr phtfok`nb sngfdhs quf3

Z =  4
 4 F
 Fl
l
Lfspfcnolh F y rfdpbznolh bn l`stnok`n y fb phtfok`nb tfofdhs
  :
4 ;Q >>==∗;  4 7===Z
F   4 7===Z /d
L  4
 4 
  r = F 

L  4 >7
>7= 7=== 4 =, 7>¶K/d7
=, 7>¶K/d
Npb`kndhs enuss n bn pbnkn pnrn hgtfofr bn knren ^
knren  ^  4
 4 L[ 
 L[ 

^  4 (=
(=,, 7>Q >>==∗: )(>==
7>Q  )(>==Q  >=∗: ) 4 7> pK 
Q >= 7> pK 
7
phr  U k  4   7^K 
Bn fofre`n v`fof lnln phr U 

  7>7
U k  4   4 :; pC 
7(;,, 6<)
7(;
k) Nahrn qu`tnrfdhs fb l`fbfktr`kh y rfknbkubnrfdhs bhs vnbhrfs lfb b`tfrnb g

  :
F   4
4  4 7===Z
7===Z /d
;Q >>==∗;
 :7

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

L  4
 4 
  = F 

L  4  >5, 5oK/d7

 4   = 7=== 4 >5,
Npb`kndhs enuss n bn pbnkn pnrn hgtfofr bn knren ^
knren  ^  4
 4 L[ 
 L[ 

(>5, 5Q >>==∗0 )(>==

^  4 (>5, )(>==Q  >=∗: ) 4 >, 1 pK 
Q >=
phr  U k  4   7> ^Z =
Bn fofre`n v`fof lnln phr U 

∕
U k  4 >, 56 ; 4 6, < pC 
l) ^uf pnsh kho bn knren y fofre`n pfrl`lhs fotrf fb b`tfrnb k)y g)

Fo bn nusfok`n lf jr`kk`ho quf tfo`n fb l`nbfktr`kh bn knren y bn fofre`n t`fofo quf

rferfsnr n bn gntfr`n phr bh tnoth fsn fofre`n oh lfsnpnrfkf shbh rferfsn n bn gntfr`n lf
lholf snb`h

:.>> Fo uo kholukthr k`b¼ k`b¼ľolr`kh lf rnl`h 7 YddT bn lfos`lnl

lf khrr`fo
khrr`fotf
tf vnr¼ nr¼ľn kho bn l`stnok`n
l`stnok`n lfslf fb fcf lf nkufrlh
nkufrlh n
<==rr   N
 c   4 >=;f∗<== Y d T. Anbbnr bn khrr`fotf thtnb.
7

@   4
  ∕    ∕ ∕
  [  ls 4
ls  4   C  ls

@   4
   
  7ύ   =,==7
>=; f∗<==
<==rr
rlr lϊ
= =

  f∗<==r
<==r
;
@   4 7ύ (>= )Y
( <==)7
∗ ( <==r
<==r ∗ ∗ >)T==,==7  4 5,6>Y
6>YdN
dNTT

:.>7 Vo knpnk`thr lf pbnkns pnrnbfbns bbfoh lf n`rf kho sfpn-

rnk`¼
ho
ho fotrf pbnkns   l  y ¼
nrfn
nrf n lf pbnkn
pbnkn   N  fs
 fst¼
t¼
n khofktnl
khof ktnlhh n uon
gntfrr¼ľn quf sud`o`s
gntf sud` o`strn
trn uo vhbtncf
vhbtn cf  Z =  fotrf bns pbnkns. Lfcnolh
bn gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn khofktnl
khofktnln,n, bns pbnkn
pbnknss sf nbfcno
nbfcno n uon l`stnok`n
l`stnok`n lf
>=l. Lftfrdonr qu¼ f jnkthr kndg`no
kndg`no knln uon lf bns knot`ln-
F .
lfs s`eu`fotfs3 n)Z = 9 g)   K 9 k)   F 9 l)   L 9 f)   ^9 j )   ώs 9 e)   U F 
n)
n) Z 
 Z = 3 ]frdnofkf `eunb, yn quf bn gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn qufln khofktnln.

g)   K 3 Khdh   K  

K   4   = N/l
N/l,, fb nudfoth lf   l  fo uo jnkthr lf l`fz l`sd`ouyf   K 
K    fo uo jn-
thr lf =,=,>.

k)   F 3 [f rfqu`frf   ∕ ∕

rfqu`frf   F  l   4   Z = , lholf   Z =   oh an kndg`nlh. ]hr bh tnoth,   F 
F    an l`sd`ou`-
lh fo uo jnkthr lf =.>.

f) ^
f)  ^33 Lnlh quf ^
quf  ^  4 K
 4  K Z = , y khdh K 
khdh  K  fstn
 fstn ngnch fo =,
= ,>, ^
>,  ^  tndg`fo l`sd`ouyf fo =,
= ,>.

j )   ώs 3 Khdh   ^   sf rflukf fo =.>,   ώs   sf rflukf fo =.>. Fsth tndg`¼

tndg`¼
fo
fo fs khos`stfo
khos`stfotf
tf kho
quf L
quf  L  sf anyn rfluk`lh fo =,=,>.

e)
e)   U F 7
F  3 Vsndhs 
Vsndhs   U F
F    4 >/7K Z =  . pnrn hgsfrvnr su rflukk`¼
hho
o phr ==,,>, yn quf 
quf   K 
K    sf rflukf
fo fsf jnkthr.
 :;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.>; Vo knpnk`th
knpn k`thrr lf
l f pbnkn
p bnknss pnrnb
p nrnbfbns
fbns fst¼
n bbfoh
b bfoh lf uo l`fb¼fktr`-
fktr `-
kh oh uo`jhrdf knrnktfr`znlh phr   r  4 7+ 7 >=: x7 , lholf   x   fs Õ
bn l`stnok`n fotrf pbnkns fo dftrhs. [`   [   4 =,=7d7 y   l  4 >dd,
fokhotrnr L
\foeh quf3
 L   ][ 
F  4 4
= r = (7 + 7 >=: x7 )
Fb vhbtncf fotrf bns pbnkns fs3 Õ
   >=∗ ;
][ lx
Z =  4
= = (7 + 7 >=: x7 )
Õ
  ][    > x < >=:
∓  Õ ∗ ;
Z =  4
=
∕ ∓  Õ  ∕
7; >=:
nrktno(
7
  ) |=>=
  ][    > ύ
∕ Õ
Z =  4
= 7 >=; <
( ) YZ T
Z T

Nlfd¼
ns
ns tfo`folh quf ^
quf  ^ 4  ][ (=
 4 ] (=,,=7), fothokfs3

(=,,=7) 7 >=; <

  ^   ][ (= ∕ Õ ∕ >=
∗
K 
K  4
 4
Z =
4
][  ύ
  4 <,6> Õ >= Y  T
Z 
∕
J  4
J  4 <6> pJ 
<6> pJ 

:.>< Wfpft`r fb prhgbfdn

prhgbfdn :.>7 supho`folh
supho`folh quf bn gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn sf
fokufotrn lfskhofktnln notfs lf quf nudfotf bn sfpnrnk`¼ho
ho
fotrf pbnkns.
n)
n) ^
 ^33 ]frdnofkf `eunb, khdh bn gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn sf lfskhofktn bn knren oh t`fof ank`n lholf `r.

g) 
g)   ώs  Khdh bn knren oh kndg`n, 
kndg`n,   ώs  tndphkh kndg`n, pufsth quf fb ¼nrfn
nrfn lf bns pbnkns
pnrnfbns
pnrnfbns lfb knpnk`thr
knpnk`thr sho khostnotf
khostnotfs,
s,

k)   L3 Khdh L4ώ
L4ώs , tndg`¼ffo
o pfrdnofkfr
pfrd nofkfrp¼
p¼n `eunb.

l)   F3 Khdh3
 L
F  4
 4
=
y L oh vnr¼
vnr¼ľn, F tndg`¼
tndg `¼fo
fo pf
pfrdn
rdnofk
ofkfr¼
fr¼n `eunb,

f)   Z =  [f rfqu`frf F  Õ

rfqu`frf  F  l  4
 4 Z 
 Z = , lholf F oh an kndg`nlh. ]hr tnoth Z 
tnoth  Z =  sf an `okrfdfo-
tnlh phr uo jnkthr lf >=.

j )   K3 Khdh3
  = N
K   4
l
 :<

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Nb `okrfdfotnr l fo uo jnthr lf >=, K lfkrfkf phr uo jnkthr lf =.>. Fb d`sdh rfsubtnlh

phrquf  K    4   Z ^= , lholf Z 
hkurrf phrquf K  lholf  Z = , `okrfdfotn fo uo jnkthr lf >=, d`fotrns ^ oh kndg`n

e)   U f 3 [f usn3
U f  4 =,6K Z =7  4 =,6^Z =
, pnrn hgsfrvnr su lfkrfk`d`foth phr uo jnkthr lf >=.

