MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS

Engr. Phil U. Lomboy

Microwaves

Signals
Signals with
with aa frequency
frequency greater
greater than
than 1
1 GHz.
GHz.
The microwave region is generally considered to extend to
300 GHz.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point communications.
communications.
Utilize the line of sight path, which means the two antennas
(for transmitter and receiver) should see each other (no
obstructions).
obstructions).
Microwave Radio-Frequency Assignments

Band Frequency (GHz) Application

L 1–2
S 2–4 Marine radar
C 4–8 Commercial use,
satellites
X 8 – 12 Military
Ku 12 – 18 Commercial use,
satellites
K 18 – 27 Commercial use,
satellites
Ka 27 – 40 Military
U 60 – 80
W 80 – 100
Types of Microwave Paths
 Line
 of Sight (LOS) Path
No obstruction exists and antennas could see each other.
 Grazing
 Path
The microwave beam barely touches the obstruction; zero
clearance.
 Obstructed
 Path
The microwave beam is hindered by an obstruction.
QUESTION#1

What is the microwave path that barely

touches the obstruction?
Factors Affecting Microwave Energy

 Fading
Variation of field strength
caused by changes in
transmission medium.

 Refraction
Change in direction due to changes in transmission densities,
temperature, pressure, water vapor.

 Absorption
Energy loss due to absorption of wave by atmospheric
elements such as rain, snow, oxygen, clouds and vapors.

 Diffraction
The change in propagation direction of waves due differences
in density / velocity of medium.

 Attenuation
A decrease in intensity of
energy to spreading of
energy, transmission line
losses or path losses
between two antennas.

 Reflection
Occur when waves strike smooth surfaces.

 Ducting and Thermal Inversion
Trapped waves bounce
back and forth in a duct
caused by temperature
and humidity inversion.

 Earth Búlge
Earth’s curvature presents LOS obstruction and must be
compensated using 4/3 earth radius for atmospheric
bending of waves.
QUESTION#2

What do you call the change in direction due to

changes in transmission densities, temperature,
pressure, water vapor?
 Advantages of Microwave Communications

1. Large information handling capacity (256 – 9600 kbps)

2. High reliability through diversity techniques.
3. Lower power consumption
4. Carry wideband circuits for high speed data; high quality
voice channels.
5. Could be fitted with anti-jam equipment, adaptive modems
and other accessories.
6. Forward error correction and hitless switching.
7. Microprocessor controlled pre-detection combing.
 Earth Curvature on RF Propagation


 The earth, being spherical, limits the distance of which of line
of sight in possible. The parameter which considers wave
bending on the earth’s curvature is the K-factor.


 K-Factor

Unitless value which is the ratio of a hypothetical effective

earth radius over 6370km, which is the true mean earth
radius.

K = r / ro

 Translation of Various K-Factors
Standard Condition
K = 4 / 3 normal condition of the atmosphere.

Under his condition, the radius of the earth (fictitious radius),

appears to the microwave beams to be longer than the true
radius; that is, the earth appears flatter because of the
tendency of the beam to refract downward in the atmosphere
and follow the earth.

 Translation of Various K-Factors
Super-Standard Condition (Super-Refraction)

K = bigger than 4 / 3 (abnormal condition)

When this condition results in an effective flattening of the

equivalent earth’s curvature.

(When K = infinity, it is flat)


 Translation of Various K-Factors
Sub-Standard Condition

K = smaller than 4 / 3 (abnormal condition)

When K = 1 / 2 the unusual refill condition is also called
“earth bulging”.

Typical microwave links are based on a K-Factor of 4 / 3.

Other K-Factor values are used with the conditions of the link
are known to be serve or difficult to propagate over.
 Path Profiling


 Radio Path Profile
Shows the cross-section” of the earth’s surface where the radio
path passes over.
Determines the actual clearance along the path, antenna heights
and overall reliability. Normally scaled at 4, 2, or 1 mile inch on
the horizontal and 25, 100 and 400 feet on the vertical.

