Meteorology

Eee
Atmosp
ProminentGases found
* in
Atmosphere
1.
Mitrogen-78.08%
2.
Ouggen - 20.95%

3.
Argon -0.93%

4. Carbon Dioxide -0.035%

5. Ozone. -

0.00007%: Found bet. 10 and 50km, max concentration at20-25km.

Ratio
of proportion
bet?
Mitugen Oxygen.
*

:Oxygen: Nitzogen::
1:4
By Volume -

2.
Oxygen: Nitzogen::1:3-By Wight
Sublimation

Condensation Freezing ->

that Released.
Latent

-
Vapour-Liquid-solid M

-
Evaporation Melting -> Heat Absorbed.
Latent

Sublimation

# The earth surface to the

flow of heat from the atmosphere is due to:

1. Sensible heating (23%) conduction/Convection (Radiation.

Latent
heating (77%)- Evaporation/Condensation/Sublimation
2.

#Atmosphere Layers:
Radio
Helps
* in
Propogation.

I
Thin
*
layer with
very less molecules.

Molecules Appleton -> 250km

*
are very
active I have
THERMO SPHERE
160km
Heavisid ->

But
high temp. very less heat is
present Kennely - 110km.

as molecules are far apart.

80km Messpanse
Lowest
*
temp (90% to -100) occurs at the Mesopause.

*Nonticulent
clouds are tempt
MESOSPHERE Px t

formed in
Upper layer here. PN

50km
Stratopause
* Inversion

STRATOSPHERE
Stable
*
layer Temp I
Px t
Nacreous
* Clouds are
formed here,
PN
also called Mother of pearl.
- -
-------------

18-10um Isothermal layer.

16km &
eg. Tropopause.
8km&
poles * Unstable Tempo
TROPOSPHERE Px
Homosphere
* P t

#
Troposphere:
Lapse
* Rate: 6.5°/mn, temp. Falls with increase in
height.
Most weather and most in this
flying confined
*
layer.
#Tropopause:
Heightof Tropopauses controlled by Surface Temp, Latitude, Sarson, Land.
Synoptic situation.
* Sea distribution &

Higher at the
equator (approx. 53000ft (0) 16-18km).
·

Poles
Lowest atthe
(approx. off(or) 8-10 km).
·
3300

winter than
Tropopause is
* lower in in summers.

*
Equatorial Tropopause -70°to-75% and (-40° to -45°).
Temperature at the is the
at
poles is

Two athat40 and

abrupt change of tropopause
60, called breaks
Ifold.
*

regions occurs

↳ Break at 40 ismore
prominent, let streams at these breaks.
occur

These breaks divide 3 sections:

Tropopause into
*
the

1.
Tropical Tropopause:
Occurs
* at level
lookpa
Extends
from equator tat35%-40°
*
to

Over Ludia
*
found at 16-16.5 km.

&

Middle
2.
Tropopause:
Occurs
*
wave 200
hpa level, bet". Polar and
Tropical Tropopause.
In India at about 11.5 km,
temp. of -45°
*

Wintess it at23°N.
be
* may

subtropical souther end.

Jetstream occur at its
A

Polar
3.
Tropopause:
Occurs
*

300hpa
at level
polewards at Lat 45 and 60%

* Noticed occasionally over

Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmirin winters.
Polar Frontjet stream at its southern end.
* is
found

#Importance of Tropopause:
clouds
Maximum
height which reach.
* at can

Jetstreams
* and Clear Air Turbulence occur
just below it.
 (International Standard
#ISA
Atmosphere).
Air
x is
Duy
Sea
* level
temperature +15' =

A Pressure 1013.25
=

hpa / Mb.
Density
* 1225
qm/m
=

Acceleration due to
gravity:980.665 aufsen
*

9.8
m-/se
=

A
Lapse Rate 1.982/1000ft. 0.00198fft
= =

6.5°2/km
=

0.65°/100m
=

=0.065°/10m
Rate
Lapse prevails upto 1km (r) 360s0ft.
G0thermal
*
Gyex (Constant temp.) upto
20km
(65600ft), the Temp. is
-56.5"
* From
20-30hm-Temp, increases as 1°C/km.

Deviation: Outside Air

temp.
#Temperature
(measured thermo miler)
by

Pressure Altitude ISA deviation (OAT-ISA)

* ISA
temp. CAT

4000ft + FiC 12 12-7 = 5°C is. ISA+ 5

9000ft
-
3° -
8 -
8-73) =- 5° ISA-5

100ft.
-
13 -
92 -9-(-13) +4
=
ISA+ 4

37°C 42°C 42 (- 37) - 5 ISA- 5

2600oft
-
- =
-
=

43 39°C 39-(-43) 4 ISA+4

29000ft
- -
- =

se]
59.52 756.5)
37000ft Since above
- -
59.5 - =
5
- ISA-3

G1000ft. -52.5" 52.5-( 56.5) 4 ISA+ Y

saroftistemp.
- -
=

56.5°C is constant. 56.5C 56.5 (-56.5) 0 ISA.

4600oft
- =
-
- -

ISA
temp. 15-( udexi ISA deviation:OAT ISA
-
=
 Atmospheric Pressure:
1013.25hpa
* 760mm 29.92
=
in. = (Hecto means 100).

At level
for 27'there

↳
decrease
* sea
every is
Lupa in
pressure.
2000 to 20000 30' all values
A From
Iupa per approx.
From 20000 to 50'
50000'I4pa per
&

Above 50000'
* 100
lupa per

↑Impa/looft above
50000ft.
2000 oft. ↑

2000 oft
Inpa/soft.

to
↑

croft

MSL 10134pa

#Rate
of fall of pressure
with
height decreases.

2700 =
0.274pa/27' 40000

2450 0.544pa/27'
=

20000'

240 0.94p/27
=

good

IUpa/27'
MSL

#Pressure is measured Android Baromiku.

using an

#ISA Pressure with altitude: (to be memorized).

->5000
850hpa
*

700hpa -> 10000

500hpa 18000
->

4004pa-24000'
30000
300hpa ->

250hpa -> 34000'

39000
200hpa
->

1004pa
-
53000'

40000,ISA temp =-65°C=

200K.
eg. for PisA 1904pn
=

(approx.)
=
9T
-

190

105ft.
=
Isobar/Isallobar:
#

joining places of equal pressure.

Isobar:Lines
*

Isallobar: Lines
joining places of equal pressure change.
*

Pressure tendence: The In India it

change of pressure with
time.
* is mascord
for past 24 hrs.

