EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ADVERTISEMENT TO BODY

IMAGE

BEVERLY

ACHIENG

ONYANGO

ADM NO: 41767

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN BROADCAST JOURNALISM,
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS STUDIES, KENYA COAST NATIONAL
POLYTECHNIC

OCTOBER 2021
 DECLARATION

This project is my original work and has never been presented for the award of
diploma in any other learning institution.

Signature………………………….. Date: ………………….

Beverly Achieng Onyango
ADM. NO. 41767

Supervisor’s Approval

This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the supervisor.

Signature………………………….. Date: ………………….

Mrs. Hanna Adams
Kenya Coast National
Polytechnic

ii
 ABSTRACT
This study aimed at examining how social media advertisements influences body image
on netizens. The objectives were to investigate and find out: the positive & negative
effects of social media advertisements on body image, the effects of social media on
body image through social body comparison, and the effect social media advertisers
have on body image. My study targeted 450 individuals from Crossroads Fellowship
Church where a sample size of 212 was attained. Methods of data collection used were
questionnaires and interviews. Data obtained was then used for used for quantitative
analysis. MS Excel was used to calculate percentages, mean and frequency. This was to
develop a graphical representation for the sample data collected. The findings were;
majority of advertisers believed that a certain body framework had its own advantage
over the other in regards to a particular advertisement. Respondents It was also
established that to an extent beauty and trending fashion had an upper hand in social
media advertising contrary to the traditional way of advertising. Moreover, it also came
out that social media has led to discomfort and depression to advertisers who felt that
their content didn’t meet the audience needs with respect to their body. In my
recommendation, for us to build self-reliance and confidence on social media, majorly
when doing advertisements, it is important to first factor out the kind of audience we
have and also to accept the fact that we all have different body images. This will actually
result to us accepting ourselves the way we are and encourage each other in a positive
way. It also recommends that advertisers should respect and understand that majority of
social media users; be it young or adult, can be of importance when they reach them for
online advertisement.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Special thank you to the Almighty God and my supervisor Mrs. Hanna Adams for her
professional and priceless support that she accorded me in this journey towards working on
and enriching my research paper.

I would also like to thank my classmates for the nonstop support and encouragement to
work hard throughout the research work.

Ultimately, my sincere appreciativeness to my family and close comrades for the

encouragement at all times to do my best throughout.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS..............................................................x
CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1
1.1 Overview..............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Background...........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Problem Statement................................................................................................................6
1.4 Research Objectives..............................................................................................................8
1.5 Research Questions...............................................................................................................8
1.6 Justification...........................................................................................................................8
1.7 Significance of Study..........................................................................................................10
1.8 Scope and Limitations.........................................................................................................10
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms.........................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO:LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................13
2.1 Overview............................................................................................................................13
2.2 Theoretical review..............................................................................................................13
2.2.1 Social Media...............................................................................................................13
2.1.1.1 Instagram......................................................................................................................14
2.2.2 Body Image and Beauty Industry................................................................................15
2.2.3 Body Image and Culture.............................................................................................16
2.2.3.1 Body ideals in Western cultures...............................................................................16
2.2.3.2 Body ideals in non-Western Cultures......................................................................17
2.3 Empirical Review...............................................................................................................17
2.4 Theoretical Framework.......................................................................................................19
2.4.1 Social comparison theory............................................................................................19
2.4.2 Uses and gratification theory.......................................................................................21
2.5 Conceptual Framework.......................................................................................................23
................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................23

v
CHAPTER THREE:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................25
3.1 Overview............................................................................................................................25
3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................................25
3.3 Research Site......................................................................................................................25
3.4 Research Approach.............................................................................................................25
3.5 Study Population.................................................................................................................26
3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures...............................................................................26
3.6.1 Sample Size.....................................................................................................................26
3.6.2 Sampling Procedures.......................................................................................................27
3.7 Data Collection Methods and Instruments..........................................................................27
3.7.1 Questionnaires............................................................................................................27
3.7.2 Personal Interview Guides..........................................................................................27
3.8 Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument.................................................................27
3.8.1 Validity.......................................................................................................................28
3.8.2 Reliability...................................................................................................................28
3.9 Data Collection Procedure..................................................................................................28
3.10.............................................................................................Data Analysis and Presentation.
29
3.10.1.....................................................................................................Quantitative data
29
3.10.2......................................................................................................Qualitative Data
29
3.11 Ethical Consideration........................................................................................................29
CHAPTER FOUR:DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENATION AND INTERPRETATION........30
4.1 Overview............................................................................................................................30
4.2 Demographic Data..............................................................................................................30
4.2.1 Age of the Respondent................................................................................................30
Figure 4. 1: Age of the Respondent..........................................................................................30
4.2.2 Whether Respondents are signed up to Instagram.......................................................31
Figure 4. 2: Whether Respondents are signed up to Instagram.................................................31
4.2.3 Number of Followers Respondents Have....................................................................32
Figure 4. 3: Number of Followers Respondents Have..............................................................32
4.2.4 Number of People Following Respondents.................................................................33

vi
 Figure 4. 4: Number of People Following Respondents............................................................33
4.2.5 Number of Acquaintances...........................................................................................33
Figure 4. 5: Number of Acquaintances.....................................................................................34
4.2.6 Frequency of Log into Instagram................................................................................34
Figure 4. 6: Frequency of Log into Instagram...........................................................................34
4.3 Consequences of Instagram Use on Body Image................................................................35
Table 4. 1: Agreement with Statements on Consequences of Instagram Use on Body Image...35
4.4 Social Body Comparison on Instagram...............................................................................38
Figure 4. 7: Comparison with Other Women on Instagram......................................................38
Figure 4. 8: Change Based on Instagram Influence on Body Image.........................................39
4.4.1 Agreement with Various Statements on Effects of Instagram on Body image.................39
Table 4. 2: Agreement with Various Statements on Effects of Instagram on Body Image........39
4.5 Adoption Rate of Instagram................................................................................................41
Figure 4. 9: Adoption Rate of Instagram...................................................................................41
4.6 Effects of Instagram Influencers on Body Image................................................................43
Table 4. 3: Statements on Effect of Instagram Influencers on body image...............................43
4.7 Body Positivity Affirmations..............................................................................................45
Table 4. 4: Agreement with Statements on Body Image...........................................................45
Figure 4. 10: Whether Instagram changed the Concept of Ideal Body Image in Kenya............46
Figure 4. 11: Role of Traditional Culture on Body Image.........................................................48
CHAPTER FIVE:SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............50
5.0. Overview...........................................................................................................................50
5.1 Summary of Major Findings...............................................................................................50
5.1.1 Consequences of Instagram Use on Body Image........................................................50
5.1.2 Effects of Instagram on Body Image...........................................................................50
5.1.3 Adoption Rate of Instagram........................................................................................51
5.1.4 Effects of Instagram Influencers on Body Image........................................................51
5.2 Conclusions........................................................................................................................52
5.3 Recommendations...............................................................................................................52
5.3.1 Recommendations from the Study..............................................................................52
5.3.2 Areas of future studies and research............................................................................53
REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 55
APPENDICES................................................................................................................ 66

vii
Appendix I: Letter of Introduction............................................................................................66
Appendix II: Questionnaire.......................................................................................................67
Appendix III: Interview Guide..................................................................................................71