:.>6 [fn   r>   4 7,6   pnrn   =   2 y 2   >   dd,   r 7 4 <   pnrn   >   2 y 2
;dd y   r;   pnrn   ;   2 y 2   6   dd. Fst¼ no
no prfsfotfs supfr﬎k`fs
sup fr﬎k`fs
kholukthrns fo   y   4 =   y   y   4 6   dd. Knbkubnr bn knpnk`tnok`n
phr dftrh kunlrnlh lf ¼ nrfn
nrfn s`3
n.bn rfe`¼ ho
h o ; fs n`rf9
g.   r;   4   r> 9
k.   r;   4   r79
l. bn rfe`¼ ho
h o ; fs pbntn.
Bn khdg`onk`ho sfrn trfs knpnk`thrfs fo sfr`f3

>  >  >  >   l>   l7   l;   >=∗ ;   >  7   ;

 4 + + 4  +  +  4 Y  +  + T
K  K > K 7 K ; r >= (>) r 7= (>) r ;= (>) = 7,6 < r ;

Lf dhlh quf3

  (6
(6xx>=∗;)
;)= r ;
K   4
>= + <,
<,6r ;
n.
K   4 ;,=6
=6oJpnrn
oJpnrnr ; 4 >
g.
K   4
4 6,7>
7>oJpnrn
oJpnrnr ; 4 7,6
k.
K   4 :,;7
;7oJpnrn
oJpnrnr ; 4 <
l.
K   4
4 0,1;
1;oJpnrn
oJpnrnr ;
[` bn rfe`ho ; fs pbntn (thdnlh khdh uo pfrjfkth kholukthr) jhrdn bn rfe`¼hho o ;9 fsth t`fof
fb fjfkth lf fb`d`onr
fb`d`onr fb t¼
frd`oh
frd`oh quf `ovhbukrn
`ovhbukrn n r; lfb j¼
hrdubn
hrdubn hr`e`onb
hr`e` onb (pr`dfrn
(pr`df rn b¼ľofn lf
fkunk`¼hho),
o), h fqu`vnbfotf, pfrd`t`folh quf r; sf nkfrquf nb `o﬎o`th.
 :6

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.>: Vo knpnk`thr
knpnk`thr lf pbnkns
pbnkns pnrnb
pnrnbfbns
fbns fst¼
n fbnghrnlh
fbnghrnlh ut`b`-
ut`b`-
znolh lhs pbnkns k`rkubnrfs lf rnl`h n, kho bn pbnkn lfb jholh
fo fb pbnoh xy,
xy, kfotrnl
kfotrnlnn fo fb hr`efo.
hr`efo. Bn pbnkn supfr`hr fst¼ n
ug`knln fo   z   4   l, kho su kfotrh fo fb fcf z. Fb phtfok`nb lf
bn pbnkn supfr`hr fs Z=9 bn pbnknpbnkn `ojfr`hr
`ojfr`hr fst¼
n ntfrr`znl
ntfrr`znln.
n. Bn
rfe`¼
ho
ho fotrf bns pbnkns fst¼ n bbfon lf l`fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr`kh kho uon pfr-
pf r-

d`t`v`lnl
phr   (ώ)4   quf
=(>   lfpfolf lfb rnl`h. Bn pfrd`t`v`lnl
+   ώ/n). Fokhotrnr3 n) pfr d`t`v`lnl
F9 g) L9 k) ^9fst¼
l)nK.
lnln

n) Khdh 
Khdh    oh vnr`n fo bn l`rfkk`¼ho z
ho  z , y yn quf s`fdprf lfgfdhs hgtfofr  Z =  kunolh sf
`otfern fb kndph fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh F fotrf fsths, khobbfvn quf3

F   4
4
 ∗Z =  nz   Z /d
l
g) ]nrt`folh lf bn fkunk`¼ho
ho
L  4
 4 F 
 F 
Wffdpbnznolh sf t`fof quf

L  4 ∗Y=(> + ώ/n /lTnz   K/d 7

ώ/n))Z = /lT

k) ]nrn fokhotrnr ^, npb`kndhs bn bfy lf Enuss kho uon `otfernb lf supfr﬎k`f lnlh phr bn
lfos`lnl lf knren supfr﬎k`nb fo bn pbnkn supfr`hr

^  4
  µ
4  L l[   4
   
  7ύ  n
= (> + ώ/n
ώ/n))Z =
µ∗
  nz ( nz )ώlώlϊ
[  = = l

^  4
 
  7ύ = Z =  n
(ώ + ώ7 /n)
/n)lώ
l =
  6ύ = n7
^  4   Z =
;l
l) [f ut`b`zn bn fkunk`¼ho
ho
 ^
K   4
Z =
rffdpbnznolh bhs vnbhrfs hgtfo`lhs notfr`hrdfotf
= (ύn 7 )
K   4 6   J 
;l

:.>5 Kuntrh knrens phs`t`vns lf >=oK sf ug`kno fo fb pbnoh

z 4 = fo bns fsqu`ons lf uo kunlrnlh lf 1 kd lf bnlh. Von
qu`otn knren phs`t`vn sf s`t¼u
unn fo uo puoth ug`knlh n 1 kd
lf l`stnok`n lf bns lfd¼ns.
ns. Knbkubnr bn dneo`tul lf bn jufrzn
thtnb shgrf fstn qu`otn knren pnrn     4   =
[hbuk`¼
ho3
ho3

n)
>  4   > +   > 4   > >  bo     ;  + bo <
k k> k7 7ύ = < 7 ;
  >
k  4 (=
(=,, ;10)
7ύ =
 ::

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

⇗ k 4 ><; pJ 
><; pJ 
g)

;7 ∗ 77 4 <7 ∗ k7 ⇗ k 4 ;, ;7kd

;7kd

>  >  >   > ;, ;7  >  <

 4 + 4 bo  +  bo
k k k 7ύ 7 < ;, ;7
> 7
>
=     
  >
 4 (=
(=,, 66)
k 7ύ=

⇗ k 4 >=> pJ 
>=> pJ 

:.>1 [` sf pul`frn fspfk﬎knr uo dntfr`nb pnrn ut`b`znrsf khdh

l`fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr`kh fo uo knpnk`thr khnx`nb pnrn fb kunb bn pfrd`t`v`-
lnl vnr¼
nr¼ľf khot`oundfotf kho fb rnl`h.
¸^u¼
^u¼f vnr`
vnr `nk`
k`¼
ho
ho kho  ώ  sf lfgfr¼
¼ lfg fr¼
n ut`b`znr kho fb ﬎o lf dnotfofr
uo vnbhr uo`jhrdf lf bn `otfos`lnl lf kndph fb¼ fktr`kh8
fktr`kh8
Fo l`kans
l`kans khol`k`ho
khol`k`hofs¸k¼
fs¸k¼ hdh
h dh npnr
npnrfk
fkfo
fo bhs
bhs rnl`
rnl`hs
hs `otf
`otfro
roh
h y
fxtfroh fo bn fxprfs`¼ ho
h o lf knpnk`tnok`n phr uo`lnl lf l`s-
tnok`n8
Fo bn bfy lf Enuss sf fstngbfkf quf `olfpfol`fotf lf quf bn pfrd`t`v`lnl vnr`f rnl`nb-
dfotf,sf t`fof3

L  4
  nώs
  
nώ
ώ
Lholf9

n3 rnl`h `otfroh

ώs 3 supufstn lfos`lnl lf knren supfr﬎k`nb

Fothokfs,

    nώs
L
F   4  4 nˊώ
 ώ
[f t`fof ﬎onbdfotf, s`  F 
ˊ  sf
  sf dnot`fof khostnotf nb rnl`h3
 >
  4
ώ
t`fof    4   ώe  n su vfz rffdpbnznolh fo  F 
Nahrn, sf t`fof   3

   4   nώs
F  4   nˊώ
e

Bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb, fst¼n lnln phr3

  n
nώs   nώs
Z =  4 ∗ e
  nˊώ lώ.
lώ. ˊ
n
 ˊώ   4
e
  (g ∗ n)
g
 :5

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

J`onbdfotf
J`onbdfotf,, su knpnk`tnok`n
knpnk`tnok`n sfr¼n3
n3
  7oe
K   4
(g n)
∗
:.>0 Lhs knsknrhofs
knsknrhofs fsj¼fsj¼
f
fr`khs
r`khs kholukth
kholukthrfs rfs t`fofo
t`fofo uo rnl`h
n  4 ;kd   y   g  4 :kd. Fb `otfr`hr fs uo l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh pfrjfkth kuyh
r   4 1. n) Fokhotrnr  K . g) Von phrk`¼ ho
ho lfb l`fb¼l`f b¼
fktr`kh
fktr `kh sf qu`tn
qu`t n
phr bh quf   r   4 >   ,=  2 ϊ 2 ύ/7   y   r   4 1,   ύ/ 7  2 ϊ 2  7 ύ  Lf oufvh
fokhotrnr K
n)
[ngfdhs quf K 
quf  K 
 ^
K   4 r
Z ng
ng
anbbndhs Z 
anbbndhs  Z ng
ng  quf fs fb vhbtncf lfb knsknrho

Z ng
ng  4
 4 Z
 Z n ∗ Z g 4 <  ύ^=n ∗ <  ύ^=g
 ^ >
Z ng
ng  4 (
<ύ = n
 ∗  >g ) 4  <ύ
^ g∗n
=
(
ng
 )4
  ^(g ∗ n)
<ύ = ng
Wfdpbnznolh Z 
Wfdpbnznolh  Z ng
ng   fo
fo K 
 K 
  ^r   <ύ= r ng
K   4 ^(g∗n)
4
(g n)
∗
<ύ = ng

  <ύ (1
(1,, 16x>=∗>7 )(1)(=
16x )(1)(=,, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:)
K   4
(=
(=,, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:)
K   4
4 6;
6;,, ;Y pJ T
 pJ T

k)
bn l`str`guk`¼ho
ho lfb khf﬎k`fotf l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh pnrn   r  fs `eunb n tfofr >/
> /< lf bn knpnk`tnok`n
lf uo knsknrho fsj¼fr`kh
fr`kh y pnrn   r7  fs `eunb n uoh lf ;/ ;/< y ndghs fstnr¼no
no khofktnlhs fo
pnrnbfbh y ut`b`znolh bn fkunk`¼ho
ho > tfofdhs
  > <ύ = r ng  ; <ύ = r ng
K   4  K >  + K 7  4 (  ) + (  )
< (g n) ∗ < (g n) ∗
  > <ύ (1
(1,, 16
16xx>=∗>7 )(1)(=
)(1)(=,, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:)  ; <ύ (1, 16x>=∗>7 )(1)(=
(1, 16x )(1)(=,, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:)
K   4 (   )+ (   )
< (=
(=,, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:) < (=,
(=, =;)(=
=;)(=,, =:)
 >  ;
K   4 (:(:,, :5) + (6; (6;,, ;)
< <
K   4 <>
<>,, :<Y pJ T
 pJ T

