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Oral Communication
• Nature of communication
Communication - is the sending and receiving of information.
- People communicate both interpersonally (between individuals) and
through communications systems that transmit messages among groups of people.
- Is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas, thoughts, feelings,
opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of creating a shared
understanding.
- The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which means to
share
1. It is a process.
2. It is an art.
3. It has a sender and receiver.
4. It is verbal or nonverbal.
5. It is inevitable.
6. It is irreversible.
7. It is unrepeatable.
Process of communication - refers to the transmission or passage of information or message
from the sender through a selected channel to the receiver overcoming barriers that a ect its
pace.
- It is a cyclic one as it begins with the sender and ends with the sender in the form of
feedback.

Communication Process / Clements of Communication

1. Sender - or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others. Source of information or
message
2. Message - Once the encoding is nished, the sender gets the message that he intends to
convey.
- The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures,
silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.
3. Encoding - process of converting the message into words and/or actions
- The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-
verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information
into a message.
- The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message
4. Communication Channel - medium or means in which the encoded message is conveyed.
- It must be selected carefully in order to make the message e ective and correctly
interpreted by the recipient.
- The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships between the sender
and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent.
- Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used
communication mediums.
5. Decoding - the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the
receiver.
- An e ective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in
exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.
6. Receiver - recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
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 - Is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to comprehend it
in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained.
- The degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of
the subject matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
7. Feedback - reaction, responses, or information provided by the receiver
- is the nal step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the message and
interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender.
- It increases the e ectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the
e cacy of his message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.
8. Context - environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier - factors that a ect the ow of communication

Kinds of Noise
1. Physiological Noise - This pertains to bodily conditions that compromise the ability of a
person to send and receive messages (e.g. hunger, stomach ache, among others).
2. Semantic Noise - Di erent interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For example,
the word "weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism
for marijuana.
3. Syntactical Noise - Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt
changes in verb tense during a sentence.
4. Organizational Noise - Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from
accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the
receiver even more lost.
5. Cultural Noise - Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
unintentionally o ending a non-Christian person by wishing him/her a "Merry Christmas”.
6. Psychological Noise - This originates from the emotional state, mental state and
psychological make up of a person (e.g. depression, anger, suspicion, paranoia, biases,
among others).
7. Physical Noise - This comes from the environment (e.g. extraneous noises, hissing
background sound, unbearable weather, a distracting visual aid, among others).

Religious Education
• Introduction to the new testament
Divine Inspiration - every scripture is inspired by God
1. Inspiration - means that Godor the spirit of God, was at work in the community to produce
through a number of human authors, a series of books that witness to God’s revelation of
himself through the history.
2. Divine Dictation theory - God alone is responsible for the content of the Bible. Human
authors were merely recording machines, or robot, who wrote down what God, in some
unknown way, dictated them.
3. Negative assistance - the human authors were alone responsible for the writing of the
books except when they were in danger of leading the reader into religious error
4. Subsequent approbation - God approved of the bible only after it was completed

Four Pillars of Christianity

1. Sacraments - representing public workship. What we celebrate as a community
2. Commandments - representing our morals. What must we do
3. Our Father - representing our personal prayer. How we should pray
4. Creed - representiing our faith. What we must believe. comes from the Latin verb Credere,
means “to believe”
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 • Jesus Christ is the Message of the New Testament
- Jesus Christ is the ful llment of the Old testament prophecies and promises
- Jesus’ Spirit is with the church as it grows and is persecuted
- Jesus will come again for salvation and judgement
REMEMBER: The New Testament contains about 25% of the bible

The New Testament Has Nine Authors

Author Books

Matthew Matthew

Mark Mark

Luke - is the only non-Jewish author of the new Luke, Acts

testament

John (1,2, and 3) John, Revelation

Paul Rommans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians,

Ephesians, Philippians, Colossian, 1& 2
Thessalinians, 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus, Phileon