#Variation
of
Press we with
Temp.:
Colder Air
* is Denses than Warm Air.
850hpa.
Pressure will
*
fall faster pace over a cold column
of air than

column
5000ft. 5000ft
over warm
of air.
1000hpa

850hpa
2000ft. 2000ft
Altimeter
#
Reading
Low) Cold Px.
High)
-> -> L(ow) means
high
1000hpa Px ↳ UndrReads.
Px
-

low PX.
H(igh) LCow) H(igh) Warm

anenterunder Reeds).
is ->

(Altimeter onea s
-> means

Dx PX. ↳ Over Reads.

*
QFE: Pressure measured ARP
at (Arrodrome
Reference Point). Basicallyatthe
airport.
QFF:Station level Pressure reduced
using
MSL actual conditions (i.e. actual
temp). Used by
meteoologistand not
by pilots.
-

to

QNA:Station level Pressure reduced MSL

* ISA conditions. Used
by Pilots.
using
to

INE: Altitude indiented

* altimeter set when to
1013.25upa.

A
Height:Vertical distance
of pointfrom specified datan.
a a

Altitude: Vertical distance

from MSL (mean well. question.
* sea exam
->
Elevation:Vertical
* distance
surface from MSL. (Elevation
of the does not
change even
though pressure changes
Pressure Altitude:Vertical distance
of object when
1013.25hpa set the subscale
of the altimeter.
*
an is on

x
True Altitude:Indicated
Altitude I
(ISA deviation PA--Pressure Altitude.
·

ISA du
of temp.

eg.
PA= 24,000 T =
-42°, GNH = 1005

Ans:
=-42-(15-2x24)
-

Indicated Alt.=(1013-1005) x 30 ISA du

9
23760ft.
=
= -

(1s*dew. x)
TA IA==

23768
79x)
=
-

23760
=>
- 791

=22968
ft. I flying through a colder
region
we see TA lesser than IA, OVERREADS.

Transistion Altitude: which, vertical controlled

Highest altitude below
position of aircraft reference to QNA.
* an is in

Transistion Level: Lowest

* level above which vertical
position
of an
aircraft is controlled in
reference to QNE (1013.254pa).
· You cannot cruise below Transistion Level.
Flight Level term not
used below Transistion Level.
bit? Transistion Altitude and Transistion Level. Used
Transistion
*
Layer:Layer as a
buffer.
 Presseer Variation
#
Temperature and
through a
day.
A The lowest
temp of surface
Earth's reaches
half an one hour
hour to
after sunrise.
Highest pressure
reaches at 10002.

Earth's surface 102 and the lowest machis at 1600.

The
highest temp. of reaches
*
by pressure

#Pressure
Systems:
at centre lowest
1. Lows CM
Depression (OR) Cyclones: Regions where the
pressure
its is relative to its
surrounding.
interval it
When
* there are 20 more closed isobar at 24pc is called
Depression, further
a intense
system is
Cyclone.
Circulation is anti-clockwise
* in Northern
Hemisphere
* Circulation is clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.
< 7

W L M A
L W

7 L

NA SH.

towards the centre

Wind
*
converges from higher pressure
and rises.

* Bad weather.
*

good visibility
Sobar in low close.
regions
*
pressure
are

a.
Tough: A
region of isobars extending
away from low a centre in the
form of a
tongue which backend are
anti-clockwise.
Pressure
*
along the trough is lower than either side. on

Are'V'shaped
*
and wind direction
abruptly changes and backs.

Bad
* Weather.

3.
High (or) Anti-cyclones:Regions where the
pressure
at its centre is
highest relative to its
surrounding.
Sirculation is anti-clockwise in Southern
*
Hemisphere
Northern
* Circulation is clockwise in
Hemisphere.
< 7

~H M a H W

7 L

SH NH

and
winds
diverge outwards.
A veer,

*
good weather
* Bad Visibility.

4.
Ridge:Isobars are stretched out from high
pressure area which blow clockwise
from a
Ridge Area in
Hemisphere,
Northern

southern it anti-clockwise.
in
Hemisphere will be

Rounded and not 'V'

shaped.
*

*
Good weather
Winds
* Veeu.

Backing:
A When the direction
of wind changes anti-clockwise,
it
is said to be
backing.
Verring:
* When the direction
of wind changes clockwise, it is said to be
veering.

5. COL:
Region surrounded
by two and
highs two lows.

winds and variable.

* are
light
*
Region favourable for formation of joy.
 Temperature:
Itis the kinetic all the molecules (oratoms substance. Measured in C, Instrument used to
*
energy of of F, K.
average
a

measure
timp ecture is Thermometer (Max Thermometer).
alcohol,
* where there is low
temperature, Minimum Thermometer
is used.
Liquid used in this thermonuler is alcohol used because it has

low viscosity.

# Stevenson screen:

Albedo:
*
Reflecting power of Earth's
atmosphere.
heat:Amount heat
A
specific of read to raise the
temperature of unit mass
of a substance by 1°C.

specific heat
of
water is taken
I., Sand =0.2, snow-0.5. Sand will
getheated up faster than water
and will
getcooler faster
·
as

than water

Conversion:
temp.
A

oF to (F
32)x
- - -

ictoir
& -

(x ) +32

*
°C to K C 273.
=
+

·C OF k

4° 39.2"F 277k

28 *2.4°F 301K.

100°C 212°F 373K

2 12° 414 485K

*Check 31PF 584K

-
40° - 48° 238k

*
Stefan Boltzman law:EXTY. Amount
of Energy
Radiated is
directly proportional to the
impower of its Absolute
temp.
*
Wien's law:
wavelength of most intense radiation is
inversely proportional the absolute
to
temp. Hence both bodies (like Sun)

radiate short and colder bodies Earth,

waves like radiate
long waves.
 Density/Stumidity,
#
Densito:Itis the mass
of air contained in a

given
volume
of air. Unit is
gm/ms
#ISA
density 1.2254g/m (or) 1225g/m
&
=

#
Density, Altitude: Altitude above MSL at which prevailing density at an altitude will occur in ISA.

Mainly
*
used for calculating Aircraft Performance.

