EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS Used before a list, to introduce a long quotation and to

balance two parts of a sentence of equal importance

Review on English Grammar and Composition 7c. The Apostrophe
Used to indicate possession, omission and forms the
A. Agreement between the subject and the verb plural of letters, figures and words
1a. The Singular Verb 8c. The Quotation Marks
Rule: Use singular verb for the following: Used to show a direct quotation or speech
a. Compound subjects taken a single units 9c. The Dash or Dashes
b. Subjects referring to amount, quantity, Shows and interruptions or a break in though, a special
distance and number emphasis or a summarized viewpoint
c. Titles and names of countries 10c. The Brackets
d. Words ending in s Two types:
e. Many a a. The Round
f. The number b. The square
g. With, together with, like, as well as The brackets enclose an insertion, a set of figures, an
h. Each, every, everybody, anybody, nobody, additional remark and when sic is used
one of
i. The only
2a. The Plural Verb D. Verbs
Rule: Use plural verb for the following: It forms an essential element in a sentence
a. Compound subjects linked by and for it helps to provide it with meaning. Technically, a
b. Subject referring to a multiple number sentence cannot exist without a verb. A verb shows
c. Police, cattle, people the action or state in a sentence.
d. A number 1d. Auxiliary
e. One of these It acts as a helping verb. It helps to show tense or voice in
a sentence.
B. The Use of Articles Two types of Auxiliaries
1b.Two type of Articles a. Primary
1.1 Indefinite Article b. Modal
1.2 Definite Article
Rule: ‘A’ and ‘an’ are known as indefinite articles Primary Auxiliaries
because they are used with nouns that have an indefinite or Verbs to do - do, does, did
general sense while ‘the’ is a definite article because it is used Verbs to have – has, have, had
with nouns which have a definite or particular senses. Verbs to be – is, am, are, was, were, be, been, being
2b. Exceptions when ‘the’ Article is Unnecessary
Rule: 1. We do not use ‘the’ if we use uncountable Modal Auxiliaries
nouns that refer to certain ideas or things in Can, could, may, might, must, ought, will, would,
general. shall, should, used to, need, dare
2. We do not use articles before plural 2d. Transitive and Intransitive Verb
nouns that refer to all members of a class, A Transitive verb requires a direct object. A
things or people preposition is not placed immediately after it while
3. We do not use articles when we refer to an an intransitive verb does not require a direct object.
indefinite number of things or people of a A preposition comes after it, followed by the object
particular category 3d. Phrasal Verb
4. We do not use ‘the’ before the majority of A verb readily combines with either a preposition or
place, names, languages, game, proper nouns, an adverb to form a phrasal verb, a single
fields of study and certain illnesses/ complaints meaningful unit.
3b.Use of articles with idiomatic expressions E. Prepositions
Rule: ‘The’ is not used in certain idiomatic A preposition is a linking word. It connects one word
expressions (especially with prepositions to another word or phrase to another phrase
such as by and at
4b. Consonant and Vowel sounds Types of Preposition:
Rule: ‘A’ is used before a consonant while ‘an’ is used 1e. The Preposition of Place
before a vowel sound Indicates location or a direction
5b. Functions of ‘a’ and ‘an’ 2e. The Preposition of Time
Rule: ‘A’ or ‘an’ can be used Indicates time or duration
When we mean one or each 3e. Comparative Preposition
When we wish to refer to an unidentified As and like indicate comparison
member of class and 4e. Prepositional Phrase
When we wish to refer to a representative A phrase that starts off with a preposition is called
member of a class a prepositional phrase. It adds information to a
sentence
C. Punctuation Marks
Types and Uses F. Tenses
1c. The Full Stop What is said, done or written is governed by a time
Used to indicate the end of a statement, mild command or dimension. This dimension in English is tense. As tense effects only
an indirect question action, it effects only the action word, the verb.
2c. The Question Mark
Used for a direct question, a series of question and to 1f.The Present Time
express a doubt a. The Simple Present Time
3c. The Exclamation Mark Refers to a regular action
Used after an interjection, a strong statement or a b. The Present Continuous
command Refers to an action that has time dimension
4c. The Comma A temporary action
Used within a sentence. It is the most common and also An action that has a future reference
the most misused punctuation mark c. The Present Prefect Tense
5c.The Semi-colon Refers to a past action that still affects the
Used to separate two related main clauses. Usually the present
second clause is an explanation or clarification of A recent action
the first A question which makes a causal reference to a
6c. The Colon past experience
Already, since, yet, been sentences