Peter 1 & 2 Peter

James James

Jude Jude

Anonymous Hebrews

• Books of the New Testament

Gospels - the word means good news. Almost half of the new testament conssts of four
accounts of life of JJesus and the good news he brough to earth.
- About 1/3 of thheir pages are devoted to the events of hiis last week one art, including the
cruxi ction and ressurection
- It covers the 30 years of Jesus’ life: from 4 BC to 27 AD
- Events: The life of Jesus is lled with events of redemptive importance. For example, his
bbirh, baptism, temptation, Peter’s confessionn, trans guration, triumphal entry, arrest,
trial, cruci xtion, and ressurection
- People: Joseph, Maty, John the Baptist, Jesus, Peter, James, John, Plate, Herod
- Books: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
History
- Acts - tells the story of how the gospel spread from Jerusalem into Judea and Samaria
and then into all the Gentile world just as Jesus had foretold. Covers about 40 years from
the ascension of Jesus to the imprisonment of Paul (from 27 to 67 AD)
- Events: Packeed with wwell-known and important events: Jesus’ ascension, the coming
of the holy spirit at pentecost, martydom of stephen, paul’s conversion, advance of the
gospel into the Gentile world, Paul’s three missionary tips and his imrisonment and trip to
Rome
- Purpose: To continue the “orderly account” begun i the Gospel of Luke, showingg the
growth of Christianity
- People: Jesus, Peter, Stephen, Philip, Paul, Barnabus, James
- Book: Acts
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Paul’s Epistles
- Paul - a servant of Christ Jesus, called to be an apostle and set apart for the gospel of
God (Rom 1:1)
- The young church was nourished by apostles who set down their beliefs and messages in
a series of letters. the rst 13 such lettes were written b the appostle Paul who led the
advance of the gospel to the Gentiles
- Paul’s epistles cover about 20 years of his ministry from about 45 to 65 AD
- Events: While Paul does refer too various historical events in his life in his epistles, their
maiin trust in dealing with problems and issues that have arisen in the churches he
founded or mnisters to. Paul does make frequent use of events from the Old testament in
his teaching
- People: Paul, Timothy, Titus, Barnabus, Silas, Luke
- Books: Romans, I Corinthians, II Corinthans, Galatian, Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians,
I Thessalonians, II Thessalonians, I Timothy, II Timothy, TItus Philemon
General Epistles - begin with James in about 50 AD and conclude John’s letter aroun 90 AD
— a span of 40 year
- the church was nourished by apostles who set down their beliefs and messages in a
series of letters. the next 8 letetrs were written by apostles one of whom remains unknown
- Events: The historical events referred to in these writings are usually events from teh Old
Testament and are used to teach us lessons about God
- People: James, peter, John, Jude
- Books: Hebrews, James, I Peter, II Peter, I John, II John, III John, Jude
Apocalypse
- Revelation - a prophetic book and symbols, it comppletes the story begin in Genesis of
the cosmic battle between good and evil being waged on earth.
- It was written about 90 AD but its material covers a tiime span which extends until the
comsummastion of the ages
- Events: After dealing brie y with John and his Patmos experience annd the 7 churches of
Asia Minor, the Revelaion concentrates on future events in a symbolic and often di cult to
comprehend manner
- Purpose: To encourage Christians to preserve faith in the midst of triaals and tribulations.
Written around 90 AD
- People: John, Jesus, 7 Churches, AntiChrist
- Books: Revelation
• The Old and New Testament are Intimately Related
- The New is in the Old Concealed. The Old is in the New Revealed
- How the message relates to the books:
a. Jesus is here in person: Gospels, and the rst few chapters of Acts
b. Jesus is here in spirit: Acts, Paul’s Epistles, General Epistles
c. Jesus is coming back: Gospels, Acts, Paul’s Epistles, General Epistles, Revelation
- There is one central theme which, like a golden thread, runs through all the stories of the old
testament. That theme is the coming of Christ.
- Old Testament: 46 books
- New Testament: 27 books
Divine Revelation - is God’s personal loving communication to us of who He is and His plan to
save us all in His love. It is God’s reaching out to us in friendship, so we get to know and love
Him.
Stages of Divine Revelation
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 1. Natural Signs (Creation) - In creation, man holds a special place. God said: “Let us make
man in our image, after our likeness” (Gn 1:26).
- God even gives us a share in His own creativity: “Be fertile and multiply; ll the earth
and subdue it” (Gn 1:28).
- God creates the whole world for us, to support us in life and reveals Himself to us
through His handiwork. “Since the creation of the world. . . God’s eternal power and
divinity have become visible, recognized through the things He has made” (Rom 1:20).
2. Biblical signs - God revealed Himself in stages. In the Old Testament, God revealed
Himself through biblical signs made up of both deeds and words.
- God made covenants with Noah, with Abraham, and with Moses.
- God performed great works for His Chosen People, and proclaimed their saving power
and truth through the prophets’ words (cf. DV 2; CCC 56-64).
- Through chosen men and women God led, liberated, and corrected His people. He
forgave their sins. He thus revealed Himself as Yahweh, He-who-is-with His people.
- Today, through His inspired word in the Old Testament, God still reveals Himself to us,
and inspires us to respond to His covenant.
3. In the Church (Ecclesial Signs) - God continues to manifest Himself today through the
Holy Spirit in the Church.
- He is present in the Church’s preaching the truth of Scripture, in its witness of loving
service, and through the celebration of its Christ-given Sacraments.
- Christ’s revelation in the Church is “the new and de nitive covenant [which] will never
pass away.
- No new public revelation is to be expected before the glorious manifestation of our
Lord, Jesus Christ
4. In Jesus Christ - Ultimate sign of God’s revelation.
- Jesus personi es God’s sel ess love for us.
- By Jesus’ Paschal mystery, He show the Father’s never ending love.
5. Everyday - His interior presence, Grace in our conscience and in all the events of our daily
lives, world events, recognized in the “signs of the times.

