Asexual reproduction involves a single organism
reproducing without the involvement of another
What is reproduction?
Reproduction is the production of new individuals (or
offspring/ children) from parents. The new individuals
are of the same species. Reproduction is possible from a
single parent or from two parents depending on the
organism.
Importance of reproduction:
Reproduction is crucial for the continuation and survival
of all species, including humans. It is the biological
process by which organisms produce offspring that
inherit their genetic material. Reproduction ensures that
a species can continue to exist over time and adapt to
changing environmental conditions.
SEVERAL REASONS WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT:
1. Continuation of the species: Reproduction
ensures that a species can continue to exist
over time, even if some individuals die or
are unable to reproduce.
2. Genetic diversity: Through reproduction,
genetic material is passed from one
generation to the next, creating genetic
diversity within a population. Genetic
diversity is important for the survival of a
species, as it allows for adaptation to
changing environmental conditions.
3. Evolution: Reproduction is a key component
of the process of evolution. Mutations that
occur during the reproduction process can
lead to the development of new traits that
may be beneficial for survival in certain
environments.
4. Maintaining ecosystem balance:
Reproduction helps to maintain the balance
of ecosystems by ensuring that there are
enough individuals of each species to
perform important ecological functions,
such as pollination or nutrient cycling.
Differentiate asexual and
sexual
organism. This means that the offspring are genetically
identical to the parent organism, as they have the same
genetic material. Asexual reproduction is common in
single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and protists, as
well as in some multicellular organisms, such as certain
plants and animals. Examples of asexual reproduction
include binary fission, budding, and fragmentation.
 Asexual reproduction involves a
single parent, while sexual
reproduction involves two
parents.
 Asexual reproduction produces
genetically identical offspring,
while sexual reproduction
produces genetically diverse
offspring.
 Asexual reproduction is faster and
requires less energy than sexual
reproduction, but it does not
allow for genetic diversity and
may not be as adaptable to
changing environments.
 Sexual reproduction allows for
genetic diversity, which can
increase the chances of survival in
changing environments, but it
requires more time and energy
than asexual reproduction.
MODES OF ASEXUAL AND
SEXUAL:
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
1. Binary Fission - Occurs in bacteria
and some single-celled organisms
where a parent organism divides
into two equal halves, each with
the same genetic material.
2. Budding - Involves the outgrowth
of a new individual from the
parent organism, which
 eventually separates and grows
independently.
3. Fragmentation - Occurs when the
body of the parent organism
breaks into several fragments,
each of which can grow into a
new individual.
4. Spore Formation – where an egg
develops into a new individual
without being fertilized by sperm.
5. Vegetative Propagation - where a
new plant develops from the
vegetative parts of the parent
plant such as roots, stems, and
leaves. This is commonly seen in
plants like potatoes and
strawberries.
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES:
ADVANTAGES:
1. Ensures survival of species:
Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. By
producing offspring, organisms
ensure that their genes are
passed on to the next generation,
ensuring the survival of the
species.
2. Genetic diversity: Sexual
reproduction leads to genetic
diversity, which allows for
adaptation to changing
environments. This allows for the
survival of a species even in harsh
or changing environments.
3. Increases population:
Reproduction helps to increase
the population of a species, which
can be beneficial in maintaining a
healthy ecosystem and food
chain.
4. Repairs damage: Some
organisms, such as planarians,
can use asexual reproduction to
regenerate damaged tissues,
allowing for repair and regrowth
of organs or limbs.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Requires energy and resources:
Reproduction requires a
significant amount of energy and
resources from an organism,
which can reduce its ability to
perform other functions, such as
growth or defense.
2. Risk of mutation: In sexual
reproduction, there is a chance of
genetic mutations, which can lead
to genetic disorders or diseases
in offspring.
3. Competition for resources:
Increased population due to
reproduction can lead to
competition for resources such as
food, water, and shelter. This can
cause stress and lower the overall
survival rate of the species.
4. Risk of predation: Reproducing
organisms are often vulnerable to
predation, which can limit their
reproductive success.
Kinds of ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION:
1. Binary fission - where a single cell divides
into two identical daughter cells.
EX.
Amoeba: Amoeba is a unicellular organism that
reproduces through binary fission. When
conditions are favorable, the amoeba divides
into two identical daughter cells.
2. Budding - where a new individual grows
from an outgrowth or bud on the parent
organism.
EX.

Jellyfish: Some species of jellyfish reproduce

through budding. The new individual grows out
of the parent's body and eventually detaches to
form a new jellyfish.