d. The Present Perfect Continuous
Is used for an action that is carried from past to
the present
2f. The Past Time
a. The Simple Past Tense
Refers to an accomplished action
A reference point in the past
Politeness
Indirect speech
b. The Past Perfect Tense
Points out the earlier of two past actions
Used with already, yet, been in sentences
Indirect speech
c. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Refers to a past action of some duration
Been is used with this tense
Indirect speech
3f. The Future Time
a. will/shall + verb
This refers to the expected action
The intended action
b. will + the present continuous tense
This refers to a planned action that is
about to take place
c. will + the perfect tense
This refers to an action that is calculated
to be completed at a fixed time in the future. (This
action is sometimes called the past in the future; A
reference point is set in the future and from there a
look is taken backwards).
d. Will + the present continuous tense
This refers to a past – in – the – future
action. But in this case the action is carried
on for a while.
e. Present tense + time phrase
Focuses on a specific event in the future
f. present continuous + time phrase
This refers to a thought – of or planned
action
The continuous form is less definite than
the simple present
form
G. Common Sentence Errors
a. Run- on sentences
A run-on sentence consists of two
sentences or ideas written as one without appropriate
punctuations or connecting word separating the ideas. It
can either be a comma splice, where two complete ideas
are separated by a comma only or a fused sentence where
there is no punctuation at all between ideas
b. Misplaced Modifier
This refers to modifiers or descriptive
phrases that are not placed beside or near the word (s)
they are supposed to modify or describe resulting in
ambiguous or confusing sentences.
c. Fragments
A fragment consists of phrases or groups
of words that lack either a subject or verb and does not
express a complete thought.
d. Dangling Modifier
A sentence has a dangling modifier if the
subject of the main idea or main clause is not the one that
phrase modifies
e. Faulty Parallelism
Faulty parallelism occurs when a sentence
contains elements different grammatical kind. This
sentence error disrupts the reader’s flow of thought and
expectations. In contrast, a sentence with parallel structure
consists of words or phrases of the same kind.
Writing and Composition
H. Preparation and Critiquing of Common Correspondences used in the
station/ PNP units
a. Civilian Letter addressed to an elected Government
official
b. Letter of Inquiry
c. Request for Transfer of Assignment
d. Invitation Letter
e. Letter of Commendation
f. Etc.
I. Developing Speeches Based on the Rules of Correct Usage of English
Language (Composition writing, Writing of Speeches shall be anchored
on the different ceremonies done in the PNP)
a. Speech for Monday Flag Raising ceremony
b. Speeches for a Launching program in the PNP
c. Speeches for Retirement Ceremony
d. Speeches for Police Service Anniversary
e. Speeches for Independence Day Celebration
f. Speeches during Turn-over ceremony
g. Speeches for Pinning and Donning of Ranks
f. Speeches during Necrological Services
J. Public Speaking (The class will be divided into 8 groups. Each group
will be assigned an activity/ ceremony undertaken in the PNP. Members
of each group will be given an assigned public speaking part in the
program).
Argumentation and Debate
Argumentation theory, or argumentation, is the
interdisciplinary study of how conclusions can be reached
through logical reasoning; that is, claims based, soundly or not,
on premises. It includes the arts and sciences of civil
debate, dialogue, conversation, and persuasion. It studies rules
of inference, logic, and procedural rules in both artificial and
real world settings.
Argumentation includes debate and negotiation which
are concerned with reaching mutually acceptable conclusions.
It also encompasses eristic dialog, the branch of social debate
in which victory over an opponent is the primary goal. This art
and science is often the means by which people protect their
beliefs or self-interests in rational dialogue, in common
parlance, and during the process of arguing.
Argumentation is used in law, for example in trials, in
preparing an argument to be presented to a court, and in
testing the validity of certain kinds of evidence. Also,
argumentation scholars study the post hoc rationalizations by
which organizational actors try to justify decisions they have
made irrationally.
Key Components of Argumentation
 Understanding and identifying arguments, either explicit
or implied, and the goals of the participants in the
different types of dialogue.
 Identifying the premises from which conclusions are
derived
 Establishing the "burden of proof" — determining who
made the initial claim and is thus responsible for providing
evidence why his/her position merits acceptance.
 For the one carrying the "burden of proof", the advocate,
to marshal evidence for his/her position in order to
convince or force the opponent's acceptance. The method
by which this is accomplished is producing valid, sound,
and cogent arguments, devoid of weaknesses, and not
easily attacked.
 In a debate, fulfillment of the burden of proof creates a
burden of rejoinder. One must try to identify faulty
reasoning in the opponent's argument, to attack the
reasons/premises of the argument, to provide
counterexamples if possible, to identify any fallacies, and
to show why a valid conclusion cannot be derived from
the reasons provided for his/her argument.
Internal Structure of Arguments
Typically an argument has an internal structure,
comprising the following
1. a set of assumptions or premises
2. a method of reasoning or deduction and
3. a conclusion or point.
 An argument must have at least two premises and one
conclusion.
Often classical logic is used as the method of reasoning
so that the conclusion follows logically from the assumptions or
support. One challenge is that if the set of assumptions is
inconsistent then anything can follow logically from inconsistency.
Therefore, it is common to insist that the set of assumptions be
consistent. It is also good practice to require the set of
assumptions to be the minimal set, with respect to set inclusion,
necessary to infer the consequent. Such arguments are called
MINCON arguments, short for minimal consistent. Such
argumentation has been applied to the fields of law and medicine.
A second school of argumentation investigates abstract arguments,
where 'argument' is considered a primitive term, so no internal
structure of arguments is taken on account.
In its most common form, argumentation involves an
individual and an interlocutor/or opponent engaged in dialogue,
each contending differing positions and trying to persuade each
other. Other types of dialogue in addition to persuasion
are eristic, information seeking, inquiry, negotiation, deliberation,
and the dialectical method (Douglas Walton). The dialectical
method was made famous by Plato and his use of Socrates critically
questioning various characters and historical figures.