Density Altitude-Pressure Altitude I(ISA dev. X120)

PA 18000'

lot--25de=(23)-(15-18x2)
=

eg.
Aus: PA= = -
5

DA 18000
=
- (5x120) 17400'
=

e.g.
PA=
18000, OAT=-15c

15-(15-18x2)
ISA dev= =
-15 a1 6
+ =

DA 18000 = + (6x120) =
18000 720=
+
18720

Air
#
Density of Dry is more than
Density of moist air.
·
Dry air gives better
aircraft performance.

affecting Density:
#Factors

:Temperature:Temp. *
2. Pressure:Pressure x&
3.
Humidity. Humidity
atHumidity,
not a
prominent factor).
4. Latitude: (i) at (1)
surface density, increases (4) as Gitude increases

(ii) at about
26000ft density remains constant
with an increase in latitude.

(ii) above 26000 It density, decreases with increase in latitude. Max. deviation at 5000
of(from ISA).
X

Humidity:
Absolute
*
Humidity: Actual amount of intervapour contained in given volume of air. Expressed glm? a as

*
Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR):Mass of water vapour presentin given unit mass of air and it's a measured
glug
eg.Air Master dog.
HMR 10
200g/hg.
=
=

Relative is the ratio actual amount vapour to

hold at
-
Humidity:It of of
water the maximum it can a

given temperature expressure to be

separated. Expressed as
Percentage.
#Wet Bulb
Temperature:It is lowest
the
temperature
which the air would attain by
evaporation of water.

# Dewpoint:It is the lowest

temp, to which air must be cooled to become saturated. Dewpointcan be equal to (or) less than OAT.
and does not
Dewpointcan
* be
affected due to water
vapour getaffected due to
temp. Whereas wet bulb temp, getaffected bytemp.
well water
vapour.
as as
 Wind:
Horizontal movement
*
of air is called wind. It is a vector quantity. Written as
deg/speed ->
120%5kt·
Wind is Pressure (PGF)
generated Gradient Force
*
because
of
Pressure
*
Gradient Force:
Difference
above
in Pressure betstwo places divided byhorizontal distance butthem.
Measured
A 10m the
Ground.
PGF Notes:

Acts
# For exam
Purpose only:
*
directly from High pressure to low
pressure.
x wind
reported in
multiples of 5 i.e.
15/20125. Spacing of
* isobars determine the
force. Closer the isobar,
and hence
=2
of actual wind. Higher the PGF higher the wind.

38 -
40 - 42
eg.
32 + 30- 28.

wind more than 994t -> p99.

sped of
* wind is measured with an Ansmomiler and direction is measured
by a wind vane.

#Wind
Reporting:
'TRUE' butATC
* Wind direction is
given
as the direction
from which the wind is
blowing. Normally
given
in
gives pilot
in
'MAGNETIC'dirction.
0
wind is
reported (Lu METAR, wind direction is in TRUI).

veering:Change wind direction in aclockwisedirectisection

on Hemisphere
both the
A of Applies to are

Wind
#
types:
Speed has than 1kts, I wind
1. Calm: <1kts.

2. Variable (VRB):
Spud less Han 3kts(1<wind<3) i.e. IKE (URBOI) (or 2kt. (VRBOC).
If the direction of the wind changes
·. than
180 written URB/SPEEDeg. VRB/louts.
more as

If the direction of the wind changes between 60 to 180, extreme directions eg. 350V070./ sped.
·
written. are

Sudden increase in Wind less than 1 min. ATC considers wind

Gust: by
speed 15hts lasting for Gusto, if the
* or more as

change than
10kt
is more
Reported 320/12930. as

Full:A decrease wind

sudden in
speed.
*

A
Sudden increase wind 15kts and
Squall: in
speed by or more
average speed reaching 22ht(or more and
blowing for
than called
more a min, is
Squall.
Gale:
*
When wind
speed exellds 34 knots (ormore.
Reported as 16034 or 4
Hurricans: When sustained wind exceeds 63kts.
speed
-

#Ballot'sLaw:
Norther the wind-Low Pressure the
Hemisphere Back to
Left.
* -> on

Soulter Back the wind Pressure

Hemisphere-
the
Right.
* to - Low on
Katabatic Wind:
#
How cold down hill (ormountain side at
of air a
night.
to nocturnal contact cold,
During nightdue mountain cold, also becomes which becomes
cooling slope becomes the in
* air

and sinks.
heavy
local
speed
*
may be
hardly few knots, but it
forms pools of cold on low
lying ground, causing frost, mist and fog.
Our North East the
partvery and
for and is
* in
morning.
common causes

Denser and
↓
heavier air so

How downward

# Anabatic winds. On hill will become heated insolation. Air contactbecomes

a warm sunny
day, the
slope of by in

warmer. It is
therefore, lighter
and tends to
ascend the
slope.
Light wind about5kt.
*
of

Wind Shear: Sudden the wind (V) direction or both over short distance is called
change in
speed
* a

wind shear.

Coriolis
*
effect:Itis the force which gets
created
by the rotation
of Earth abouts
itsaxis
from west to fast.

It the
deflects wind to the
rightin Northern Hemisphere and
left in Southern
Hemisphere.

f 2-PV sin o
=

%=ltitude. =
angular velocity.
-= wind
spad
Coriolis
*
force is minor O atthe
equator. 0
demite, of air.
=

Corioles at the
force is
poles.
* max,

Bora Stale blows Adriatic Sea.

·

A Wind- over

Boran Wind-
#
Turkey
# Buran Wind- Russia
#
Purga wind-Buran with
snowfall
Mistrel
* Wind- France
A
Gible Wind -
Libya
# Haboos wind- Sudan
#Khamsin Wind
Egypt
# Harmalton Wind - tential Asia

# Chinook Wind
Fohn Wind-
Rocky Mountain of Canada.
#
Alps in Switzerland.
 (not
#
Hypothetical Wind:
importantfor pilots, only meteorologist but
part of exam)
Geostropicwind
1. wind

2.

3.
Gradient
Thermal Wind.

(Pressure Force and

.
Gostropic Wind: blows under the
It
influence of PPF Gradient Coviolis
force. The resultant wind

to formula:
flows parallel straight isobars.
Given bythe following

vg
= P
2 2 sing.

#
Geostropic wind stronger at lowve latitudes and weaker at
high latitudes.

NH. 992upa
x *
NG*
X X x
"pG*

o
-
- ⑧ > ⑧

(Friction]
& A xvioviolisforce
X x VCF
x x
x

1014 upa

Northern
- In
Geostropic wind in
Hemisphere, low
pressure
will be on the
left and
high pressure on the
night.
blows under the
It
influence of GradientForce, Centripetal Fore
Gradientwind.
2. Pressure Coriolis Force and

Nit Gradienfnd

·Gradii e ·pee."
PGF-Pressure Gradient Force.

