Chapter 2 - Compressed

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Atomic Structure
Atom is made up of smaller units like proton, neutron and electron. Some other
particles like positron, neutrino, antineutrino, π-meson, μ-meson, k meson etc are
also present which are very short lived.
Teligram/@padhleakshay
Discovery of Electron
important hai
YouTube/@padhleakshay
ache se padhna
The discovery of the electron is a fundamental milestone in the history of physics.

In 1897, J.J. Thomson, a British physicist, conducted a series of experiments that
led to the discovery of the electron.
J.J. Thomson took a discharge tube and applied a voltage of a 10000 volt
potential difference across it at a pressure of 10–2 mm of Hg. He found some
glowing behind anode. It means some invisible rays produced at cathode strike
behind anode and produce fluorescence. He named them cathode rays.
air at very low pressure
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Properties of Cathode Rays exam me har baar
ata hai
They produce sharp shadow of the solid object in their path suggesting that
they travel in straight line.
They are deflected towards the positive plate in an electric field suggesting
that they are negatively charged. They were named as electrons by Stoney
They can make a light paddle wheel to rotate placed in their path. This
means they possess kinetic energy and are material particles.
When cathode rays strike certain materials, such as a fluorescent screen, they can
cause the material to emit visible light. This property was used in early television sets.
11
They have a charge to mass ratio = 1.75882 × 10 C/kg
They ionise gases through which they travel.
Q : How do cathode ray tubes work, and what are some of their modern applications?
Charge to mass ratio
J.J. Thomson for the first time experimentally determined charge/mass ratio
called e/m ratio for the electrons. For this, he subjected the beam of electrons
released in the discharge tube as cathode rays to influence the electric and
magnetic fields. These were acting perpendicular to one another as well as to the
path followed by electrons.
According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from their path
in presence of electrical and magnetic field depends on
Magnitude of the negative charge on particle

Mass of particle
Strength of magnetic field
When electric field is applied, deviation from path takes place. If only electric
field is applied, cathode rays strike at A. If only magnetic field is applied,
cathode rays strike at C. In absence of any field, cathode rays strike at B.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections observed

by the electrons on the electric field strength or magnetic field strength,
Thomson was able to determine the value of
11
e/me = 1.758820 x 10 C kg-1
where me = Mass of the electron in kg
e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
Charge on the electron
R.A Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to determine the
charge on the electrons.
In this experiment, some fine oil droplets were allowed to enter through a tiny
hole into the upper plate of electrical condenser. These oil droplets were
produced by atomiser. The air in the chamber was subjected to the ionization by
X-rays. The electrons produced by the ionization of air attach themselves to the

oil drops.
Thus oil droplets acquire negative charge. When sufficient amount of electric
field is applied, the motion of the droplets can be accelerated, retarded or
made stationary.
-19
Millikan observed that the smallest charge found on them was –1.6 × 10
coulomb and the magnitude of electrical charge, q on the droplets is always
an integral multiple of the electrical charge ‘e’ i.e., q = ne
Origin of cathode rays
The cathode rays are first produced from the material of the cathode
and then from the gas inside the discharge tube due to bombardment of
the gas molecules by the high speed electrons emitted first from the
cathode.
As the electrons travel through the vacuum of the cathode ray tube, they
collide with gas molecules, causing ionization and the production of more
electrons. These additional electrons are also accelerated by the electric field
and add to the cathode ray stream. The resulting stream of electrons is known

as cathode rays.
Discovery of proton
Ernest Rutherford observed that his scintillation detectors detected

hydrogen nuclei when a beam of alpha particles was shot into the air.
After investigating further, Rutherford found that these hydrogen nuclei

were produced from the nitrogen atoms present in the atmosphere.
He then proceeded to fire beams of alpha particles into pure nitrogen gas
and observed that a greater number of hydrogen nuclei were produced.
He concluded that the hydrogen nuclei originated from the nitrogen
atom, proving that the hydrogen nucleus was a part of all other atoms.
This experiment was the first to report a nuclear reaction, given by the
equation: 14N + α → 17O + p [Where α is an alpha particle which contains
two protons and two neutrons, and ‘p’ is a proton]
The hydrogen nucleus was later named ‘proton’ and recognized as one of
the building blocks of the atomic nucleus.
Properties:
They travel in straight lines.