Kinds of Argumentation
1. Conversational argumentation
The study of naturally-occurring conversation arose
from the field of sociolinguistics. It is usually
called conversation analysis. Inspired by ethnomethodology, it
was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s principally by
the sociologist Harvey Sacks and, among others, his close
associates Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson. Sacks died
early in his career, but his work was championed by others in
his field, and CA has now become an established force in
sociology, anthropology, linguistics, speech-communication and
psychology.[5] It is particularly influential in interactional
sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and discursive psychology,
as well as being a coherent discipline in its own right. Recently
CA techniques of sequential analysis have been employed by
phoneticians to explore the fine phonetic details of speech.
Empirical studies and theoretical formulations by
Sally Jackson and Scott Jacobs, and several generations of
their students, have described argumentation as a form of
managing conversational disagreement within communication
contexts and systems that naturally prefer agreement.
2. Mathematical argumentation
The basis of mathematical truth has been the subject
of long debate. Frege in particular sought to demonstrate (see
Gottlob Frege, The Foundations of Arithmetic, 1884, and
Logicism in Philosophy of mathematics that arithmetical truths
can be derived from purely logical axioms and therefore are, in
the end, logical truths. The project was developed
by Russell and Whitehead in their Principia Mathematica. If an
Psychological Aspects
argument can be cast in the form of sentences in Symbolic
Logic, then it can be tested by the application of accepted
proof procedures. This has been carried out for Arithmetic
using Peano axioms. Be that as it may, an argument in
Mathematics, as in any other discipline, can be considered valid
only if it can be shown that it cannot have true premises and a
false conclusion.
3. Scientific argumentation
Perhaps the most radical statement of the social
grounds of scientific knowledge appears in Alan G.Gross's The
Rhetoric of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1990). Gross holds that science is rhetorical "without
remainder, meaning that scientific knowledge itself cannot be
seen as an idealized ground of knowledge. Scientific knowledge
is produced rhetorically, meaning that it has special epistemic
authority only insofar as its communal methods of verification
are trustworthy. This thinking represents an almost complete
rejection of the foundationalism on which argumentation was
first based.
4. Interpretive argumentation
Interpretive argumentation is a dialogical process in
which participants explore and/or resolve interpretations often
of a text of any medium containing significant ambiguity in
meaning.
Interpretive argumentation is pertinent to the
humanities, hermeneutics, literary
theory, linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, semiotics, analytic
philosophy and aesthetics. Topics in conceptual
interpretation include aesthetic, judicial, logical and religious int
erpretation Topics in scientific interpretation include scientific
modeling.
5. Legal argumentation
Legal arguments are spoken presentations to a judge
or appellate court by a lawyer, or parties when representing
themselves of the legal reasons why they should prevail. Oral
argument at the appellate level accompanies written briefs,
which also advance the argument of each party in the legal
dispute. A closing argument, or summation, is the concluding
statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important
arguments for the tier of fact, often the jury, in a court case. A
closing argument occurs after the presentation of evidence.
6. Political argumentation
Political arguments are used by academics, media
pundits, and candidates for political office and government
officials. Political arguments are also used by citizens in
ordinary interactions to comment about and understand
political events. The rationality of the public is a major question
in this line of research. Political scientist Samuel L.
Popkin coined the expression "low information voters" to
describe most voters who know very little about politics or the
world in general.
In practice, a "low information voter" may not be
aware of legislation that their representative has sponsored in
Congress. A low-information voter may base their ballot box
decision on a media sound-bite, or a flier received in the mail.
It is possible for a media sound-bite or campaign flier to
present a political position for the incumbent candidate that
completely contradicts the legislative action taken in
Washington D.C. on behalf of the constituents. It may only
take a small percentage of the overall voting group who base
their decision on the inaccurate information, a voter block of 10
to 12%, to swing an overall election result. When this happens,
the constituency at large may have been duped or fooled.
Nevertheless, the election result is legal and confirmed.
Savvy Political consultants will take advantage of low-
information voters and sway their votes with disinformation
because it can be easier and sufficiently effective. Fact
checkers have come about in recent years to help counter the
effects of such campaign tactics.
Psychology has long studied the non-logical aspects
of argumentation. For example, studies have shown that simple
repetition of an idea is often a more effective method of
argumentation than appeals to reason. Propaganda often
utilizes repetition. Nazi rhetoric has been studied extensively
as, inter alia, a repetition campaign.
Empirical studies of communicator credibility and
attractiveness, sometimes labeled charisma, have also been
tied closely to empirically-occurring arguments. Such studies
bring argumentation within the ambit of persuasion theory and
practice.
Some psychologists such as William J. McGuire
believe that the syllogism is the basic unit of human reasoning.
They have produced a large body of empirical work around
McGuire's famous title "A Syllogistic Analysis of Cognitive
Relationships." A central line of this way of thinking is that logic
is contaminated by psychological variables such as "wishful
thinking," in which subjects confound the likelihood of
predictions with the desirability of the predictions. People hear
 what they want to hear and see what they expect to see. If
planners want something to happen they see it as likely to
happen. If they hope something will not happen, they see it as
unlikely to happen. Thus smokers think that they personally will
avoid cancer. Promiscuous people practice unsafe sex.
Teenagers drive recklessly.
the limits of debate. The assembly could also remove the limit on the
number of speeches by using Informal consideration or by going into
a committee of the whole or quasi committee of the whole. If the
assembly wants the change of limits to be effective for all its meetings
and not just for the current meeting, it could adopt a special rule of
order changing the limits on debate.

