Organisation of Cells

● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by:

Unicellular:
+ contains one cell, which is either eukaryotic or prokaryotic
+ Always direct you exposed to external environment
+ Relies on diffusion to obtain nutrients and expel waste
+ Microscopic size, means they have a high SA:V, enabling all required substances to
move across the cell membrane into all areas of the cell
Advantage and disadvantage: much simpler than multicellular organisms, and uses much
less energy to produce food and reproduce, although it has many limits to its complexity.

Colonial:
+ made up of a group of identical single called organisms, called a colony
+ All cells in the group are capable of carrying out each function needed for life
+ Relys on diffusion for obtaining nutrients and expelling waste
Advantage and disadvantage: they can live much longer lives and grow to much larger
sizes than unicellular organisms, although they have lesser freedom of movement.

Multicellular:
+ many different types of cells
+ Similar cells will group together and perform different functions
+ Cannot live independently from one another
+ Cells are larger overall compared to other organisms
+ Cells are organised into groups called tissues
+ Some small multicellular organisms still rely on diffusion
+ Different cell types are structurally suited to carry out different functions
Advantage and disadvantage: they have extreme resistance to physical and chemical
stresses and protection from predators although, they need more food due to them using
much more energy in comparison to other cells

Atoms ➡️molecules➡️cells➡️tissues➡️organs➡️organ systems➡️organisms

● investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems

Plant systems:
Organs of a plant can be grouped into three systems:
+ The shoot system – the part of the plant above ground; supports the plant, enables
transport of substances around the plant, exchanges gases, and carries out
photosynthesis and reproduction; organs in this system include the leaves, stem and
reproductive organs
+ The root system – the part of the plant below the ground; responsible for absorbing
water and nutrients from the soil; organs in this system are the roots
 + Vascular system – the transport system for plants; made up of xylem and phloem
vessels

Plant tissues:

Meristematic tissue:
+ Found at the tips of roots and shoots
+ In woody plants, can also be found in buds and in a ring around the stem
+ In this tissue, cells divide to produce new growth; cell differentiation can also take
place here

Dermal tissue:
+ Protects the plant tissues and controls interactions with the plant’s surroundings
+ Can be found on the outer layers of the stems, roots and leaves
+ Epidermal layer (outermost layer) secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle, which
reduces water loss for the plant
+ Most epidermal cells lack chloroplasts
+ Many epidermal cells can produce fine hairs on the surfaces of the leaves and
stems; these hairs trap a layer of air next to the leaf which prevents the flow of air
and decreases evaporation of water from the leaf; some contain substances harmful
to insects that feed on them
+ Some epidermal cells on the root have fine projections called root hairs which
increase the surface area and allow greater absorption of water

Vascular tissue:
+ Responsible for transport of substances around the plant
+ Found in the roots, stems and leaves
+ Two main types:
- Xylem – transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves
- Phloem – transports the products of photosynthesis around the plant

Ground tissue:
+ All of the internal cells of a plant other than the vascular tissue
+ The bulk of the plant tissue, consisting of a variety of different cell types that are
specialised for food storage, support and photosynthesis

Nutrient and Gas Requirements

● investigate the function of structures in a plant

Autotroph – Structure and Function

+ Vascular plants – most green plants
+ Non Vascular – mosses and liverworts
+ Plants have specialised cells e.g. photosynthetic tissue which have a specific
function
+ Plant organs – leaves, stem, roots, flowers and seeds
+ Xylem – transports water and water soluble nutrients and minerals
 + Phloem – transports sugars

Root system:
+ Anchor
+ Absorbing water and inorganic nutrients
+ Large surface area due to branching, root hairs flattened epidermal cells
+ Water moves in by osmosis
+ Mineral ions move in by diffusion (sometimes active transport)
+ No photosynthesis
+ Yes respiration – oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out

