R.Raand Rg, two inductors L. L and one capacitor C. The points a, b, c,d g are the nodes.

It
is to be noted that the whoe bottom line forms one node 8.
The branches in Fig. 4.1 are as follows
Branch ag consisting of a votage souræ
Vs
branch ab consisting of a resistor R.
branch bg consisting of a resistor R2
branch be consisting of an inductor L.
branch g consisting of a current source Is1.
branch ed aonsisting of an inductor L and a capacitor C,
branch dg consisting of a voltage source Vs2.
branch df consisting ofa resistor R
The following are the meshes in Fig. 4.1
abga, begb, cdee. dhgd
Some of the loops in Fig. 4.1 are
abcga, bedgb, cdfge.

R1 L La w-
Ra

Vs

Fig 41. Circait to explain terminolog.

4.2 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWSS

The two basic laws which concern the voltage across and current through the elements of a network
are Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) and Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) respectively. These laws form
the basis of all network analysis and are applicable to anj network whether the elements of the
network are linear, nonlinear, time-varyingor time invariant. The equations necessary to deecribe
a network can be written with the help of KVL and KCL and the v-i relations of the ircuit elements.

4.3 SIGN CONVENTIONS

4.3.1 Polarity of a Votage Source
The polarity of a voltage source is fixed and is independent of the direction of current. The positive
terminal is at a higher potential and negative (-) terminal at a a lower potential. Consider a
voltage eource shown inPig 4.2. When we move from a to b (positive terminal to negative terminal)
there is a voltage drop. When we go from b to a (negative terminal to positive terminal) there isa
woliage rise. A voltage riae indicatesa positive voltage and a voltagedrop indicates a negative voltage.
Thus, in Fig. 4.2 A a voltage (equal to - Vg) results when we go from a to b, and a voltage (equal
to +V) reeults when we move from b to a.

Fall Rise

Vs V
I I

Movement Movement

Froma tob- V From a tob- V,

From b toa + V From b to a+V,
A B

Fig. 4.2. Polarity of a voltage source.

4.3.2 POLARITY OF A RESISTOR

Current flows from a point of higher potential to another point on lower potential. Thus, in Fig.
4.3 since the current I flows from point c to point d, the point c is at a higher potential and the

RI
Movement

Movement
- RI

resistor.
Fig. 4.3. Sign convention for voltago across a
point d is at a lower potential. When we move from e to d, that is, along the direction of cùrrent,
there is a voltage drop Vad (a - R). While going from d to e, that ís, opposite to the low of current,
there is a voltage rise V,= + R). While traversing a closed path througha resistor the following
rule can eusily be remembered:
Movement aloNg the flow of current gives Negative voltago i.e, voltage drop). Movement
Pposite to the low of current gives Positive voltage (i.e., voltage rise),

4.3.3 Another Convention

we assign a positive (+) #ign for the voltage to the terminal of the element where the current enters

negative (-) sign to the terminal olement where

of the uhe
current leaves it. While traversing
"ClOsed path,if we move from + terminal to termina
there
laa voltag drup. If we mave from
A votoge r e hdicatea posititve voltage and
erminal terminal, there is a voltage rise.
to +
a

g e drop indicates a negative voltage

point is u8signed
0Sin he Fig. 4.4 leaves
n current enters the terminal a
of the element. tlence a
currentthe element at point b, the point b is a»signed a(sign. While traverainu
sign
 Fig. 4.4. Sign conventions.

a closed path through the element between ab of Fig. 4.4, if we move from a to b there is a voltage
drop equal to v. Conversely, if we move from b to a, there is a voltage rise, equal to +u.