They carry a positive charge. iske sare properties ache
se yaad kar lena
They are made up of material particles.
The value of the charge on the particles constituting theanode rays is found to
depend on the nature of gas taken.
The mass of the particles constituting the anode rays isfound to depend on the
nature of gas taken.
The charge to mass ratio(e/m) of the particles is also foundto depend on the gas
taken.
Q: What experiments were conducted to study the properties of the proton?
Discovery of anode rays
In 1886, Goldstein modified the discharge tube by using a perforated cathode.

On reducing the pressure, he observed a new type of luminous rays passing
through the holes or perforations of the cathode and moving in a direction
opposite to the cathode rays.
These rays were named as positive rays or anode rays or as canal rays.
Anode rays are not emitted from the anode but from a space between
anode and cathode.
Properties of anode rays
These rays deflect towards negative plate of applied electric field. It means
these are made up of positively charged particle.
Property of anode rays depends on nature of gas.
These rays travel in straight line and have mechanical energy.

Discovery of neutron

Chadwick in 1932 found the evidence for the production of
neutron in given reaction.
9 4 12
4 Be + 2He ⟶ 6 C + 0 n1
Thomson’s Model of Atom
Sir J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron, was the first to suggest a
model of atomic structure.
He assumed atom to be a spherical body in which electrons are unevenly

distributed in a sphere having positive charge which balance the electron’s
charge. It is called Plum pudding model.
The atom as a whole is neutral. The total positive charge and total negative
charge must be equal.
Important Feature of This Model :
The mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over whole atom.
Drawbacks
This model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it
could not satisfactorily, explain the results of scattering experiments
carried out by Rutherford in 1911.
Q : What was Thomson's model of the atom, and how did it differ from earlier models?
Rutherford's Model
imp topic hai..exam
me har baar aya
hai
Rutherford in 1911, performed some scattering experiments in which he
bombarded thin foils of metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with a beam
of fast moving a-particles.
The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it.
Whenever a-particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at
that point.
Rutherford's model was a significant improvement over Thomson's model, as it

provided a more accurate picture of the structure of the atom.
From these experiments, he made the following observations:
Most of the α-particles pass without any deviation.

Some of the α- particles were deflected through small angles.
Rare particles retrace its path or show deflection greater than 90°
ye digram ache se
yaad kr lo.. Ans ke
saath bana bhi dena
On the basis of these observation, he proposed a model.
Atom is of spherical shape having size of order 10–10 meters.
Whole mass is concentrated in centre called nucleus having size of order 10–
15 meters.
Electron revolves around the nucleus in circular path like planets revolve
around sun.
There must be a very heavy and positively charged body in the atom i.e. nucleus

which does not permit the passage of positively charged alpha particles
It has been found that radius of atom is of the order of 10-10m while the
radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m.
Limitation :
This model could not explain stability of atom. According to Maxwell's

classic theory, an accelerated charged particle liberates energy.
So, during revolution, it must radiate energy and by following the

spiral path it should comes on nucleus. *Rutherford be like
Atomic number
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an
element.
It is represented by the symbol "Z" and is a fundamental property of each
element.
In case of neutral atom atomic number is equal to the number of protons and
even equal to the number of electrons in atom.
Z = Number of protons (p) = Number of electrons (e)
Mass number
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom of an element. It is represented by the symbol "A".
Mass number (A) = Number of protons (p or Z) + Number of neutrons (n)
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of
protons (atomic number) but a different number of neutrons (and
therefore a different mass number).
1 2 3
Isotopes of Hydrogen 1 H , 1H and 1H
Isobars
Isobars are the atom with the same mass number but different atomic
14
number, for example 6C and 6N 14

Electromagnetic Waves Theory
This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864.