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4. 1: Agreement with Statements on Consequences social media advertisements to

body image……………………………………………………………………………….
35
Table 4. 2: Agreement with Various Statements on consequences of social media
advertisements to body image…………………………………….. 39

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4. 1: Respondent occupation...............................................................................30
Figure 4. 2: Signed up on social media platforms..........................................................31
Figure 4. 3: Followers on social media.......................................................................... 32
Figure 4. 4: Following on social media..........................................................................33
Figure 4. 5: Followed by people well-known to............................................................ 34
Figure 4. 6: Frequency on social media usage............................................................... 34
Figure 4. 7: Body comparison on social media...............................................................38

ix
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BDD Body Dysmorphic Disorder

NAANAD National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders

LGBT Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual and Transgendered

TV Television

x
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTIO
N
1.1 Overview
This chapter highlights the background of the study, problem statement, research
objectives and research questions to guide, justification of the study, scope and
limitations.

1.2 Background
Many men and women are at war with their bodies. Thin is in and fat is out. Not only is thin
in, but the appearance of an almost emaciated thin body for women and a considerably large
muscular body for men is considered the norm. A large population of men and women are
feeling the pressure to look a certain way and to achieve the perfect body (Cash & Smoak,
2012, p. 208). People trying to meet these ideals of the perfect body may do so by any
means necessary, even if that means starving their bodies, or binging and purging and
following strict nutrition regimens (Cash & Smoak, 2012, p. 291). From an early age, we are
taught that we should take care of our bodies and eat a healthy, balanced diet. As we hit
puberty, we realize that our bodies are meant for more than just getting us around. We begin
to learn that in order to capture the attention of a desirable partner we feel the need to be
attractive (Cash & Smoak, 2012, p. 20). Women learn that worth, success, and 2 like ability
is judged and determined by physical appearance (Bordo, 1993). Women start wearing
makeup, shaving their legs, buying clothing and accessories to attract a partner. “Women
learn that their bodies are an article of trade and that if they can look good this will influence
their life experiences” (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997, p. 177). As women grow into adults,
they realize their body becomes an object. They are judged daily on their appearance,
learning quickly that thinness is something to be valued and appreciated; women come to
learn that their bodies equate to societal meanings such as, lazy, inadequate, out of control
etc. (Bordo, 1993). Online Presence, the media, including social media and blogs may be a
catalyst for triggering body image issues such as (BDD) and eating disorders (Phillips, 2005,
p. 178). According to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated
Disorders, even the smallest amount of exposure to these sites could be harmful and risky

1
(2013). If the pressures to achieve the perfect body are getting worse, is the use of the
Internet communications, specifically social media sites, contributing to the burden. At first
glance, some people may think these sites are for people trying to recover from an eating
disorder. In fact, a pro-anorexia or pro-bulimia website is typically a blog hosted and found
on the Internet that promotes, supports, and provides information about eating disorders
such as anorexia or bulimia (Peebles, Wilson, Hardy, Lock, Mann, Borzekowski, 2012).
The blogs may include photos, videos, crash diets, diet tips, anorexia and bulimia tips, how
to induce vomiting, how to hide eating disorders, comment boards or boxes, competitions,
support, personal stories, size, weights and goal weights from the users, and external links to
other pro anorexia and bulimia blogs or website.

1.3 Problem Statement

In recent trends, many social media users majorly concentrate on their body image and
how they present themselves online. Body image concern among teenagers and adults is
manifested through a variety of ways, such as daily exercises, fashion and beauty. These
suggest that many people are much concerned with their body image. Most Kenyans,
though not fully proven, suffer some adverse effects of body dissatisfaction such as
eating disorders, as in the bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa (Peebles, Wilson
Hardy, Lock Mann, Borzekowski, (2012).in order to counter this, Kenyans have reverted
to daily activities such as medication, taking enough sleep and even using different ways
to make their bodies appealing. This results to a positive body image outlook. There has
been a tremendous increase of social media influencers who have established a credible
way of how people live with respect to the trends. Beauty and fashion trend influencers
have a huge audience following them in order for them to get information and more
advice on how they can maintain a good body image within the trends. These people
range from celebrities to anyone has followers on social media platforms and a huge
following which can impact to an attractive way for business for those selling their
products and those followers who are looking just to improve their body image so as to
be like their idols. Majority of Kenyans undergo pressure online on how to maintain
themselves so as to keep their followers intact. These pressures can result to poor
performance of individuals either health wise or proffesionally.Most of the people feel
dissatisfied with their body image in different ways and by this, if they don’t engage

2
themselves on how to correct that, they end up performing poorly in their daily
activities. Studies conducted sabik(2002) established a study on psychological well-
being and body image targeting European American women and African countries that
were aging, people trying to meet the ideal perfect body by any means possible(cash
Smoak 2012,p.291),social media and blogs being a catalyst for triggering body image
issues such as BDD and eating disorders(Phillips 2005),the smallest amount of exposure
on social media sites could be harmful and risky(NAANAD 2013).however, the above
studies have not tackled any effect of social media advertisements on body
image.Therefore,this research study made an effort by exploring the effects of social
media on body image by mainly focusing on advertisements.

1.4 Research Objectives

This study aimed at exploring how social media advertisements affect body image
among individuals. The objectives were as follows;
i. To find out the positive and negative effects of social media advertisements to
body image.
ii. To find out the effects of social media on body image through social body
comparison.
iii. To find out the effects social advertisers have on body image.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions paved way for the research:
i. What are the consequences of social media advertisements on body image?
ii. What are the consequences of social media advertisements on body comparison?
iii. How social media advertisers influence body image?