4.4 KIRCHHOFF*'S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Kirchhoffs voltage law (abbreviated KVL) is stated as follows

The algebraic sum of all voltages around a cdosed path at any instant is zero.
Mathematically,
E u(t)=0
closed path

The closed path is to be traced in an arbitrary spécifñed direction, which may be clockwise
or anticlockwise, in most of the cases we shall choose clockwise direction for traversing the closed
path.
The voltage across elementsthat are traversed from-to +are taken positive and the voltages
across elements that are traversed from +to are taken negative.
An algebraic sum is the one in which the sign of the quantity is taken into acoount.
Fig.4.5 abows a portion of a network. The voltages across the elements are shown in the
network. By KVL around mesh aboefa,
Vab + Dbe+ Vce t veft ufa =0

-y)+(+v)+ (-v)+(-ug)+(+ v7) =0

It is to be noted that while writing KVL equations, it is not necessary to have a
closed connection of elements. It should be a closed path. It may not be closed circuit. Forphysically
there is no element connected between b and e. We can write KVI equation for the cdosed
example,
which has one of its elements between nodes b and e an open circuit. path

Va

Pig. 4.6. Ilustration of KVL.

 Ube +Vcd + Ude + Veb = 0

+ Ug tUg=0
Since voltage is energy (or work) per unit charge, KVL is an alternative method of stating
the law of conservation ofenergy

4.5 KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

Kirchhoffs current law (abbreviated KCL)is stated as follows
At any instant of time, the algebraic sum of currents at a node is zero.
Mathematically,
i ()=00
node n

If the currents entering a node are assigned positive sign, then the currents leaving the node
will be assigned negative sign or vice versa. The choice of the sign convention is arbitrary, but once
a sign convention is chosen, it should not be changed with respect to any particular node while
writing KCL equation. In applying KCL let us adopt the sign convention that the incoming currents
are positive and the outgoing currents are negative.
Consider a portion of some network as shown in Fig. 4.6. Currents iy (t), iz (), and i4 (t) are
entering the node n. Hence they are assigned positive sign. Currents ig (t), is () and ig () are leaving
n, and hence they are assigned negative sign. Applying KCL at node n we get
i )+i2 (t)- is ()+ i4 ()- is ()-is () =0 (4.5.1)
From Eq. (4.5.1),
i (+i2 (¬) +i4 () = is () + is (0) +is ()
or sum of the incoming currents = sumof the outgoing currents
Thus, as alternative form of KCL can be stated as follows
At any instant of time, the sum of all the currents flouwing into a node is equal to the sum of
l the currents eaving the same node.
It should be noted that KCL puts a constraint on the currents at a node. Nothing is said
about the branch characteristics. Por example, in Fig. 4.6 the element in which current ia (") is

(/) 5 ()

Fig. 4.0. Illustration of KCL

 at a node
flowing isshort circuit and KCL still holds. In other words, KCL applies to currents
a
currents come about.
regardless of the nature of the elements in the circuit and how the
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) is based on the conservation of charge at a node. According to
the law of conservation of cherge, the charge flowing into a node is equal to the net charge flowing
out of the node. The curent law given by Eq. (4.5.1) then follows directly by differentiation with
to time
respect since i =

4.6 APPLICATION OF KCL AND KVL

The procedure to apply KCL and KVL for resistive circuits is as follows :
(1) Draw the circuit diagram.
(2) Mark the values of resistanoe and emfs including their polarities.
(3) Assume the reference directions of currents in different branches arbitrarily.
(4) Apply KCL at each node directly on the circuit diagram to keep the minimum num-
ber of currents.
(5) For every resistor assign positive () sign for the voltage to the resistor terminal
where the current enters, and
negative (-) sign to the terminal of the resistor where
the current leaves it.
(6) Apply KVL in various closed paths.
To apply KVL in a closed
path, start any point in the path and proceed round the
path in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. While
traversing a closed
positive terminal to negative terminal there is a voltage drop, path
we move from if
is assigned a negative which
sign. If we move from
negative terminal to positive terminal,
there is a voltage rise which is assigned a positive sign. Add all the
the elements algebraically till the
starting voltages across
is called the KVL point is reached. The
equation so obtained
equation. The final KVL
equation is the same whether the
closed
path is traversed in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
(7) Solve the KVL equations and obtain the
values of the assumed currents.
(8) If the calculated
value of a particular current has
assumed direction
is correct. If it has a positive sign, it means that its
opposite to that assumed. In such a case negative
draw
value then the actual direction is
a fresh circuit
correct directions of currents
on this
diagram. diagram and make the
The above
procedure is illustrated by the following examples
ExAMPLE 41
Write the KVL
equations for the network shown in Fig. 4.7.
SoLUT1ON
In the
given network the reference directions
On esch resistor of currents in
the current is marked. A different
of each resietor
where the current enters positive (+) sign is assigned for the branches are assumed.
leaves. and negative (-) voltage to the terminal
sign to the terminal
We shall write down
where the current
the
of a doned KVLequations
path either in clockwise in various meshes.
It should be
direction does not affect thenoted that traversing
or anticlockwise
provided that the aame convention of
choice of direction
round the mesh in signs is used throughout the closed final KVL
equation
imm.terial. We shall prove this path. In other words, the
statement.
 R1
A

