English Language I

APUNTES-ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-1.
pdf
maurisio
Lengua Inglesa I
1º Grado en Estudios Ingleses
Facultad de Filosofía y Letras

Universidad de Alicante
Reservados todos los derechos.

No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
a64b0469ff35958ef4ab887a898bd50bdfbbe91a-7482846
Reservados todos los derechos. No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

UNIT 1
Introduction to nouns and noun phrases
● Noun: content word which names a person, place, thing or idea
● Clause: grouping of words that contains a subject and a full verb
● Phrase: grouping of words without a subject and a full verb
➢ Adjectival modification: premodification and postmodification
1. Syntactic functions of the noun phrase
1. Subject: agent or actor of the noun phrase
2. Direct Object (DO): person or thing which the agent of the transitive verb acts upon
3. Indirect Object (IO): the recipient of the action expressed in the ditransitive verb
4. Object of the Preposition: head word of the prepositional phrase
5. Predicate noun: a noun which follows a copular verb and renames or modifies the
subject. A predicative adjective can also follow the copular verb
6. Object Complement (OC): noun phrase, pronoun or adjective which completes the
DO
7. Apposition: noun or noun phrase which renames or specifies a previous noun phrase
8. Attributive noun: noun that modifies another noun in the attributive position of the
noun phrase
2. Noun classifications
a. Abstract noun: name concepts or ideas that do not belong to the material universe
b. Concrete noun: name elements of the material universe
c. Countable nouns: are either singular or plural. They may appear with indefinite
determiners, countable determiners or numbers
d. Non-countable nouns: are neither singular nor plural, although they always appear
with singular verbs. They cannot appear with indefinite determiners, countable
determiners or numbers
3. Noun formation
a. Blending: mixes parts of two different words in order to create a new noun
b. Clipping: short form of a larger noun
c. Compounding: joins two words into a new noun
d. Derivation: adds a prefix or a suffix to a root to form a new noun
e. Functional shift: converts another part of the speech in to a noun
4. Noun substitutes
a. Pronouns
b. Gerunds: verbal form ending in -ing can function as a noun, mainly as a subject, DO,
or object of the preposition
c. Substantival adjectives: an adjective which functions as a noun or with an implicit
noun
5. Noun modifications
a. Premodification: the position before the head noun of the noun phrase. The standard
position in English for an adjective is between the determiner and the head noun
(DAN)
b. Postmodification: the position following the head noun. Occurs with adjectivals
(prepositional/infinitive phrases, relative clauses)

More information about nouns
⇀ In English you can replace a singular or plural count-noun with one or ones
⇀ Certain adjectives preceded by the can actually be used as heads of the noun phrase without
adding a noun or the generic one/ones after them.
⇀ A noun can modify another noun as if it were an adjective. These type of nouns usually
behave like attributive adjectives (attributive nouns) and they normally have a singular form
⇀ In English, a noun phrase can be postmodified by certain adverbs of place and time
⇀ -ery can be added to a noun to form another noun

UNIT 2
Countable, Uncountable and collective nouns
1. Countable nouns are either singular or plural. We can know if a noun is countable
with 3 tests
a. Countable nouns are able to take a countable determiner
b. Count-nouns can be pluralised and/or take a numeral, even though some plurals are
unmarked or non-regular
c. Count-nouns can take a plural verb
2. Non-count nouns are neither singular o plural, although they take singular verbs.
True non-count nouns never appear with indefinite articles, countable determiners or
numbers
a. Mass nouns are non-count nouns which name a substance that has no individual
identity or unit
b. Abstract nouns
c. Partitive constructions allow a non-count noun to be specified through preposition
postmodification to a countable head noun
3. Nouns with non-count and count-noun uses
a. Some non-count nouns share forms with count-nouns, but the meanings are different
b. Some mass nouns can also be used with the meaning “a type of”
c. Some non-count nouns can be used as count-nouns due to cultural conventions
4. Collective nouns denote a group of individuals, which can be grammatically singular
or plural. When the group activity is in focus, collective nouns appear with a singular
verb, but when the individuals are in focus it uses a plural verb.
More information about count-nouns, non-count nouns and collective nouns