 Topographical Maps

Graph showing
contour lines, thereby,
elevations and
distances between two
points are known.
QUESTION#3

What is the value of k for normal

atmospheric conditions?
Microwave Transmission Calculations: Path
Calculations / Link Budget
1. Consider the following for K-Factor of 4/3:

Height of a microwave system

hT(ft) = (d1(mi) x d2(mi)) / 2

(hT / d1) – (d1 / 2) = (hR / d2) – (d2 / 2)

2. Transmitter Output (dB)

PT(dBμ ) = 10log (PT / 1μW)

PT(dBW) = 10log (PT / 1W)

PT(dBm) = 10log (PT / 1mW)

3. Waveguide Loss (WL)

WL = (dB / m, ft) x m, ft
4. Gain of Parabolic Antenna

English system:

GdB = 7.5 + 20logf GHz + 20logB ft

Metric system:

GdB = 17.8 + 20logf GHz + 20logB m

5. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

ERP = PT – WL + G
6. Free Space Loss (FSL)

English system:
FSL dB = 96.6 + 20logf GHz + 20logD miles

Metric system:

FSL dB = 92.4 + 20logf GHz + 20logD km

7. Net Path Loss (NPL)

NPL dB = Total Losses – Total Gains

8. Received Signal Level (RSL)

RSL dB = PTdBm – NPLdB

RSL=Transmitter Output – Waveguide Loss (Tx) +Antenna Gain (Tx) –

FSL + Antenna Gain (Rx) – Waveguide Loss (Rx)
9. Noise (or Detection, or Absolute) Threshold (NT)

Sensitivity Threshold of a Receiver

the least or the weakest signal the receiver could accept to be
considered satisfactory.

NT dBm = - 114 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

10. FM Improvement (or Practical) Threshold (IT)

IT dBm = -104 + 10logBWMHz + FdB

11. Fade Margin (FM)

A margin for fading; an allowance (or reservation) in dB, in

case the RSL (Received Signal Level) encounters fading.

FM dB = RSL dBm - IT dBm

12. System Gain (SG)

The difference between the nominal output power of a

transmitter and the minimum input power required by a
receiver.

SG = PT(dBm) - IT dBm
13. System Reliability

Rayleigh Reliability Table

Fade Reliability Outage (%)
Margin (%)
(dB)
8 90 10
18 99 1
28 99.9 0.1
38 99.99 0.01
48 99.999 0.001
58 99.9999 0.0001

a. Unavailability (U) b. Reliability (R) or

U = MTTR / (MTBF+MTTR) Availability
R= (1 – U) x 100 %
U = DownTime / TotalTime
 For Multi-hop Propagation


 The Outage
For multi-hop propagation , the total outage is the
summation of each hop and reliability is
100 % - Total Outage. In short, the probability of an
equipment or system being operational is: 100% minus the
Probability of being non-operational.


 Total System Reliability
The overall system reliability is the product of all individual
reliabilities.
Sample problem #1
If the MTBF of a communications circuit is 20,000 hours and
its MTTR is 3 hours, what is its availability?
Sample problem #2
A long distance telephone company employs five microwave
radio hops over a single route to link two important cities. If
each hop has an MTBF of 10,000 hours and an MTTR of 3
hours, what is the MTTR and reliability of the route? Assume
that the failure occur at different periods of time.
QUESTION#4

What is the formula for Free Space Loss,

metric system?
 Fresnel Zones


 Are concentric circular zones about the direct path of a
microwave signal forming a three-dimensional imaginary
solid called an ellipsoid.

1stst Fresnel Zone

2nd
nd Fresnel Zone

3rd
rd Fresnel Zone
1stst Fresnel Zone
The radius of the circular zone is in the 1stst Fresnel zone,
when the reflected path is one-half wavelength longer than
the direct path.
2nd
nd Fresnel Zone

The radius of the circular zone is in the 2nd

nd Fresnel zone, when

the reflected path is two (2) one-half wavelength longer than

the direct path, (or one wavelength longer)
3rd
rd Fresnel Zone

The radius of the circular zone is in the 3rd

rd Fresnel zone, when

the reflected path is three (3) one-half wavelength longer than

the direct path (or 1 ½ wavelength longer).
 Radius of the First Fresnel Zone

F1(ft) = 72.1 √((d1(mi) d2(mi)) / (fGHz Dmi))

F1(m) = 17.3 √((d1(km) d2(km)) / (fGHz Dkm))
Radius of the nth Zone

Fn = F1 √n
For minimum tower height requirement, design your
microwave system to 0.6 of F1, a condition of no gain and no
loss.
Sample problem:
A single hop microwave system has the following information:

operating frequency 4 GHz

receive/transmit antenna diameter 3 ft.
hop distance 20 miles
transmitter output power 1 watt
receiver threshold -78 dBm

Calculate the following:

a. Free space loss

b. System gain
c. Fade margin and estimated percent reliability
d. Fresnel zone diameter
QUESTION#5

The radius of the circular zone is in the ___ Fresnel zone,

when the reflected path on one-half wavelength longer than
the direct path.
Microwave Repeaters
1. Active

intercepts, amplifies and Provides gain, (55 to 105

retransmits the signal. dB higher than the received
power) and frequency
change (252MHz).
Types of Active Repeaters
Baseband Repeater
It is amplified, demodulated, amplified in the baseband
frequency and remodulated.
Typical output power is 1 watt
Offers possibility to drop or insert channel.
IF Heterodyne Repeater
Improved noise performance

Typical output power is 5 watts.

