Function

Stimulation, Inhibition

GIP
↓ Stomach pH
Vagus nerve (ACh) Prostaglandins
Activates pepsinogen to pepsin
hydrochloric acid Gastrin Secretin
Kills microorganisms
Histamine Somatostatin
(except Helicobacter pylori)
Cholecystokinin

• GIP
vitamin Vagus nerve (ACh)
Binds to vitamin B12 and enables its • Prostaglandins
B12 binding Gastrin
absorption in the terminal ileum • Secretin
protein
Histamine
• Somatostatin

Vagus nerve (ACh) • High gastric pH

Pepsin Protein digestion
Low gastric pH • Somatostatin

Bicarbonate Neutralizes gastric acid Secretin • None

Vagus nerve (via gastrin-

releasing

peptide and GRP released

from presynaptic
↑ Gastric acid secretion
terminals • Somatostatin
Gastrin ↑ Gastric motility
of postganglionic fibers) • Gastric pH < 1.5
Proliferation of the gastric mucosa
Amino acids and peptides

Decreased acidity

Distention of the stomach

Chronic PPI administration

 Function
Stimulation, Inhibition

↑ Appetite and hunger (lateral

hypothalamus)

↑ Neuropeptide Y release
Fasting
Ghrelin (arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus) • Stomach distention (food intake)
Sleep deprivation
↑ Growth hormone release (anterior

pituitary)

↑ Gastric motility [6]

Histamine ↑ Gastric acid secretion Gastrin • Somatostatin

↑ Contraction of the gallbladder

↑ Secretion of pancreatic Postprandial: fatty

enzymes by acting on neural acids and amino • Somatostatin

CCK
muscarinic pathways acids entering the small • Fasting

↑ Relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi intestine

↓ Gastric emptying

Inhibits gastrointestinal secretions

↓ Gastric acid

Inhibits gall bladder contraction Postprandial: gastric

Decreases motility of acid, fatty acids,

Somatostatin • Vagus nerve (ACh)
the stomach and intestine and amino acids entering

Causes splanchnic vasoconstriction [7]

the duodenum

Decreases growth

hormone and TSH secretion

 Function
Stimulation, Inhibition

↑ Secretion of bile

↑ Pancreatic secretion

of bicarbonate, which neutralizes the Postprandial: ↑ gastric

Secretin acidic chyme arriving from acid and fatty acids in • Somatostatin

the stomach (necessary the duodenum

for pancreatic enzyme function)

↓ Secretion of gastric acid

↑ Insulin secretion (more

Postprandial: fatty acids,
pronounced with the administration
Gastric inhibitory glucose, amino
of oral glucose compared to • Fasting
polypeptide (GIP) acids entering small
intravenous glucose)
intestine
↓ Secretion of gastric acid

Produces migratory motor

Motilin Fasting • Intake of food
complexes (↑ intestinal motility)

↑ Secretion of water and electrolytes

Distention of the stomach
VIP ↑ Relaxation of intestinal sphincters • Sympathetic activity
Vagal stimulation
and smooth muscle

Relaxation of smooth muscle and

Nitric sphincters (e.g., LES)

oxide (NO) [8] Improves circulation

(vasodilatory property)