term. For example, let x = 0.01, and n = 2.

Then whereas the first term

equals 1, the second term is nx = (2)(0.01) = 0.02, and the third term is
[(2)(1)兾2](0.01)2 = 0.0001, and so on. Thus, when x is small, we can ignore all
but the first two (or three) terms and can write
(1 + x)n L 1 + nx. (A;6)
This approximation often allows us to solve an equation easily that otherwise
might be very difficult. Some examples of the binomial expansion are
(1 + x)2 L 1 + 2x,
1
= (1 + x)–1 L 1 - x,
1 + x
1
11 + x = (1 + x)2 L 1 + 12 x,
1 1
= (1 + x)– 2 L 1 - 12 x,
11 + x
where x V 1.
As a numerical example, let us evaluate 11.02 using the binomial expan-
sion since x = 0.02 is much smaller than 1:
1 1
11.02 = (1.02)2 = (1 + 0.02)2 L 1 + 12 (0.02) = 1.01.
You can check with a calculator (and maybe not even more quickly) that
11.02 L 1.01.

A–6 Plane Geometry θ θ

We review here a number of theorems involving angles and triangles that are
useful in physics. FIGURE A–1

FIGURE A–2
1. Equal angles. Two angles are equal if any of the following conditions are true:
(a) They are vertical angles (Fig. A–1); or θ
(b) the left side of one is parallel to the left side of the other, and the right
side of one is parallel to the right side of the other (Fig. A–2; the left and θ
right sides are as seen from the vertex, where the two sides meet); or
(c) the left side of one is perpendicular to the left side of the other, and the
FIGURE A–3
right sides are likewise perpendicular (Fig. A–3).
Right
2. The sum of the angles in any plane triangle is 180°. angle

3. Similar triangles. Two triangles are said to be similar if all three of their
angles are equal (in Fig. A–4, u1 = f1 , u2 = f2 , and u3 = f3). Similar θ
triangles thus have the same basic shape but may be different sizes and
Right
have different orientations. Two useful theorems about similar triangles are: θ angle
(a) Two triangles are similar if any two of their angles are equal. (This
follows because the third angles must also be equal since the sum of the
angles of a triangle is 180°.)
(b) The ratios of corresponding sides of two similar triangles are equal. That
FIGURE A–4
is (Fig. A–4), θ2
a1 a2 a3 . a3
= = a1
b1 b2 b3

4. Congruent triangles. Two triangles are congruent if one can be placed θ3

precisely on top of the other. That is, they are similar triangles and they have θ1
a2
the same size. Two triangles are congruent if any of the following holds: b3
(a) The three corresponding sides are equal. φ1 φ2
(b) Two sides and the enclosed angle are equal (“side-angle-side”). b2
(c) Two angles and the enclosed side are equal (“angle-side-angle”). φ3 b1

SECTION A–6 Plane Geometry A-7