:.7= Dhstrnr quf bn knpnk`tnok`n phr uo`lnl lf bhoe`tul lf

uo k`b`olrh lf rnl`h n fs `eunb n kfrh.
Lnlh quf bn knpnk`tnok`n fs `eunb n
 ^
K  4
 4 ∊Z 

[fn ώ
[fn  ώ s  bn lfos`lnl lf knren supfr﬎k`nb fo bn supfr﬎k`f fo  ώ 4
 ώ  4 n
 n..
 :1

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

ώs  4   ^
N   N  4 7ύna

Fothokfs bn knren phr uo`lnl lf bhoe`tul fs3

q   4
4 7ύnώ s

Lf na` quf fb kndph fbfktr`kh fo fb fspnk`h fstn lnlh phr3

F ώ  4   nώ
= ώ   nώ
s

]nrn knbkubnr ∊Z 

∊Z    tfofdhs3
∊Z  
Z   4 ∗  • k F  lb

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
   n
nώs
lώ
∟
= ώ

∊Z  
Z   4 ∗
 
nώs
 n
lώ
= = ώ
∟

Z   4   nώ
∊Z   = b¼ľd (bo
s
bo((g) ∗ bd(
bd(n))
g↗∟

∊Z   ↗ ∟
Wfdpbnznolh ∊Z 
∊Z  fo
 fo bn fkunk`ho lf bn knpnk`tnok`n tfofdhs3
K   4   ∟
^

]hr bh tnoth bn knpnk`tnok`n fs `eunb n =

:.77 Khos`
:.77 Khos`lfr
lfrnr
nr uo dntfr
dntfr`nb
`nb khdpuf
khdpufsthsth fbnghrn
fbnghrnlh lh kho
kho lhs
fspfk`fs quf t`fofo lfos`lnlfs lf   O >   y   O 7   dhbfkubns/d; rfs-
pfkt`vndfotf. Bhs 7 dntfr`nbfs fstno dfzkbnlhs lf dnofrn
uo`jhrdf jhrdnolh uon lfos`lnl thtnb lf   O   4   O >   +  O 7. Bn
prfsfok`n
prfsfok `n lf
l f uo kndph fb¼
fktr`kh
fktr`kh F `olukf
`o lukf bhs dhdfoths l`ph- l` ph-
bnrfs, dfzkbnlns h oh. Lfdhstrnr quf bn khostnotf
kho stnotf l`fb¼
l `fb¼
fktr`kn
fktr`kn

lfb dntfr`nb
lholf   j  fs bnkhdpufsth
jrnkk`¼
h
hoo lffstn lnlnlfphr3
l`phbhs   r   4 y
fspfk`f r   + (>    j y)  r ,
  j lholf >
∗ 7

r r > 7

sho bns khostnotfs

khostnotfs l`fb¼ fktr`kns
fktr`kns quf bns fspfk`fs oh dfzkbnlns
tfolr¼
tfolr¼ľno s` knln uon tuv`frn uon lfos`lnl O.

] \ 
\   4  O > ] >  + O 7 ] 7
O >  O 7
] \ 
\   4  O 
 O ((   ] >  +   ] 7 )
O  O 
] \ 
\   4  O  ∗
 O YYj ] >  + (> j )] 7 T
\   4  j ] >  + (> ∗ j )] 7
] \ 
\fo`folh quf L
quf  L  4 
 4  = F + ] \ 
\ 

 4  = Y> + j Q f>  + (>

L  4  ∗ j j ))Q f TF
7

[ng`folh
[ng`folh quf L
quf  L 4
 4 
  r = F, fothokfs
r  4  j r>  + (> ∗ j j ))r 7
 :0

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.7; Vo kholukthr lf 7 kd lf l`¼ ndftrh

ndft rh fst¼
n susp
s uspfol
fol`lh
`lh fo fb
n`rf kho su fcf n 6 kd lf uo pbnoh kholukthr. [fn fb phtfok`nb
lfb k`b`olrh >== Z y fb lfb pbnoh = Z. Fokhotrnr bn lfos`lnl lf
knren
knre n lf supfr﬎k`
supfr﬎k`f f fo n) fb k`b`o
k`b`olrh
lrh fo fb puoth
puoth d¼ ns
ns kfrknoh
kfrknoh
nb pbnoh9
pbnoh9 g) fb pbnoh fo fb puoth
puoth d¼ ns
ns kfrknoh
kfrknoh nb k`b`olrh.
k`b`olrh.
n) [f thdnr¼n fb pbnoh zy, kho bns phs`k`hofs lfb k`b`olrh fo x 4  ¾6, fothokfs g4>kd,
a46kd y Z 
y  Z h  4 >==Z 
>==Z 
n  4
  ∗ a7 g7 4 <,0kd

I >  4
 
a+n 7
4 7,<;
oK 
g d
  (<
(<ύ
ύ = Z = ))
ώB 4
ώB  4
 bo 
ώB (x + n) nx  + yny  (  (x
x n) nx  + yn y
L  4
 4 
  = F   4
4∗7ύ (x + n)7 + y7
  ∗ ∗∗
(x n)7 + y 7

µ∗ | ,y4=  4
ώs,dnx  4  L ( nx ) x4a∗,y4=
  ώB
  a∗g+n
 ∗   a∗g∗n
  4
<5;oK/d7
  <5;oK/d
7ύ (a ∗ g + n)7 (a ∗ g ∗ n)7
g)]bnoh fo uo puoth d¼ns
ns kfrknoh nb k`b`olhr, x4y4=

L(=
(=,, =) 4 ∗ ώB
   ∗ ∗ 
n∇ x n∇ x
 4 ∗ ώB 7
∇ x
7ύ n7 n7 7ύ n

ώs  4  L
 L(=
(=,, =)
=).n
.nx  4 ∗ ώB
ύn
  4 ∗>6,
oK 
>6,1 7
d

:.7< Fb kndph lf phtfok`nb

p htfok`nb fo uon
u on pbnkn
pb nkn lf dntfr`nb l`fb¼
fktr`-
fktr`-
kh pnrn fb quf   F r   4 >,:  fstn lnlh phr   Z   4 6===x. ∗
n. Fokhotrnr   L, F   y   ]   fo fb dntfr`nb.

Z 
F   4
4 ∗  Z  4
Z  4 6===n
6===nx Y T
o

L  4 F 
 4  F r = F 

L  4 >,:h (6===
(6===nnx )

oK 
L  4 5=
5=,,1nx Y T
d7

Q f  4
 4 F 
 F r ∗ > 4 =,:
oK 
ώ  4
 4 Q 
 Q f h F   4
4 7:
7:,,:nx Y T
d7
g. Fvnbunr   ώ, ώg   y   ώt  fo fb dntfr`nb.

ώv  4 L  4 =
ώg  4 ∗  ] ]    4 =
ώt  4 hF   44 =
 5=

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

.76 Khostru`r uo dnpn lf kunlrhs kurv`b`ofhs pnrn uo knpn-

k`thr khnx`nb lf ;kd lf rnl`h y 1 kd fxtfroh. n) Vt`b`kf fb
l`guch pnrn knbkubnr bn knpnk`tnok`n phr dftrh g) Knbkubnr fb
vnbhr fxnkth lf knpnk`tnok`n phr dftrh.

n)   K      ζ= OO^v
 
K     ζ= <=:
 
 pJ 
K    60
  d
  7ύζ =
g)   K   4 
bhe 1;
 pJ 
K   4
4 65
d

>. Khostru`r uo dnpn lf kunlrnlhs kurv`b¼ kurv`b¼ľofhs pnrn fb knd-

knd-
ph lf phtfok`nb nbrflflhr lf lhs k`b`olrhs k`rkubnrfs pn-
rnbfbhs, knln uoh lf   7, 6kd  lf rnl`h, kho uon sfpnrnk`¼ ho
ho
fotr
fo trf
f sus kfo
kfotrhstrhs lf   >;kd. Fs
Fstn
tnss l`df
l`dfos`
os`ho
hofs
fs sho
sho nlnlf-
f-
kunlns pnrn rfnb`znr fb l`guch s` sf khos`lfrn bn s`dftr¼
s`dftr¼ľn.
Khdh khdprhgnk`¼ h
ho,
o, knbkubnr bn knpnk`tnok`n phr dftrh
lf bhoe`tul phr dfl`h lfb l`guch y lf bn jhrdubn fxnktn
. [uphofr   r   4 >.
 5>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

n)
O^
K   4  =
O Z 
;7
K   4   =
>:
J 
K  4
  4 >55Y p p T
d
g)
  ύh
K   4 khsa∗> (l/ l/77r )
  ύh
K   4 )
khsa∗> (>;(>;//6
J 
K   4
4 >5  p T
>5,,;Y p
d

:.75 Khostru`r uo dnpn lf kunlrnlhs kurv`b`ofhs pnrn fb knd-

ph lf phtfok`nb quf fx`stf fotrf lhs k`b`olrhs k`rkubnrfs pnrn-
bfbhs, uoh lf < kd lf rnl`h lfotrh lf htrh lf 1 kd lf rnl`h.
Ndghs fcfs fst¼ no
no sfpnrnlhs 7.6 kd. Fstns l`dfos`hofs sho
nlfkunlns pnrn l`gucnr. Khdh khdprhgnk`¼ ho
ho lf bn fxnkt`tul,

knbkubnr
l`guch ybn
lfknpnk`tnok`n
bn j¼
hrdubn phr dftrh lf bhoe`tul phr dfl`h lfb
hrdubn fxnktn.