Pagbasa at Pagsusuri
Pagbasa - ay isang uri sa mga kategorya ng pakikipagtalastasan ng awtor sa kanyang mga
mambabasa.
- Tatlong mahahalagang sangkap
a. Aklat o anumang babasahin na nagsisilbing tsanel o midyum ng tao
b. Awtor na sumulat ng akdang babasahin
c. Indibidwal na babasa ng kanyang mga isinulat
- Proseso ito ng pagtuklas ng nais ipakahulugan ng awtor sa kanyang mga akda at sa isa
ring kasanayan sa pag-unawa sa pamamagitan ng pagsasalita o wikang ginamit dito.
- Lalo itong nagkakaroon ng kabuluhan kapag nabatid ang tono, layunin, at punto de vista
ng akdang binabasa.
- Narito ang katuturan ng pagbasa ayon sa ilang mga eksperto rito:
a. Leo James English - Isang awtor ng English-Tagalog Dictionary, ang pagbasa/
pagbabasa ay pagbibigay ng kahulugan sa mga nakasulat o nakalimbag ng mga
salita.
b. Kenneth Goodman - Ang pagbasa ay isang saykolingguwistik na panghuhula kung
saan ang nagbabasa ay bumubuong muli ng isang mensahe o kaisipang hango sa
teksto binasa.
c. James Dee Valentine - Ang pagbabasa ang pinakapagkain ng ating utak at sa
maraming pagkakataon, napatunayan nating marami sa mga nagtatagumpay na tao
ang magbasa.
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 d. James Coady - Ang dating kaalaman ng tagabasa ay kailangang maiugnay sa
kanyang binabasang konsepto o kaisipan.
- Ayon naman kina Mildred Dawson at Henry Bamman, ang pagbasa ay nahahati sa apat
na uri:
a. Malakas at tahimik na pagbasa (oral and silent)
b. Mapanuring pagbabasa (critical reading)
c. Panlibang na pagbasa (recreational)
d. Paaral na pagbasa (work-type reading)
- Ayon kay Anderson (1985), sa aklat na Becoming a Nation of Readers, ang pagbasa ay
isang proseso ng pagbuo ng kahulugan mula sa nakasulat na teksto.
a. Ito ay isang kompleks na kasanayan na nangangailanganng koordinasyon ng iba't
ibang magkakaugnay na pinagmulan ng impormasyon.
b. Sa kahulugang ito, mahihinuha na hindi lamang ang teksto ang pinagmumulan ng
kahulugan kapag nagbabasa ang isang tao kundi magiging iba pang posibleng
makapagpapalalim at makakatulong sa pag-unawa ng kahulugan.
- Batay sa depinisyong ibinigay ng international reading association, ang pagbasa ay
pagkuha ng kahulugan mula sa nakatalang titik o simbolo na nangangailangan ng
sumusunod:
a. Ang paglinang at pagpapanatili ng kawilihan sa pagbasa;
b. Ang paggamit ng istratehiya upang makuha ang kahulugan ng teksto;
c. Ang sapat na kaalaman o prior knowledge at bokubularyo na tutulong sa pag-
unawa sa teksto;
d. Ang kakayahan sa matatas na pagbasa
e. Ang istilong gagamitin upang maunawaan ang salitang di pamilyar'
f. Ang kakayahang umunawa sa mga nakatalang salita batay sa tunog o pagbigkas
nito.
- Wixson, atbp (1987) sa artikulong “New Directions in Statewide Reading Assessment” na
nailathala sa pahayagang na ang mga pinanggalingan ng mga kaisipan sa pagbasa, at
tinutukoy nila ito bilang proseso ng pagbuo ng kahulugan sa pamamagitan ng interaksyon
ng:
a. Imbak o umiiral nang kaalaman ng mambabasa,
b. Impormasyong ibinibigay ng tekstong binabasa,
c. Konteksto ng kalagayan o sitwasyon sa pagbabas

Dalawang pangkalahatang kategorya ng mapanuring pagbasa

1. Intensibong Pagbasa - may kinalaman sa masinsin at malalim na pagbasa ng isang tiyak
na teksto
- Ayon kay Douglas (1994), ito ay pagsusuri sa kaayusang gramatikal, panandang
diskurso at iba pang detalye sa istruktura upang maunawaan ang literal na kahulugan,
implikasyon at retorikal na ugnayan ng isang akda. Inilarawan niya na ito bilang isang
gawaing gumagamit ng malapitan o malalimang pagbasa sa isang akda.
- Sa paliwanag naman nina Long at Richards (1987), ang intensibong pagbasa ay
detalyadong pagsusuri ng isang teksto sa pamamagitan ng pagbibigay ng gabay kung
paano ito susuriin.
- Madalas ito ay tinatawag na Narrow Reading ito sapagkat piling babasahin lamang
hingil sa paksa ang pinagtutuunan ng pansin ng mambabasa o kaya ay iba't iba ngunit
magkaugnay na paksa ng isang manunulat.
2. Ekstensibong Pagbasa - ay may kinalaman sa pagbasa ng masaklaw at maramihang
materyales
- Ayon pa rin kay Long at Richards (1987), nagaganap ang ekstensibong pagbabasa
kapag ang isang mambabasa ay nagbabasa ng maraming babasahain na ayon sa
kanyang interes. Ito ay mga babasahing kadalasang hindi kahingian sa loob ng klase o
itinatakda sa anumang asignatura.
 - Kadalasan, ang layunin ng mambabasa sa ganitong uri ng pagbasa ay upang makuha
lamang ang gist o pinaka-esensiya at kahulugan ng binasa na hindi pinagtutuunan
ng pansin ang mga salitang malabo o hindi alam ang kahulugan.
- Ayon kay Krashen (1995), ang malaya at boluntaryong pagbasa ay maaring maging
tulay tungo sa mas mataas na kakayahang komunikatibo at akademiko sa wika.
- Sa pag-aaral na "Top Ten Principles for Teaching Extensive Reading" nina Richard
Day at Julian Bamford, tinukoy nila ang sampung katangian ng matagumpay na
programa sa ekstensibong pagbasa:
a. Angkop ang materyales sa kakayahang panglinggwistika (bokabularyo at gramatika)
ng mga mag-aaral.
b. Mayroong magagamit na sari-saring materyales sa iba’t ibang paksa.
c. Pinipili ang mga mag-aaral ang gusto nilang basahin.
d. Nagbabasa ang mga mag-aaral ng napakaraming teksto hangaa’t maari.
e. Ang layunin ng pagbasa ay may kaugnayan sa interes at kasiyahang-loob ng
mambabasa, pagkuha ng impormasyon, at pangkalahatang pag-unawa.
f. Ang nakamit na pagkatuto ang mismong gantimpala sa pagbabasa at hindi ano pa
mang grado o premyo.
g. Mabilis ang pagbasa.
h. Ang pagbasa ay indibidwal at tahimik.
i. Ipaliwanag ng guro sa mga mag-aaral ang kabuuang layunin ng programa.
j. Ang guro ay modelo ng mga mag-aaral sa kasikhayan sa pagbasa.