⇀ Several non-count nouns deceptively look plural
⇀ Non-count nouns can also denote materials, liquids or objects which are not regarded as
separated elements
⇀ Most abstract nouns are non-count
⇀ Count and non-count nouns can be modified by expressions denoting quantities
⇀ A great many, many, a few, few and a number of can only be used with plural count-nouns
⇀ Much, a great deal of, a little and little can be only used in front of non-count nouns
⇀ 3 types of quantifiers: those that are only used with pl, c-n; always used before n-c-n; can be
used c&n-c-n
⇀ Non-count nouns are often modified by quantifiers
⇀ If we want to quantify a noun in some way, we use partitives
UNIT 3
Number & Gender
1. Noun number
English has a limited number of pronouns which can be called dual (either, both) because they
only refer to two elements
a. Most plurals are pluralised as regulars plurals because they form the plural by means
of the consonantal suffix:
● The pronunciation varies depending on the sound of the root form of the noun
○ Ends with a voiced phoneme = /z/
○ Ends with a voiceless phoneme = /s/
○ Ends with a sibilant = /iz/ or /ez/
● The written form of the regular plural suffix is either -e or -es
● Several common variations in the spelling of the regular plural suffix
(hero-heroes)
b. Compound nouns generally form their plural by adding a suffix to the end of the
word, but it can be added to the first element of the compound when it maintains its
noun identity
c. Non-regular plurals
● Anglo-Saxon plurals refer to nouns which have maintained its historic plural
forms through vowel mutations, derivation or both
● Borrowed plurals are words that come from another languages but have never
been regularised to follow the patterns of regular plurals
d. Zero plurals are nouns that don’t take a plural ending, but are nevertheless considered
either singular or plural based on the context
e. Pluralia tantum is a class of nouns which have no singular form and are always plural
● Summation plurals are nouns with two parts, and when used as attributive
nouns, some do appear in plural
● Unmarked plurals have no singular form and tend to work in semantic pairs
2. Noun gender
English nouns have no grammatically related gender because they tend to reflect the
biological gender. The neuter is used in nouns that have no clear biological gender
a. Gender suffixes are generally added to the masculine noun to form the feminine
b. Gender pairs or binomials are semantically unrelated words which refer to the
corresponding gender terms
c. Modern English tends to prefer unmarked gender in place of many traditional gender
marked terms
d. Animals are gender-neutral except when they’re pets or a zoologist is talking about
them
More information about number and gender

⇀ Some word of foreign origin are pluralised according to the rules of their original language
⇀ The plural form of the compounds depends on the words they consist of

UNIT 4
The possessive case
English nouns do not have subject or object case, but they do have a genitive or possessive case
1. S-genitive occurs in attributive premodification to the head noun and is generally
reserved for animate nouns
a. Formation
i. Singular or collective nouns form the s-genitive by adding ‘s
ii. Plural nouns ending in -s form the s-genitive by adding only an apostrophe to
the end of the noun
iii. Singular nouns ending in -s were traditionally treated like plural nouns, but in
modern English, they generally add ‘s
iv. The pronunciation rules for the s-genitive are the same ones as the plural
rules
b. Types
i. Descriptive genitives: the s-genitive limits the noun in the same way the
adjective does
ii. Genitives of measure involve inanimate words for time or distance
iii. Group genitives: the s-genitive ending is added to a noun phrase rather than
the head noun
iv. Subjective genitives: the s-genitive does the implied action of the head
noun
v. Objective genitives: the s-genitive receives the implied action of the
head noun
vi. Locative genitives appear when the pronoun phrase has an implicit
head which is normally a place
vii. Sometimes the apostrophe is omitted in certain common constructions
2. Of-genitive: a prepositional phrase which occurs in postmodification to the head
noun
a. Inanimate nouns reject the s-genitive, so they often appear as of-genitive or as
attributive nouns
b. Of-genitives of content or measure often appear with non-count nouns to form the
partitive construction
c. The of-genitive may add special syntactic emphasis or sound more formal
d. The of-genitive allows clarification, specially since the s-genitive in the spoken
English cannot distinguish between singular and plural
e. The of-genitive is also common with clausal postmodification. Long noun phrases
reject the s-genitive in favour of the of-genitive
3. Double genitive occurs when both genitives are combined
a. The s-genitive becomes the head of the preposition of
b. Its purpose is to retain the determiner of the head noun, which normally would have
been lost in the s-genitive construction