J`eurn 03 Dnpn lf kunlrnlhs kurv`b`ofhs.

[f t`fof quf bn knpnk`tnok`n fstn lnln phr3

O^
K   4   =
Ov
Wffdpbnznol
Wffdpbnznolh,
h, sf t`fof3

>7
>7xx7
K   4  =
<
Fothokfs3

J 
K   4 05   ώ d
P, ﬎onbdfotf,
J 
K   4 >=
>=,,>   ώ
d
 57

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.70 Fb kholuk
:.70 kholukthr
thr `otfr
`otfroh
oh lf bn b¼ľofn
ľofn lf trn
trnosd
osd`s`
`s`¼
ho quf
¼
dufs
ufstrn
trn bn ﬎e :.><
:.>< t`fof
t`fof uon sfkk`h
sfkk`ho
o trnosv
trnosvfrs
frsnb
nb kunlrn
kunlrnln
ln
7n*7n,
7n*7 n, d`fotrns
d`fotrns quf fb fxtf
fxtfroh
roh fs lf <n*6
<n*6n.
n. Bhs fcfs fst¼no
no
lfspbnznlhs khdh dufstrn n) Khostru`r uo l`guch lf gufo
tndn˒oh
oh lf fstn b¼ľofn lf trnosd`s`ho, l`endhs kho n47.6 kd
y lfspufs prfpnrnr uon ern﬎kn lfb kndph fbfktrhstnt`kh fotrf
bhs kholuskthrfs.
tnok`n phr dftrh lfg)Vt`b`znr
bhoe`tulfbs`dnpn
    4 >,pnrn knbkubnr
:=. k)¸K¼hdh bn dg`nr¼
knpnk`-
hdh kndg`
kn nr¼ľľn
n
fb rfsubtnlh lfb `ok`sh n) s` n4=.:kd8

n)Bn er¼n﬎kn
n﬎kn lfb kndph fbfktrhstnt`kh fotrf kholukthrfs fs3

g)Npb`knolh bn jhrdubn lf knpnk`tnok`n sf fokufotrn quf3

 5;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

O ^
K   4  
O Z 
Z 
lholf sf sngf quf 3
O ^  4 >: 7 fsth sf fokuftrn khotnolh bhs kunlrnlhs lfbf ern﬎kh lfb b`tfrnb n).
∕
fothokfs3
O ZZ    4 <
 >: 7 ∕
K   4 >,:=   4 >7
>7,,1=  4 >>= pJ
 pJ/d
/d

k)[` sf kndg`n
kndg`n n, fb rfsubtnlh < g oh kndg`nr
∕
rfsubtnlh lfb b`tfrnb kndg`nr¼¼ľn, yn quf thlns bns l`dfos`hofs
l`dfos`hofs
khosfrvno bn d`sdh fsknbn rfbnt`vn.

:.;= ]nrn fb knpnk`thr khnx`nb lfb prhgbfdn :.>1, suphofr quf

fb l`fb¼
l`fb¼fktr`kh
fktr`kh t`fof uon juen y pfrd`tf quf bn khrr`fo khrr`fotf
tf ﬇u-
yn fotrf bhs kholukthrfs `otfroh y fxtfroh, d`fotrns quf fb
kndp
knd p h fb¼ f
fktr`
ktr`kh
kh nuo
u
¼ o fs uo`jhrdf kho fb rnl`h.
n)¸^u¼
n)¸^ u¼f jhrdn
jhrdn juok`honb
juok`honb lfgf nsud`r
nsud`r bn kholukt`v
kholukt`v`lnl
`lnl lfb
l`
l`fb
fb¼
¼
fktr
fk tr`k
`kh8
h8
g)¸Ku¼
g)¸K u¼nb
nb fs bn jhrdn g¼ ns`kn
ns` kn juok`hon
juok `honbb lf
l f bn
b n rfs`
r fs`stf
stfok`n
ok`n p hr uo`
uo`--
lnl lf l`stnok`n W8
k)¸^u¼
f pnrndftrhs pfrdnofkfo fo fb prhlukth WK, lhof bn
jhrdn lf K, knpnk`tnok`n phr uo`lnl lf l`stnok`n, sf lftfr-
d`on fo fb prhgbfdn :.>18
n)

  l7 y
∊7 Z  
Z   4
lz 7
 ∗  ώ=
Z  
Z   4 ∗ ώ=  + K >S   ++ K 7
z  4 =, v  4 =yns`K 7  4 =
g)
K >  4  ώ = l
 4 ώ
7
z
Z (
Z (z ) 4  ώ = (l ∗ z)
7
lZ    l ώ7=
F  4
 4 ∊Z  
∗Z   4 ∗ lz
 n z  4 ( (l
lz 7k
∗ z) ∗  7ώk (7z
(7z ∗ l)nz Z /d

k)
7
∗ ∗7ώ=  + K >S   ++ K 7
Z (z ) 4
Z (

∗ ώ7=
Z (z ∗ l) 4  Z h  4 ∗
Z (   + K > l
7
  vH  ώ = l
K >  4  +
L 7
  vH  ώ = l
Z (
Z (z ) 4  z
L
 z +
 +
7
  (l ∗ z)
 5<

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

:.;>. Von b¼ľofn lf trnosd`s`¼

trnosd`s `¼ ho
ho lf lhs a`bhs fst¼n jhrdnln lf
lhs k`b`olrhs kholukthrfs pfrjfktndfotf pnrnbfbhs, kho uo rn-
l`h lf =.7 dd, sfpnrnlhs phr uon l`stnok`n lf 7 dd lf kfo-
trh n kfotrh. Fb dfl`h quf fst¼ n n bhs nbrflflhrfs lf bhs a`bhs
t`fof uo vnbhr lf   r   4 ; y   ϋ  4 >.6 d[/d. Von gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn lf >==
Z fst¼n khofktnln fotrf bhs a`bhs.
Knbkubnr3
n) Bn dneo`tul lf bn knren phr dftrh lf bhoe`tul fo knln
a`bh
g) Bn khrr`fotf lf bn gntfr¼
gntfr¼ľn.
n) [f usn3
  ύ
K   4
4
khsa∗> (a/g
a/g))
Wffdpbnzndhs3

 ύ Õ ; Õ 1,16 Õ >= ∗>7

∗ 0
K   4
4   4 ;,:< Õ >= K/d
khsa∗> (>
(>//=,7))

Fothokfs, bn knren phr uo`lnl lf bhoe`tul, fstnr¼n lnln phr bn s`eu`fotf fxprfs`¼hho3
o3
^  4
 4 K
 K Z =
∗>> 0
∗
^  4 (;
(;,,:< Õ >= )(>==) 4 ;,
;,:< Õ >= K/d

g) ]nrn hgtfofr bn khrr`fotf lf bn gntfr¼

gntfr¼ľn usndhs3
 
WK   4
4
ϋ
Lfspfcndhs
Lfspfcndhs W3
  ; 1,16 >=∗>7
W  4 (>
(>,,6 Õ >=
Õ ∗ ; )(;
)(;,,:<
Õ Õ >= ∗ >> )  4 <1:K
Fothokfs3
  Z =   >==
@   4  4   4 =,7=:
7=:N
N
W <1:
 56

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Knp¼ľtubh 5
5.> [fn   Z   4 7xy7 z ; y     4   h
. Lnlh fb puoth ](>,7,->), fokhotrnr.

n.   Z   fo ].

v  4 7(77 y ∗ >;) 4 ∗1YZ 

1YZ TT
g.   F  fo
  fo ].

F   4
4 Z   4 ∗7y 7 z ; nx ∗ <xyz ; ny ∗ :xy 7 z 7
Z  
Z 
F  p  4 1nx  + 1n
1 ny 7<nz Y T
∗ 7<n d
k.   ώh  fo ].
 k
ώv   4  ∕ L  4 ∗= 7 Z   xz (z 7 + ;y
Z   4 ∗<xz( ;y7 )Y ; T
d
l. Bn fkunk`¼ 
ho lf bn supfr﬎k`f fqu`phtok`nb quf pnsn phr ].

[` 
[`   Z 
Z    4 ∗1
xy 7 z ; 4 ∗<
f. Bn fkunk`¼ 
ho lf bn b¼ľofn quf
q uf pnsn phr ].