Vs RA

Vsa
Rs G
Fig. 4.7. Ihustrating Example 4.1.

Traversing of meshes in clockwise direction

(a) VL in mesh A -B-F-G-H-A
We have to traverse the mesh from A to B, B to F, F to G, G to H and H to A.
(1) From A to B, since we are moving along the current Ih. there is a voltage
drop
-R1l1
(2) From B to F again we move along the current Iz, therefore, there is a voltage drop
- Ral2.

(3) From F to G (- to +) there is a rise of voltage +Vs2

(4) From G to H, because of the movement along the current I1, there is
- Ral1.
a voltage drop
(5) From H to A (-to +) there is a voltage rise + Vs1
By KVL the algebraic sum of all these vóltages is :
VAB+VBF+VG +VGH+ VHA = 0
(E4.1.1)
-Ril1)+-Rol)+(+ Vs2)+(-Rsl1)+(+ Vs1) = 0
E4.1.2)
-

Ril1- Rel + Vs2 -Rsl1 + Vs1 = 0

(E4.1.3)
Alternative method
We have already assigned positive (+) and negative ( signs on various resistors and
voltage sources. While traversing a closed path, if we move from (+) terminal to
) terminal there is a voltage drop, and if we move from (-) terminal to
(+) terminal
there is a voltage rise. A voltage rise is
this convention of signs Eq.
positive and a voltage
drop negative. With
is

the steps from (1) to (5)

(E4.1.2) can directly be wnitten from (4.1.1)
ignoring Eq.
given above. This altermative method is easier to
Hence it will be used to write KVL equations in other meshes. apply.
(6)KVL in mesh B - C - D -G-F-B
VBcVeD+ VpG + VoF+V»B =0
(E4.1.4)
-Vss)+-R43)+ (0)+(-Vs)+ (+Rg!) =0
-Vss-R-Vsa +Ral2=0 (E4.1.5)
Traversing of meshes in anticlockwise direction
(c) KVL in mesh A - H-G- F-B-A

VAH VHG+Vor+Vea+Vaa =0 (E4.1.6)

-Vs1)+(+R/1) + (-Vs2) +(+R/) + (+Rl)= 0
- Vs R - Vs1 *Ral *Rl=0 (E4.1.7)
 Multiplying Eq. (E4.1.7) by -
1 on both the sides and rearranging the terms we get
-Rili-Rzla+Vs2-Ral1 +Vs1 = 0 (E4.1.8)
and(E4.1.8)
It is seen that Eqs. (E4.1.3) are identical. Thie shows that the choice of direction
round a mesh is immaterial to write KVL equation.
KVL in mesh B-F-G-D-C-B
VBR+VPG+VoD +Vpc +VCB =0 (E4.1.9)
-Ralg)+(+Vs2)+ (0)+(+R3)+(+Vsa) = 0
- Rgla Vs2 +Rz+Vs3 =0
+ (E4.1.10)
Multiplying Eq. (E4.1.10) by -1 on both the sides and rearranging the terms
-Vsa-Rals-Vsa+Ral2 0 (E4.1.11)
It is observed that Eqs. (E4.1.5) and (E4.1.11) are identical. Thus, the choice of direction round a
mesh is immaterial to write KVL equation.