More information about the possessive case
⇀ The use of the of-genitive instead of NOUN+NOUN structure implies a change in the
meaning
⇀ The of-genitive tends to be emphatic or seeks to eliminate ambiguity
⇀ Of-genitive is often used with measurement words
⇀ The s-genitive can’t be used when the noun is followed by a clause
⇀ The s-genitive can be used without the noun it modifies

UNIT 5
Adjective and adjectivals
● Adjectives are a class of words which modify the head noun of a noun phrase.
● Adjectivals are multiword adjectives, such as prepositional phrases which function
adjectivally
● English adjectives are flat and they only have one form
● The only variations adjectives allow to are the comparative and superlative
1. Adjective formation
a. Compounding: joins 2 words to form an adjective
b. Derivation: adds a prefix or a suffix to a root to form a new adjective
c. Functional shift: converts another part of the speech in to a new adjective
2. Positions
a. Attributive position: are a part of the noun phrase. They generally appear in the
premodification to the head noun
➢ Some set expressions in English have an adjective postmodification to a head
noun
b. Predicative position: adjectives in the predicative position are joined to the noun
phrase by means of the copular verb (predicative adjectives)
➢ Most examples of postmodification in English involve the predicative position
3. Qualifiers
➢ Adjectives and adverbs can be intensified with the adverbs so/such/very/too
a. So appears with the predicative adjectives and is usually followed by a that clause
(e.g. it was so difficult that…)
b. Very appears with predicative adjectives or adverbs and is usually followed by an
infinitive phrase (e.g. very difficult to forget)
c. Such appears with the noun phrase, which may contain an attributive adjective
d. Too appears with predicative adjectives or with adverbs (similar to very) but is
usually used to indicate excess
4. Comparatives and superlatives
➢ Adjectives in English are flat (they only have one form) but they allow variations only
in the comparative and superlative form
a. Comparatives and superlatives of superiority (derivation)
○ 1 syllable adjectives and all the adjectives ending in -y or -ly form the
comparative by adding -er and (the) -est
○ +2 syllables adjectives form them by through the comparative construction:
MORE + ADJ. and THE MOST + ADJ.
○ 2 syllable adjectives ending in -er, -ow, -le or -ure may form the comparative
or superlative by either process
➢ Some adjectives have maintained multiple forms based on the historic
comparative forms, although the changes of meaning
b. Comparatives and superlatives of inferiority always use the comparative structure
less or the least.
c. Comparatives of equality always use the construction as + adj./adv. + as. With a
negative verb, you can also use so+ adj./adv. + as.
5. Multiple adjectives
➢ When multiple adjectives modify the same head noun, tend to fall in a conceived
order: (1) size → age→ shape → colour → origin → (6)material
➢ If the noun phrase has an attributive noun, it will always precede the head noun it
modifies (e.g. old, yellow, broken-down school bus)
➢ Commas separate coordinate adj.
➢ When 2 adj of the same category modify the same noun, they appear with a
coordination conjunction (e.g. red and blue shirt) and sometimes hyphenated (e.g.
black-and-white films)
More information about adjectives & adjectivals