F y   μ y   <xyz ;   7x

4 4 7 ; 4
F x μ x 7y z y

yμ y ∗ 7xμ x ∗↗   7> y7 4 x7 + K >

F y   μ z   :xy7 z 7   xx
4 4  4
F x μ x 7y 7 z ; z
 ; 7  > 7
;xμ x zμ z  ∗↗ 7 x 4 7 z + K 7
]hr bh tnoth

y7 ∗ 7x7 4 7979 ;x7 ∗ z7 4 7

 j. ¸ [nt`sjnkf
[nt`sjnkf Z bn fkunk`¼ 
fkunk`ho
¼  lf Bnpbnkf8 

[` snt`sjnkf bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf Bnpbnkf pufs bn lfos`lnl lf knren oh sf ankf kfrh.
 5:

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

5.7 Lnlh fb kndph

kndp h lf l f phtfo
ph tfok`nb
k`nb s`d¼
ftr`kh
ftr` kh fsj¼ fr`kndfotf
fr`k ndfotf fo fb
fspnk`h b`grf  Z   4  Z = f∗r/n fokhotrnr3 n)  ώ v   fo   r   4  n 9 g) fb kndph
fb¼
fb¼
f
fktr
k tr`k
`khh fo   r   4  n 9 k) bn knren thtnb.

n)

Vsnolh bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf ]h`ssho‐s,  ∅7Z  
Z   4 ∗ώv /
/,, quf fo fstf knsh sf khov`frtf fo

∗ ώ=v 4  r>7 lrl (r7 lZ 

lr
 )

4
 ∗Z = l (r7f r/n ) ∗

nr 7 lr
4
 ∗Z =  (7 ∗   r )f r/n ∗

nr n
lf lholf
  = Z =
ώv (r ) 4
nr
  (7 ∗   nr )f r/n
∗
⇗   ώv (n) 4   =nZ 7 =  f ∗ >
K/d;

g)

Vsnolh fb ernl`fotf ofent`vh3

F(r ) 4 ∗∅Z 
lZ 
4 ∗  n r
lr
  Z = ∗r/n
4
n
 f nr   ⇗   F(n) 4   Z n=  f ∗>
nr Z/d

k)

Fdpfzndhs fokhotrnolh bn lfos`lnl lf ﬇uch fb¼fktr`kh, fktr`kh, khdh v`dhs fo fb b`tfrnb  g  g)) fs
Z = ∗>
L 4   = F  4 (= n  )
 )ff nr . Fothokfs
Fothokfs fb ﬇uch nb fxtfr`hr
fxtfr`hr lf L n trnv¼
trnv¼fs
fs lf uon fsjfrn lf rnl`h
r  s
 sffr¼ľn
Ϊ(rr ) 4  ^ fokfrrnln (r ) 4 <ύr 7 L  4 <ύ = Z = r7 f∗r/n K
Ϊ(
Kunolh r
Kunolh  r ↗ ∟, fstf rfsubtnlh sf nprhx`dn n kfrh, phr bh tnoth bn knren thtnb fs  ^ t  4 =.
 55

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

 (x, y ) 4 <f7x +  j (x) ;y 7 fo uon rfe`¼

5.; [fn   Z  ( h∗
hoo lfb fspnk`h
b`grf lholf   ώv   4 =. [f sngf quf tnoth   F x  khdh Z sho kfrh fo
fb hr`efo. Fokhotrnr j (x) y Z(x, y).

7
  ∇  Z   ∇  Z  7  ∇  j  7
∅7 µ Z  
Z   4
∇x 7
 +
∇y 7
>:ff7x +
  4 >:
∇x 7
 ∗ : 4 =
∇ 7 j   4 >: >:ff7x + :   ∇j    4 1f7x + :x
∗ ⇗ ∗ :x + K >
∇x 7 ∇x
  ∇Z   ∇ j 
F x  4   4 1f7x +
∇x ∇x
 ∇ j 
F x (=) 4 1 + |x4=  4 = K >  4 =
⇗
∇x
j ((x, y) 4 <f7x + ;x
j  ;x7 + K 7
j 
j (=
(=,, =) 4 ∗< + K 7 ∥ Z (=
Z (=,, =) 4 = 4 < + j 
j (=
(=,, =)
j (=,, =) 4 ∗< ∥ K 7  4 =
j (=
j ((x, y) 4 ∗<f7x + ;x
j  ;x7
Z (x, y ) 4 <f7x ∗ <f7x + ;x
Z ( ;x7 ∗ ;y 7
Z ( ;(x7 ∗ y 7 )
Z (x, y ) 4 ;(x

5.< Lnlh uo kndph lf phtfok`nb   Z  (  (ώ, ϊ) 4 (Z ώ/l)khsϊ3 n) Lf-

dhstrnr quf   Z   ((ώ, ϊ)  snt`sjnkf bn fkunk`¼ h
hoo lf Bnpbnkf. g) Lfs-
kr`g`r bns supfr﬎k`fs lf phtfok`nb khostnotf. k)Lfskr`g`r fs-
pfk¼
pfk¼ľ﬎kndfotf
ľ﬎kndfotf bns supfr﬎k`fs fo bns quf   Z   4   Z =   y   Z   4 =. l)
Fskr`g`r bn fxprfs`¼ ho
ho lfb phtfok`nb fo khhrlfonlns knrtfs`n-
ons.
n.
  > ∇  ∇Z    > ∇  Z  7
∅7Z  
Z   4 (ώ  ) + 7 7 7
ώ ∇ώ ∇ώ ώ ∇  ϊ

7   > ∇  Z = ώ   > ∇  Z = ώ

∅ Z  
Z   4 ώ ∇ώ ( l   khsϊ)
khsϊ) ∗ ώ7 ∇ϊ ( l   sfoϊ)
sfoϊ)

  Z = ώ  Z = ώ
∅7Z  
Z   4
l
  khsϊ)
khsϊ) ∗
l
  sfoϊ)
sfoϊ)

∅7Z  
Z   4 =
g.   Fstns sfr¼no
no supfr﬎k`fs fo bns quf   ώkhsϊ   fs uon khostnotf. Fo fstn ftnpn, fs ut`b
u
¼ t`b
rfkhrlnr quf bn khhrlfonln x fo khhrlfonlns rfktnoeubnrfs fs lf afkah ώkhsϊ
afkah  ώkhsϊ,, phr bh quf
`lfot`﬎kndhs bns supfr﬎k`fs lf phtfok`nb khostnotf khdh supfr﬎k`fs (pbnons) lf x khos-
tnotf (pnrnbfbns nb pbnoh yz).

k.Fo fb pr`dfr knsh, tfolr¼ľndhs

k.Fo ľndhs  x  4 = (h fb pbnoh y
pbnoh  yzz )9 fo fb sfeuolh knsh, tfofdhs bn
supfr﬎k`f   x  4
supfr﬎k`f  4 l
 l..

l.Vsnolh fb nreudfoth fo bn pnrtf g, tfolr¼

l.Vsnolh tfolr¼ľndhs Z 
ľndhs  Z ((x) 4  Z = x/l
x/l..
 51

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

5.6 Lnlh fb kndph phtfok`nb   Z   4 (Nώ< + Gώ ∗< )s`o(<ϊ)  Lfdhs-

trnr quf 7 Z   4 =
 ∅
Fb bnpbnk`noh fo khhrlfonlns k`b¼
k`b¼ľolr`l`kns fs3
7 7
  ∇  Z    > ∇Z    > ∇  Z   ∇  Z  7
∅7Z  
Z   4
∇ώ 7
 +
ώ ∇ώ
 + 7
ώ ∇ϊ 7
 +
∇z 7
Khdh fo bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho pnrn Z oh fx`stf khdphofotf fo z fb ubt`
u
¼b t`dh
dh t¼frd`o
fr d`ohh sfr
sf r¼ľn kfrh
kfr h
Bns htrns lfr`vnlns pnrk`nbfs sf bns lftnbbn n khot`ounk`¼ho
ho
∇Z 
  4 (< Nώ;
(<Nώ ∗ <Gώ ∗6
)s`o<ϊ
)s`o<ϊ
∇ώ

∇ 7 Z 
7
  4 (>7 Nώ7 + 7=Gώ
(>7Nώ 7=Gώ ∗: )s`o<
)s`o<ϊ
ϊ
∇ώ
∇Z 
  4 (Nώ< + Gώ ∗< )khs<
)khs<ϊ
ϊ(<)
∇ϊ
∇ 7 Z 
∇ϊ 7
 4 ∗(Nώ< + Gώ ∗<
)s`o<ϊ
)s`o<ϊ(>:)

Dubt`pb`knolh fstns fxprfs`hofs phr sus rfspfkt`vhs jnkthrfs lf bn j¼hrdubn

hrdubn nlfdns lf
npb`knr prhp`flnlfs lf bn l`v`s¼ho
ho lf phb`dhoho`hs lf bn d`sdn gnsf

∅7Z Z    4 (< Nώ7 ∗ <Gώ

(<Nώ :
∗
)s`o<ϊ
)s`o< (>7Nώ7 + 7=Gώ
ϊ + (>7Nώ 7= Gώ ∗: )s`o<
)s`o<ϊ >:Nώ7
ϊ + ( >:Nώ ∗ ∗ >:Gώ
>:Gώ ∗ :
)s`o<ϊ
)s`o<ϊ

[f rfnb`zn uon prhp`flnl l`str`gut`vn n bn `zqu`frln

∅7Z Z  4
 4 s`o<ϊ
s`o<ϊ(<Nώ7 ∗ <Gώ
(<Nώ ∗ :
>7Nώ7 + 7=Gώ
+ >7Nώ 7= Gώ ∗: >:Nώ7 ∗ >:Gώ
∗ >:Nώ >:Gώ ∗ :
)

Kho fsth sf lfd`ftrn quf ∅7 Z  

Z   4 =

5.: Vo knpnk`thr lf pbnkns pnrnbfbns t`fof sus pbnkns bhknb`-

znlns fo   z   4 =   y   z   4   l. Bn rfe`ho fotrf bns pbnkns fst¼
n bbfon
kho uo dntfr`nb quf t`fof uo vhbudfo lf knren lf lfos`lnl
uo`jhrdf   ώh   fo   K/d ; y t`fof uon pfrd`t`v`lnl   .
Ndgns pbnkns sf fokufotrno ntfrr`znlns.
n) Lftfrd`of fb kndph lf phtfok`nb fotrf bns pbnkns.
g) Lftfrd`of
Lftfrd`of bn `otfos`ln
`otfos`lnll lf kndph
kndph fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh   F   fotrf
fotrf bns
pbnkns.
k) Wfpft`r bhs `ok`shs n y g kho bn pbnkn fo   z   4   l   fbfv fbfvf su
phtfok`nb n   Z h  kho bn pbnkn   z   4 =  ntfrr`znln.
]nrn fb b`tfrnb n lnlh quf bns pbnkns uo`kndfotf sf ug`kno fo fb fcf   z   sf puflf lfk`r
quf3
 50