Debate is contention in argument; strife, dissension,
quarrelling, controversy; especially a formal discussion of subjects before
a public assembly or legislature, in Parliament or in any deliberative
assembly.
Debate is a method of formally presenting an argument in a disciplined
manner. Through logical consistency, factual accuracy and some degree
of emotional appeal to the audience are elements in debating, where one
side often prevails over the other party by presenting a superior "context"
and/or framework of the issue. The outcome of a debate may depend
upon consensus or some formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than
the objective facts. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for
participants to discuss and decide on differences, within a framework
defining how they will interact.
Debating is carried out in assemblies of various types to discuss matters
and to make resolutions about action to be taken, often by voting.
Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and
meetings of all sorts engage in debates. In particular, in parliamentary
democracies a legislature debates and decides on new laws. Formal
debates between candidates for elected office, such as the leaders
debates that are sometimes held in democracies. Debating is also carried
out for educational and recreational purposes, usually associated with
educational establishments and debating societies. The major goal of the
study of debate as a method or art is to develop the ability to debate
rationally from either position with equal ease.
Informal and forum debate is relatively common, shown by TV shows
such as the Australian talk show, Q&A, the quality and depth of a debate
improves with the knowledge and skills of its participants as
debaters. The outcome of a contest may be decided by audience vote, by
judges, or by some combination of the two.
Debate in parliamentary procedure refers to discussion on the merits of
a pending question; that is, whether it should or should not be agreed to.
It is also commonly referred to as "discussion".
Purpose
When a motion has been made and is before the assembly, the process
of debate could help the assembly determine whether to take action on
the proposal. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR) says,
"Debate, rightly understood, is an essential element in the making of
rational decisions of consequence by intelligent people." One of the
distinguishing characteristics of a deliberative assembly is that it is "a
group of people, having or assuming freedom to act in concert, meeting
to determine, in full and free discussion, courses of action to be taken in
the name of the entire group."
On the merits, not the member
Debate on any question should be limited to the merits of the
question. Debate should not be about other members and especially
should not involve any personal attacks. To keep the debate from
becoming personal, members should address the chair instead of each
other.
No interruption of speaker
A member speaking in debate should not be interrupted unless a rule is
being broken or the urgency of the situation justifies the interruption
(correcting a speaker of the facts spoken in debate does not justify an
interruption). An example of an appropriate situation to interrupt a
speaker is if the speaker is starting to make a personal attack on another
member.
Not all motions are debatable
All main motions are debatable. Other motions may or may not be
debatable. The debatability of motions depends on the purpose of the
motion. For example, the purpose of the motion to limit debate would be
defeated if this motion itself could be debated; therefore, the motion to
limit debate is not debatable.
Chairman should not debate
Except in committees and small boards, the chairman (or whatever title
the presiding officer is called) should not speak in debate to maintain the
impartiality required of this position. This also means that the chairman
should not interrupt a speaker so long as that person is following the
rules of the group. In addition, Robert's Rules of Order Newly
Revised states that "under legitimate parliamentary procedure, there is
no such thing as 'gaveling through' a measure." In other words, the
chairman cannot move so quickly through the proceedings so as to
disregard the rights of members to speak on it.
Speaking Order
The member who made the motion is entitled to speak first in
debate. Then members are called on the order in which they
are recognized by the chair, although members who have not spoken yet
get preference over those who have. If possible, the chair alternates
between someone in favor and someone against the motion.