⇀ Attributive adjectives tend to precede the noun in English, but there are some cases which can
appear after the noun they refer to (e.g.the Ambassador Extraordinary)
⇀ Attorney General, Princess Royal and God Almighty are exceptional cases since more often
the adjectives are placed before the noun not after
⇀ The position of the adjective may change the meaning (e.g.present members (members that
are present at the moment) and members present (members who are at the place where events
are taking place)). Similar cases take place with the adj. derived from the past participles
and present participles
⇀ The adjectives with so and such deserve special attention since such requires a noun after it
and so can appear when the noun is not explicit or when the noun is mentioned
⇀ Outer: adjective that can only be attributive and always placed before the noun
⇀ Such and like can be used to refer to a person or thing having similar characteristics to
another person or thing
⇀ Happy= predicative & attributive position; Glad= predicative position only, except glad
tidings
⇀ Attributive nouns function as adjectival modifiers in the noun phrase and are seldom
pluralised (e.g.trouser has no -s despite the fact that trousers is a summation plural; scissor
blade)

UNIT 6
Determiners (1): articles
● Determiners are function words which belong to a general class of noun modifiers
● They highlight characteristics of nouns
● Their pronunciation in English is generally de-emphasised by means of vowel reduction
● Subclases: definite article the, indefinite articles a/an & the zero article
1. Indefinite articles treat the noun as a generic member of a larger class, for instance
the noun is not considered to be unique.
a. With singular nouns, the indefinite takes the form a/an. It appears before a
consonantal phoneme and the latter before a vocalic phoneme.
b. With plural or uncountable nouns, we use the zero article. In this type of situations,
the lack of a determiner indicates the indefiniteness of the noun (e.g. there was a book
on the table→there were ∅ books on the table)
➢ If an indefinite article has oral emphasis, it’s always pronounced /e:/ or /æn/
➢ Indefinite articles always appear with jobs or classifications and in set expressions of
time and weight
2. Article the highlights the definiteness or uniqueness of a noun
a. The definite article appears when a noun has already been mentioned in a context or
is somehow understood as unique or specific
b. Even though there’s only one definite article, it has 2 pronunciations
i. Followed by a consonantal phoneme: /ðe/
ii. Preceding a vocalic phoneme: /ði/
➢ Definite articles are also common in situations of postmodification
➢ Sometimes, a def. art. can take on an indefinite sense when one member of the class
stands for the entire class
➢ When the def. art. has oral emphasis is always pronounced /ði/
3. Suppressed articles are situations where the noun itself is y definition specific and
therefore doesn’t need an article
a. Names of specific people, languages, days/seasons or meals have an implicit
definiteness and don’t require an article
i. These nouns are always capitalized as proper nouns
ii. On occasions, proper names may be treated as a member of a larger class
and appear with a def. or indef. art. (e.g. she’s coming on a Friday/the Friday
after next)
iii. Locations generally appear with articles, but in some cases, a reference to an
institution/activity may be used as an uncountable noun and appear without
an article
b. Noun phrases may also become definite through identification (e.g. lesson
three→the number makes the head noun definite without the need of a def.art.)
c. Certain set expressions may also suppress an article
More information about determiners (1): articles

⇀ The indef.art a/an is used before proper names with the meaning of “a certain”

⇀ Proper names can also be preceded by the def.art. when we want to distinguish between
several people that share the name
⇀ Reference to one of various elements belonging to only one possessor can be made in 2 ways:
combining the preposition of and a double genitive (e.g. a friend of my faather’s), or by means
of the numeral one followed by of and an s-genitive (e.g. one of my father’s friends)
⇀ The indef.art. is used after without when a singular count-noun follows
⇀ The indef.art. isn’t used before a noncount-noun or a plural count-noun
⇀ Nouns referring to jobs, political affiliations or religious beliefs and personalities/states of
mind must be preceded by the indef.art.
⇀ The indef.art. can precede a singular count-noun in order to generalize
⇀ The def.art. is omitted before words denoting languages, days of the week and before abstract
nouns and plural count-nouns used in general sense