CF -> Coriolis
Force

CP-> Force.
7
Centripetal
PGF CP CF
+
=
CF+CP
PGF.
=

In a low
*
press
we area CF is
stronger supported by CP force.
because it is

In PGF stronger because it supported by Pforce.

high pressure
A a area is is

Pressure Area
Gradient
Spud Pressure Area. Wind blows
*
of wind

to curved isobars.
is more in Low than the
High along (or
parallel
3. Thermal Wind:

Thermal
Wind-Upper Led Geostropic
Wind-Lower Level
Geostropic wind

ULGW=270/15
eg.
LLGW =
270/0s.
TW
270/115-8)
=

270/7
=

eg.(2). ULGW- 270%22nReverse direction so that substraction can be done.

->
LLGW -> 90%/15 - 270%-15
Tw 270%22-270%-15
=

270%37kt.
=

WLGW- 120125 25
eg23) ULGW 020/22
eg(u).
=

15
LLGN 200/15.
=
-
0201-15 22900-300/15 - 1201-15 -
4

TW
020/22-020/-15=020/37kt.
=
Tw ->
120/25-120/15=120/40ht.
Visibility: naked
with eye

Ability
* to
see over a
distance, during daytime at
unlighted objectsand lighted objects night. Atthe
lowest
value
reported in 360%.
Reported in km and m.

#Reported in
multiples of:
1.50m bit? O-SOOm i.e. SOm, lOOm, 150m etc

2. 100m but800-5000m ie.900m, 1000m, 1100m etc.

3. 1000m bet 5000-9000m i.e. 1000m, 1000m, s000m etc.

4. For
visibility quester
than 9000m, 9999 is
reported.
(RVR):
#
Runway, Visual
Range written as R28400,, i.e. 400m
visibility at Runway
28.
It
*
may reported using
be
visually. (Visually
instrument (
by standing is done at the end
of the active
runway
and
counting
the

visual RVR is
of runway edge light,
no.
reported with Mic. R281400. a

RVR has to be
reported less than 1500m.
* when
visibility is

If improving suffix'p'is
the written
*
visibility trend is R28400p i.e.

If the visibility trend is deteriorating suffix 'M' is written

* R28400M. i.e.

RVR values
*
for a runway
are reported as Touchdown, Mid and End.
↑

RVR
*
Reporting is done in
multiples of:
1. 25m bet.0-400m

2. 50 m bet.400-800m

3. IOOm bet? 800 to 2000m

(P1500) transmisometer is
Highest value
reported byGerman
*

#Weather (Wx):
1. Haze:HE

2. Smoke Haze: FUHZ

3.
Fog:FR
4. Mist:
5.
Smog:FG/FUHZ
Relative Hamidity
Fog:
* is 100% and visibility
is less than 1000m due to the hanging of water
droplets.
Mist: Relative humidity is 90% and visibility
is 1000-5000m. Mist
generallyafter before jog.
* occurs

Haze: Relative humidity is less and

visibility between Visibility
1000-5000m. reduced
gets due to
of particles of
* is
presence
dust, water
vapour.

Smog: Visibility is beth 1000-5000m. There is smoke

along with haze.
*

Smoke Haze: When and co-exists.

*
fog smog Visibility will be less than 1000m.
 Fog:
# Conditions
favourable for formation of fog:
Relative
1.
High Humidity
2. Low
temperature
3.
Light wind i.e. Less than 5 knots. I talm wind.
Clear (Nocturnal
4.
Sky cooling morl.
Stable
5.
layer/Inversion.
#Radiation
Fog:
Duringwinters on clear
nightwhen the
humidity is high in atmosphere due nocturnal cooling surface tump.
to

decreases and
ifthe reduction in
temp, is low enough to reach condensation, for will form called Radiation fog.
66 winter North India, North West India
forms during over and North fast India

It reduces the
visibility and
aircrafts operation.
affects
It
forms during night gils dissipated after
and sunrise
of C-3 his.
*

Temp. will rise.

*

#Advection
Fog:
It
forms moist cold
surface
* when air
flows
warm over

Can land (or) water.

*
happen during anytime of day and can
happen over

#
Steaming fog? low to condence the
If cold air blows sea and the
tamp of the air is
enough moisture, steaming fog forms
*
over over

water bodies.

Frontal
#
fog:
Foy
* which
forms atthe
front.
 Clouds:

Turbulence Remarks
Cloud Name
Height Appearance Precipitation being

Yestern FibroneshabenSi,
NO Yes
Gystals
Tropical618km
No
No RA, NO SN
fun or e NO NO Halo
NO NO Yes
RA, No SN

HC
Light moderate but

whento
to

Altozumele on t NORA severe in Mountain Yes

to Moderate Coroner
RA & SN
Light NO

& S:
NS-Kimbo Stratus Dark
Gree & Thick Lauer Continuous RA&SN
Light to Moderate Yes
starts tumules NO Yes
Grey Puffe
of hum NORA & NOSN

ST-Stratus Fibrous &

Grey
Dz NO No
↳

-Lowering
towering Dark Grey,
thesis
to Good RA/SM e Lightto severe Y

Mountain & Dark

Gree
+

SH/SN/GR. Lightto severe

RA- Rain
Rain
+RA-Havy
SN- Snow

#Cloud Amount(Oktas) GR-> Hail

SH- Shower

0-2
* Oktas -> Few SH+
↑

Heavy shower.
3-4
* Oktas - SCT (Scattered)
*5-7 Okfas ->
BRN (Broken)
*8-8 Oktas ->
OVC (Overcast)

The lowest
#Ceiling: layer of the cloud below
200soft covering more than
half of the sky
over
the land (or, water.

Ceiling
* is decided by
OVC (N) BR.

Jaling
FEWOGD

I
.

SCT,080
Ceiling OVC060.
or re
BR120

OVC06O

#Significantslouds.
Any
* clouds below
5000ft or below MSA, whiever is
higher.

Bornin
eg..
FEWOUS

I
SCT,080 Few 040.
Clouds
BR120 significant Significant
Clouds.