1.6 Justification
This research study has been directed to social media as the current conventional mode
of mass media. Contrary to the old days where advertisements were done on TV,
magazines and newspapers, social media has drastically increased in terms of number of
views and readership (stelter, 2009).as most of the previous research have been
discussing on social media effects, the topic has not yet still ben exhausted entirely on

3
the part of social media advertisements on body image. Since most of the research
studies were done in a western context, it was of great input to have it done in Kenya,
representing Africa. This was seconded by various factors such as culture, societal
beliefs and different ideologies which played a big role. Therefore, the research was of
great importance and needed to be conducted. Significance of Study

This study will be beneficial to various education and media stakeholders in the country
once complete. The study will sensitize the parents and guardians on social body image
concerns the female university students are exposed to and hence help advise them
accordingly on how to cope.

The study would also be of benefit to university management especially departments

dealing with mentoring of university students by offering with knowledge on social
media influences body image among female university students and hence be able to
mentor and advice the students on how to cope with pressure that comes with social
media.

The findings of this study are expected to contribute to and reinforce already existing
literature in regard to social media influences to body image among female university
students which will be useful to scholars as a reference material when carrying out
further research in similar study topic.

1.7 Significance of the study

This study will be of great importance to different sectors majorly media and marketing.
Once completed the study will justify to individuals, marketers and advertisers mostly
those using social media advertisements on their body image and thus assist them on
how to plan and advice accordingly. The study will also benefit the crossroads
fellowship church especially when handling individuals who have been affected
negatively when/while using these platforms. Findings of the study, will therefore be
extended to contribute on the reinforcement of the currently existing theories regarding
social media advertisers towards body image at crossroads fellowship church will be
useful to those who wish to do further research.

4
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Body image this is a person’s perception of their physical self and the thoughts and
feelings, both positive and negative. In other words, we can say that this is
a person’s reputation, and in advertisements we may be talking about a
person, product, company itself or service.
Social media these are interactive technologies that allow the creation or
sharing/exchange of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of
expressions via virtual networks.
Effects these are positive or negative results of something that are the outcome of the
first action that took place.in short we can say that this is something that
inevitably follows an antecedent such as a cause or urgency.
Social comparison is the act of contrasting one’s own life with the lives of other people
as they are publicly represented.
Advertisement this is the promotion of a product, brand or service to a viewership in order to
attract interest, engagement and sales.
Eating disorders this is any range of psychological disorders characterized by
abnormal or disturbed eating habits (such as anorexia nervosa).

5
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 Overview
This section examines literature on social media influence on body image among female
university students. It also presents theoretical framework guiding this study, empirical
review and conceptual framework.

2.2 Theoretical review

2.2.1 Social Media
These are interactive technologies that allow the creation or sharing/exchange of information,
ideas, career interests and other forms of expressions via virtual communities and networks.
Due to the 21st century large percent of people are involving themselves in social media matters
commonly in terms of interaction. Unlike back days people didn’t like it that much because
they could not believe or trust in communicating without meeting in person. This gave rise to
the earliest social media networks, beginning with the short-lived Six Degrees profile
uploading service in 1997. This service was followed in 2001. Six Degrees is widely
considered to be the very first social networking site. Founded by Andrew Weinreich in May
1996, the site launched the following year and combined popular features such as profiles,
friends’ lists and school affiliations in one service.

2.2.2 Body Image and Eating Disorders

There are a few different types of eating disorders. Eating Disorders are defined as a
“persistent disturbance of eating or eating related behavior that results in the altered
consumption or absorption of food that impairs physical health or psychological
functioning” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p.329). Eating disorders include
avoiding food, restricting food intake, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-
eating disorder (p. 329). Body image has been described as the psychology of one’s
body, something Cash (1990) characterized as an “inside perception” (p.53). Body
image refers to the feelings, perceptions, emotions, and beliefs about our bodies, the way
we see and feel about our body (Cash, 1990). Past research indicates those suffering
from an eating disorder may have difficulty relating with peers and as a result hide their

6
disorders and behaviors out of shame (Borzekowski, Schenk, Wilson & Peebles, 2010).
Some women suffering from eating disorders may feel alone and withdraw from family
members, friends and peers. Up until now, many researchers have made the case that
women may not be the only ones suffering from poor body image; in some cases men
suffer from a poor body image. However, suffering from poor body image is more
common in women. Morgan (1993) states, “Women’s bodies are represented more
frequently in the media than the male body,” (p. 71). Research has shown “in general,
idealized body images have a more pronounced impact on women than on men in terms
of body image and body satisfaction” (Aruguete, Debord, Yates, & Edman, 2005, p.
329; see also, Penkal & Kurdek, 2007, p. 2270). In the past researchers, have mainly
focused on studying women, “partly because the research has indicated that women
report higher levels 9 of body dissatisfaction than men and place a greater value on
losing weight. This is thought to contribute to their increased risk of developing an
eating disorder” (Grover, Keel, & Mitchell, 2003, p. 65; see also, Garner, Garfinkel,
Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980). To date there has been little research on men who suffer
from poor body image and eating disorders. There are several reasons for this. Men are
less likely to recognize they have a problem or an unhealthy body image (Pope, Phillips
& Olivardia, 2002, p. 227). If men do realize they have an unhealthy sense of their body,
or engage in an eating disorder, they are less likely to seek help for their disorder
(Grogan, 2017). Therefore, it is often difficult to conduct research in this area in men.
For the purpose of this study, men were excluded as well as the (LGBT) population.
LGBT individuals may suffer from poor body image, BDD and/or possess an eating
disorder; however, the pressures and mind-set may be different than that of heterosexual
females. Further research should be conducted in these populations (however, this study
focuses solely on young, apparently heterosexual, women engaging in eating disorder
websites).

2.2.3 Body Image and Mass Media

Women often compare their bodies and associate their self-worth with the people shown
on television, magazines and the Internet. It is common in the western culture to portray
women in the media significantly thinner than women in real life (Fouts & Burggraf,
2000). Women who feel they do not compare to the skinny or perfect actors on television