Shoot system:
Stem and leaves

Stem
+ structural support and transport
+ Stem tissues include dermal, vascular and ground
+ Dermal – outer layer, waterproofing, protection, controls gas exchange
+ Vascular – xylem and phloem
+ Ground – fills in around the vascular tissue
Leaves
+ photosynthesis and transpiration
+ Leaves for photosynthesis (absorbing sunlight) – thin, flat, large surface area,
epidermis is transparent.
+ Mesophyll cells (middle layers) – palisade and spongy

● investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants

Gas exchange:
+ Gases required by the organism are diffused into the cells, while gases produced as
a result of these processes diffuse out
+ Oxygen is essential for all cells to carry out cellular respiration; as a result of this
process, carbon dioxide is produced and must be removed, as it is toxic in high
concentrations and may change the pH of cells and interfere with enzyme functioning

The respiratory system:

+ The respiratory system enables the exchange of gases between an organism and its
environment
+ In larger terrestrial animals, the gas exchange system is inside the body to prevent
dehydration of the gas exchange surfaces
+ All gaseous structures share common characteristics to ensure efficient functioning
and maximum exchange of gases:
+ Have a large surface area enhanced by folding, branching or flattening to allow a
faster rate of diffusion
+ Have a moist, thin surface to ensure oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve for easier
diffusion and decrease the distance gases have to travel
 + Are in close proximity to an efficient transport system
+ Maintain a concentration gradient

Gas exchange in plants

+ Leaves can be large and flat
+ They contain open air spaces – greater surface area and allow gases to move freely
throughout the leaf
+ Stomata and lenticels

Stomata:
+ Pores in the epidermis through which the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide can
move in and out of
+ Mostly found on the under surface, some found on the upper epidermis
+ Australian eucalypts – leaves that hang vertically to help minimise sun exposure in
the
middle of the day, these leaves have stomata on both surfaces
+ Stomata have 2 bean shaped cells called guard cells
+ Guard cells contain chloroplasts
+ Plant cells need to balance exchange of gases without losing too much water –
stomata can open and close
+ When they are open gases can diffuse thorough them but when they are closed no
gases are transported and no water is lost
+ Opening and closing depends on environmental factors
+ Light – open at daybreak and close at night
+ When stomata are open water is lost . When temperature increases more water
vapour is lost, the water content of the plant may drop. If this continues the guard
cells loos some of their water and the stomata will close.
+ When water availability has decreased, this limits photosynthesis which means there
is a build up of carbon dioxide in the leaf. This will cause stomata to close restricting
the entry of carbon dioxide

Lenticels:
+ Pores through which gaseous exchange occurs in the woody part of plants
+ Trunks, branches, woody shrub
+ Appear as small dots
+ Diffusion is slow

Gas exchange in animals:

+ All animals
+ Movement of gases between internal and external environments
+ Diffusion across cell membranes
+ Oxygen – cellular respiration
+ Carbon dioxide is produced – must be removed
+ Respiratory system

Respiratory system in mammals:

+ Internal to reduce loss of water
 + Respiratory surfaces are located in the lungs; these structures are known as alveoli
(singular: alveolus)
+ Each thin-walled alveolus is composed of an air sac that is connected to the external
environment and surrounded by tiny thin-walled blood vessels called capillaries

Alveoli:
+ alveoli are tiny sac-like structures that are only in mammals
+ 300 million, folding – increased SA
+ Thin, flattened cells – efficient diffusion
+ Moist surface – efficient diffusion
+ Surrounded by blood capillaries – very close contact with blood
+ Movement of gases – diffusion
+ Inhaled air – 20% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide
+ Exhaled air – 15% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide

Respiration in other animals:

Fish
+ Gases have a low solubility in water
+ Concentration is low compared to air
+ Gills can extract the max possible amount of oxygen from water
+ The need water flowing over them to ensure max oxygen uptake
+ Water goes into mouth of fish, water enters and flows over the gills and then leave
the fish through the gill slits
+ As the water flows over the gills gaseous exchange takes place