Electromagnetic Waves are the waves which are produced by varying electric
field and magnetic field which are perpendicular to each other in the
direction perpendicular to both of them.
Magnetic
Field
Electric
Field
They do not require any medium and can move in vacuum unlike sound waves.
The energy is emitted from any source continuously in the form of radiations and
is called the radiant energy.
The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to

each other and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radiation. YouTube/@padhleakshay
The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light
3 x 10 m/sec.
8
Characteristics of a Wave
Wavelength (λ) : It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs

and is denoted by λ.

Frequency (v) : It is the number of waves passing through a given point in one
second. The unit frequency is hertz or cycle per second.
Wave number : It is the number of waves in a unit cycle. wave number =1/λ
Time Period : The time taken by a wave to complete onevibration is called time
period. Units : sec
Velocity : Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by

the wave in one second. It is represented by c and is expressed in m/sec.
Amplitude : Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of

the through. It is represented by V and is expressed in the units of length.
Relationship between velocity, frequency & wavelength
c = vλ
8
where c : speed of light i.e. 3 × 10 m/s in vaccum
v : frequency; λ: wavelength
Particle nature of Electromagnetic radiation:
Plank's Quantum theory
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
When all the electromagnetic radiations are arranged in increasing order of

wavelength or decreasing frequency the band of radiations obtained is
termed as electromagnetic spectrum.
Each type of electromagnetic radiation has a different wavelength and frequency,
which determine its properties and uses.

)
The visible spectrum is a subset of this spectrum (VIBGYOR) whose range of
wavelength is 380-760nm. The wavelengths increase in the order:
Gamma Rays < X-rays < Ultra-violet rays < Visible< Infrared < Micro-waves
A source (like the heated rod) emits energy continuously in the form of
radiations (i.e. no change in wavelength or frequency of the emitted
radiations even on increasing the energy radiated).
These radiations are Electromagnetic in nature
Black Body Radiations
Black-body is an ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies.
The radiation emitted by these bodies is called black-body radiation.
The variation of intensity with wavelength at different
temperatures for a black body is shown below:

So it is observed that with increasing temperature the dominant wavelength in
the emitted radiations decreases and the frequency increases. That is at higher
temperatures, though the intensity rises aspredicted by Maxwell’s theory but
the wavelength decreases. If T1>T2>T3 then λ1< λ2< λ3
Photoelectric Effect
When radiations with certain minimum frequency (v0) strikethe surface of a

metal, the electrons are ejected from thesurface of the metal. This phenomena is
called photoelectriceffect. The electrons emitted are called photoelectrons.
According to Maxwell’s Theory the ejection of electrons should depend on
intensity of radiation that is if electrons are not being ejected, then on
increasing the intensity they can be ejected.

Only photons of light of certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency
(v0) can cause the photoelectric effect. The value of v0 is different for different
metals.
The kinetic energy of the electrons which are emitted is directly proportional to
the frequency of the striking photons and is quite independent of their intensity.
The number of electrons that are ejected per second from the metal surface
depends upon the intensity of the striking photons or radiations and not upon
their frequency.
K.E. of the ejected electron.
1/2(mv2 )= hv–hv0
Planck's Quantum Theory
According to this theory, energy cannot be absorbed or released continuously

but it is emitted or released in the form of small packets called quanta.
In case of light this quanta is known as photon. This photon travels with speed of
light. Energy of the photon is directly proportional to frequency.
∝
E ν
E=hν

–34
h is Planck's constant, value is 6.62 × 10 Js
Bohr’s Model
Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of atom on the basis of Planck’s
Quantum Theory. The main points of this model are as follows:
Atom is of spherical shape having size (of order 10–10 metre).
Whole mass is concentrated in centre called nucleus (having order of size 10–15
metre).
Electron revolves around nucleus only in limited circular path and he assumed
that electron does not radiate energy during its revolution in permitted paths.
Only those orbits are allowed whose orbit angular momentum is integral
multiple of h/2π.
mvr=nh/2π, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4...
*when Bohr's theory

Achievements of Bohr’s Theory got achievement
Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.
Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen

atom and one electron species.
Bohr’s theory has explained the atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
The theory could not explain the atomic spectra of the atoms containing
more than one electron or multielectron atoms.
Bohr's theory failed to explain the fine structure of the spectral lines.
Bohr’s theory could not offer any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect
and Stark effect.