7
will often associate that comparison with a low sense of self-worth. One researcher in the
field of media and body image, Harrison (2003), studied the relationship between media
and female body image. Her research found that, bodies featured on TV had smaller
waists, hips, and a medium bust than woman not featured on TV. Because of this, both
men and women that she studied were more likely to condone surgical body procedures
such as breast enhancements or liposuction (Harrison 2003). According to researchers
Levine and Harrison (2003) the reason the media are at fault for producing body
dissatisfaction and disordered eating include the oversaturation of messages from the
media about physical appearance and happiness. According to Potter (2012), the media
can influence and shapes the way people think about themselves. One of the ways media
are altering people’s beliefs involves their sense of 12 body size. “Most people depicted
in magazines, films and television shows are physically fit and model a thin body ideal.
Overtime, audiences come to think of most people as being thin” (Potter, 2012, p. 156).
Overtime people, mostly women, begin to think they are overweight. Potter claims that,
“over the past three decades, fashion models, Miss America contestants, and Playboy
centerfolds have grown steadily thinner, while the average woman’s weight has risen”
(Potter, 2012, p. 156). George Gerbner (2002), who conceptualized what became known
as “cultivation theory,” argued that the effect of media might evolve over a great deal of
time with a potentially substantial impact. Gerbner believes when a message is repeated
persistently, people who see the message repeatedly are more likely to believe the
message and believe it accurately reflects reality. Cultivation theorists began by
examining the effects of television violence. Research on Cultivation theory has since
expanded, now encompassing a wide range of topics, including, but not limited to, sex,
sexual behavior, crime, gender roles, money and body image and eating disorders.
Yamamiya, Cash, Melnyk, Prosavac, & Prosavac, (2005) believe women who use the
media as a basis for comparison are more at risk of being influenced by the media
images. In other words, when women see the images on television and use those images
as a baseline for what their bodies must look like, they become more depressed, upset
and negative about their bodies and images. The more these women view these images
and the repetitiveness of the images it begins to convince the women that is their reality.
Those that visit pro-ed websites may believe extreme dieting measures and eating

8
disorder behaviors are normal, and in no way dangerous or a disease (Borzekowski,
2010). The online users frequenting these websites may not see themselves at being at
risk or having a problem. Most are in denial of 13 having a problem, therefore further
isolating oneself out of fear, rejection, judgment, shame, sadness, and/or guilt
(Borzekowski, 2010). Many women work at developing a socially perfect body based on
beauty, grace, and femininity (Cronan & Scott, 2006). Crafting a perfect body takes
work–a lot of work. It is a constant challenge. The images displayed in the media on a
daily basis of perfect body types lead people to believe they need to capture all of the
elements mentioned. Body image can be defined as the image of one’s “body, hair, face,
shape, weight, degree of visible fat and muscle, posture, etc.” (Levine & Harrison, 2009
p. 491). Body image can also represent the emotions, memories and sense of comfort or
awkwardness one feels about their body (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 491). Researchers
found that when it comes to the female body depicted in the media and internet, it can be
summarized in two phrases, “thin is normative and attractive” and “fat is aberrant and
repulsive” (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 494). “Unhappiness with our body image has
become almost the new normal.” Wolf (2002) concurs with this idea stating that body
image, and feeling dissatisfied with your body, is so common, it is now “considered by
some researchers to be a normative discontent” (p. 19). Feeling dissatisfied and unhappy
with your body can actually start to feel normal for many people and may even seem
abnormal not to feel some degree of dissatisfaction with your body.
2.3 Empirical Review
Women often compare their bodies and associate their self-worth with the people shown
on television, magazines and the Internet. It is common in the western culture to portray
women in the media significantly thinner than women in real life (Fouts & Burggraf,
2000). Women who feel they do not compare to the skinny or perfect actors on television
will often associate that comparison with a low sense of self-worth. One researcher in the
field of media and body image, Harrison (2003), Women often compare their bodies and
associate their self-worth with the people shown on television, magazines and the
Internet. It is common in the western culture to portray women in the media significantly
thinner than women in real life (Fouts & Burggraf, 2000). Women who feel they do not
compare to the skinny or perfect actors on television will often associate that comparison

9
with a low sense of self-worth. One researcher in the field of media and body image,
Harrison (2003), studied the relationship between media and female body image. Her
research found that, bodies featured on TV had smaller waists, hips, and a medium bust
than woman not featured on TV. Because of this, both men and women that she studied
were more likely to condone surgical body procedures such as breast enhancements or
liposuction (Harrison 2003). According to researchers Levine and Harrison (2003) the
reason the media are at fault for producing body dissatisfaction and disordered eating
include the oversaturation of messages from the media about physical appearance and
happiness. According to Potter (2012), the media can influence and shapes the way
people think about themselves. One of the ways media are altering people’s beliefs
involves their sense of 12 body size. “Most people depicted in magazines, films and
television shows are physically fit and model a thin body ideal. Overtime, audiences
come to think of most people as being thin” (Potter, 2012, p. 156). Overtime people,
mostly women, begin to think they are overweight. Potter claims that, “over the past three
decades, fashion models, Miss America contestants, and Playboy centerfolds have grown
steadily thinner, while the average woman’s weight has risen” (Potter, 2012, p. 156).
George Gerbner (2002), who conceptualized what became known as “cultivation theory,”
argued that the effect of media might evolve over a great deal of time with a potentially
substantial impact. Gerbner believes when a message is repeated persistently, people who
see the message repeatedly are more likely to believe the message and believe it
accurately reflects reality. Cultivation theorists began by examining the effects of
television violence. Research on Cultivation theory has since expanded, now
encompassing a wide range of topics, including, but not limited to, sex, sexual behavior,
crime, gender roles, money and body image and eating disorders. Yamamiya, Cash,
Melnyk, Prosavac, & Prosavac, (2005) believe women who use the media as a basis for
comparison are more at risk of being influenced by the media images. In other words,
when women see the images on television and use those images as a baseline for what
their bodies must look like, they become more depressed, upset and negative about their
bodies and images. The more these women view these images and the repetitiveness of
the images it begins to convince the women that is their reality. Those that visit pro-ed
websites may believe extreme dieting measures and eating disorder behaviors are normal,

10
and in no way dangerous or a disease (Borzekowski, 2010). The online users frequenting
these websites may not see themselves at being at risk or having a problem. Most are in
denial of 13 having a problem, therefore further isolating oneself out of fear, rejection,
judgment, shame, sadness, and/or guilt (Borzekowski, 2010). Many women work at
developing a socially perfect body based on beauty, grace, and femininity (Cronan &
Scott, 2006). Crafting a perfect body takes work–a lot of work. It is a constant challenge.
The images displayed in the media on a daily basis of perfect body types lead people to
believe they need to capture all of the elements mentioned. Body image can be defined as
the image of one’s “body, hair, face, shape, weight, degree of visible fat and muscle,
posture, etc.” (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 491). Body image can also represent the
emotions, memories and sense of comfort or awkwardness one feels about their body
(Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 491). Researchers found that when it comes to the female
body depicted in the media and internet, it can be summarized in two phrases, “thin is
normative and attractive” and “fat is aberrant and repulsive” (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p.
494). “Unhappiness with our body image has become almost the new normal.” Wolf
(2002) concurs with this idea stating that body image, and feeling dissatisfied with your
body, is so common, it is now “considered by some researchers to be a normative
discontent” (p. 19). Feeling dissatisfied and unhappy with your body can actually start to
feel normal for many people and may even seem abnormal not to feel some degree of
dissatisfaction with your body. Studied the relationship between media and female body
image. Her research found that, bodies featured on TV had smaller waists, hips, and a
medium bust than woman not featured on TV. Because of this, both men and women that
she studied were more likely to condone surgical body procedures such as breast
enhancements or liposuction (Harrison 2003). According to researchers Levine and
Harrison (2003) the reason the media are at fault for producing body dissatisfaction and
disordered eating include the oversaturation of messages from the media about physical
appearance and happiness. According to Potter (2012), the media can influence and shape
the way people thinks about themselves. One of the ways media are altering people’s
beliefs involves their sense of 12 body size. “Most people depicted in magazines, films
and television shows are physically fit and model a thin body ideal. Overtime, audiences
come to think of most people as being thin” (Potter, 2012, p. 156). Overtime people,