RF Heterodyne Repeater
Amplification is provided directly at microwave frequency.
2. Passive

Bounces the signal from one direction to another.

Types of Passive Repeaters
Billboard

Flat metal type used to reflect microwave signals.

Acts as a microwave mirror with no power needed.

Back to Back Passive

Uses two standard antenna dishes directly joined by a short

length of waveguide.
Gain of a Passive Repeater

English System
G dB
dB = 22.2 + 40logf GHz
GHz + 20logAft
ft + 20logcosα
2
2

Metric System
G dB
dB
= 42.9 + 40logf GHz
GHz
+ 20logAm
m
2 + 20logcosα
2

An antenna with good directivity or narrow beamwidth has

the reliability of providing directional gain.
Sample problem:
A plane passive reflector 10 x 16 ft. Is erected 21 miles from
one active site and only 1 mile from the other. The operating
frequency is 2000 MHz. By formula, the free space loss for the
longer path is 129.5 dB and for the shorter path, it is 103 dB,
calculate the gain of the passive plane reflector and the net
path loss if the included angle is 110 degrees.
QUESTION#6

What is the passive repeater that uses two

standard antenna dishes directly joined by a
short length of waveguide?
 Diversity Reception

A method of utilizing 2 or more receivers to reduce fading or

increase reliability of the system.
Methods of Diversity Reception
1. Frequency Diversity
Signal is transmitted on two (2) different frequencies
(properly spaced), over the same path.
Two waves at different frequency travel the same path in a
multipath fade.
CrossBand Diversity – variation of frequency diversity.
Frequency separation are entirely of different band allocations.
2. Space Diversity

Signal is transmitted over two different paths (vertically spaced

several wavelength apart), on the same frequency.
Advantages of Space Diversity

a. Frequency Conservation
b. Minimized Multipath Fading
c. Availability of Sufficient Signal Output
d. Compensation for Electrical Differences Between Direct
and Reflected Waves.

Disadvantages of Space Diversity

a. Costly
b. More towers required
c. Concept does always work as intended
Vertical Space Between Antennas

Spacing ft = (43.4 λ d) / hT
3. Polarization Diversity

Using dual polarization (vertically and horizontally).

Applied to microwave system beyond L-O-S path, (or
obstructed path).
It requires feedhorn reorientation and is applied to
paths beyond LOS as in troposcatter systems.
4. Hybrid Diversity

A special combination of frequency and space diversity.

5. Angle Diversity

Is the transmission of information at two or more slightly

different angles resulting to two or more oaths based on
illuminating different scatter volumes in troposcatter systems.
6. Quadrature Diversity

The condition where four signals carrying the same

information (whose system employs the combination of space
or polarization or frequency diversity technique) are available
in the receiver, combination of frequency, space and
polarization diversity.
QUESTION#7

What is the diversity reception method that is a

special combination of frequency and space
diversity?
Types of Microwave Antennas
a. Direct Radiating Antenna

Consist of parabolic
antenna with parabolic
dish, illuminated by a feed
horn at its focus.
b. High Performance / Shrouded

Similar to the common

parabola, except that they
include a cylindrical shield to
improve the front-to-back
ratio and the wide angle
radiation discrimination. Gain
efficiency is lower than
ordinary parabolic antennas.
Shroud

a metal wrapped around the

antenna aperture to eliminate
side lobes which may cause
interference to nearby
microwave stations.
Radome

a non-metallic (canvass)
covering in a parabolic
antenna for protection against
strong wind velocity. In cold
places, ice accumulation is
prevented by the use of heated
radome.
c. Cross Band Parabolic

Permits operation into two widely separate bands. Very

complex and critical feed assemblies, have lower gains and
poorer VSWR than single band antennas.
d. Horn Reflected Antenna