Spectra
The most compelling evidence for the quantization of energy comes from
spectroscopy. Spectrum word is taken from Latin word which means
appearance.
The record of the intensity transmitted or scattered by a molecule as a
function of frequency or wavelength is called its spectrum
Cosmic rays < gamma rays < x rays < ultraviolet rays < visible rays < infra red
< micro waves < radio waves
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom
The line spectrum of a hydrogen atom refers to the pattern of specific
wavelengths of light that are emitted or absorbed by hydrogen atoms when they
undergo a transition between different energy levels.
When an electron in a hydrogen atom moves from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level, it releases energy in the form of a photon of light. The wavelength of
this photon corresponds to the energy difference between the two energy levels,
according to the equation E = hf, where E is the energy of the photon, h is Planck's
constant, and f is the frequency of the photon.
2
wave number = 1λ=R(1/n 1 −1/n22 )
R = Rydberg constant

R = 109678 cm–1
Zeeman Effect
When spectral line (source) is placed in magnetic field, spectral lines split
up into sublines. This is known as zeeman effect.
Stark Effect
The Stark effect is a phenomenon in which the spectral lines of an atom or

molecule split into multiple components when subjected to an external electric
field.
The Stark effect has important implications for the study of atomic and
molecular spectra.
Dual Behaviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation)
de Broglie in 1924, proposed that matter, like radiation, should also exhibit
dual behaviour i.e., both particle like and wave like properties. This means
that like photons, electrons also have momentum as well as wavelength.
Assume light have wave nature, then its energy should be given by Planck's
theory
E=hν ...…(i)
If it have particle nature, then its energy should be given by Einstein relation
2
E = mc …..(ii)
On comparing equation (i) and (ii),
2
hν=mc
λ=h/mc (for light) ...…(iii)
For other matter,
λ=h/mv …(iv)
λ=h/p …(v)
where p = momentum
This equation is called de Broglie equation.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
It states that, "It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position

and exact momentum of a microscopic particle".
If uncertainty in position = Δx and
Uncertainty in momentum = ΔP
When both are measured simultaneously, According to this principle,
≥
Δx.ΔP h/4π
Quantum Numbers
There are a set of four quantum numbers which specify the energy, size, shape and
orientation of an orbital.
To specify an orbital only three quantum numbers are required while to specify an
electron all four quantum numbers are required.
Principal quantum number (n) YouTube/@padhleakshay

It identifies shell, determines sizes and energy of orbitals. It is indicated by ‘n’
and its values are 1, 2, 3, 4...
Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Azimuthal quantum number. ‘l’ is also known as orbital angular

momentum or subsidiary quantum number.
It identifies sub-shell, determines the shape of orbitals, energy of orbitals in multi-electron atoms
along with principal quantum number and orbital angular momentum, i.e., The number of orbitals in a
sub shell = 2l + 1. For a given value of n, it can have n values ranging from 0 to n-1.

Magnetic quantum number (ml)
It gives information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect to
standard set of co-ordinate axis.
For any sub-shell (defined by ‘l’ value) 2l+1 values of ml are possible. For each
value of l, ml = – l, – (l–1), – (l–2)... 0,1...(l–2), (l–1), l
Electron spin quantum number (ms)
It refers to orientation of the spin of the electron.
It can have two values +1/2 and -1/2. +1/2 identifies the clockwise spin and -1/2
identifies the anti-clockwise spin.
Shape of Atomic Orbitals
Shape of s-orbitals:
They are non-directional and spherically symmetric i.e. probability of finding

the electron at a given distance is equal in all directions.
1s orbital and 2s orbital have same shape but size of 2s is larger.
There is a spherical shell within 2s orbital where electron density is zero and is
called a node.
The value of azimuthal quantum number(l) is zero (l=0) and magnetic quantum
number can have only one value i.e. m = 0
Shape of p-orbitals:
p-orbitals are present in the p-subshell for which l = 1 and ml can have three
possible orientations –1, 0, +1. Thus, there are three orbitals in the p-subshell
which are designated as px, py and pz orbitals depending upon the axis along
which they are directed.
The general shape of a p-orbital is dumb-bell consisting of two portions known
as lobes.
Shapes of d-orbitals:
They are designated as d xy , d yz , d zx and 2 2 x y d . They have a shape like