Ayon kay Brown (1994), ang dalawang ito ang pinakamahalagang estratehiya sa ekstensibong
pagbabasa:
1. Skimming - ay mabilisang pagbasa na ang layunin ay alamin ang kahulugan ng kabubuang
teksto, kung paano inorganisa ang mga ideya o kabubuang diskurso ng teksto at kung ano
ang pananaw at layunin ng manunulat.
- Mas kompleks ito kaysa scanning dahil nangangailangan ito ng mabilisang paraan ng
organisayon at pag-aala sa panig ng mambabasa upang maunawan ang kabuuang
teksto.
- Ginagamit ito bilang bahagi ng metodolohiya: Surveying, Questioning, Reading,
Reviewing, Reciting
2. Scanning - ay mabilisang pagbasa ng isang teksto na ang pokus ay hanapin ang
ispesipikong impormasyon na itinakda bago bumasa.
- Kinapapalooban ito ng bilis at talas ng mata sa paghahanap hanggang sa makita ng
mambabasa ang tiyak na kinakailangang impormasyon.
- Ginagamit ito kung ang kahingian ay alalahaninn ang pangalan, petsa, simbolo, larawan
o tiyak na sipi.

• Antas ng Pagbasa
Tinutukoy ni Mortimer Adler at Charles Van Doren (1965) sa kanilang aklat na
pinamagatang: How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading ang apat na
antas ng pagbasa.
1. Antas Primarya - Ito ang pinakamababang antas ng pagbasa at pantulong upang makamit
ang literasi sa pagbasa.
- Kinapapalooban ng pagtukoy sa tiyak na datos at ispesipikong impormasyon gaya ng:
Petsa, setting, lugar, mga tauhan
2. Antas Mapagsiyasat/Inspeksyonal - nauunawan na ng mambabasa ang kabuuang teksto
at nakapagbibigay ng impresyon dito. Sa pamamagitan nito,nakapagbibigay ng mabilisan
ngunit makabuluhang paunang rebyu sa isang teksto upang matukoy kung kakailanganin at
kung maaari itong basahin nang mas malalim.
- Maaring gamitin ang skimming sa antas na ito at titingnan ng mambabasa ang mga
sumusunod: TITULO, HEADING AT SUBHEADING
3. Antas Analitikal - Ginagamit ang mapanuri o kritikal na pag-iisip upang malalimang
maunawaa ang kahulugan ng teksto at ang layunin o pananaw ng manunulat.
- Mula sa analitikal na pagbasa ng limang aklat ay maari ka nang maging eksperto sa
isang tiyak na paksa Batay sa kung ano ang sinasabi ng manunulat
- Bahagi ng antas na ito ang:
a. Pagtatasa sa katumpakan
b. Kaangkupan
c. Kung katotohanan o opinyon ang nilalaman ng teskto.
- Upang makamit ang analitikal na antas ng pagbasa; kailangang isagawa ng mambabasa
ang sumusunod:
a. Tukuyin kung saang larangan nakapaloob ang teksto;
b. Ibalangkas ang teksto batay sa kabuuang istruktura o kung paano ito inayos ng may
akda;
c. Tukuyin ang suliranin na tinatangkang bigyang-linaw ng may - akda;
d. Unawain ang mahahalagang terminong ginamit ng may-akda tungo sa pag-unawa
ng kabuuang teksto;
e. Sapulin ang mahahalagang proposisyon ng may-akda;
f. Alamin ang argumento ng may-akda
g. Tukuyin sa bandang huli kung nabigyan ng solusyon o nasagot ba ng may akda ang
suliranin ng teksto;
h. Tukuyin kung saang bahagi ng teksto nagkulang, nagkamali, o naging ilohikal ang
pagpa-paliwanag ng may-akda.
4. Antas Sintopikal - Ang salitang syntopical ay binuo ni Mortimer Adler mula sa salitang
syntopicon na inimbento at ginamitniya sa aklat na A syntopicon: An Index to the
GreatIdeas (1952) na nangangahulugang “koleksiyon ng mga paksa.”
- Tumutukoy sa uri ng pagsusuri na kinapapaloobanng paghahambing sa
iba’t ibang teksto at akda nakadalasan magkakaugnay.
- Nakabubuo ng sariling perspektiba o pananaw sa isang tiyak na larangan mula sa
paghahambing ng mga akdang inunawa