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

J`eurn >=3 ]bnkns pnrnbfbns n uon l`stnok`n l

l`stnok`n  l

7   l7 Z 
∅ Z  
Z   4
lz 7
7 ώh
∅ Z  
Z   4 ∗ 
l7 Z 
lz 7
 4 ∗ ώh
@otfernolh 7 vfkfs bn fkunk`ho (1) phlfdhs hgtfofr bn fxprfs`ho pnrn   Z (
Z (z )3

Z (
Z (z ) 4 ∗ ώ7h z7 + K >z + K 7

Lf bns khol`k`hofs fstngbfk`lns sf sngf quf v

quf  v(=)
(=) 4 = y v
y  v((l) 4 =

= 4  K 7

=4 ∗ ώ7h l7 + K >l
ώh 7
l 4 +K > l
7

[`dpb`﬎kndhs l
[`dpb`﬎kndhs  l  hgtfo`folh fb vnbhr lf K 
lf  K >
ώh
l  4
 4 K 
 K >
7

Wffdpbnznolh)3
Z (z ) 4
Z ( ∗ ώ7h z7 + z ώ7h l
]nrn fb b`tfrnb g rfkhrlfdhs quf fb bn `otfos`lnl lf kndph
kndp h fb¼fktr`kh F 
fktr`kh  F  fs
 fs `eunb n  ∗∅Z 
F   4
4 ∗∅Z 
F   4
4 ∗∅ ∗ ώ7h z7 + z ώ7h l
4   ώ  (7
F   4
7
h 
 (7zz ∗ l) Z 
 
d
 1=

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

]nrn fb b`tfrnb k rfut`b`zndhs fb rfsubtnlh hgtfo`lh fo (0) pnrn Z 

pnrn  Z ((z )3

Z (
Z (z ) 4 ∗ ώ7h z7 + K >z + K 7

\hdnolh fo kufotn quf nahrn  Z (=

 Z  (=)) 4 = y  Z (
 Z  (l) 4  Z h 3

= 4  K 7

Z h  4 ∗ ώ7h l7 + K >l

 ώ h 7
Z h  + l 4  K > l
7
Z h  ώ h
  + l  4  4 K 
 K >
l 7

Wffdpbnzndhs3  
ώh 7 Z h  ώ h
Z (
Z (z ) 4 ∗ 7
z +
l
 + l z
7

F   4
4 ∗∅Z 
ώh Z h  ώ h
F   4 z7 +  + l z
∗∅   ώ∗ 7
    l
Z h  ώ h
7
h
F   4
4 ∗
7
7z
l
 + l
7
  ώh
F   4
7
 (7
 (7zz ∗ l) ∗  Z lh
5.1 Lfdufstrf bn knpnk`tnok`n lf bhs s`eu`fotfs kholfosnlh-
rfs, uon vfz hgtfo`lh su vnbhr. Anbbf bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb
fotrf fbbhs.

J`eurn >>3 Knpnk`thr uoh

[f t`fof quf bn knpnk`tnok`n fqu`vnbfotf fs3

>   >   >
 4 +
K f q  = r>  N
l> = r>  N
l7
Lholf, rffdpbnznolh,
rffdpbnznolh, sf t`fof3

>  4   > +   >

K f q  K > K 7
]nrn bn s`eu`fotf l`str`guk`¼fo
fo lfb knpnk`thr sf prhkflf lf bn s`eu`fotf dnofrn3
 1>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

J`eurn >73 Knpnk`thr lhs

  = > N>   = 7 N7
K f q   4
4   +
l l
Wfsubtnolh ns`,

K f q   4 K 
4  K >  + K 7
Lfg`lh n quf bn l`stnok`n lf vhbtncf fs khd¼uo
uo fo
f o bhs
bh s l`fb¼
l` fb¼fktr`khs,
fktr`k hs, sf t`fof3
t `fof3

^  4
 4 Z 
 Z 
 = > N>   = 7 N7
  +

l l
[f puflf lfspfcnr,

  ^
ζ>  4 no
= > N
  ^
ζ7  4 no
= 7 N
J`onbdfotf, bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb, sf puflf fxprfsnr khdh  Z  
 Z   4  Z >  + Z 7  fothokfs3
   >   >

Z  
Z   4  ^ +
= r>  N
l> = r7  N
l7

5.0 Bns juok`hofs   Z > (ώ,ϊ,z )   y   Z 7(ώ,ϊ,z )   snt`sjnkf bn fkunk`¼

ho
ho
lf Bnpbnkf fo bn rfe`¼ ho
ho   n 2 ώ 2 g, =   ϊ   7ύ, B 2 z 2 B9  ≬  ≬ ∗
t`fofo uo vnbhr lf kfrh shgrf bn supfr﬎k`fs   ώ   4   g  pnrn B 2  ∗
 ∗
z 2 B9 z   4 B   pnrn   n 2 ώ 2 g 9 y   z   4   B   pnrn   n 2 ώ 2 g 9 y
knln uon t`fof   >==Z    fo bn supfr﬎k`f   ώ   4   n   pnrn B 2 z 2  ∗
B. n)Fo bn rfe`¼ ho
ho fspfk`﬎k
fspfk`﬎knln nln,, ¸Bn
¸Bnss juok`h ofs   Z >   +   Z 7 , Z >
juok`hofs  ∗
Z 7, Z > + ;   y   Z > Z 7  snt`sjnkfo bn fkunk`¼ h
hoo lf bn Bnpbnkf8 g) Fo bns
supfr﬎k`fs lf jrhotfrn quf sf fspfk`﬎kno, ¸fx`stfo vnbhrfs lf
phtfok`nb lnlhs fstf prhgbfdn quf anyno s`lh hgtfo`lhs lf
∗
bns juok`hofs   Z > + Z 7 , Z > Z 7 , Z > + ;   y   Z > Z 78 k) ¸[ho bns juok`hofs
∗
Z > + Z 7 , Z > Z 7 , Z > + ;   y   Z > Z 7  `l¼
 `l¼
fot`
ot`kns
kn s n   Z >

n)[` pnrn Z 
pnrn  Z > + Z 7 , Z > Z 7 , Z > + ;, pfrh pnrn
pnrn Z 
 Z > Z 7  oh phrquf bn fkunk`¼hho
o lf Bnpbnkf fs
b`ofnb. ∗
g) [` fo bn supfr﬎k`f lf >==Z 
>== Z    lholf ώ
lholf  ώ 4
 4 n
 n y
 y fo bn =Z 
=Z  fxkfpth
 fxkfpth pnrn Z 
pnrn  Z >  + ;.
 17

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

k)[hbh   Z 7  phrquf snt`sjnkf bns khol`k`hofs lf   Z > . ]hr bh tnoth, phr fb tfhrfdn lf uo`-
k)[hbh 
k`lnl.
Z 7  4
 4 Z 
 Z >

5.>= Khos`l¼ frfsf

frfsf fb knpnk`thr lf pbnkns pnrnbfbns lfb prhgbf-
dn 5.: pfrh fstn vfz fb l`fb¼ fktr`kh
fktr`kh knrenlh fx`stf shbndfotf
shbndfotf
fotrf z4= y z4g, lholf g¡l. Bn rfe`¼ ho
ho g¡z¡l fst¼
n bbfon phr
fb fspnk`h
f spnk`h b`grf, ndgns pbnkns
pbn kns fst¼
no
no ntfrr`znl
n tfrr`znln.
n. Fokhotrnr
Fo khotrnr rf-
r f-
shbv`folh bns fkunk`hofs lf Bnpbnkf y ]h`ssho.
n)
n) Z 
 Z    (z ) pnrn = 2
=  2 z 2 l
fo (z 2 g) 3rfshbvfdhs bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf ]h`ssho nsud`folh uo`kndfotf
u
¼ o`kndfotf z vnr`ngbf

l7 Z >   ∗ώ=
  4
lz 7 ζ
lZ > ώ=   z  ∗
  4   +   K >
lz ζ
fo (z ? g) 3rfshbvfdhs bn fkunk`¼ho
ho lf Bnpbnkf nsud`folh uo`kndfotf
u
¼ o`kndfotf z vnr`ngbf

l7 Z 7
lz 7   4 =
lZ 7
  4   K 7
lz
Npb`kndhs khol`k`hofs
Npb`kndhs khol`k`hofs lf jrhotfrn
jrhotfrn pnrn3(z4g)
pnrn3(z4g)

lZ >(
>(gg) lZ 7(
7(gg)
F >(
>(gg)  4
 4 F 
 F 7(
7(gg)  ↗      4  =
lz lz
∗ώ= g +   K >   4   = K 7
  K >
K 7  4
=
∗  ώ==g
Wfshbv`folh Bns fkunk`hofs lf Bnpbnkf y ]h`ssho kho bn fxprfs`¼ho
ho pnrn K 
pnrn  K 7  tfofdhs3

ώ= z 7
Z >>(z
(z )  4∗ 7   +   zK > +   K ;   pnrn(z 2 g)
pnrn(
ώ= gz   
7(zz )  4 ∗
Z 7( + zK >  +   K <   pnrn(z ? g)
pnrn(
7= =

Z 7(
 ∗ώ=gl +    lK > + K <
7(ll)  4 = 4   9   Z  4 = 4  K ;
7= = >(=)

  ώ= gl
K <  4
7=
∗   = lK >
Fothokfs tfofdhs3
7
Z >(
>(zz )  4 ∗ ώ7=z   +   zK >   y Z 7(
7(zz )  4
  ώ= g
=
(l ∗ z) ∗   = K > ( (ll ∗ z)
Fvnbundhs fo z4g3
z4g3 Z 
 Z >>(g
(g)  4
 4 Z 
 Z 77(g
(g)  y lfspfcndhs K 
lfspfcndhs  K >
ώ= z 7   ώ= g
7
∗   +   zK >  4
=
(l z ) ∗ ∗   = K > ( (ll ∗ z)
 1;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