UNIT 7
Determiners (2): other determiners
● Other determiners that don’t fit in the article category
● One peculiarity of them is that they can function either as determiner or as pronouns. The
difference depends on whether the word is used as a part of the noun phrase or in place of a
noun phrase
1. Possessive determiners (my, your, his, her, etc.) appear with the noun phrase, unlike
possessive pronouns, and they take the same position as s-genitives.
➢ Frequently used with body parts and clothing
➢ Appear in conjunction with the adjective own
2. Demonstrative determiners (this, that, these, those) have a dual focus; they highlight
definiteness as well as relative position. Moreover, they delineate a perceived system
of location: close (this/these) and far (that/those).
➢ Function both as determiners and pronouns
➢ The demonstratives that/those may also have a derogatory connotation though their
implicit distancing (e.g. that friend of yours…)
3. Indefinite determiners (any, some) have a function which resembles that of the
indefinite articles (a/an/∅) (e.g.∅ chairs→some chairs).
a. Some tends to be used in generic affirmative contexts. When used as a pronoun
receives oral emphasis (/səm/→/sΛm/) and can also be used in an interrogative offer.
b. Any is used in generic negative and interrogative contexts. It can function either as a
determiner or as a pronoun. Any may also appear in affirmative contexts to indicate a
completely generic noun (e.g. i’ll take any help you can give me)
➢ Indef. det. generally appear with plural or uncountable nouns
➢ Singular countable nouns must be preceded by and indef.art.
➢ Indef. det. can function either as determiners or pronouns
4. Negative determiner (no) negates the entire noun phrase
➢ English avoids double negatives: no+ noun is more emphatic than not+any+noun
➢ no (interj.)/no (det.)/none (pron.)/not (adv.)
5. Distributive determiners (each, every, other, another, all, either, neither, both)
specify nouns belonging to a larger group.
➢ They can deal with individuals (each, every), some with pairs (either, neither, both) or
the totally (all, the whole) and some are more generic (other, another)
➢ Most distributives can be used as determiners or pronouns
➢ Both & all have a peculiarity: the can follow a personal pronoun in postmodification
➢ Both & all are best seen as pronouns which function with reduced prepositional
phrases (makes them sound more like determiners)
➢ In some cases, whole can substitute all
6. Quantifiers are determiners that indicate the number or quantity of the head noun.
Some function with countable nouns, while others do so with uncountable nouns.
➢ A few quantifiers are generic, so they can function with either
More information about determiners (2): other determiners
⇀ Most: superlative form of the quantifiers much/many and is used to form the superlative form
of many adjectives and adverbs and adjectives or adverbs with more than 2 syllables.
⇀ Most can be preceded by the def.art., but this word is very often used without the before both
count and noncount nouns
⇀ The quantifier some can combine with both count and noncount nouns when functions as a
determiner
⇀ The quantifier no can precede both count and noncount nouns, but can never be used as a
pronoun (none)
⇀ The use of another conveys the meaning of “additional”
⇀ Another combines with singular count nouns, whereas other can be used with singular and
plural nouns and can have a plural form when used as a pronoun
⇀ Both means “the two” and can be used as a determiner followed by plural count nouns or in
combination with personal pronouns
⇀ The difference between each and every don’t have a pretty different meaning. While every
tends to be associated with all, each seems to convey a more specific, individual notion. They
can be determiners or pronouns