OVC06O

#
Species of Clouds:

I
Anvil. *
*
Capillatus:CB with Mintre Luch

Lenticular:
* Ac A Maxtra level

level.
Lens
*

Drytra
shaped.
A Jeactus: Bad we with ST
 Stability, and Instability:
Adiabatic Process:The heatis neither to entre the
#
process
in which allowed
system nor allowed to exit the
system.
* Dothermal Process:The in which heatis allowed to exit the and also allowed entre the
system
process system to

#DALR
(Dry Lapse Rate)
Adiabatic
Rate
at which the the air made
temp. of dry pared of air decreases as to ascend
adiabatically
->
a is

DALR
9.8%/km
=

#Saturated Adiabatic Rate (SALR):Date Satuated Air decreases with

Lapse at which the
temp of a
height adiabatically
·SALR:5/km

SALR with DALR at -40°

* increases
might and
equals

#Environmental Rate (ELR):Normal

Lapse Lapse Rate which prevails in the Environment. It does not have a

fixed value
ELR
* in standard
atmosphere is 6.5°/um
66 ECRL DALR, unstable atmosphere(dey air will rise).

If
ELRC DALR, stable atmosphere. (dry air will sink).

If ELR > SALR-> unstable

atmosphere
ELRCSALR-> stable
atmosphere.

#Absolutely stable:ELRLSALR.

#Absolutely estable:ELR DALR

#
Conditionally estable
atmosphere.
D ALR > ELR> SALR

Stable Unstable.
Optical Phenomenon:
Size
optical Phenomenon Colours
Region Produced
by Description.
Inside
↑ outside
Primary Rainbow
VIBGYOR 420
Opp. to the Sun &refraction
and I
reflection.
opp. of
Secondary Rainbow ROYGBUl 520
opp. to the Sun Lufraction and reflections.
I

Halo VIB
GYOR 22° Coloured
Ring around
Refraction ↑

Sun/Moon, CS Cloud
As
Coroner VIB GYOR ja Cloud
Defraction.
Mirage Tropical Inferior Mirage
Poles -
Superior Mirage.

Inferior Mirage
*
occurs close to the earth
surface due
change
to in denity thm above the
surface.
Sun Ray getrefracted due to
lapse
rate.
Happens in
tropical regions.
A
superior mirage occurs in
pot regions due to inversion.

Asvapor
aliawhichare visibleinthepolarregionsofNorthernthehemp
her
* the Southern
Hemisphere
*
Precipitation:Anything falling from the cloud Rain (RAS, Drizzle (DZ),Shower (sH), snow, Hailis called Precipitation.
the mentioned
The
growth of droplets crystals
ice
differenttheories,
have
follow:
* or as

Coalescence Cloud Theory: This theory the cloud is below OC. (tve
theory/Warm is established prevailing temp temps.
·

1. when in the

into water
Water vapour goingupthroughnow
nationmeashes condensationfeeland vapour getscomented drop in

Molecules the this leads

in
droplets keep moving and making the droplets collide
to with each other, increase
to in the

water
size
of the
dropletswhich is called coalescence theory
2. See Cystal theory/cold Cloud theory:This
establishes in cloud where prevailing conditions
theory
positive and are

negative. Water
dropletsafter/above condensation level freeze due to negative tump. Droplets, which do not find
nuclei state. As the molecules in the
a
freeze remain
to
supercooled
in
dropletshave higher degree of freedom
collide with ice
making or growing the size of ice crystals. On saturation of the
cepstals, thus atmosphere
collide with on its
the
falling ice
crystal supercooled droplets way. Growth of the
ice-crystals in cold a

cloud is called Ice Crystal as

Theory

Giant Nucleus Due to

3.
Theory: theory
This
is established due
formation of cords
to over the sea. the
presence of
salt-

the
particles
&

convection these
over
during sea,particles are also
being carried out.
Due to
the
difference in the specific
heat
salt
particles help water
vapour
to reach early
condensation and also cause clouds to
form ata lower height.
It called
is
Giant Nucleus
Theory

#Rainy Day:
If the water accumulated is 2.5mm
depth of the over is called
Rainy Day:
* or a

* Cloud Burst:Occurs due to saturation all sudden. This situation normally

atmosphere reaching to
of a
occurs in

mountanious Cloudburst leads to water shortarea short time.

pouring of
over in
region. a a

A Flash the water level

floods:Sudden increase in
of river.

A sleets
#Ice Accretion:

Formation
*
of ice aircraft inflight
on or on
ground. It is
of two
types:
(i)
airframe icing
(ii)
engine. icing.
Thrust t

*
If in
formed on
aircraft in
flightDrag 4, lift,
stall
speed 4, weight, Pressure Iutrument
Reading also
effected.

Airframe being
I
W -I
Hoar
frost Rime Ice
clavice/Transeluent/glazed ice

1
* Severe
Icing -> 0°C to -1C

17%

nightkinging20 to 2000500mete
Moderate
Icing -> to -12

when
#
frost:This tape
Hoar
of icing forms ground
well
inflight. During night
on
aircraft is parked
as as on

apod
due to noctural
cooling surface temp. drops, and if the surface temp.Itdrops below frost pointwater
will sublimate and the ice
over thus
formed the
airframe is called Hoar frost. may happen in air also when
P sode,
on

vapour present
to lower
of aircraft is exposed minus temp, and aircrafthas descend layers due anyreason water
the to to to

This is not hazardous and It

at thatand may
sublimate
and Hoar
frost may
form on
averaft airframe. can be removed
easily.
is

whitish and like

feather.
appearad is a

#Rimeice: This
type of icing forms due to
presence of
small
supercooled water
dropletspresent in a cloud. When the
aircraft flies through
cloud where this small water
droplets present, freeze the It looks like texture.
formation
After
a
supercooled are on
airframe. white
porous
it be removed. Rime ice is -10°C to-40%.
can
Temp. zone
of

#Clearice/glazed ire/Transducent tape of ice forms due

ice: This tothe
presence of large supercooked
water
dropletspresent in a the
cloud due to

but two
impactair does not
gettrapped dropletson freezing. This is the most hazardous ice which is
difficult to remove
after formation, and

difficult recognize after formation/accretion.

due to absence it clear and to
of air
appears
as

#Engine Icing:
-
Carburetoricing? Bigger aircrafts have anti-ice
system
to
protect against accretion.
ice Small
aircraftsespecially
piston engine aircrafts which use
carburetor, there is a low
pressure
the carburetor which
in leads to adiabatic
cooling
and
evaporation of the fuel in this area
further reduces the
temp. If the reduction in the
temp. Inside carburator is so low
that sublimation takes Carburator
if ambient temp. is bit?
10% to +30°
place. icing may
occur
-

#Clouds and
Ising: 1

#CI,CS,c - no ice accretion

#AC, As -
light to moderate

As clouds in mountain will

icing.
->
give
severe

moderate
#NS-
lightto
#S4ST ->
icing
no

TCU,
lightto
# CB is severe
 Thunderstorms (TS):
Lots called thunderstorm.
A
of
CBs
together is

Thunderstorm:
#
Requirementsof creating
1.
High
humidity.
2.
Lapse Rate (ELR) greater than SALK,this should pewail upto 5-1 hm.