Insects:
+ Spiracles - Breathing pores
+ No lungs or blood capillaries
+ Simple system
+ Air tubes called tracheal tubes which branch into smaller blind ended tubes called
tracheoles which carry air directly to the cells of the body.
+ Some flying insects also have air sacs coming off the tracheoles to give a higher
respiratory surface area.
+ In the tracheoles, the oxygen diffuses directly into the cells and carbon dioxide
diffuses directly out. .
+ Larger insects can expand and contract abdominal muscles to create a pulsing body
– this helps move gases in and out of the body
+ More spiracles are open when the insect is active.
+ The spiracles can be closed to conserve moisture.
+ Only effective as animals are small. This is one reason why insects cannot become
too large.

● interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and

conclusions that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the
structure and function of plants.

Cohesion, adhesion, tension theory:

 + The evaporation of water from the leaves (transpiration) creates a suction pull of
water up the stem from the roots
+ Movement of this column of water up the stem due to the evaporative pull of
transpiration is known as the transpiration stream

Xylem:
+ Specialised tissue for transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
+ Movement only occurs in one direction (upwards from the roots)
+ Consists of two main types of elements – xylem tracheids and xylem vessels

Xylem Tracheids:
+ Long structures with end walls that taper to a point, where they come into contact
with each other and overlap
+ Water molecules and dissolved ions pass between tracheids through small holes
called pits

Xylem Vessels:
+ Xylem vessels form continuous tubes for the transport of water
+ When cells specialise to become xylem cells, their walls break down so cells stacked
on top of each other become tubes; the cell contents die, leaving hollow vessels for
flow of water and mineral ions
+ Walls of xylem vessels are reinforced with lignin thickenings which form rings, spirals
or similar patterns; lignin prevent the vessels from collapsing

Movement of water in the xylem:

1. water evaporates out of stomata on leaves. This loss in water volume creates a lower
pressure
2. when this water is lost by transpiration. more water is pulled up by the xylem to
Replace it (moves due to negative Pressure)
3. Due to the hydrogen bonds between water molecules, they are cohesive. This
creates a column of water within the xylem
4. water molecules also adhere to the walls of the xylers. This herps pull the water
column upwards
5. As this column of water is filled up by the xylem it creates tension, pulling the xylem
in to become narrower

Source sink theory:

Sugars move from “source” to “sink” Plants need an energy source to grow. In growing
plants, photosynthates (sugars produced by photosynthesis) are produced in leaves by
photosynthesis, and are then transported to sites of active growth where sugars are needed
to support new tissue growth.

Phloem:
+ proem transport relocates sugars and amino acids that are made in the
photosynthetic parts of a plant to other parts of the plants
+ The phloem is 2 directional, and uses active transport
+ There are two types of phloem vessels; sieve tubes and companion cells
Sieve tubes:
+ this is the tube where the plant transports sap
+ The sieve tubes cannot function without its companion cells

Companion cells:
+ these are full of organelles that do work for itself as well as the sieve tube
+ The companion cells help with unlocked and loading the sieve tube

Source-sink theory process- Flow diagram

1. Loading takes place actively transporting glucose from the (Sauree) mesophyll Cells
through the companion cells in the phloem
2. This drives osmosis due to the high concentration of sugar pulling the Water across
the xylem to the phisem. This increases pressure in the region.
3. Bulk flow occurs moving all the solution (Sap) down to an area of lower
concentration pressure until it reaches the area of low pressure
4. Due to the lower pressure, the sap gets unloaded from the phloem into the sink.
5. At the sink, which may be the roots, or any part of the plant that needs nutrition.
energy is again required to actively remove the sugars from the phloem to the Sink
6. This creates a dinte solution, which causes water to leave the phisen tissue by
Osmosis and return to the xylem tissue.

● trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:

– physical digestion
– chemical digestion
– absorption of nutrients, minerals and water
– elimination of solid waste

Digestion in mammals is made up of two components; chemical digestion and physical

digestion. Both of these processes are equally important and allow for the body to absorb
nutrients as well as expel waste.

Physical digestion:
+ involves physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces using the digestive track
+ Digestion begins in the mouth. The food is ground up by the teeth and moistened
with saliva to make it easy to swallow
+ Stomach muscles help with chemical digestion by mixing food with enzymes
+ Peristalsis is a series of wave like muscle contractions which move food through the
digestive tract

Chemical digestion:
+ breaking down food using substances such as enzymes and bike to break down
complex molecules
+ enzymes break the chemical bonds that hold food particles together
+ Chemical digestion allows food to be broken down into small pieces that cells are
able to absorb
+ Saliva releases an enzyme called amylase that breaks down starches and converts
them into sugars to help the body absorb it
 + In the stomach, gastric juices made up of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid
break down food and split up proteins

Role of the gallbladder:

+ stores and concentrates bile from the liver and releases this into the small intestine
+ Breaks down and absorbs fats from food

Role of the villi

+ absorb nutrients from the liquid mixture called chyme produced in the stomach from
the food we eat
+ increases the absorption capacity of the intestine

Role of the liver:

+ creates secrete bile used in chemical digestion
+ Processes and purifies blood containing newly absorbed nutrients

Role of the large intestine:

+ made up of the colon and the rectum
+ The colon processes waste to be removed from the body
+ The rectum stores waste

● compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs Transport

Autotroph: plants
Heterotroph: animal

All organisms have the same basic requirements for life:

+ Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen make carbohydrates and lipids.
+ CHON&S make amino acids and proteins
+ CHON& P make nucleic acids
+ Oxygen allows the energy from carbohydrates to be unleashed
+ Water is a solvent and hence a great transport medium. It helps carry gases and
nutrients to every cell and part of the cell and remove wastes.
- It can also be a reactant for some bodily reactions.
- It also holds heat well so helps maintain the organism in a suitable temperature
range.

Despite these similarities, autotrophs and heterotrophs go about getting these nutrients and
gas requirements in a different way

Oxygen:
Autotroph Heterotroph

- Plants need this for cellular - animals need this for cellular
respiration. respiration.
- It diffuses into the plant across cell - It diffuses into the organism through
surfaces and through the stomates gills, tracheoles or alveoli

Energy- glucose
Autotroph
- Plants use light to turn the low
energy bonds in CO2, to high
energy bonds in glucose C6,206
- Plants can use this glucose in
respiration to provide energy for
metabolism
Carbon dioxide:
Autotroph
- Plants need this as a raw material
- for photosynthesis
- It diffuses into the plant across cell
surfaces and through the stomates.
Water:
Autotroph
- Vital for life as a solvent and
reactant for many cell reactions.
- Raw material for photosynthesis as
it contains the hydrogen needed to
bond with CO, to make glucose.
- Obtained through the roots via
osmosis
Proteins and lipids:
Autotroph
- Produced by the plant from glucose
and mineral ions.
Mineral ions:
Autotroph
- Move into the plant through the roots
by diffusion and active transport.
Summary:
Autotroph
(respiratory surface)
Heterotroph
- Animals ingest it as glucose or other
carbohydrate and absorbed into
bloodstream.
- Use the glucose in respiration to
provide energy for metabolism
Heterotroph
- not required
Heterotroph
- Vital for life as a solvent and
reactant for many cell reactions.
- Ingested into the digestive system.
Heterotroph
- Ingested into the digestive system
and absorbed into the bloodstream
as amino acids, fatty acids or
glycerol
Heterotroph
- Ingested into the digestive system
and absorbed into the bloodstream
Heterotroph
 - Make own organic (carbon based)
energy by photosynthesis.
- Obtain inorganic requirements
(water, CO,, minerals from external
environment.
- Sunlight needed to provide energy
for plant
- Need to obtain both organic and
inorganic requirements from
environment
- Energy obtained through respiration
by using glucose obtained by the
consumption of other organism

● investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of
plants and animals

Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a
surface

Gas exchange in animals:

+ movement of gases between internal and external environments
+ Diffusion across cell membranes
+ Oxygen- cellular respiration
+ Co2 is produced- this must be removed
+ Animals have a respiratory system, unlike plants

Mammals Lungs

Insects Tracheal system

Fish Gills

Gas exchange in plants:

+ Leaves can be large and flat
+ Contain open air spaces, greater surface area allows for gases to move freely
+ Stomata and lenticels make up a plants gas exchange system

All gas exchange structures have:

+ large surface area; folding, branching and flattening allowing for efficient diffusion
+ Moist, thin surface; easier for gases to diffuse and allows for less distance to travel
+ Close proximity to an efficient transport system
+ Greater concentration of gas on one side compared to the other- the gradient is
maintained

● compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and plants

Transport system in plants:

Xylem:
+ Specialised tissue for transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
+ Movement only occurs in one direction (upwards from the roots)
 + Consists of two main types of elements – xylem tracheids and xylem vessels

Xylem Tracheids:
+ Long structures with end walls that taper to a point, where they come into contact
with each other and overlap
+ Water molecules and dissolved ions pass between tracheids through small holes
called pits

Xylem Vessels:
+ Xylem vessels form continuous tubes for the transport of water
+ When cells specialise to become xylem cells, their walls break down so cells stacked
on top of each other become tubes; the cell contents die, leaving hollow vessels for
flow of water and mineral ions
+ Walls of xylem vessels are reinforced with lignin thickenings which form rings, spirals
or similar patterns; lignin prevent the vessels from collapsing

Transport system in animals:

components of the circulatory systems - Blood:

+ The fluid transport medium that flows through the heart. I sled sessels of the cards-
vascular System.
+ Distributes heat, Nutrients and poses sequired iy the body, and transports wastes to
be excreted.
+ Consists of 2 main Components
- Plasma - watery substance containing dissolved substances
- Blood cells:
~Red blood Cells
~White blood cells
~Platelets

Plasma:
+ Yellow, watery fluid component of blood
+ consists of 90% water, and 10% consists of mainly proteins
+ Makes up most of the volume of blood.
+ Carries many substances in either dissolved or suspended form
+ Carries blood around the body, as well as:
- plasma Proteins - Clotting factors, antibodies, enzymes etc
- nutrients - amino acids, glucose, glycerol, fatty acids, cholesterol
- Gases - Oxygen and COz
- excretory waste products - urea, uric acid, ammonia
- lons - sodium chloride and calcium and magnesium phosphates
- Regulatory substances such as hormones
- Vitamins

Red blood cells:

+ Formed in bone marrow (in the spine)
+ around 4-6 million red blood cells in 1ML of blood
+ Each cell begins lite with a nucleus, but as the cell matures, the nucleus disintegrates
 + The absence of the nucleus allows cels to carry more haemoglobin- an oxygen
carrier
+ Biconcave "disk" shape makes them more elastic and flexible so they can squeeze
through capillaries

White Blood cells:

+ formed in bone marrow
+ Function as part of the immune system - main role is in defence of the body against
invading foreign bodies (bacteria)
+ around 4000 - 11000 white blood cells in 1mL of blood
+ Larger than red blood cells (by 50%)
+ contains a nucleus
+ Several types of white blood cells

Platelets:
+ Formed in the bone marrow
+ Crescent shaped and halt the size of red blood cells
+ around 400,000 platelets in 1ml of blood + function in clotting of blood in wounds
+ This function Prevents excessive blood loss

The Heart:
+ The driving force in the circulatory system system of animals.
+ Mammals have a 4 chambered heart which pumps blood around the body + cach
side of thee heart has 2 chambers
- atria - 2 top chambers
- ventricles - 2 bottom chambers
+ It is a double pump with each side beating simultaneously
+ One way direction of blood is maintained by the presence of valves
+ Deoxygenate bload containing high levels of co2 moves into the heart and is
pumped into the lungs, where co2 is exchanged with oxygen to blood becomes
oxygenated
+ Oxygenated blood is then returned to the heart and is pumped to all other areas of
the body to deliver oxygen to cells.