11
mostly women, begin to think they are overweight. Potter claims that, “over the past three
decades, fashion models, Miss America contestants, and Playboy centerfolds have grown
steadily thinner, while the average woman’s weight has risen” (Potter, 2012, p. 156).
George Gerbner (2002), who conceptualized what became known as “cultivation theory,”
argued that the effect of media might evolve over a great deal of time with a potentially
substantial impact. Gerbner believes when a message is repeated persistently, people who
see the message repeatedly are more likely to believe the message and believe it
accurately reflects reality. Cultivation theorists began by examining the effects of
television violence. Research on Cultivation theory has since expanded, now
encompassing a wide range of topics, including, but not limited to, sex, sexual behavior,
crime, gender roles, money and body image and eating disorders. Yamamiya, Cash,
Melnyk, and Prosavac, (2005) believe women who use the media as a basis for
comparison are more at risk of being influenced by the media images. In other words,
when women see the images on television and use those images as a baseline for what
their bodies must look like, they become more depressed, upset and negative about their
bodies and images. The more these women view these images and the repetitiveness of
the images it begins to convince the women that is their reality. Those that visit pro-ed
websites may believe extreme dieting measures and eating disorder behaviors are normal,
and in no way dangerous or a disease (Borzekowski, 2010). The online users frequenting
these websites may not see themselves at being at risk or having a problem. Most are in
denial of 13 having a problem, therefore further isolating oneself out of fear, rejection,
judgment, shame, sadness, and/or guilt (Borzekowski, 2010). Many women work at
developing a socially perfect body based on beauty, grace, and femininity (Cronan &
Scott, 2006). Crafting a perfect body takes work–a lot of work. It is a constant challenge.
The images displayed in the media on a daily basis of perfect body types lead people to
believe they need to capture all of the elements mentioned. Body image can be defined as
the image of one’s “body, hair, face, shape, weight, degree of visible fat and muscle,
posture, etc.” (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 491). Body image can also represent the
emotions, memories and sense of comfort or awkwardness one feels about their body
(Levine & Harrison, 2009 p. 491). Researchers found that when it comes to the female
body depicted in the media and internet, it can be summarized in two phrases, “thin is

12
normative and attractive” and “fat is aberrant and repulsive” (Levine & Harrison, 2009 p.
494). “Unhappiness with our body image has become almost the new normal.” Wolf
(2002) concurs with this idea stating that body image, and feeling dissatisfied with your
body, is so common, it is now “considered by some researchers to be a normative
discontent” (p. 19). Feeling dissatisfied and unhappy with your body can actually start to
feel normal for many people and may even seem abnormal not to feel some degree of
dissatisfaction with your body

13
2.4 Theoretical Framework
2.4.1 Social comparison theory
The mentioned theory was proposed by Festinger (1954). It stipulates that formation of
assessment of individuals involves comparison with others in a social setting on those
characteristics deemed relevant to them. The comparisons are considered to occur with
people seen as more or less accomplished in a given trait (upward and downward
comparison respectively). Upward comparison brings negative results while downward
enhances an individual’s self-esteem as highlighted by Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe &
Tantleff-Dunn (1999).

Positive effects are yielded when one engages in an upward social comparison with
targets that are similar e.g. peers and can serve as a motivating factor. Ridolfi, Myers,
Crowther, & Ciesla (2011) noted that when individuals are pursued with dissimilar
targets e.g. fashion models, it can give outcomes deemed negative as targets feel
misplaced. Downward social comparisons contribute to effects that are positively
experienced in cases of both dissimilar and similar targets. Ridolfi et al., (2011), stated
that body dissatisfaction is associated with upward social comparisons to media images
and peers. According to Krones, Stice, Batres, & Orjada (2005) there is increased body
dissatisfaction when there is body comparison to peers with thin ideals.

According to Festinger (1954), individuals look for self-comparisons with targets they
perceive to be relevant extracted from socio-cultural values that exert pressure to be thin
and attractive physically. Rodgers et al., (2015) encourages different references for body
comparison as a result of popularity and convenience. Berry (2016) states that social
media is effective in creating a stage for social comparisons. Social media users use the
platforms as space for creating self- presentations selectively depending on content they
wish to share, most of the users tend to choose to showcase self-presentations that are
positively biased (Gonzalez & Hancock, 2011). Manago, Graham, Greenfield, &
Salimkhan (2008) argue that it is vital for college students to create a personal identity
through the process of self-identification that has psychological benefits.

14
Peer images of thin ideals that are idealized are common on social media bringing
effects on body self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011). For body comparisons to take
place on social media, one must come across body images of others online to refer to.
The predominant nature of some social networking sites like Instagram, may have higher
effects on body comparisons since users encounter more idealized pictures from other
users, they may be following such as celebrities and peers. In the case of social media
that is heavily text-based like twitter, fewer thin ideal images for body comparisons are
encountered (Puglia, 2017).

A correlation study conducted by Fardouly & Vartanian (2015) is the only published
study that examines social comparisons done on social media, specifically Facebook,
looking at its relationship with body image. The study showed comparisons on
Facebook do play an intervening role between how Facebook is used and arising body
image issues. Additionally, there are upward comparison tendencies on Facebook by
comparing oneself with peers and celebrities positively correlated with the drive for
thinness and body dissatisfaction (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015). Gilbert, Giesler &
Morris (1995) presented evidence showing that body comparisons are usually
unconscious and automatic, however, this was countered by Want and Saiphoo (2017)
experimental study that showcased that engaging in comparisons to images shared on
the media is not a process that is automatic since it requires an individual to make
cognitive efforts, therefore, meaning to some extent it is under one’s control. From the
stated above then it’s not far-fetched to deduce that for users of social media to engage
in body comparisons, there may need to be some sort of motivation factor for one to
develop feelings of a lower body esteem.

Meier & Gray (2014) posit that previous studies on social media’s effects on body
image and eating disorders looked at social media in its entirety or one such platform
like Facebook, however, it’s important to note that these social networking sites are
presently being utilised for different purposes by young women and can thus not provide
similar opportunities to be influenced regarding their body image for instance in the case
of body comparisons.