Mga hakbang na makakatulong sa matagumpay na sintopikal na antas ng pagbasa

1. Pagsisiyasat - kailangan tukuyin agad ang lahat ng mahahalagang akda hinggil sa isang
paksang nais mong pag-aralan. Kailangan tukuyinkung ano ang mahahalagang bahagi na
may kinalaman sa pokus ng iyong pag-aaral
2. Asimilasyon - tinutukoy ang uri ng wika at mahahalagang terminong gamit na may-akda
upang ipaliwanag ang kaniyang kaisipan. Nagdedesisyon ka kung susuhay sa mga
nanunang terminolohiya ng may-akda o gagawa ng sariling kategorisasyon
3. Mga Tanong - tinutukoy ang mga katanungang nais mong sagutin na hindi pa nasasagot o
malabong naipaliwanag ng may-akda
4. Mga Isyu - lumilitaw ang isyu kung kapaki-pakinabang at makabuluhan ang nabuo mong
tanong tungkol sa isang paksa at may magkakaibang pananaw ang mga binasang akda
tungkol sa partikular na suliranin
- Kung malalim na naunawaan ang pagpapaliwanag ng mga binasang akda, natatalakay
mo nang maayos ang bawat panig at nakapagbibigay ng sariling konklusyon
5. Kumbersasyon - ang pagtukoy sa katotohonan batay sa sintopikal na pagbasa ay hindi
ang pangunahing punta at layunin sapagkat laging may pagdududa ang katotohanan
- Ang halaga ng pagkatuto ay nagmumula sa mayamang diskurso at diskursyon sa
pagitan ng mga eksperto, kabilang na ang sarili
- Nakakapag ambag ng Bagong kaalaman na hindi inuulit ang sinasabi ng mga naunang
eksperto

General Biology
 • Animals’ Specialized Structures
Tissue - is a group of similar cells that performs a common function. Formed as a result of cell
di erentiation
Histology - A study of animal and plant tissues. It involves the preparation of thin tissue
sections, di erentially stained and examined under the microscope.
Microtome - is an instrument used to cut tissues into ultra thin sections.

Epithelial tissues
- Tightly-joined closely-packed cells.
- One side of exposed to air or internal uid, other side attached to a basement membrane
- Covers outside of the body and lines internal organs and cavities
- Barrier against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms, and uid loss
- Provides surface for absorption, excretion, and transport of molecules
- “Structure is related to its function.”
Types of Epithelial Tissue
a. Number of Cell Layer
1. Simple
2. Pseudostrati ed
3. Strati ed
b. Cell Shape
1. Squamous
2. Cuboidal Columnar

Connective Tissue - a large group of di erent tissues having dispersed cells and large
extracellular space called extracellular matrix
- These tissues connect and support other tissues of the body
a. Mechanical suport
b. Medium for ecxchange of nutrients and waste products
c. Energy store and thermat insulation
d. Defensive functions
Classi cation of Connective Tissue
1. Connective Tissue Proper
- Loose connective tissues - found beneath the epithelia of the skin around blood
vessels, muscles, and nerves
- Dens connective tissue - less exible but more rigid than loose connective tissues.
Found in tendon, ligaments, and in the dermis of the skin
- Reticular connective tissues - give support to soft organs such as spleen, lymph
nodes, and liver
- Elastic connective tissue - found in large arteries such as the aorta, bronchial tubes,
and in the ligaments of the vertebral column
- Adipose tissue - found anywhere in the body and serves as energy reservoirs
2. Supportive Connective Tissue
- Cartilage - found in the ears, nose, and joints. It forms the embryonic skeleton of
vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks. Gives strength, support, and protection to
the soft parts of the body.
3. Fluid Connective Tissue
- Blood - a special type of connective tissue with a liquid matrix called the blood
plasma. The cells of the blood include the erythrocytes, leukocytes, and the
thrombocytes

Muscular Tissues
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 1. Skeletal Muscular Tissue - attached to bones through tendons. Responsible for the
movement of most body parts and for locomotion
2. Cardiac Muscular Tissue - found only in the walls of the heart. Contraction of this muscles
causes the heart to beat. They are also striated but its contraction is involuntarily controlled
3. Smooth Muscular Tissue - are non-striated, spindle-shaped muscles that are involuntarily
controlled. Found in the walls of the stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood
vessels

Nervous Tissues - made up of nerve cells called neurons, found in the brain and spinal cord.
Neurons - are specialized cells that conduct impulses to and from the brain
REMEMBER: “A group of di erent tissues united to perform a common function forms an
organ. Several organs that perform together for a common function make up an organ
system.”

• Plants Have Organs Too

Plant Tissues - associated with the presence of vascular tissues is the development of plant
organs that are specialized for essential plan functions.
- Flowers, fruits, and seeds are organs involved in reproduction
- Vegetative organs - organs that allow the plant to live and grow
2 Main Types of Tissues
1. Meristematic Tissue - consist of undi erentiated cells that can undergo rapid cell division.
- Meristems - are part of the plan where growth is fastest
- Apical meristems - are found in the tip of the stems or roots that allow these organs to
grow longer.
- Cambium - is a right of meristematic tissue found inside a stem, which allows growth in
diameter of stem or roots.
2. Permanent Tissue
- Surface (Dermal) - the “skin” of the plant that contains a “waxy” layer.
a. Cuticles - waxy layer. Its function is to prevent water loss
- Fundamental (Ground) - support, photosynthesis, and storage. Interior of the plant
a. Parenchyma - thin walled cells. Commonly described as a simple, living, storage
tissue
b. Collenchyma - irregular thickening of cells. Found in pechay and celery stalks
c. Sclerenchyma - thick walled cells for structural support of the plant. (i.e Seed shell
and pits)
- Vascular - conduction of water, food, and dissolved minerals, strengthens and supports
the plants.