3.
Trigger action Convection/Prographic lifting (Prographic-Mountain).
->

Thunderstorm is the resultant

of intense convective activity.Thunderstorm declared when thunder is heard
from
#
is cloud.

It
gives hail,
shower orsnow
depending upon atmospheric condition. In India thunderstorm
form March-May,
in i.e.

pre-monsoon (or)
Summer Season.

#
Hazards associated with Thunderstorms are hail,
lightning, thunder, turbulence, icing, windshaw.
Thunderstorms are
classified as:

..
frontal thunderstorm. (European areas, higher latitudes (45 and above)

2 heat thunderstorm
(Tropical area, India also included).

East coast
3. as MCC)
Mesosphere
convective
complex) -
of America.

#Patters
of CBS.

1.
Single cell.

Multi-cell line-> formed DEL-cu route multi all called Derecho.

2. in
during monsoon. When as in line brome
strong it is

3. Multi-cell cluster
4.
Super all.

fu India
formed.
* and 4
1, 2 are

# Formation Thunderstorms.
of
1. Initial
Stage/Cummuls stage -
up draughtof some car coats.
(usually last 15-20 mins in the
afternoon).Moist air will
keep or
rising
higher and
higher
as
long as
surrounding is colder

2. Second
Stage/Mature Stage ->
Microbust/Macroburst occus, speed of 4-5 kt. Causes headwind, failwind (N) crosswind.
In this
stage updraughtand downdraughtboth prevail. It is declared bythe met
department when
first downdraughtreaches
the
ground. Speed of
down
draughtusually faster than updraught, but if CBs are close to the
ground up draught?

Last
*
for 30-40 wine.

*
Precipitation takes
place this
in
stage as
per
the met statistics, 5%
of
thunderstorms had
to micro burst or macroburst.

diameter
Microburst
if the of cold column
of air resulting from evaporation of the
droplets falling base
below the
ofthe cloud
· -

is less than 44m.

Macroburst: if cold column than 4km.
the diameter
of is
·
now

It will initialle, had to headwind

causing aircraft gain to
altitude overshooting
and tailwind
cator will lead to
making
the

to undershoot.
averaft
# last. A thin
Dissipating stage: In this
stage cloud starts to and
dissipate vanishes at the
layer of cloud similar to

Cirrus stratus cloud which drizzle and clear.

or causes there
after shy becomes
Norwester: This
originate the in
Region of Choth
Nagpur hills and travel to Bihar, Chattisgarh and West
Bengal.
#

Sue West Kalbaishalhi. This to

Bungal it known
is as cause
heavy damage crops.
These blow
during March-May or

before Monsoon.

# Tornado: the CB attached to the circulatory

ground
base well
when
of a
deloped gets by motion of air on land.
Pressure starts beneath.Diameter may room. It's counter
being low in the cloud. It
suching up everything
vary

part over the see is known as water

sport.

#DS(Duststorm) 22-40h5 +
Moderate

>40kt -> Severe

<20hts
Light.

#
Wavelength of Weather Radar:

X-Band C-Band S-Band - Band.

*
wavelength bin (30mm) 4am(40mm) IOan (100mm) 20am (200 mm).

1. Isolated (ISOL) ->

250%

2. Occasional (OCNL) ->50% to his than 75%

3.
Frequent(FREQ) -> 75% less
to than 100%

Embedded (EMBD) No between,

space
s ->

in
 AMassouts:

having uniform temp,

#Air Mass: Air
spread over thousands
of
kilometer
is called
and humidity airmass.

Whenever it inculcates it.

the air
features of the surface while
moving
* mass moves over

The worldwide
A. main airmasses are as
follows:

AIR MASS FEATURES

ORIGIN

(i) Artic Air mass

Regi
Artic
on/Polar Region (700-90% Cold/Dup
(ii) Polar Continental Siberian Land Areas Cold/Dry
D

Polar (50-70% bast Cold/Humid

(ii) Maritime SubPolar
Regions of Greenland
(iv)
Tropical Continental South East
Europe & North Africa Warm/Dup
NV)
Tropical Maritime Portugal region/Azove Warm/Moist
(vi)
Equtorial Maritime. Equitorial Sea Areas. /
Warm Moist.

#Air-Front:
When I
differentairmasses along where the
ground
meet touches
sloping surface and
-> the
a are
slope the is

called an Air Front.

# Cold Front Features:

1. Cold Air mass overtakes Warm Air Mass.

Gradientof slopping surface

a the is 1:80

3.
Speed:20-3045.
4. Clouds
formed air mainly CB and other clouds are CU, As, NS, ST.
Rain front.
5. occurs on both sides
of the

Due to densers dislocates the

close to the
6.
surface
air air close to
surface and creates squall lines upto range of 10-300km
warm a

ahead
of
the
front. On approach of cold front pressure drops which the altimeter
of aircraft ground to overread.
causes an on

7.
After
the
passage of
the
temp. drops and pressure increases, making condition favourable for fog.
front
Fronts
Conditions
along the
slope on cold are stable.
8.

#Warm Fronts:
1. When warm air mass overtakes cold air mass.

(shallow).
2.
Gradientof Slope is 1:180

3.
Speed of warm
front:10-1545.
distance 300-400km (Medium Clouds) and
4. Clouds~

formed are CI, CS, AS, NS, St. These form alad
of the frontto a
of
to distance
a
of 1000km (High
Clouds).
5.
Fuuzing, precipitation or Rain ahead
of occurs the
front.
6.
Fog occurs at the
front or
slightlyahead of frontif the
the
prevailing surface temp is low
enough to condense the moisture
This
of warm air mass.
fog is called as Frontal
Fog.
 On
I.
approach of warm air mass then will be
slightrise in temp
On
3.
approach of warm air
frontaltimeter will Overead.