15
 2.5 Independent and Dependent Variables
The conceptual framework is associated with Social Comparison Theory (Festinger,
1954) and the Uses & Gratification Theory as stated by Katz, Blumber, & Gurevitch
(1947). The former helps in bringing into focus effects of images on social media on
individual users as well as the effects it brings on the body image. According to
Festinger (1954), it creates a platform where people involved can compare themselves
with other individuals on aspects considered similar to them. While the U&G Theory
provides a basis for examining factors that motivates young women to utilise social
media including the kind of gratifications they hope to derive from their usage.

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Instagram use Body Image Concerns

Posting pictures Body

surveillance Photo Body
Gratifications dissatisfaction
editing Influencer
sought from Body esteem
monitoring Social
comparisons social media Body
comparisons
Eating
disorders
Thin-ideals
internalizatio
n Depression

16
Instagram is known to be popular social media platform that majority of young women
join and get to share as well as see pictures shared online that can spark interests in
seeking out ways to achieve the body images being shared and displayed as ideals thus
causing one to develop body image concerns which is therefore a dependent on whether
one is a keen follower of these social media sites or not. Gratifications sought from these
sites is also key in determining whether one develops body image concerns or not
because the motivations for use can range from simply seeking entertainment to actively
seeking information on ideal body image or social comparisons with peers or celebrities
which can in turn develop effects on the way young women feel about the image of their
body.

17
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview
This chapter constitutes the methodologies used throughout the study.it encompasses the
design, location of the study, the target population, sampling size and plan, method of
data collection, analysis and techniques.

3.2 Research Design

Descriptive design was used to enable assessment of social media advertisements on
body image. The research methods considered were quantitative and qualitative. These
ensured that there was adequacy in data since they are dependent.

3.3 Area of study

The research was undertaken at the crossroads fellowship church based in nyali,
Mombasa.

3.4 Approach of the study

According to Creswell (2009), the research approach used mixed methods which
focused on collecting, analyzing and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data into a
single and series of research study. This approach provides a better understanding on
research problems, since they are dependent. (They complement each other in terms of
additional information).

18
 3.5 Study Population
The target population was taken from members of Nyali crossroads fellowship church; in
Nyali.The church has a huge population of both young, middle aged and old. The members
are from different areas of work and stay and thus provided me an easy way of obtaining real
information. The study targeted 205 individuals.

3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures

3.6.1 Sample Size

A sample is a smaller group drawn from a population at which the study was done with
a reason of coming into conclusion on the population targeted. Kothari (2004), in his
argument said that, a result from a sample can be used to conclude that the entire
population was truly represented given it remains as it is.

Using the formula (Kothari 2004), the sample size 212 was achieved from a population
of 450 at a confidence interval of 95% with a significant level of 5%

N
n= 1+ N (e) 2

Where; n =Sample size to be studied

N =Population size
℮ = Margin of error
Whereby the sample size was given as;

N
n= 2
1+ N ( e)

450
n= 2
1+ 450(0.05)

n= 211.76

n= 212

From the formula and calculation above, this study used a sample size of 212 people
which included all interests and parties.

19
3.6.2 Sampling Procedures
This research used random selection from the population of 450 to arrive at a sample
size of 212 people. The selected group was all given chances to be part of the sample.

3.7 Method of data collection and instruments

The study research used various survey tools to collect data. The questionnaires and
interviews were used to get quantitative data and qualitative data respectively.
Interviews provided an in depth information about the study topic.

3.7.1 Questionnaires
It consisted of open ended and closed ended questions which targeted key areas such as
consequences of social media advertisements, its adoption and how it affects the
advertisers. Open ended questions extracted an in depth freely response while the closed
ended questions responded to limited options. This provided an easier way to perform
analysis and also saved on time.

3.7.2 Interviews
Interviews were utilized to achieve qualitative information from key respondents
comprising of selectively chosen members from the media department of the church.
The guides used were useful in a bid to obtain more data on the study area.

3.8 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments

The research performed validity and reliability tests to bring about meaningful results.

3.8.1 Validity
Ensured meaningfulness and accurateness of the research findings. The use of an
experienced person is recommended before the actual study to check on correction in
wordings and content of the questions. This brings about modification of the questions
to suit the content thud validity.

3.8.2 Reliability

20
This ensures that the research instruments provide consistency in the results even after
repeated trials of the same. Respondents were given same questions at an interval of one
week; the questions were then compared to come to a conclusion of how the respondent
answered them. This therefore, is considered reliable and consistent to respond on the
study.

3.9 Data Collection Procedure

The questionnaires were given to a selected group of the church members to which they
were given time to fill and return. The time taken by an average individual to complete
the questions was 20 minutes. The questionnaires were returned to the researcher.
Interviews were also done whereby the interviewee stood at various entrances and exits
asking questions. Reading of various journals, books, newspapers and different
publication was also administered as sources of information.at the end of the collection
session, the researcher found out that some questions were not fully answered with
adequate time given to the respondents.

3.10 Data analysis and presentation

Research had both quantitative and qualitative data which were analyzed and presented
in various forms.

3.10.1 Quantitative data

This was obtained from the questionnaires which were used to do descriptive statistics,
which included frequency, means and percentages in MS Excel. This allowed data
presentation in form of graphs and tables.

3.10.2 Qualitative data

Open ended questions were used. The questions were arranged as per the study
objectives and the reports were done in study form. Tables and counts production
formed the basis for data analysis and summarization.

21
3.10 Ethical Consideration
Following the ethics rules on privacy and confidentiality, the respondents were ensured
privacy and none of their information was shared or published without their consent. For
ethical adherence, the study researcher presented letters of introduction in (appendix I)
to each respondent giving reason as to why they are needed in the research. The
researcher had to state the objectives of the study and also assurance to the respondents
on their privacy and confidentiality.(appendix II and III) respectively. The researcher got
an approval letter allowing the research fieldwork to commence (appendix IV).

22
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Overview
This chapter documents the research findings related to research objectives and their
interpretations. Analysis and presentation was then put down in graphs, tables and pie
charts. The quality data was derived from questionnaires and interviews were all
subjected to analysis. Data was sourced from public members of the Nyali Crossroads
Fellowship Church. From a sample size of 212,174 were fully filled and returned while
the rest were incomplete. This resulted to a response rate of 82%, which according to
Mugenda (2003), argued that 30% and above of the population is a good representation.

4.2 Demographic Data

This section represents the eligibility of respondents and how they participated in the
research study. It represents the following findings; occupation of the respondent,
whether signed up to social media platforms, the number of followings,followers,if
followed by people well known to them and how often do they use social media
platforms.