3. Regeneration/Fragmentation - where an
organism breaks into several pieces, each of
which can grow into a new individual.
EX.
Algae: Some species of algae can reproduce
through fragmentation. If an alga breaks
into pieces, each piece can grow into a new
individual.

4. Spore formation- where an egg develops

into a new individual without being
fertilized by sperm.
EX:

Fungi: Fungi are one of the most

common organisms that reproduce
through spore formation. Fungi produce
spores through the process of mitosis,
and each spore can grow into a new
individual.

5. Vegetative Propagation–an asexual

reproduction where In plants can be
produced from vegetative structures such as
some plants’ roots, stems, and leaves.
EX.

Strawberry: Strawberries reproduce

through vegetative propagation. The
runners that grow from the parent plant
develop new strawberry plants.

PLANT REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT
The general life cycle of plants includes:
a. the mature plant which is a multicellular organism is a
diploid sporophyte;
b. production of haploid gametes released by some cells that
undergo meiosis; and
c. gametes fuse and form the zygote which develops by mitosis
to become the multicellular diploid sporophyte. In some plants,
the dominant part of the life cycle is a multicellular, haploid
gametophyte (all cells have a haploid chromosome number).
Mitosis releases individual cells that can act like gametes
(gametes are produced by mitosis).
DIFFERENT LIFE CYCLES OF
PLANT
 Haplontic life cycle-Its dominant stage is a multicellular
haploid stage that produces gametes t usually fuse from
unicellular zygotes. Each zygote then undergoes
meiosis to become haploid, after which it undergoes
mitosis to become a multicellular organism. Example:
green alga (Chara), mosses.
 Haplodiplontic life cycle-This type of life cycle involves
the alternation of two vegetative individuals, the
haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte. In this
case, sporogenic meiosis occurs in sporophytes to
produce spores (meiospores). Here both generations
are conspicuous. Example: mosses, ferns.
 Diplontic life cycle-Type of life cycle found in flowering
plants (and in most animals). The organism is in the
diploid stage (all cells are diploid in chromosome
number) except for mature, haploid sex cells which are
called gametes. Example: mongo, mango, flowering
plants.
The two generations or life cycles that occur are called the
sporophyte generation and the gametophyte generation. When
you speak in genetic terms, it is the rotation between the
haploid and diploid stages. This refers to the chromosomes
within the plant cells.
THE FLOWER
Flowers are extensions of shoots that play an important role in
the sexual reproduction of plants. These plant organs are
attractive and appear in different colors and shapes to attract
pollinators who help in pollen transfer.
PARTS OF A FLOWER
A.Sepals- (collectively called calyx) are the outermost organs
below the petals which most resemble leaves, and protect the
flower while it is still a bud.
B. Petals -(collectively called corolla) are the colored part of most
flowers used to attract pollinators.
C. Stamen –an essential male part of the flower consisting of an
anther and a filament. Anther –where pollen grains are
produced.
 Filament –the slender stalk that supports the anther.
Together with another, collectively known as
androecium.
D. Pistil (Carpel) –a seed-bearing organ of the flower consisting of
Stigma, Style, Ovary, and Ovule
 Stigma –sticky part found at the tip of the style to which
pollen grain adheres after pollination.
 Style –long and slender neck-like part extending from
the ovary that serves as a pathway for the pollen from
the stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary –enlarge basal part of the pistil. Together with
the stigma, style, and ovary are collectively known as
gynoecium.
There are two types of flowers according to the
whorls; complete or incomplete. Flowers can also
be classified based on the presence of reproductive
structures; perfect or imperfect flowers.

XYLEM
Conducts water and minerals (movement is one
way only)

PHLOEM
Transports water and food (movement is in two
ways)