WARM AIR

COLD AIR

Cold Oecusion: the cold air than the cold air

# When mass
of the cold air
front is colder mass
of the
called Cold Occlusion. Occurs
warm air
front. It is
during summer
season.

#Warm Occlusion: When the cold air mass

of
the warm
frontis solder than the cold air mass
of the warm
front. It is called

Warm Occlusion. Occurs in Winter Season.

# SYMBOL:
16's
*
length is in thousands of hilometer, breath and
height in
few hu/hundreds ofit.
Width:
*
Height:100:
It
* will have vertical as well a horizontal wind shear.

· Vertical wind shear is more than horizontal show and which is around coknots
(5m/s) per him.

A stream will have

*
jet axis, core, jet streaks.
which max
o
Axis is the
path along speed prevails.
the volume
o tone is
surrounding the axis and in
jet stream generallylying ridges.
wind velocity, in the
passage of high
·
Set streaks are a

Different
* Jet-Streams are as
follows:
Period
JetStreams Direction Height Speed Region
Artic Is E-Skun Actio V
Westerly
>60k5

Polas JS Westernly quem 70" to 30 W

Subtropical JS Westernly 1km (100-200kts) 35%t0 22: ~

(affects India
Oct-May).
<150ktsover
Japan) Sdeposition. 27

Tropical J5
Easternly 14-15km 60-50kt SEAsia

Cover Chennai at 130N)

W
Stratospheric JS Westernly-Winters >60kts
20

Easternle-Summer

CAT
#

Bumpiness
*
experienced inflight while
flying
at or above
18000ftand
in char air (no clouds).

# Causes CAT:
of
Steep temp. Gradient) Lapse
*
Rate.

Wind
* Shear.

A Areas which will have CAT:

Jestream (Outer
1
fringes of a JS)
the (towards
2. above come and cold sides
of
JS
poleside).
At level
3.
high of fronts.
4. Mountain waves
(along hill/mountain Range on Ge-ward side).
#Mountain Wave:
Mountain
*

conditions
wave is a
rotating wind thatblows in the beward side
of a mountain.
A
favourable: to the mountain.
I wind has to blow within 300
perpendicular
wind has to wind
2.
speed of the
for a small will be
trels (r) 15 knots or more.
If the size
of the hill
bigger
is

has be
speed to
15m/s or 30 lots or more.

3 Below mountain
top atmosphere has to be unstable.

4. Over the top of mountain atmosphere has to be stable and

slightlyabove it should be unstable.
 METAR:

stands Aerodrome
A
for METerological Report.
issued
half hour.
A
every
an

weather etc
Present if any like Rain, Hail
Dt(UTC) (T),ed P No
significantchange. ->

VOBL 100430Z 09014KT

----
6000 FEW015 SCT080 25/10 Q101911
NOSIG
↓
wind
visibility valid
Airport information. CLOUDS Trend
forecast, for 2 hus.

#Wind
Information:
wind
reported METAR is in TRUE
HDG whereas wind reported by ATC to while
landingI takeoff
* in
pilots is

HDG.
Wind
Magnetic
direction rounded to nearest 10
degrees.
*

Wind 10mins
A
speed is a mean
speed taken over
period.
* 00000 kt -> No Wind

direction not
A VRB-
of defined

Visibility?
*

6000
* -
Visibility of 6000m,upto 10km visibility reported like this.

* 9999 -
Any visibilityabove 10km.
0800 ->
*
Visibility less than 50m.
RVR
*
(Runway Visual Range):given when
meterological visibility falls below 1500m. Max
reportable value is 1500m.

eg. R30/1100 visibility of 1100m at the threshold of

-> R30.

op-If visibility, more than 1500m. eg. R30/P1500.

or
visibility less than 50m. eg. R30/M0050.
If
-

·
U-indicates trend, means visibility has increased by 100m (or) in the last comins. R30/1000
eg.
more

·D-indicates trend, means visibility has decreasedby 100m (or) less in the last 10 mins.
eg. R30/11004.
·
N-no distinct
trend shown.
eg. R30/NOON

#Cloud
coverage:
1. FEW: 1-2 Oktas

2. SCT (Scattered):3-4 Oktas

3. BKN (Broken):5-7 Oktas

4. OVC (Overcast):8Oktas.

Cloud Base is three

given digit figure showing hundreds
of feet
*
as a

*
Only CB(Cumulonimbus) and ICU(Towering Cumulus) are specified
In METAR.

NSCCNO
*
SignificantCloud): No CBscor TEUs below 500
off or

MSA whichever is
greater.

↳weathergroupspresent DZ-Drizzle
↑
mather
gives information on the
presentweather at or near the aerodrome e

ef.
RA-Rain
SN-SNOW

GR-Hail.
#Obstruction:
*Obstruction other than Clouds.

UV (vertical visibility used info.

in
place of cloud
*

eg.
WV002 ->
Shy is obscured with vertical
visibility of 200
ft.
WIII-> VV with three slashes vertical visibility cannot be assessed.
*
forward means

* CAVOK Cloud
->
teiling and
Visibility, OK.

# RecentWatter: Recent
significantweather,either in
past hour or since the last METAR was issued and the

significantweather has ceased (orreduced in

intensity,written with
prefix RE.

RETS -> Recent

Thunderstorm.
eg.
-

# TREND:

A
forceast valid
for this
after the time
of the
observation
of the METAR.

TREND
*
types:
1.BECMG (Becoming):change
presentweather will be long lasting.
in

2. TEMPO
(Temporary): change is temporary and will prevail for his than
half an hour.

3.
NOSIG: significantchange expected for
no a his.

SPECI:
#

*Criterias for speal

reporting, it is
reported immediately
1.
If wind direction
changes by
60% or more

2.
If wind
speed changes by 10 knots or more

3. When visibility crosses 200m, 1500m, 3000m, 5000m

4. If cloud amount
changes from FEW/SCT to
BRK/OVC below 1500
ft.
5.
Temp. changes by 2°C in
half an hour time or the last
report.
6. Whenever adverse weather SPECI will be issued. dust storm, sand storm, snow,
occurs
eg. joy, hail.

# Fovelast
1. TAF (Terminat Acodrome Forecast).
(i) Short TAF:validity less than
12
his, lowest will be a hus. Each short TAE issued every 3 his.