4.2.1 Occupation of the respondent

Respondents were engaged and findings were as shown.
Figure 4. 1: Respondent Occupation

Source: Researcher (2021)

23
Most of the respondents were reported to be unemployed. This represented 37% of the
sample size. The self-employed and employed followed each other at 33% and 30%
respectively. The data was collected from persons of different occupations whereby
majority, being the youth stood at the unemployed which resulted in the increase rate.
This therefore produced a reliable data suitable for the research.

4.2.2 Signed up on Social Media Platforms

Respondents were asked to state whether they have signed up on social media platforms or
not. The figure below shows the findings.

Figure 4. 2: Signed Up on Social Media Platforms

Source: Researcher (2021)

As the chart above shows, 86% of the respondents stated that they have signed up to
various social media platforms while 14% indicated that they had not signed up on
social media platforms. This results therefore illustrated that majority of the respondents
were in a position to give reliable information on social media advertisements affecting
body image.

24
4.1.3 Social Media Followers
Respondents were requested to indicate the number of followers they have on social
media platforms they have signed up to. The figure below shows the findings.

Figure 4. 3: Followers on Social Media

Source: Researcher (2021)

Majority of the respondents indicated that they averagely have 301-600 followers as
shown above by 36%, 100-300 and 601-900 followers had almost a close number of
followers while respondents who had 901 and above followers had the least percentage
of all with 18%. This data clearly reflects that most respondents had a reasonable
number of social media followers to have know-how on how social media contributes to
body image.

25
4.1.4 Social Media Following
It illustrates the number of people they follow.

Figure 4. 4: Following on Social Media

Source: Researcher (2021)

Majority of the respondents said that they follow more people whom they know having
a following of 901 and above which stand at 42% while 17% indicated that they follow
close to 100-300 people.

Figure 4. 5: Followed by People well known to

Source: Researcher (2021)

26
Majority of the respondents indicated that they are followed by people well known to
them.51% are followed by about 100-300 people well known to them.6% Indicated that
they are followed by 900- above people well known to them. This clearly indicates that
majority of the respondents could give reliable information on body image.

4.1.5 How frequent do they use Social Media

The study research asked respondents to state how on average they use social media
platforms on a daily basis. The figure below indicates their feedbacks.
4.1.6 Followed by People well known to.
The research sourced information on the number of people following them and they are
well acquainted with (Figure 4.5)

27
Figure 4. 6: Frequency on Social Media Usage

Source: Researcher (2021)

28
Majority of the respondents indicated that they use social media platforms on an average
of 5-6 hours a day shown by 44% of the sample size, followed by 3-4 hours a day at
37%, 1-2 hours a day at 16% and more than 7 hours a day at 3%.This implies reliable
information from the majority group sample size. From the interviews done, the results
were, they use social media platforms mostly during evening and night hours adding to
an average of 5-6 hours a day. One respondent replied by saying “I use social media
throughout the day but only when I receive notifications from various platforms is when
I can check. I never log out.”

4.2 Consequences of social media advertisements on body image.

Respondents gave their valid opinions on the consequences of social media
advertisements on body image. The findings were as follows;

Table 4.1: Agreement with statements on consequences of social media

advertisements on body image

1- Agree 2- Neutral 3- Disagree

1 2 3
The use of social media has increased cyberbullying in terms of
body image
The use of social media may at times lead to eating disorders
and unhealthy dieting behaviors
Use of social media sometimes leads to anxiety and depression

Use of social media sometimes makes one feel like they are not
keeping up with the latest trends when it comes to fashion and
beauty
The use of social media enhances self-expression and
self-identity of one’s body image
Average

As per the above table, indicates they strongly agree, strongly disagree and indicates
they were on neutral ground on how social media has affected them. On the table
majority agreed that social media at times makes them feel like there is something they
miss out on either fashion or beauty when it comes to what’s trending as shown on the

29
table by an average of. Number of people stated that social media advertisements have
made them feel like they are not suitable to perform various advertisements and that they
end up being bullied by people online. Some respondents stated that social media
advertisements can lead to eating disorders and other unhealthy dieting behaviors as
represented by the score. For the interviews done, argued that social media
advertisements have both affected them positively and negatively depending on the
trends. Some said that they have been subjected to a lot of pressure to be able to meet
advertiser’s expectations, as shown by.
4.3 Consequences of social media advertisements on body comparison.
Majority stated that they try to compare themselves to others on social media as shown
by while stated that they never compare themselves with people online. This clearly
indicated that body comparison is a common thing to many online users.

Figure 4. 7: Body comparison on social media

Source: Researcher (2021)

Majority of the respondents indicated that they have never compared themselves to other
women on Instagram as shown by 57% while 43% of the respondents indicated that they
have ever compared themselves to other women on social media. This implies that some
of the university students do engage in social body comparisons with other women
they

30
follow on Instagram to form judgements about their own individual body image. The
information was sourced whether the respondents have ever been influenced to change
themselves because of something or someone they saw on social media. This was shown
below in Figure 4.8.

4.4 Effects social media has on body image

Respondents demonstrated the effects social media have on body image as illustrated in
table 4.2;
Table 4. 2: Statements on Effects social media has on body image

1- Agree 2- Neutral 3- Disagree

1 2 3
I have an increased desire to change my appearance
after spending time on social media 103 21 88
Viewing advertisements on social media makes m e feel
that I do not fit the ideal body image perceived by the 98 34 80
society
I am sometimes persuaded by social media to purchase
beauty products 115 23 74
Seeing edited photos and videos of people on social media 70 33 109
can definitely lower self esteem
Average 97 86 269

Source: Researcher (2021)

As per the table, 97 individuals agree, 269 disagree and 86 were on a neutral ground.
This indicated that majority have gotten into social media and has changed them in
terms of appearance etc. to suit the social media trends.by doing this advertisers
therefore have an upper hand on social media and body image. From interviews done,
stated that social media has made them change in terms of beauty and fashion in order
for them to duit the emerging trends.

31
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. Overview
The general objective was exploring how social media advertisements affect body image
among individuals. It outlines the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the
study.

5.1 Summary of findings and conclusions

It contains the summary and interpretation of the major findings based as per the specific
study objectives. The study aimed at exploring the effects of social media
advertisements on body image among individuals.

5.1.1 Consequences of social media on body image

The study was conducted to find out what consequences do social media have on body
image preferably when it comes to advertisements. In the study, it was found out that
most members of the Nyali Crossroads Fellowship Church have been affected by
various advertisements on social media. This has made them to change in various ways
majorly in terms of fashion trends and beauty. Most of these advertisements as per the
feedback have affected body appearances of majorly the respondents since they want to
meet the advertisements requirements. This resulted to various changes in behavior and
at times leads to depression when one doesn’t meet the advertisers’ requirements.