a four leaf clover. The fifth d orbital designated as 2z d looks like a
doughnut.
All five d orbitals have same energy in the absence of magnetic field.
Electronic Configuration
Distribution of electron in various orbitals is known as electronic

configuration. The electrons filled in orbitals must obey the following rules
Aufbau’s principle
Pauli’s exclusion principle
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
Aufbau’s principle
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled inorder of their
increasing energies. In other words, electronsfirst occupy the lowest energy
orbital available to them andenter into higher energy orbitals only when the
lower energyorbitals are filled.
Their order of energy can be determined using (n+l)

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
Pauli’s exclusion principle
According to this principle, in an atom, no two electrons have same value of

all the four quantum numbers.
In the same orbital, electron always accommodate in opposite spins. An
orbital can have a maximum of two electrons, with opposite spin.
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity

According to this rule, electrons are distributed among the orbital of a subshell
in such a way so as to give the maximum number of unpaired electrons with a
parallel spin.
Important questions
Ques:Show the distribution of electrons in oxygen atom (atomic number 8) using orbital
diagram.
The orbital diagram for oxygen atom is as follows:

↑↓ 1s ↑↓ 2s
↑↓ 2p ↑↓ 2p
↑↓ 2p YouTube/@padhleakshay
Finally, we add the remaining 4 electrons to the 2p orbitals. Each 2p orbital can hold
up to 2 electrons, so we add one electron to each of the three 2p orbitals, represented
by arrows pointing in opposite directions. This leaves us with 2 electrons remaining,
which we add to one of the 2p orbitals, represented by two arrows pointing in opposite
directions.
Thus, the orbital diagram for oxygen atom shows that the 8 electrons are
distributed as follows:

↑↓ 1s ↑↓ 2s
↑↓ 2p ↑↓ 2p
↑ 2p ↑↓ 2p
Ques:Calculate the total number of angular nodes and radial nodes present in 3p orbital.
The 3p orbital belongs to the p subshell, which has an angular momentum

quantum number l = 1.
For 3p orbital, n = 3,l= 1

Number of angular nodes = 1=1
Number of radial nodes = n — l —1 = 3—1 — 1 = 1
Ques:The electronic configuration of valence shell of Cu is 3d10 4s 1 and not 3d94s2.
How is this configuration explained?
Configuration with completely filled and half-filled orbitals have extra

10
stability. In 3d 4s1 , d-orbitals are completely filled and s-orbital is half-
filled. Hence, it is a more stable configuration.
Ques:The Balmer series in the hydrogen spectrum corresponds to the transition from
n1 = 2 to n2 = 3, 4,……… This series lies in the visible region. Calculate the wave
number of line associated with the transition in Balmer series when the electron
moves to n = 4 orbit. (RH = 109677 cm-1).
The wave number (wavenumber) is defined as the reciprocal of the wavelength of

light. The wavelength of light emitted or absorbed during a transition in the
hydrogen atom can be calculated using the Rydberg formula:
1/λ = RH[(1/n1^2) - (1/n2^2)]
where λ is the wavelength of light, RH is the Rydberg constant, and n1 and

n2 are the initial and final quantum numbers, respectively.
So, we can substitute n1 = 2 and n2 = 4 into the Rydberg formula
and solve for the wavelength of light:
2 2
1/λ = RH[(1/2 ) - (1/4 )] 1/λ