Lymphatic System:
+ forms part of transport in animals (mammals)
+ fluid that surrounds cells diffuse out of the capillaries as they pass through the
tissues
+ To prevent this fluid from building up, lymph vessels in the tissues absorb it
+ The fluid, along with other substances in the lymph vessels such as white blood cells
and the end product of lipid digestion, known as lymph
+ Flows in one direction, from tissues to the heart
+ Movement is assisted by the contraction of muscles in close proximity to the vessels
+ valves are present in lymph vessels to prevent lymph going backwards
+ Lymph vessels are in all regions of the body and jain up to form two main lymphatic
Channels; These channels drain into the veins, alloying lymph fluid to rejoin the
blood.
 + This helps to maintain the volume of blood in the body, therefore blood pressure is
maintained, lymphatic system also Plays a cole in defence of the body

Blood vessels:
+ Carry blood around the body
+ Three types.
- Arteries
- veins
- capillaries

Arteries:
+ carry blood away from the heart to the rest of the body.
+ Blood entering arteries is under high Pressure as it is Pumped out of the heart in
regular bursts
+ The walls of the arteries are very thick and muscular in order to withstand this
pressure
+ Arteries are elastic, allowing them to expand when a pulse of blood moves through,
then contract back to their original diameter.

Veins:
+ Carry blood back to the heart
+ walls of veins are thinner than arteries since the blood in veins flows under lower
pressure
+ walls have very few elastic fibres as they do not need to stretch
+ internal diameter is much wider than in arteries, allows for easy blood flow
+ Blood seeps into veins rather than being pumped: 2 mechanisms are needed to
ensure no backflow of blood
- When Muscles in tissues surrounding veins contract, the vein walls are compressed,
propelling blood back towards the heart
- veins have valves at regular intervals along their lengths and widths prevent blood
from flowing back

Capillaries:
+ Extremely tiny vessels to bring blood in close contact with tissues, enabling the
exchange of chemical substances between cells and bloodstream
+ Walls are only 1 cell thick
+ exchange occurs by diffusion, a slow passive process which slows the flow of blood
+ to maximise exchange of substances between blood cells & cells of the body, they
have:
- thin walls allow for efficient diffusion of substances, so they don't have to travel fat
between blood and body cells.
- an Internal diameter of only slightly larger than red blood cells, this forces the red
blood cells to pass through in single file, slowing down their flow and increasing their
exposed surface area for gas exchange, nutrients and waste.

● compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves around an
organism
Transport System
+ Function is to deliver nutrients and gases to cell and collect waste
+ As blood moves, concentration of dissolved substances and gases change
depending what it is passing through
+ When blood passes through organs - oxygen levels lower and co2 rises

tissue/organ change in composition

organs in general body tissue oxygen concentration is decreased and co2

concentration is increased."

lungs Lungs add oxygen and remove cO2 from

blood through internal gas exchange
between alveoli and capillaries.

small intestine Adas nutrients from digested food into

blood, also adds water to blood.

stomach water diffuses into blood and alcohol, fatty

acids are emptied into blood vid lymphatic
system.

liver Adds Urea to blood, absorbs sugar and

nutrients and removes toxins e.g alcohol .

kidneys Removes used from blood, as well as some

water and salts. These are then excreted as
urine.

large intestine Adds water from digestive system into the

blood.

endocrine gland Releases hormones, acting as Chemical

messengers into the blood.