5.1.2 Consequences of social media advertisers on body comparison

The research established that body image comparison has impacted members of
Crossroads Fellowship Church in many ways. Some members said that fashion being
their interest; they have to change their eating habits for them to be able to suit the
current trends. This resulted to them going to the gym to keep fit while others changed
their diet completely.by doing this, they compare what they do, their bodies with that of
the advertisers. Some stated that comparison of their body has made them look different
or same as the advertisers.

32
5.2 Conclusions
From the findings, there is a high rate of body image comparison on the members of
Nyali Crossroads Fellowship Church. It’s clear to say that members of that church feel
like they need to go with the trends and hat majority of them tend to impress advertisers
with their products on social media.it was also realized that social media advertisements
lead to a high rate of depression to social media usres.in very small cases he use of
social media will affect the eating habits of individuals which causes eating disorders
and other unhealthy behaviours.The findings also established that most advertisers like
individuals who like following these trends and also the ones who most of the time are
using social media platforms. Advertisements have made people to change their
perspectives on their body image for their own benefit forgetting how the person’s
image is going to be affected. This has led to several depression cases.

5.3 Recommendations
The study recommends that advertising industry should put into consideration one’s
body image on social media platforms, this will result to increase of social media users
and reduction of thigs like cyber bullying and depression that comes from different
characters online.Adverisres should also put into consideration that fashion and beauty,
being part of body image should be given a chance to be recognized not only as a
trending thing but as a part of the desirable need to an individual. This will reduce the
chances at which people compare themselves with others online. I would also like to
recommend that social media users should reach out to advertisers who suit their needs
to avoid so many negative things that might occur when they reach any advertisers.

5.4 Areas of future studies and research

The study research was only targeting the crossroads fellowship church members.in
future; it is recommended that the study should tackle both the church and mosques in
Nyali, to easily establish the effect of social media advertisements to body image.
Following the research being restricted to Nyali Crossroads Fellowship Church, if
expanded to reach other churches and mosques, which have different opinions and also
different encounters, the chances of the report being more elaborate with a lot of views

33
will be high. Through that, more elaboration in future on the consequences of social
media advertisements on body image will be done together with the techniques on how to
counter it, these are things like fashion and beauty where they happen to be on the higher
side to advertisers. Future research on body comparison will be of great input so as to be
able to educate social media users to accept the way they are and not to compare
themselves with others online. This will prove a situation where there will be lower cases
of depression and eating disorders.

34
 REFERENCES

Aruguete, Debord, Yates and Edman, 2005, P.227

American psychiatric association, 2013, P.329

Cash and Smoak, 2012, P.208

Cash and Smoak, 2012, P.291

Cash and Smoak, 2012, P.20

Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997, P.177

Fardouly and Vartanian, 2015

Grover, Keel and Mitchell, 2003, P.65

Gonzalez and Hancock, 2011

Krones, Stice, Batres and Orjada, 2005

Katz, lumber and Gurevitch, 1947

Levine and Harrison, 2009, P.491

Levine and Harrison, 2009, P.494

Manago, Graham, Greenfield and Salim khan, 2008

Meier and Gray, 2014

35
NAANAD, 2013

Phillips, 2005, P.178

Peebles, Wilson, Hardy, lock Mann, Borzekowski, 2012

Pope, Phillips and Olivardia, 2002, P.227

Potter, 2012, P.156

Penkal and Kurdek, 2007, P.227

Ridolfi, Myers, Crowther and Ciesla, 2011

Thompson, heinberg, Altabe and Tantleff-Dunn, 1999

36
 APPENDICES

Appendix I: Letter of Introduction

School of Journalism and Mass Communication

Kenya Coast National Polytechnic
P.O. BOX 81220-80100
Mombasa.

Dear Sir/Madam,

My name is Beverly Achieng Onyango, a graduate student at the Kenya Coast National
Polytechnic, School of Journalism and Mass Communication, for my final project thesis
I am examining ‘Effects of social media advertisements to body image’ I am inviting
you to participate in this research study by completing the attached survey tool.

If you choose to participate in this project, please answer all the questions honestly and
to completion. In order to ensure that all information remains confidential kindly do not
include your name or any personal details.

Information obtained from this research will be used purely for academic purposes.

Yours Sincerely,

Beverly Achieng

37
Appendix II: Questionnaire

This questionnaire is to collect data purely for academic purposes. The study seeks to
investigate the EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ADVERTISEMENTS TO BODY
IMAGE. All information will be treated with strict confidence. Do not put any name or
identification on questionnaire.
Answer all questions as indicated by either filling in the blank or ticking the option that
applies.
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
1. Please indicate your age
18-21years [ ]
22-25 years [ ]
25-28 years [ ]
More than 28 years [ ]
2. Are you signed up to any
social media platform?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
3. If yes, how many followers do you have on social
media?
100-300 [ ]
301-600 [ ]
601-900 [ ]
900 and above
4. How many people are you
following? 100-300 []
301-600 [ ]
601-900 [ ]
900 and above [ ]
5. How many of these followers are you well
familiar with?
100-300 [ ]
301-600 [ ]
601-900
900 and above [ ]
6. On average how many hours in a day do you log into social media?
1-2 [ ]
3-4 [ ]
5-6 [ ]

38
7-more hours [ ]

39
SECTION B: CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL MEDIA USE ON BODY IMAGE

7. Please indicate how you agree with the following statements on consequences of
social media use on body image.

Where:
1- Agree 2- Neutral 3- Disagree
1 2 3
The use of social media has increased cyberbullying in terms
of body image
The use of social media may at times lead to eating disorders
and unhealthy dieting behaviors
Use of social media sometimes leads to anxiety and depression

Use of social media sometimes makes one feel like they are
not keeping up with the latest trends when it comes to fashion
and beauty
The use of social media enhances self-expression and
self-identity of one’s body image

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SECTION C: EFFECTS SOCIAL MEDIA HAS ON BODY IMAGE

8. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements on effects
social media has on body image.

Where:
1- Agree 2- Neutral 3- Disagree
1 2 3
I have an increased desire to change my appearance
after spending time on social media

Viewing advertisements on social media makes feel

that I do not fit the ideal body image perceived by the
society
I am sometimes persuaded by social media to purchase
beauty products
I feel worse about my appearance after looking at
photos, videos and advertisements on social media
Seeing edited photos and videos of people on social
media can definitely lower self esteem
I have sometimes questioned myself why my body
doesn’t look like a particular person on social media

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