(ii) Each
Long TAF:
validity more than 12hs
upto 30 hrs.
long TAF issued every
Ghrs.
 Rices/rgtion: WAIC - World Are Forecast Centre
Area Forecast Centre.
WMO (World
RAFC ->
Regional
met
Organisation)
Provide
high quality wind and
temp, in
high atmosphere.

↓ ↓ ↓
WAFC
(Washington) WAFC (London] RAFC(19 countries, one in Delhi).

AMO:
* Aerodrome Met
office
x AMS:Aeronautical Met Service
1D.
+Mw0:Meterologic waterfine
*

i
↓
A M0 (18) AMS (54) MWO (4) RMO(8).

Observation Forecast
Warnings.
↓ ↓ ↓
(AMo) Acrodrome
METAR, SPECI - TAF
warnings for light and other
ala's
(Issued byAMD) -Area
forecast (Issued by AMD)
Local
forecast
Route
forecast
-

SIGMET
~

-
AIRMET
-

GAMET
VOLMET
-

-
ROBEX.

#
Report by Pilot:
1. AIREP

2. PIREP.

# Amodrom Warning: Issued when wind increases by 17kt

or more.

Duration Aerodrome 4 hours.

*
of warning can be
upto a maximum
of
# Are Forecast:
Forecast
of of
100mm and contains about
upper
level Wind and
Temp., Frusing level, sing, Turbulence,
A
an area
info
Wind and Aerodrome
shear
warning if any
A
2ssued by AMO and duration is 12hrs and issued 8 his.
every

# Local Forecast:

Issued AMO
by
*

Area 50Nm (Exam POU)

of but
practical
A in IOONm,

contains
I
Upper level
winds and
temp.
surface forecast of
x wind
velocity,visibility, cloud, temp, sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset.
Validity-khws, Issued stimes
day
* a
 Route
# forecast:
to route
similar issued for particular
a
area
forecast but a

#SIGMET
Issued
(SignificantMeterological Infol
x
by MwO actual / expected
*
contains
info about adverse weather which
may affectthe safetyof an
aircraft inflight
A
validity-thus and issued
every
3 hus.

# AIRMET
(FL100 below).
same
*

info as
SIGMET but
for low
flying aircraft and

#GAMET:
Genereal
* Area
Meterological Forecast
Same
*
info as Route
forecast but issued
for low level
averaft
#Met the
folder provides following info:
1.
METAR/TAI Take
off
Data

Wind and charts levels.

2.
temp, for different
3

significant we chart
prognostic char.
Chart:
#Prognosis
Validity-Rhus,
*
issued 4 times a
day.

#PIREP: A
report by
the pilot of actual
flightconditions and
ground conditions.

#Volmet Broadcast:

Continuous Broadcast whichis done

* on HE
frequence, from
Bombay, and Kolkata
A
Bombay Volmat Brodcast contain
METAR and THF
of Bombar, FIR

and ChennaiFIR
airports
A Kolkata Volmat Broadcast contain METAR and YAF
of Deth FIR

and KOLKATA FIR

airports.
A

Amo
*
for international-12 in prior notice
* AMS
require

#Types of forecast:
*Nowcasting:<24hrs
*Short Range: 1-3 days
-Medium
Range: 4 to 10
days.
A
Long Range: 10
days
 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone:(ITCI):

The air
* masses
tropical
within the
region warm and
dry (a) warm and moist meet and hence the name
given
is
intertropical
whether belt mainly
forms along a
of
100-300km
dominated by CB clouds.
In summers northern 20%. Itcan
winters to towards Australia.
* ITCE moves in
hemisphere upto 200 and in be seen

Equatorial front
*

Surge: Strengthening of
* air within the same air mass is called
surge. Also called Velocity
convergence.
is called shear
Shear:
*
Wakening of air in an airmass

depression:Happens Bay of Bengal of Thambal. Lifespan: 3-5days

Monsoon also Bay
in
forms in
*

in the
of bungal helps advancementof southwest counter. These
low
*
pressure which forms over bay
in monsoon
form
during pre-monsoon and post monsoon season.
Frequencyis high during pre monsoon season.

* Four Seasons:
I
-> -
/

↓ ↓
Winte Per Monsoon Sw Monsoon Post Monsoon/NE Monsoon/Refreiving Monsoon
(Dec, Jan, Feb) (March, Apr, May) ↳June,Jul, Aug, Sept [Oct, Nov]

Season Pevied
Temp. Pressure surface wind Upper Winds Wx Remarks
~

North ST5(1aum), Dup, Low Humidity, Radiation fog,

Winter Dec-Feb 1227° westerly Westernly,
101-10184pa 25N
Low
temp, low
visibility fog over North India

North 100-200ktS
Clearsley, lightwind or NW India, JK
Cold Easternly 35 to 22°N
day-16° t les or calm wind, recieves rainfal,
Cold wave, 4 or less with wind NE Ludia Advection
fog,
North (or) Westerly

Pre Monsoom March-May30245

*
westerle
low
1006-10084pa 17 "N STY
high
North Ludia
temp, vis due to

North Low pressure, low humidita, DS/SS and

Easternly
or Good Visibility, DS/ss over Lowvis in NE
HeatWave 45 Easterul NW due to Kalbaishabl
- or more. or N Ludia,
Kalbaishabhi over NE Ludia

South India -
Moderate war.
SwMonsoon
June-Sept260-45°C 994-1008hpa
Ittrough it
Ele (60-80kt)
14-15 km & 13N (MAA).

Southwest June to the

surface
the
A monsoon occurs
from Sept. On winds are
swhe, south
of Trough
line north
and SE of Trough line.
- Monsoon hits Kerala on 1
June, Mumbai- 10th Jun, Delhi-29th June, Entire Country -

A Tamil Nadu and J&K do not this

recieve
rainfall during season.

A another Pakistan, Both these help

of Bengal
in
low
forms Bay and low
forms low
*
our over

towards Northern India

progressing of the monsoon

Rainfall is decided by location line, moves

Max.
of trough trough
* the country
over the where line to the

foothill of Himalayan. Rain gets confined to the mountainous

region
and there is a break in monsoon in

North East states.

the rest
of the
country. The wind suddenlybecomes squally Bihar and over

(VP)
A Ideal
position of trough line is along Allahabad &
Ganga Nagar(Rajasthan)
Post Monsoon Oct. Now Moderate 18° 1008 Over North India winds STT Moderate
weather
10104pa
-

are North
Westernly over the country,
and Over South Sudia and TN
NE states
North
winds are
Eastuly recieve
rainfall.