UNIT 8
Pronouns (1)
● Pronouns are words which carry p¡out the same syntactic function as noun phrases
● Most pronouns are considered anaphoric because they reference a noun, noun phrase or
another pronoun
1. Personal pronouns provide the most common way to substitute a noun phrase.
a. Number: personal pronouns, like nouns, always have a number. Most will be either
singular or plural; pronouns like either, neither or both are considered dual.
b. Gender: most personal have unmarked gender; only 3rd person singular pronouns are
marked as either masculine or feminine or neuter.
c. Case: Beyond the possessive, pronouns have 2 distinct forms distinguished by the
syntactic function in the clause: the subject and the object form.
➢ Pers.pron have number, gender and case; unlike noun which only have number and
occasionally gender.
➢ There are no uncountable pronouns
2. Demonstrative pronouns, like demonstrative determiners, give information about the
relative position (e.g. for those who keep trying).
3. Possessive pronouns, unlike possessive determiners, can stand on their own.
➢ They generally function as subject, object (direct object, object of a preposition),
predicate noun or an object complement
➢ They’re also used in double genitive constructions
4. Self-pronouns appear in clauses where the referent or antecedent has already been
mentioned, either because the action is reflexive or because the pronoun further
intensifies the antecedent.
5. Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another) express mutual action or
relationship.
➢ They must be differentiated from the self-pronouns
6. Interrogative pronouns take the place of a noun phrase in complex questions.
● Personal interrogative pronouns: who (subject), whom (object), whose (possessive)
○ Non-personal antecedents: what/which (subject or object), whose
(possessive)
➢ They have unmarked gender, in that sense are personal or non-personal, and case
➢ Formal writing: who only used as subject & whom as an object; Informal spoken
English loses this distinction
➢ Subject questions when the interrogative pronoun functions as the subject (who,
what/which) are the only questions in English that don’t have inversion
7. Indefinite pronouns
a. Simple indefinites (any, some, others) function on their own
➢ Generic pronoun one/ones has a similar function
b. Compound indefinites are formed by adding -one, -body, -thing to simple indefinites
or to the determiners every or no. They function with infinitive phrases and often
cause difficulty with pronoun agreement. Moreover, they always appear with singular
verbs, but in meaning seem to reject a singular reference
i. Personal: some/body, anyone/anybody, everyone/body, no one/body

ii. Impersonal: something, anything, everything, nothing
8. Negative pronoun (none) functions like the compound indefinites no one or nothing
➢ Often personalized by specifying preposition phrase
9. Empty pronouns (it, there) fill the place of the noun phrase for a postponed element
a. It: the element may be a subordinate clause or an infinitive phrase
b. There: the element is usually a noun phrase (e.g. there were (three books) on the
table). This is called a cataphoric pronoun, because its referent follows it.
More information about pronouns (1)

⇀ The adjective own can combine with pos.det in 2 constructions: own appears between the
possessive and the following noun, or own forms part of a very peculiar expression which has
no equivalence in Spanish (refers to the use of one to replace a noun that has been previously
mentioned)
⇀ Ref. pron. can be preceded by the preposition by in order to convey 2 meanings: the 1st one
emphasizes the idea of “doing something without help”, and the second meaning appears
when is an evident allusion to a place
⇀ Pronoun it is very often used to refer to animals and things, but it can also be used as an
“empty” subject in impersonal sentences
⇀ Object pronouns are used after prepositions. The problem is that, in some cases, the particle
can be seen either as a preposition followed by a pronoun at the end of a sentence or as a
conjunction that introduces a clause
⇀ Confusion arises when we have to decide what follows the word than. These problems often
appear because although than is a conjunction, people tend to regard it as a preposition and
use an object pronoun after it
⇀ My friends and I: used when it is the subject of the sentence; My friend and me: appear when
the phrase is the object of the sentence
⇀ Pos. adj or pos. det. are always followed by a noun, whilst pos.pron appear alone and are
used when the noun is understood
⇀ Pos. pron. differ from their corresponding adjectives in that they all end in -s (yours, hers,
etc.), except mine, his and its
⇀ Demonstrartives can be used both as determiners and as pronouns without changing their
spelling
⇀ Reflx. pron. are often used in combination with a noun or a pers. pron. in order to convey an
emphatic meaning.
⇀ Self-pronoun can be placed immediately after the noun or pronoun or at the very end of the
sentence.