K >
 z  +
   (l g)
 4
∗ 
  ώ= g
(l ∗ g) +
 ώ = g7
= = 7
  
  ώ= g g + 7 = (l g) ∗  

K >  4     , lholf r   4
7= g + = (l g) ∗ =
Wffdpbnzndhs3

  ώ= g g + 7
7 r ( l
∗ g)  z   pnrn (
Z >(
>(zz )  4 pnrn  (zz 2 g)
7 g +  (l ∗ g)   ∗ g
 r 
  ώ= g7   (l ∗ z )
Z 7(
7(zz )  4   pnrn (
pnrn  (zz ? g)
7= g + r (l ∗ g)

5.7: [` Q fs uon juok`¼ h o lf x y   Q  + ( x >)Q  7Q   4 =,

ho ∗ ∗
suphofr uon shbuk`¼ shbuk`¼
ho
ho fo bn jhrdn
jhrdn lf uon sfr`f lf phtfok` phtfok`ns ns
`o﬎o`tn y lftfrd`onr
lftfrd`on r bhs vnbhrfs oud¼ f r`khs lf   n7  anstn   n1   s`
fr`khs
n=   4 >   y   n>   4 >. ∗
[f pbnotfn uon shbuk`¼ho
ho lf bn jhrdn lf uon sfr`f lf phtfok`ns `o﬎o`tns
∟

Q   4 n xo

o4= o

]nrn hgtfofr  Q  y  Q  lfr`vndhs.

hgtfofr Q 
∟ ∟

Q  4
 ono x o∗>
Q  4 
 o(o >)no xo
∗ >)n ∗ 7

o4> o47

rffdpbnznr  Q,, Q  yQ  fo bn fkunk`ho l`jfrfok`nb tfofdhs

Nb rffdpbnznr Q
∟ ∟ ∟
 o(o ∗ >)
>)nno x o∗7
+ (x
(x ∗ >)
 ono x o∗>
∗
 7 no x o 4 =
o47 o4> o4=

Npb`kndhs l`str`gut`vn.
∟ ∟ ∟
o∗7 o o∗> o

o47
o(o ∗ >)
>)nno x +  o4>
(ono x ∗ onox ) ∗ 7 o4= nox
 4=

L`str`gu`dhs fb sudnthr`h phr b`ofnb`lnl lfb sudnthr`h

∟ ∟ ∟ ∟
 o(o ∗ >)
>)nno x o∗7
+
 ono x o
∗
 ono x o∗>
∗
 7 no x o 4 =
o47 o4> o4> o4=

Fs ofkfsnr`h ankfr quf fb sfeuolh sudnthr`h fdp`fzf lfslf kfrh pufs fstf tfolrn fb
fxphofotf lf dnyhr vnbhr phr bh tnoth pnrn fb sfeuolh sudnthr` d4d+>
∟ ∟ ∟ ∟
 o(o ∗ >)
>)nno x o∗7
+
 (o + >)n
>)no+> x o+>
∗
 ono x o∗>
∗
 7 no x o 4 =
o47 o4= o4h o4=

Pn quf tfofdhs fb dnyhr fxphofotf lfgfrfdhs bbfvnr thlhs bhs fxphofotfs n fsf fxphofotf,
∟ ∟ ∟ ∟

7n7 +
 (o+;)(
+;)(o
o+7)
+7)n
no+; x o+>
+
 (o+>)
+>)nno+> x o+>
∗ ∗

n> (o+7)
+7)nno+7 x o+>
∗7n= ∗
 7no+> xo+> 4 =
o4= o4= o4> o4=
 1<

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

nerupnolh bhs sudnthr`hs y sfpnrnolhbhs lf bhs tfrd`ohs `olfpfol`fotfs tfofdhs3

∟

7n7 ∗ n> ∗ 7n= +

 xo+> Y(o
Y(o + ;)(o
;)(o + 7)n
7)no+;  + (o
( o + >)n
>)no+> ∗ (o + 7)n
7) no+7 ∗ 7no+> T 4 =
o4=

]nrn hgtfofr fb tfrd`oh n

tfrd`oh  n 7  shbh lfgfrfdhs `eunbnr n = bhs khf﬎k`fotfs quf fstno jufrn lfb
sudnthr`h

7n7 n> 7n=  4 =   n=  4 >   n>  4 >

∗ ∗ ∗
n7  4   7>

pnrn hgtfofr fb rfsth lf tfrd`ohs pr`dfrh gusknrfdhs bn jhrdubn lf rfkurrfok`n lf fstf

sudnthr`h bn kunb sf khos`en nb `eubnr fb surdnthr`h n =
∟
 xo+> Y(o
Y(o + ;)(o 7)no+; + (o
;)(o + 7)n ( o + >)n
>)no+> 7)no+7 ∗ 7no+> T 4 =
∗ (o + 7)n
o4=

quf  x o+> 4 = fothokfs3

Pn quf x

(o + ;)(o
;)(o + 7)n
7)no+;  + (o
( o + >)n
>)no+> ∗ (o + 7)n
7)no+7 ∗ 7no+>  4 =

Lfspfcndhs fb khf﬎k`fotf kho dnthr sug`ol`kf

no+;  4   (o + 7)n 7 no+> (o + >)n

7)no+7  + 7n >)no+>
∗   ]nrn
]nrn o  4 >, 7, ;, . . .
(o + ;)(o
;)(o + 7)

knbkubndhs  n ;  anstn
knbkubndhs n  anstn n s`  n =  4 >  n >  4 > y  n 7  4   >7
 n 1   s` n ∗
o4=
  (7)n
(7)n7  + 7n
7 n> (>)
∗ (>)nn>
n;  4   4=
(;)(7)
o4>
n<  4
  (;)n
(;)n;  + 7n ∗
7 n7 (7)
(7)n
 
n7
4=
(<)(;)
o47
  (<)n
(<)n<  + 7n
7 n; (;)
(;)n
∗ n;
n6  4   4=
(6)(<)
o4;
n:  4   (6)n
(6)n6  + 7n (<)  n< 4 =
7 n< (<)n
∗
(:)(6)
o4<
n5  4
  (:)n
(:)n:  + 7n ∗
7 n6 (6)
(6)n
 
n6
4=
(5)(:)
o46
  (5)n
(5)n5  + 7n
7 n: (:)
(:)n
∗ n:
n1  4   4=
(1)(5)

5.75
.75 [f sngf
sngf quf   v   4   xy   fs bn sh
shbu
buk`
k`¼
ho
h o lf bn nkun
¼ nkunk`
k`¼
ho
h o lf
¼
bnpbnkf,lholf y fs uon juok`¼ ho
ho shbndfotf lf y , Lftfrd`onr
kunb lf bns s`qu`fotfs juok`hofs lf phtfok`nb sho tndg`fo lf
bn fkunk`pho lf bnpbnkf

v  4 >==x
>==x
Z  
Z   4 6=
6=xy
xy
 16

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

Z  
Z   4 7xy +
xy + x ∗ ;y
Z  
Z   4  xxy
Z   4  x 7 y
Z  

tfofdhs quf 3 Z 

3  Z    4 >==x fsth  Z  7 xy 4
>==x  sngfdhs fsth Z  xy  4 =

n7 7
 
  x   y 
xy + 7 xy
xy +  ⇗ yx + xy 4 = ⇗  4  4=
nx7 ny y y
fsh   v 7 x  4 >==x
]nrn fsh  >==x7 4 =

g)
Z   4 6=
Z   6=xy  v 7 v  4 6=v
xy 3 3 v 6=v 7 xy 4
xy  4 =
k)
Z  
Z   4 7xy +
xy + x ∗ ;y9 Z 7Z  
Z   4 7Z  ∕
 ∕ 7xy +
xy + = ∗ = 4 =
l)
Z  
Z   4  xxy  Z  7 Z  
 xxy 3 3 Z  Z   4  Z Z 7 xy 3  xy 7 4 =
xy  3 xy
f)
Z  
Z   4  x 7 y  3 Z 
 3  Z  7 Z )
Z )xZ 7 xy +
xy + xyZ  7 x  4 = + xyZ  7 Q 

5.71 [uphofr uon shbuk`¼ ho prhlukth  Z   4  ] J  lf bn fkunk`¼

ho h
hoo lf
Bnpbnkf fo khhrlfonlns k`b k`b¼
¼ľolr`kns, lholf Z oh sfn juok`¼ ho
ho
lf   z, ]  fs uon juok`¼h
hoo shbndfotf lf   ώ   y   J  fs s¼
hbh
hbh uon juok`¼ h
hoo
lf   ϊ.
n) Hgtfofr bns lhs fkunk`hofs sfpnrnlns s` bn khostnotf lf
sfpnrnk`¼ ho
ho fs   o7.
g) Lfdhstrnr quf   ]   4  Nώ o +  G ώo  snt`sjnkf bn fkunk`¼
 Gώ h
hoo   ώ.
n)

 7
Z  
Z   4
 > ϖ
 
δ 
ϖv   > ϖ7 v
 + 7 7   4 =
ώ ϖώ ϖώ ώ lϊ

[ust`tuyf
[ust`tuyfolh
olh fo bf fkunk`¼
fkunk`¼
hho v
o  v  4
 4 ]
 ] J 

J  l l]   l 7 J    l l]   l7 p   ]  l7

(ώ  ) +  4   + J  7   + 7 7   4 =
ώ lώ lώ lϊ7 ώ lp lp ώ lϊ
dubt`pb`knolh phr  ώ 7 y l`﬎l`folh pnrn J
phr ώ pnrn  J ] 
]  sf
 sf hgt`fof

 p l]   ώ 7 l7 ]    > l7 J 
 +  +  4 =
]  lp ]  lp7 J  lϊ7

khsotnotf  o 7 hgtfof
sust`tuyfolh bn khsotnotf o hgtfofdhs
dhs bn fkunk`¼
fkunk`¼
ho
ho
 1:

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

l7 J 
  + o7 J  
J   4 = J   4  k o kho
⇗ J   kho((oϊ
oϊ)) + Lo s`o
s`o((oϊ)(o
oϊ)(o ≦ >)
lϊ7

l7 J 
 4 = ⇗ J  
J   4  k= ϊ + l=
lϊ7

g)

 Nώ 7 fokhotrndhs
sust`tuyfolh Nώ
sust`tuyfolh

>)ώo∗7 + ώoώ7
ώ7 o(o + >)ώ ∗ oo ∗> o
ώ 4  o7 ώ ∗ oώo + oώo ∗ o7ώ7 4 =
 G ώ∗o 3
sust`tuyfolh G
sust`tuyfolh

ώ7 o(o + >)ώ
>)ώ∗(o+7) + ώoώ7 ∗o ∗(o+>) o
ώ + o7 ώ∗o 4  o 7 ώ ∗ oώo + oώo ∗ o7ώ7 4 =
 15

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

5.70 Fo rfjfrfok`n nb knp

knp¼
¼ľtubh :, ﬎eurn :.><, fb kholukthr `o-
tfr`hr lf bn b¼ľofn lf trnosd`s`¼ho
ho fst¼
n n uo phtfok`nb lf >==
Z, d`fotrns
d`fotrns quf fb fxtfr`hr
fxtfr`hr fst¼n n kfrh phtfok`nb.
phtfok`nb. Khostru`r
Khostru`r
uo forfcnlh lf =.6n lf bnlh y ut`b`znr bn `tfrnk`¼ ho
h o pnrn fo-
khotrnr Z fo uo puoth ug`knlh n n uo`lnlfs shgrf bn fsqu`on
supfr`hr lfrfkan lfb kholukthr `otfr`hr. \rngncnr fo fb vhbt
d¼
ns
ns kfrk
kf rkno
noh.
h.

J`eurn >;3
 11

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

5.;= Vt`b`znr fb d¼
fthlh
fthlh lf `tfrnk`ho pnrn knbkubnr bhs phtfo-
k`nbfs fo bhs puoths x y y fo fb vnbbf tr`noeubnr lf bn ﬎eurn.
\rngncnr fo fb vhbt dns kfrknoh

sng`folh quf bn l`jfrfok`n lf phtfok`nb fo  Z x  4 51Z 

51Z    y fo
fo Z 
 Z y   4 7:Z 
7:Z 
Npb`knolh fb dfthlh lf `tfrnk`ho sf t`fof quf3
 10

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

5.;> Vt`b`znr dfthlhs `tfrnt`vhs pnrn fst`dnr fb phtfok`nb fo

fb puoth x fo fb vnbbf dhstrnlh fo bn ﬎eurn 5.>6. \rngncnr fo
fb vhbt dns kfrknoh.

J`eurn ><3 J`eurn >6

J`eurn >63 [hbuk`ho.

5.;7 Vt`b`znolh fb forfcnlh lf bn ﬎eurn 5.>:, trngncnr fo fb

vhbt d¼
ns
ns kfrknoh pnrn knbkubnr fb phtfok`nb fo fb puoth N.

J`eurn >:3 Fcfrk`k`h 5.;7

 0=

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

N khot`ounk`¼ho ho sf dufstrno bhs vhbtncfs

vhbtncfs fo bhs puoths
puoths lf bn kunlr¼
kunlr¼ľkubn, lholf sf fo-
kufotrn quf 
quf   Z N  fs >0 Z. Bn d`tnl lf bn ﬎eurn sf l`gucn yn quf bns `d¼nefofs nefofs fspfkubnrfs
fspfkubnrfs
lf thlhs
thl hs bhs vnbhrfs hkurrfo
hkur rfo n trnv¼fs
fs lf bn b¼ľofn lf s`dftr¼ľn
ľn (b
(b¼¼ľofn l`skhot`oun).
l`skhot` oun).

J`eurn >53 [hbuk`¼hho

o 5.;7

5.;; Bhs kholukthrfs quf t`fofo jrhotfrns jrhotfrns kurv`b¼

kurv`b¼ľofns u hgb`-
kuns efofrnbdfotf oh pfrd`tfo quf knln uoh lf bhs puoths
lfbb forf
lf forfcncnlh
lh kh`o
kh`ok` k`lnln kho kho bn jr jrho
hotf
tfrn
rn rfnb
rfnb.. Bn ﬎eur
﬎eurnn 5.>5
5.>5n n
`bustrn bn s`tunk`¼ h
ho o lholf fb phtfok`nb fo   Z =  sf vn n knbkubnr
fo t¼ f
frd`
r d`oh
ohss lf  Z > ,   Z 7,  Z ;   y  Z <  y bns l`stnok`ns lfs`eunbfs   a> ,  a 7,
a;   y   a<. n) Lfdhstrnr quf3   Z =   4   Z    +   Z   +   a>
>
a> a;
   a7
7
a7 a<

>+ a;
>+ a< a7
>+ a<
>+ a> a;

  Z ;  +     Z <   g) lftfrd`onr Z   fo bn ﬎eurn 5.>5g.

a; a a a< a a =
>+ a>
>+ a> a; >+ a >+ a7 a<
< 7 7 > ;

n)
∇Z    Z > Z =  ∇ Z    Z = Z ;
∇x D >   4
| a>
∗ ∥   (∇x |D    4 a∗; ;

(Z  Z  )
>∗ = Z  Z  ) =∗ ;
∇ 7 Z  ∗ a 4   7Z >   7Z ;
∇x 7 =
Z    4
| a
a> +a;
> ;
a> (a>  + a; )
 +
a; (a>  + a; )
 ∗  a7>Z a=;
7
(Z 7 ∗Z = )   (Z = ∗Z < )
∇ 7 Z 
| a7 a< ∗   7Z 7   7Z <
 ∗  a77Z a=<
7 Z =   4 a + a
4  +
∇y 7
7
< a7 (a7  + a< ) a< (a7  + a< )
7
∇  Z  7
 ∇  Z 
∇x 7
|Z   +
=
∇y 7
|Z    4 =
=

7Z >
 +
  7Z 7
 +
  7Z ;
 +
  7Z <
  4  Z h
a> a;  + a7 a<
 
a> (a>  + a; ) a7 (a7 + a< ) a; (a>  + a; ) a< (a7  + a< ) a> a7 a; a<
  Z >   Z 7   Z ;   Z <
Z =  4  +  +  +
> +   aa>; > +   aa>< aa;7 > +   aa7< > +   aa7> aa<; > +   aa;> > +   aa>< aa;7 > +   aa<7 > +   aa7> aa<;
 
g) [uphoendhs quf a
quf  a >  4
 4 a
 a7  4
 4 n
 n
         
(=,,6n + a; )7 + n7 4 (>
(= (>,,6n)7 ∥ (n + a<)7 + (=,
(=,6n)7 4 (>,
(>,6n)7
a;  4 =,:>1
:>1nn ∥ a<  4 =,<><
<><nn
 0>

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

[ust`tuyfolh fo Z 
fo  Z = 3
  1=   :=   >==
Z =  4      +    +  
>+   >
=,:>1 > +   ==,,:>1
<>< >+   >
=,<>< > +   ==,,<><
:>1 (> + =,
=,:>1) > +   ==,,:>1
<><
  >==
+    4 0=YZ 
0=YZ TT
(> + =,
=,<><) > +   ==,,:>1
<><

J`eurn >13 Fcfrk`k`h 5.;;

5.;< Khos`lfrf bn kho﬎eurnk`¼h

hoo lf kholukthrfs y phtfok`nbfs
dhstrnlhs fo bn ﬎eurn 5.>1. Vt`b`znolh fb d¼fthlh
fthlh lfskr`th fo
fb prhgbfdn 5.;;, knbkubnr bhs phtfok`nbfs fo fb puoth x,y y z

Fb rfsubtnlh sf dufstrn n khot`ounk`¼ho3

ho3
 07

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

[`folh
Z x  4 5=
5=Z 
Z 
Z y   4 55
55Z 
Z 
Z z   4 ;5
;5Z 
Z 

5.;6 Lhs khohs kholukthrfs khnx`nbfs t`fof sus vfrt`kfs fo fb

hr`efo y shgrf
N(>,=,7) fo fb fcf z khdh susd`fotrns
su supfr﬎k`f, fcfs. fb khoh N t`fof fb puoth
G(=,;,;)
B`tfrnb N.

>
 4  te ∗> ( ) 4 7:,
ξN  4 te 7:,65h
7
;
6:,;>h
ξG   4  te ∗> ( ) 4 6:,
7

B`tfrnb G.

] 
] (>
(>,, >, >)

α
Z ( α) 4  K > bo tn
tno(
o( ) + K 
7

fothokfs
6:
6:,,;>
7= 4  K > bo(tno(   )) + K 7
7
7:
7:,,65
>== 4 K 
4  K > bo(tno(   )) + K 7
7

Wfshbv`folh bns fkunk`hofs sf t`fof

K >  4 05
05,,5
 K 7  4 <>
<>,,>

0;

Fs
Fsku
kufb
fbnn ]hb
hb`t
`t¼¼ffko`
ko`kn
kn Onk`
Onk`ho
honb
nb - J@
J@FF
FF \fhr
fhr¼ľn Fbfk
Fbfktr
trhd
hdne
neo
o¼ft`k
f t`knn (7=7
(7=7=-
=-N)
N)

∓ 
], α  4  te ∗> ( 7)6<
 4 te 7)6<,,5;

6<
6<,,5;
Z  p  4 05
05,,5 bo(tno
bo(tno((   )) ∗ <>,
<>,> 4 7;,
7;,;YZ 
;YZ TT
7