ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my

project mentor and guide, Belal. Their expertise, dedication, and
unwavering support were invaluable in shaping the direction of
this project. Their insightful feedback and constructive criticism
challenged me to think critically and strive for excellence.
I am also indebted to my classmates and friends who engaged in
thought-provoking discussions and shared their perspectives,
enriching the content of this project. Their collaborative spirit
created an environment where ideas flourished, contributing
significantly to the depth and quality of the work.
I would like to acknowledge the abundant resources provided by
our school's library and the vast expanse of the internet. These
resources served as a treasure trove of knowledge, allowing me
to gather relevant information and broaden my understanding of
the subject matter.
In conclusion, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to each individual
who played a role in making this project a reality. Your
contributions, whether large or small, have left an indelible mark
on the final outcome. This project would not have been possible
without your support.

Thulasiram R
International Indian School Jubail
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Thulasiram R has successfully
completed the project on “Investigating Factors
Affecting Internal Resistance and EMF of a Cell” under
the guidance of Belal at IISJ. This project was
completed on 5 August 2023.
He has demonstrated exceptional dedication,
enthusiasm, and knowledge in the field of
““Investigating Factors Affecting Internal Resistance
and EMF of a Cell”. Their commitment to excellence
and their ability to overcome challenges is truly
commendable.
We extend our heartfelt congratulations and best
wishes for his endeavours.

Teacher Signature
 Investigating Factors Affecting Internal Resistance
and EMF of a Cell

Aim
To systematically study and analyse the factors influencing the internal
resistance and electromotive force (EMF) of a cell.

Materials
1. Different types of cells (e.g., alkaline, zinc-carbon, lead-acid)
2. Ammeter and voltmeter
3. Variable resistor (rheostat)
4. Connecting wires
5. Distilled water
6. Sandpaper (for cleaning terminals)
7. Stopwatch
8. Thermometer

Theory
Internal Resistance (r):
When a cell delivers electrical current to an external circuit, a part of the cell's
energy is dissipated within the cell itself due to the resistance offered by its
components. This resistance within the cell is referred to as internal resistance
(r). Internal resistance arises from several factors, including the resistance of
the electrolyte, the resistance of the electrodes, the cell's construction and
temperature.
The internal resistance can be understood using Ohm's law, which states that
the current (I) flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) across it, and inversely proportional to the resistance (R):

In the case of a cell, the total resistance (R) is the sum of the internal resistance
(r) and the external resistance (Rext) offered by the circuit:

So, the current flowing through the circuit can be written as:

Solving for internal resistance gives:

Electromotive Force (EMF):

EMF is the voltage generated by a cell when it's not connected to an external
circuit. It represents the cell's ability to supply energy to the circuit. EMF is
typically measured in volts (V).
In a real cell, the EMF is not the same as the terminal voltage (V) when
connected to a circuit. This is because some of the cell's generated energy is
lost as it overcomes the internal resistance (r) when delivering current to the
external circuit. Therefore, the terminal voltage (V) is slightly lower than the
EMF.
The relationship between EMF, terminal voltage, and current can be described
using the following equation:

Where:
-EMF is the electromotive force of the cell.
- V is the terminal voltage across the cell when connected to a circuit.
- I is the current flowing through the circuit.
- r is the internal resistance of the cell.