MONOECIOUS both female and

male structure
DIOECIOUS isa lang
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
AND DEVELOPMENT
The animal kingdom has countless ways of propagating its
species. Each type of reproduction has its advantages and
disadvantages just like plant reproduction. Since there is a
combination of the genetic materials of the parents, sexual
reproduction gives birth to genetically unique
organisms, whereas asexual reproduction produces genetically
identified offspring with the parents.
Modes of animal reproduction
Asexual Reproduction–usually occurs among prokaryotic
microorganisms and in some eukaryotic single-celled and multi-
celled organisms.
a.Fission –also termed binary fission. Prokaryotic
microorganisms like bacteria and some invertebrates like starfish
echinoderms undergo this type of reproduction. Genetically
identical offspring are produced after a parent’s organism splits
into two.
b.Budding –a process wherein the offspring is produced from the
outgrowth part of a cell or body region. Some invertebrate
animals like corals and hydras undergo this type of reproduction.
c.Fragmentation - the breaking of the body into two parts with
subsequent regeneration. If the animal is capable of
fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual
will regrow.Sea stars undergo this type of reproduction.
d.Parthenogenesis –a type of asexual reproduction wherein an
egg develops into a whole organism without being fertilized
which can either be haploid or diploid depending on the species.
A good example is the bee where the queen bee which is a
product of fertilization, controls the types of bees produce;
either haploid males (drones) or haploid females (the workers).
Sexual Reproduction is the combination of (usually haploid)
reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third (usually
diploid) unique offspring. Sexual reproduction produces
offspring with novel combinations of genes.
a.Hermaphroditism -occurs in animals where one individual has
both male and female reproductive parts. Invertebrates such as
earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails are often
hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate
with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both
producing offspring. Self-fertilization is common in animals that
have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and
clams.
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
External Fertilization-usually occurs in aquatic environments
where both eggs and sperm have been released into the water.
After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most
external fertilization happens during the process of spawning
where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s)
release sperm in the same, at the same time. The release of the
reproductive material may be triggered by water temperature or
the length of daylight.
Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and
shrimp mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and echinoderms (such
as sea urchins and sea cucumbers) shows salmon spawning in a
shallow stream. Frogs, corals, mayflies, and mosquitoes also
spawn. External fertilization in an aquatic environment protects
the eggs from drying out.
2. Internal Fertilization-Internal fertilization occurs most often in
land-based animals, although some aquatic animals also use this
method. Internal fertilization has the advantage of protecting the
fertilized egg from dehydration on land.
Types of Internal Fertilization
a.Oviparity -fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and
develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part
of the egg. This occurs in most bony fish, many reptiles, some
cartilaginous fish, most amphibians, two mammals, and all
birds. Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds
and turtles produce eggs with high concentrations of calcium
carbonate in the shell, making them hard.
b.Ovoviparity-fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the
embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk, and the
young are fully developed when they are hatched. This occurs in
some bony fish (like the guppy), some sharks, some lizards,
some snakes (such as the garter snake), some vipers, and some
invertebrate animals.
c.Viviparity-the young develop within the female, receiving
nourishment ROM from the blood through the placenta. The
offspring develops in the female and is born alive. This occurs in
most mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles.
Gametogenesis refers to the process by which specialized cells
called gametes are formed in sexually reproducing organisms.
Gametes are reproductive cells that fuse during fertilization to
form a new organism. In humans, gametes are sperm cells in
males and egg cells (or ova) in females. The production of
sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is
called oogenesis
 mesoderm forms muscle, bone, and connective
tissues; and the endoderm contributes to the
development of the gut, liver, and lungs.

Stages of development
(vertebrates)  Growth and differentiation–the irreversible
increase in size caused by cell division d cell
 Fertilization- is the process by which the sperm enlargement is known as growth while
and egg fuse to form a zygote. It typically occurs differentiation is the process by which a cell
in the female reproductive tract, and the sperm
must penetrate the protective layers
surrounding the egg for fertilization to take
place. DIFFERENCE OF CROSS
 Cleavage and Blastula Stage-The rapid, multiple
POLINATION AND SELF
rounds of cell division are termed cleavage. POLINATION
After the cleavage has produced over 100 cells,
the embryo is called a blastula. The blastula is cross-pollination promotes genetic diversity and
usually a spherical layer of cells (the adaptation, while self-pollination ensures reproductive
blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk- reliability and consistency.
filled cavity (the blastocoel). Mammals at this
stage rm a structure ca ed he blastocyst,
characterized by an inner cell mass that is
distinct from the surrounding blastula. During
cleavage, the cells divide without an increase in
mass; that is, one large single-celled zygote
divides into multiple smaller cells. Each cell
within the blastula is called a blastomere

 Gastrulation- is a critical stage in which the

three primary germ layers of the embryo are
established: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm. The cells in the blastula rearrange
and migrate to form these germ layers. The
process involves invagination, involution, and
other movements that contribute to the
formation of distinct body regions.

3 GERM LAYERS
 Endoerm- inner most germ layer
 Mesoderm- middle germ layer
 Ectoderm- outermost germ layer

 Organogenesis- Organogenesis is the stage

where the rudiments of major organs and organ
systems develop. The three germ layers
differentiate into specific tissues and organs. For
example, the ectoderm gives rise to the skin,
nervous system, and sensory organs; the