UNIT 9
Pronouns (2) and numerals
● Relative pronouns share the majority of their forms with the interrogative pronouns
● Rel. pron. introduce a subordinate relative clause
● They’re different from conjunctions because they have a syntactic functions in the clause
1. Relative pronouns, unlike interrog. pron., can be personal or non-personal and have
case
➢ That and whose may have either personal or non-personal antecedents
➢ Rel. pron. have nominal syntactic functions in the subordinate clause
2. Relative adverbs, like rel.pron., introduce relative subordinate clauses.
➢ The function of the relative adverbs in the subordinate clause follows the standard
adverbial syntactic functions answering the questions when, why, where, how or how
often
3. Types of relative clauses
○ Nominal relative clause may carry out the syntactic functions of the noun phrase.
They’re introduced by the relative pronouns what or whatever or rel.adv.
○ Adjectival relative clauses appear in postmodification to a noun phrase or a pronoun.
They’re introduced by the rel.pron. who, whom or that as well as rel. adv.
1. Definition relative clauses provide information necessary for the
identification of the head noun or pronoun. They can be introduced by the rel.
pron. who, which and that and are never set off by commas.
2. Non-defining relative clauses provide parenthetical information about the
head noun or pronoun. They can never be introduced by the pronoun that and
are always set off by commas (wr.ENG) or a short break (spk.ENG)
3. Relative pronouns may be implicit or omitted when the rel. pron. is in any
position other than the subject position in defining relative clauses.
4. Reduced relative clauses occur when the defining adjectival relative clause
has a copular verb and a participle modifier. In these cases, both rel. pron. and
the copular verb can be left implicit or omitted (e.g. the man who was
standing in the corner→ the man standing in the corner)
○ Sentential relative clauses are introduced by the rel. pron. which and have a
peculiarity of modifying the entire previous clause.
4. Numerals
○ Cardinal numbers may be used as adjectives or as nouns
○ Ordinal numers usually functions as adjectives in the noun phrase, and they tend to
be used more frequently en ENG than in SP. Ordinals are used in dates, birthdays and
anniversaries, and even in fractions (except half)
○ The number 0 has multiple forms
1. Maths: zero, nought
2. Tel. num/adress: letter o
3. Sports scores: nil
○ The numbers hundred, thousand, million, billion, etc. as well as the term dozen,
don’t take a plural ending when counting. The plural ending is reserved for the
general reference with no preceding cardinal number
○ Decimals are separated by a point and thousands by comma
More information about pronouns (2) and numerals

⇀ The wh-compounds can be used both as relative pronouns, introducing nominal relative
clauses. When used as concessive connectors, they have a similar meaning to the construction
no matter + wh-word
⇀ Negative indef. pron. (nowhere, no one, nobody, anything) can only be used when the verb is
in the affirmative form. If the verb is negative, we must use any-compounds in ordert o avoid
the double negative
⇀ Rel. pron. which can introduce a sentential relative clause
⇀ We can use the pl. pron. they, them, their, everybody, someone, etc. because they’re often
notionally plural.
⇀ That can substitute who, whom or which in defining clauses, except as the complement of the
prepositions
⇀ That can’t be omitted when it functions as the subject of the relative clause
⇀ The word all can’t be followed by the rel.pron what, it only can be followed by that or an
implicit rel.pron.

English Language I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

English Language I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

APUNTES-ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-1.

1º Grado en Estudios Ingleses

Facultad de Filosofía y Letras

Reservados todos los derechos.

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

More information about count-nouns, non-count nouns and collective nouns

More information about number and gender

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

More information about adjectives & adjectivals

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

More information about determiners (1): articles

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

More information about pronouns (1)

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

More information about pronouns (2) and numerals

¿Encontrarás a Sebastián bajo el mar (de apuntes)?

You might also like