*For more detailed info: see Gen Bio book

Philosophy
• History of Philosophy
Origin of Philosophy
1. Wonder — Why?
2. Doubt or quandary
3. Self Awareness

Plato - “Wonder is the feeling of the philosopher, and philosophy begins in wonder.”
Wonder - the feeling of being perplexed
Thales of Miletus - The rst Philosopher / father of Philosophy
- Was the rst to ask “What is the basic stu of the universe from which all else comes?”
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 - He claims that “Everything is water”.
- Miletus - where Philosophy originated
Pythagoras - who used the term philosophy
a. Lovers of gain
b. Lovers of honor
c. Lovers of wisdom
Philosophy - is derived from Philosophia (φιλοσοφία) which is a combination of the Greek
term philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). Thus philosophy mean “love of wisdom”
Embodiment - do as you say, act as you say
Intersubjectivity - we are all the same except for the mind, soul, genes
Philosophic wonder - seeks answers to or at least make sense of the mysterious world
- Western philosophy begins in wonder, and that the origin of philosophy in terms of place is
said to be in Miletus, Ionia

3 forms of life according to Aristotle

1. Vegetative life - lowest form of life (ex: plants)
2. Sensitive life - a ected by the things around them (ex: animals)
3. Intellective/rational life - man can think, highest form, can be decisive

• Human Person according to Philosophy

Ancient Period (600 BCE - 1000 CE) - deals philosophy through nature
(cosmos)/being. Examples are Pre-socratic philosophers, Classical Greek philosophers, and
Hellenistic philosophy
1. Thales (624-546 BC) - Man is water because water is world stu . Said that “Human brains
contains 80% of water and the human body is contains 70 %”
2. Anazimenes (585-525 BC) - Air is the principle of life. Soul is composed of air.
3. Heraclitus (540-475 BC) - He believes that re is a part of a world stu therefore,
constitutes man. If the world is re, man, too, has re in him in the form of heat.
4. Plato (422-347 BC) - The nature of the human person is seen in the metaphysical
dichotomy between body and soul.
- His real name is Aristocles
- Plato on the distinction of Soul
a. Has the ability to know the truth
b. Can understand the forms as they really are (through reason)
c. Capable of certain knowledge
d. Unchanging and immortal
e. Exists after death, as well as pre-existed before birth
- Plato on the distinction of Body
a. Can only learn through physical sense experience
b. Can gain knowledge, but it is inferior compared to reason
c. In a constant process of change
d. Cannot be the object of certain knowledge
5. Aristotle (335-263 BC) - there is no dichotomy between human’s body and soul
- “Body and soul are in a state of unity, the soul acts as the full realization of the body
while the body is a material entity, which has a potentiality of life.
6. Zeno of Citium - stoic detests the pleasures of material possessions, health and other
comfort that life can bring

Medieval Period (1000 C.E - 1500 C.E) - Deals philosophy through God or religion. It was
closely connected to Christian thought, particularly theology, and the chief philosophers of the
period were churchmen
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 1. St Augustine (354-430 AD) - God created human with a mortal body and with an immortal
soul with free will. For him, the source of evil is human’s free will. God created human good,
but the good in them come to an end when they turn away from God
2. St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) - understands human as whole.
- Human - is substantially united body and soul. The soul is united with the body, it is the
principle of life.

Modern Period (1500 C.E - 1900) - deals philosophy through logos/science

1. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - idea of man is centered on his concept of substance;
substance for him refers to anything that exists in itself
- “Cognito Ergo Sum” meaning “I think therefore I Am”
2. John Locke (1632-1704) - humans born with blank slate (tabula rasa)

Contemporary Period (1900 C.E - present) - deals philosophy through existence/language.

Refers to the current era of philosophy, generally dealing with philosophers from the late 19th
century through the 21st
1. Karl Marx (1818-1830) - human is derived from labour since nature is the totality of human
activity, and considering that labour is itself a human activity
2. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) - the meaning of existence can only be attained when man
live his life authentically
3. Jean-Paul Sarte (1905-1980) - human existence is found in human in man’s exercise of
freedom and responsibility in the scope of man’s individual and social undertakings
4. Soren Kierkegaard - human can achieve meaningful experience when human liberates
from “crowd experience”
5. Victor Franki
- Lego therapy - human can nd meaning in their existence in a three-fold manner.
e. By doing a life project
f. By experiencing value, particularly in the context of love, and
g. By nding meaning in su ering

• Meaning of Philosophy
1. Philosophy is Science - It is an organized body of knowledge. It is systematic. It follows
certain steps or employs certain procedures
2. Philosophy is Natural Light of Reason - it uses a philosopher’s natural capacity to think
or human reason
3. Philosophy is Study of All Things - It makes philosophy distinct from other sciences
because it is not one dimensional or partial
- A philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. Philosophy is
multidimensional or holistic
4. Philosophy is First Cause
- St Thomas Aquinas - developed the most popular argument as a 'way' (not proof) of
showing that there must be a God. Aquinas argued that everything in the cosmos has a
cause.

• Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics - deals with the questions of reality. Meta meaning beyond, and physica
meaning physical or nature.
- It means the study of things beyond the physical, that is, concepts or things that cannot
be experienced, such as the concepts of God, freedom, and soul.
- is commonly understood as the foundation of philosophy. In fact, Aristotle calls it the
“ rst philosophy”. Originally, the Greek word metaphysika, which literally means “after
physics
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 - Heterotopia - a world within a world
- Hyperreality - no sense of what’s real or not
- Ontology - is derived from the two Greek words onto, which means “being” or “that
which is”, that is, everything that exists; and logos, which means “knowledge” or
“study”. is the speci c branch of philosophy that studies beings in their ultimate
causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of reason alone.
- Cosmology - from the Ancient Greek words kosmos, which means the “world”
and logos, meaning “study”, is the speci c sub-branch of philosophy that studies the
world (or universe), including its origin, dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the
laws that govern its order.
- Psychology - comes from the two Greek words psyche, which means “soul”
and logos, study. It is the speci c sub-branch of philosophy that studies the soul or
mind. Broadly construed, though, it is the study of the nature and dynamics of the
human person as a whole, with emphasis on the way the person’s mind functions and
the way she behaves.
- Theodicy (natural theology) - is derived from the Greek word theos, which means
God. It is the study of God. But speci cally, theodicy is concerned with the justi cation
of the goodness of God in the face of the existence of evil in the world.
2. Epistemology - deals with the concept of knowledge. From the two Greek words
episteme, which means knowledge, and logos which means study. It is formally de ned
as the study of the nature and scope of knowledge and justi ed belief. Speci cally, it
analyses the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions, such as truth, belief,
and justi cation. Doxa means opinion.
3. Logic - comes from the Greek word logos. It is de ned as the science of correct thinking
or the study of the principles and criteria of a valid argument. More speci cally, logic
attempts to distinguish sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning.
4. Ethics - deals with human values and how individuals should act. It is derived from the
Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or habit. Broadly construed, ethics is the
morality of human actions.
5. Aesthetics - deals with the notion of beauty. the study of value in the arts or the inquiry
into feelings, judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is
concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and emotion.

Purpose of Philosophy
- Enables us to understand ourselves better.
- Helps us understand others, our fellowmen
- Helps us understand other ways of thinking
- Helps us understand the world and our place and role in it.
- Helps us understand the signi cance, meaning, value, and nality of human life.
- Helps us know and understand God in his nature, essence
Western Philosophy - individualistic and linear way of thinking. Exploiting the object.
Encouraged rational thinking
Eastern Philosophy - cyclical and has their own way of life. Obtained the knowledge directly
from their teaching of religion.

Fundamentals of Reading Academic Text

1. Reading strategies
2. Structure of academic text
3. Di erences between academic and non academic text
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 Academic - writing focuses on presenting research ndings, theories, and ideas formally
structured manner, while professional writing is geared towards communicating e ectively in a
workplace setting
Academic texts - are critical, objective, and specialized texts that are written by professionals
or experts in a particular eld. They are written in formal language and have a formal style and
tone.
- Since these are objective texts, they are based on facts. The emotions and feelings of the
authors are not delivered through them.
- Are well-focused, concise, clear, accurate, and well structured. They are based on factual
information and evidence, free from repetition, exaggeration, rhetorical questions, and
contractions and are always in the third person point of view.
Types of academic text
1. Essay - is generally a short piece of writing outlining a writer’s perspective or story. It is
often considered synonymous with a story or a paper or an article. It can be formal as well
as informal
- Formal essays - are generally academic in nature and tackle serious topics
2. Textbooks - a written source of information, designed speci cally for the use of students,
or eld of study that is usually developed based on syllabus and geared towards meeting
speci c quality and learning requirements.
3. Theses - it signals the facts that your thesis must be a work of persuasive argumentation.
You rst make a statement de ning the focus of your research (the problem, question, issue
that needed to be solved)
- Through evidence and reasoning, you persuade your committee of the validity of your
research
4. Case studies - is an appropriate research designated when you want to gain concrete,
contextual, in-depth knowledge about a speci c real world subject
- it allows you to explore the key characteristics if the case.
- It is often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation.
5. Reports - is a document that presents relevant business information in an organized and
understandable format
6. Research Articles - is a form of academic writing that requires you to locate information
about a topic, take a stand on that topic and provide supports for that position with
evidence from your research. It is based in facts and not opinions

Non-academic text - it can also be de ned as writing that does not ful ll an academic
purpose. This includes literary works, journalism, and creative non- ction such as memoirs and
biographies
- Many scientists write about their work in their scienti c journals which is not considered
academic writing because it has no required format or style guide.
Features of non-academic text: Less formal, casual language, use any point of view, opinion-
based, free of rigid structures, on general topics
Types of non-academic text
1. Personal journals - a written record of incidents, experience and ideas that can serve
various purposes, it can be therapeutic tool to process emotions and experience, to
express thoughts and ideas, and a reminder of your progress in learning and a way to
organize your goals in class.
2. Memoirs - is a narrative, written from the perspective of the author, about an important
part of their life. It is often con ated with autobiography, but there are few important
di erences.
- It is also written from the author’s perspective, but the narrative spans their entire life.
3. Autobiography - is the story of the life of a person, written by that person himself.
- For example, Mahatma Gandhis My Experiment with Truth.
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 - It can be identi ed easily, as its written in the rst person point of viewpoint, the writers,
I, me, myself.
4. Letters - can be fun, help children learn to compose written texts, and provide handwriting
— and letters are valuable keepsakes.
5. Emails - is important for communication because it allows users to send information in
letter format, and email can replace traditional mail options.
- It can be more bene cial for communication because they can often include texts,
documents and multimedia, like photos and videos.
6. Text messages - it is the act of sending short, alphanumeric communications between
cellphones, pagers or other hand-held devices, as implemented by a wireless carrier.