Contains a section of large parabola mounted such as an angle

that the energy feedhorn is simultaneously focused and
reflected at right angles. It provides a good front-to-back
ratio, good VSWR and can be used for multi-band operation
on both polarization but offers some moding and distortion
problems particularly at higher frequencies.
f. Periscope Arrangement

is a combination of a
reflector mounted on a
tower and the parabolic
antenna below. Use the 150
feet and beyond. The
spacing between the antenna
and the reflector should be
in the near field.
Shapes of Reflector
1. Rectangular, flat
2. Rectangular, curved
3. Elliptical, flat
4. Elliptical, curved
5. Flyswatter
QUESTION#8

What do you call the combination of a reflector

mounted on a tower and the parabolic antenna
below?
Microwave Components and Devices
1. Klystron
◦ An electron tube in which Velocity Modulation – The
the electrons are bunching of the electrons
periodically bunched by within the klystron caused
electric fields. It is used by changing their rate of
as an oscillator or speed (velocity).
amplifier in microwave
transmitters and
receivers.

◦ Interaction between an
electron beam and an RF
voltage.
Two Types of Klystron
a. Cavity Reflex Klystron operates as a low power RF
oscillator in the microwave
region.
 b. High Power Multicavity Klystron
two or more cavities, used
extensively in fixed radar
installations and in UHF
television.
The size and shape of
multicavity klystron
largely determine their
operating frequency and
power handling capability.
smaller klystrons operate
at higher frequencies and
large klystrons have the
higher power handling
capability.
2. Magnetron
A diode vacuum tube used
as a microwave oscillator in
radar and microwave ovens
to produce powers up to the
megawatt range.

A magnetic field ensures a

constant electron beam-RF
field interaction.
3. Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
A microwave power
amplifier with very wide
bandwidth.

An electric field is used to

ensure the interaction
between the electron beam
and the RF field is
continuous.
Other Microwave Tubes
1. Crossed-Filled Amplifier (CFA)
A microwave power amplifier based on the magnetron and
looking very much like it. It is a cross between the TWT and
the magnetron in its operation.

(1) kathode
(2) anode with resonant-cavities
(3) Space-Charge Wheel
(4) delaying strapping rings
2. Backward-Wave Oscillator (BWO)
A CW oscillator with an enormous tuning and overall
frequency coverage range. It operates on TWT principles of
electron beam-RF field interaction, generally using a helix
slow – wave structure. It looks like a shorter, thicker, TWT.
3. Twystron
A hybrid combination of klystron driver and TWT output
section in tandem with the same envelope.
4. Extended Interaction Amplifier (EIA)
A multicavity klystron with interconnected multigap cavities.
QUESTION#9

What is the hybrid combination of klystron

driver and TWT output section in tandem with
the same envelope?
Semiconductor Microwave Devices and
Circuits
1. Stripline
consists of flat metallic
ground planes, separated by
a thickness of dielectric in the
middle of which a thin
metallic strip has been
buried.
2. Microstrip
is a type of electrical transmission
line which can be fabricated
using printed circuit board
technology and is used to convey
microwave-frequency signals. It
consists of a conducting strip
separated from a ground plane
by a dielectric layer known as the
substrate.
3. Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)

are
are sound
sound waves
waves that
that travel
travel parallel
parallel to
to the
the
surface
surface of
of an
an elastic
elastic material,
material, with
with their
their
displacement
displacement amplitude
amplitude decaying
decaying into
into the
the
material
material so
so that
that they
they are
are confined
confined to
to within
within
roughly
roughly one
one wavelength
wavelength ofof the
the surface.
surface.
Microwave Solid State Devices
1. Point-contact and Schottky or Hot-carrier Diodes
Widely used as mixers in microwave
equipment as they have low
capacitance and inductance.
2. Varactor Diodes or Variable Capacitance Diodes

Widely used as microwave frequency multipliers. Multiplication

factors of 2 and 3 are common with power levels up to 20W and
efficiencies up to 80%.
3. Step-recovery or Snap-off Diodes
Junction diodes which can store energy in their capacitance
and then generate harmonics by releasing a pulse of current.

Are also widely used as frequency multipliers with

multiplication factors up to 10 , power ratings up to 50W, and
efficiencies approaching 80%.
4. Gunn Diode
A microwave semiconductor
device used to generate
microwave energy. When
combined with a microstrip,
stripline, or resonant cavity,
simple low power oscillators
with frequencies up to 50GHz
are easily implemented.
5. MESFET
(Metal Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor) is used in the
microwave band as amplifiers
and oscillators.

Replaced parametric
amplifiers in the lightweight
applications.