Limits of Debate
Speech and time limits
Under the rules in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised, the right of
members to participate in debate is limited to two ten-minute speeches
per day on a question. Riddick's Rules of Procedure also specifies a
default limit of ten minutes. The United States Senate has a limit of two
speeches and no time limit for the speeches. In the United States House
of Representatives, debate on most bills is limited to 40 minutes. In state
legislative bodies, Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure limits debate
to one speech for each question.
Using Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised , a speaker cannot transfer
the time to another member. Also, unlike the practice in Congress, a
member of an assembly in an ordinary society cannot yield the floor to let
another member speak on his or her time.

Modification of limits
The group could modify the limits of debate to suit its needs. Modification
of the speech and time limits could be done for a particular motion, a
group of motions, or for the meeting through a motion to limit or extend
Motion to limit or extend limits of debate
 Because this motion by definition limits or changes the limits of the
Limit or extend limits of debate (RONR) freedom of the body, it requires a vote of two-thirds to pass.
TSC does not normally limit the length of speeches as RONR does,
Class Subsidiary motion stating, "Parliamentary law fixes no limit on the length of speeches
during debate...Debate can ordinarily be kept within reasonable time
limits by the presiding officer's insistence that all discussion be confined
In order when another No strictly to the subject." Also, TSC allows the motion to limit or extend
has the floor? debate to be debated, but only on the merits of the limitations. As with
all subsidiary motions, TSC does not allow this motion to be
reconsidered.
Requires second? Yes

Debatable? No Closing Debate

A member can make a motion to close debate immediately. The
May be reconsidered? Yes; but if vote was affirmative, only unexecuted partassembly
of order.ofA an ordinary
negative society
vote on thiscould decide to adopt such a motion by
a two-thirds
motion can be reconsidered only until such time as progress vote or or
in business by debate
unanimous
has consent.
made it essentially a new question
Debate is automatically closed when no one else wants to speak on the
motion.
Amendable? Yes

Vote required Two-thirds

The motion to limit or extend limits of debate is used to modify how

much debate is allowed.

Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (RONR)

Unless the organization's rules say otherwise, each member of
a deliberative assembly is allowed to make two ten-minute speeches on
each debatable motion, with a requirement that a member wait for other
members who have not spoken on the question to speak before making
his second speech. The motion to limit or extend limits of debate can
decrease or increase the allowed number of speeches or length of
speeches or it can decrease or increase the total amount of time for
debate.
The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure (TSC)

Limit or extend debate (TSC)

Class Subsidiary motion

In order when another has the floor? No

Requires second? Yes

Debatable? Yes

May be reconsidered? No

Amendable? Yes

Vote required Two-thirds

The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure implements this concept

as the motion to extend or limit debate. A variety of limits may be
imposed on the debate, including:

 Limiting the number of minutes allotted to each member. As TSC

normally allows for speeches of unlimited length, this motion can
impose time limits.
 Limiting the number of minutes allotted to the entire debate.
 The number of speeches each member may make.
 The number of speeches that may be made both for and against
the motion, regardless of who makes them.
Alternatively, the motion can also modify or remove limits already
imposed. For example, if each speaker is given three minutes, and a
speaker reaches their maximum, they may use this motion to request an
additional 30 seconds to finish their remarks.