Introduction - it presents your topic and thesis statement, which is a central argument or key-
point on your essay.

Physics
Physics - deals with the interaction of matter, force, and energy. It also deals with nature and
properties of matter and energy. It is traditionally divided into classical and modern physics.
- Modern physics started in 1900 with Max Planck’s discovery of blackbody radiation.
- All discoveries, principles, and inventions prior to 1900 are considered classical physics
while those beyond 1900 are considered modern physics.
- Well-known physicists: Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein
Classical Physics - deals with macroscopic objects moving at speeds very small compared to
the speed of light in a vacuum. Its branches are the following:
1. Mechanics - deals with motion, force, work, energy, and uids.
2. Heat and Thermodynamics - deals with the e ects of heat when added to or removed
from a system, the methods of heat transfer, and the transformation of heat energy to
another kind of energy and vice versa.
3. Optics - deals with the study of light and its properties.
4. Electricity and magnetism - deals with phenomena associated with electrical charges
(whether at rest or moving) and the relationship between electricity and magnetism
5. Wave motion and Sound - deals with properties, transmission, and perception of di erent
types of waves.

Branches of Modern Physics

1. Nuclear Physics - deals with the properties of and the reactions within the atomic nucleus.
2. General Relativity - tells us how matter curves space-time and how the curvature of
space-time dictates the trajectory of matter and light.
3. Special Relativity - deals with phenomena associated when an object moves with speeds
approaching the speed of light in a vacuum.
4. Particle Physics - deals with the building blocks of matter called elementary particles.
5. Quantum Mechanics - deals with the nature and behavior of matter and energy on the
atomic and subatomic level

Measurement - is the process of comparing something with a standard. To carry our

measurements, a system of standards and a system of units should be de ned
- Two systems of units have evolved:
a. Metric system - it has two variations: the mks (meter, kilogram, second)) and the
cgs (centimeter, gram, second) systems.
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 b. English system - is otherwise known as the fps (foot, pound, second) system. (Take
note: The fps system considers pound-force as a fundamental quantity. The
counterpart of pound-force in the metric system is mass.). Other word for this is
Imperical system
International System of Units - is abbreviated SI from the French Le Système international
d’unités, is the modern form of the metric system. It is the system of units that the General
Conference on Weights and Measures has agreed upon and is legally enforced in almost all
parts of the world.

Physical Quantities
1. Fundamental Quantities - basic quantities that are independent of one another
- Examples: Length, mass, time, thermodynamic temperature, electric current, luminous
intensity, and amount of substance
- SI Units: Meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, candela, and mole.
2. Derived Quantities - combinations of fundamental quantities
- Examples: Speed, acceleration, density, work, and energy, etc.
- SI Units: Combinations of the fundamental units (e.g. meter per second, kilogram per
meter per second, etc.)

Base - also called as fundamental units/names. Units corresponding to the fundamental

quantities. The de nitions of the SI fundamental units are:

Scienti c Notation - is a convenient and widely used method of expressing large and small
numbers. Any quantity may be expressed in the form of N x 10n, where N is any number
between 1 and 10 and n is the appropriate power of 10.
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 • Uncertainty and Error Analysis
Error - is the deviation of a measured value from the expected or true value.
Uncertainty - is a way of expressing this error.
- The equation that shows the relationship between these factors: Measure value = (true
value + uncertainty) units
- Accuracy VS Precision
1. Accuracy - refers to the closeness of a measured value to the expected or true
value of a physical quantity.
2. Precision - represents how close or consistent
the independent measurements of the same
quantity are to one another.
- Random VS Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors - result from unpredictable or inevitable changes during data
measurement.
a. Examples of causes of random errors are electronic noise from an electrical
device, slight variation of temperature when the volume of a gas is being
measured, and uncontrollable presence of wind when determining the period of
a simple pendulum.
b. It a ects the precision of the measurements. These errors may be reduced by
increasing the number of trials of measurement and averaging out the result.
4. Systematic Errors - usually come from the measuring instrument or in the design
of the experiment itself. These errors limit the accuracy of the result.
- Percent Errors and Percent Di erence
5. Percentage error - or simple percent error. Is usually calculated when there is an
expected or true value of a quantity. An indication of Accuracy
a. It is given by the formula:

Where xT is the true or accepted value, and x is the measured value. Percent
error is usually considered in judging the accuracy of a measurement.
6. Percentage Di erence - is a measure of how far apart the di erent measured
values are from each other and is, therefore, an indication of precision.
a. The percent di erence between x1 and x2 is given by:

- Variance - measures the squared deviation of each number in the set of the mean.
Another way to estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity is to
determine the variance of the set of measurements.
a. The variance of a set of measurements is calculated step-by-steps as follows:

b. A variance of zero means that all measurements are identical. A small variance
indicates that the values are close to one another, which means they are precise.
c. Standard deviation - the square root of the variance. It is a measure of how diverse
or spread out a set of measurements is from their average. A small standard
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deviation means that most of the measurements are close to their average. A large
standard deviation means that the measurements are very diverse. The
measurement x of a physical quantity in a set of measurements is usually reported
as (Where x̄ is the mean of the set of measurements and is the standard
deviation of the measurement)