= RH[(1/4) - (1/16)] 1/λ
= RH[(3/16)] λ
= (16/3) * (1/RH)
now,
wavenumber = (1/λ) = (RH / 16) * (3/1) * (1 cm^-1 / 10^-7 m^-1)

wavenumber = RH * (3/16) * (10^7 cm^-1)
Substituting the given value of RH = 109677 cm^-1,

we get:
wavenumber = 109677 * (3/16) = 20458.14 cm^-1
Therefore, the wave number of the line associated with the transition
from n = 2 to n = 4 in the Balmer series is approximately 20458.14
cm^-1.
Ques:According to de Broglie, matter should exhibit dual behaviour, that is both

particle and wave like properties. However, a cricket ball of mass 100 g does not
move like a wave when it is thrown by a bowler at a speed of 100 km/h. Calculate
the wavelength of the ball and explain why it does not show wave nature.
According to de Broglie's hypothesis, all matter exhibits wave-like

properties in addition to their particle-like properties. The wavelength
of any matter particle is given by the de Broglie wavelength equation:
λ=h/p
where λ is the wavelength, h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10^-34 J.s),

and p is the momentum of the particle.
v = (100 km/h) * (1000 m/km) * (1 h/3600 s) = 27.8 m/s
p = m * v = (0.1 kg) * (27.8 m/s) = 2.78 kg.m/s
Now, we can substitute these values into the de Broglie wavelength equation:
λ = h / p = (6.626 x 10^-34 J.s) / (2.78 kg.m/s) = 2.38 x 10^-34 m
Ques: An atom having atomic mass number 13 has 7 neutrons. What is the atomic
number of the atom?

Atomic mass number = A = 13. n = 7
As A = n + p p = A — n= 13 —7 = 6
Hence Z = p = 6
Ques: Which of the following statements concerning the quantum numbers are
correct?
(a) Angular quantum number determines the three dimensional shape of the orbital.
(b) The principal quantum number determines the orientation and energy of the
orbital.
(c) Magnetic quantum number determines the size of the orbital.
(d) Spin quantum number of an electron determines the orientation of the spin of
electron relative to the chosen axis.
(a, d)
(a) Azimuthal quantum number l is also known as orbital angular
momentum or subsidiary quantum number. It determines three-
dimensional shape of the orbital.
(b) The principal quantum number determines the size of the orbit.
(c) Magnetic quantum number determines the orientation of the electron
cloud in a subshell.
(d) An electron spins around its own’ axis, much in a similar way as earth
spins around its own axis while revolving around the sun. In other words,
an electron has, besides charge and mass, intrinsic spin angular quantum
number.
* After studying from

these notes
NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with answers)

is provided as a seperate PDF on website padhleakshay.com

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The discovery of the electron is a fundamental milestone in the history of physics.

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

They ionise gases through which they travel.

Charge to mass ratio

Magnitude of the negative charge on particle

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections observed

Charge on the electron

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Origin of cathode rays

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Ernest Rutherford observed that his scintillation detectors detected

After investigating further, Rutherford found that these hydrogen nuclei

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Discovery of anode rays

In 1886, Goldstein modified the discharge tube by using a perforated cathode.

Properties of anode rays

Property of anode rays depends on nature of gas.

These rays travel in straight line and have mechanical energy.

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

He assumed atom to be a spherical body in which electrons are unevenly

Rutherford's model was a significant improvement over Thomson's model, as it

Most of the α-particles pass without any deviation.

On the basis of these observation, he proposed a model.

Atom is of spherical shape having size of order 10–10 meters.

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

This model could not explain stability of atom. According to Maxwell's

So, during revolution, it must radiate energy and by following the

Z = Number of protons (p) = Number of electrons (e)

Mass number (A) = Number of protons (p or Z) + Number of neutrons (n)

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864.

The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to

Wavelength (λ) : It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Velocity : Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by

Amplitude : Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of

When all the electromagnetic radiations are arranged in increasing order of

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

These radiations are Electromagnetic in nature

Black Body Radiations

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

When radiations with certain minimum frequency (v0) strikethe surface of a

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Planck's Quantum Theory

According to this theory, energy cannot be absorbed or released continuously

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Atom is of spherical shape having size (of order 10–10 metre).

mvr=nh/2π, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4...

*when Bohr's theory

Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.

Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen

Bohr’s theory has explained the atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

The Stark effect is a phenomenon in which the spectral lines of an atom or

downloaded from padhleakshay.com

Dual Behaviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation)

For other matter,