BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration

OUTLINE ▪ has an outer membrane while the inner

I. Cellular Respiration D. Catabolic Pathways
membrane has cristaea which are the
Overview and Production of ATP foldings to increase the surface area
A. Glycolysis a. Types of ▪ ATP synthase participles - creates ATP
a. 10 STEPS Fermentation
(Preparatory & b. Energy Rally
Pay-off Phase) E. Cellular Respiration
b. Anaerobic Regulation
respiration a. Feedback
c. Pyruvate mechanism in
oxidation glycolysis
B. Krebs Cycle
C. Electron Transport
Chain

Cellular Respiration

● The breakdown of glucose to obtain ATP ● Cellular respiration overview

● Overall overview:
● Cellular respiration:
o the breakdown of glucose to obtain ATP
▪ this glucose is the result of photosynthetic
▪ cellular respiration extracts the energy
from the chemical bonds from glucose and
converts it to a form that all living things
can use
o includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but
is often used to refer to aerobic respiration
o Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all
consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular
respiration with the sugar glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 →6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (energy + heat)
o takes place in all living things
o is a step by step process
o Glucose = Energy Fuel; ATP = energy currency of
the cell
● Location of respiration
o Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria
▪ has DNA
o Cellular respiration is the transformation of
chemical energy in food into chemical energy cells
can use: ATP
o these reactions process the same way in plants
and animals
● What are the stages of cellular respiration:
o Glycolysis - glucose undergoes a series of
chemical transformations and is converted into 2
pyruvate molecules (3C organic molecule) and ATP
is made
o Pyruvate oxidation - each pyruvate molecule goes
into the mitochondrial matrix and then converted
into 2 carbon molecules bound to Acetyl Co-A.
Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is formed.
o The Krebs Cycle - AKA Citric Acid Cycle.
▪ occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. The
reactions of the Krebs cycle adds
electrons and protons into electron
carriers
▪ starts with pyruvates and breaks them
down to carbon dioxide. The energy from
the molecules is moved through electron
carriers that brings it to the electron
transport chain (which creates ATP in turn)
o Oxidative phosphorylation - process in which ATP
is formed as result of transport of electrons from
NADH to FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron
carriers.
▪ This process, which takes place in
mitochondria, is the major source of ATP
in aerobic organisms.
▪ As electrons move down the chain, energy
is released and used to pump protons out
of the matrix, forming a gradient.
▪ Protons flow back into the matrix through
an enzyme called ATP synthase, making
ATP. At the end of the electron transport
chain, oxygen accepts electrons and takes
up protons to form water.
o The Electron Transport Chain
Glycolysis
● Glycolysis - glucose undergoes a series of chemical
transformations and is converted into 2 pyruvate molecules
(3C organic molecule) and ATP is made
● Glycolysis

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 BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration
o Series of reactions which break the 6-carbon 3. Second Phosphorylation
glucose molecule down into two 3-carbon - The carbon-1 hydroxyl which gives us
molecules called pyruvate fructose-1, 6-biphosphate.
o Process is an ancient one-all organisms from - catalyzed by phosphofructokinase 1
simple bacteria to humans perform it the same way - cost 1 ATP
o Yields 2 ATP molecules for every one glucose
molecule broken down
o Yields 2 NADH per glucose molecule

4. Cleavage
- cleaved into two smaller ones
- Fructose bisphosphate aldolase is a lyase
enzyme that will split fructose-1,
6-bisphosphate into a molecule of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or GADP, and
molecule of dihydroxyacetone phosphate or
DHAP.

● Occurs in the cytosol

● Substrate-level phosphorylation
● This first pathway is anaerobic, meaning it does not require
oxygen. (Most evolutionarily ancient metabolic pathway)
● 1 glucose = 2 ATP
● happens in cytoplasm
● requires 10 enzymes to happen which catalyze each of the 5. Conversion of DHAP into GADP
10 steps, as well as an investment of two molecules in the - DHAP will be converted to another molecules
preparatory phase to get four ATPs back over several steps of GADP by the enzyme triosephosphate
in the payoff phase. isomerase.
- which leaves us with two molecules of GADP

B. Pay-off phase

10 STEPS (Preparatory & Pay-off Phase) 6. Oxidation

- GADP oxidizes to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
A. Preparatory Phase
- Requires NAD+ and a free phosphate, or
1. Phosphorylation (hexokinase reaction)
inorganic phosphate to occur
- The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates the
- Enzyme involve is called glyceraldehyde.
oxygen on carbon 6 to make glucose
6-phosphate.
- The polar phosphate group traps the molecule
inside the cell and also reduces the
concentration of regular glucose inside the cell,
which encourages more glucose to enter by
diffusion.
- costs 1 ATP
7. Dephosphorylation
- A phosphoglycerate kinase will catalyze
transfer of a phosphate group to ADP to
become 3-phosphoglycerate producing one
ATP in the process.
- Since GADP molecules will make one ATP,
that’s a total of two ATPs, for half the total
payoff of glycolysis.
2. Isomerization
- Glucose-6-phosphate isomerizes to become
fructose-6-phosphate, a process which is
catalyzed by phosphoglucoisomerase.

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 BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration
8. Phosphate Transfer
- Phosphoglycerate mutase transfers the
remaining phosphate from this hydroxyl to the
next one over to make 2-phosphoglycerate.
9. Dehydration
- Enolase catalyzes a dehydration, resulting in
the loss of this hydrocyl group which will
produce phosphoenolpyruvate.
10. Second Dephosphorylation
- The remaining phosphate group is transferred to an
ADP by pyruvate kinase, generating another ATP and
the pyruvate.
Summary:
● Glycolysis = Ten step
● Preparatory Phase (first 5)
glucose + 2 ATP —----> 2 GADP
● Payoff phase (last 5)
2 GADP —----> 2 pyruvate + 4 ATP
● Net = 2 ATP per glucose
No need to memorize
Anaerobic cellular respiration
● Some organisms thrive in environments with little or no
oxygen
o Marshes, bogs, gut of animals, sewage treatment
ponds, yeast, bacteria
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● Results in no more ATP, final steps in these pathways serve
ONLY to regenerate NAD+ so it can return to pick up more
electrons and hydrogens in glycolysis.
● End products such as ethanol and CO2 (single cell fungi
(yeast) in beer/bread) or lactic acid (muscle cells)
● fermentation - the process of glycolysis without oxygen
● only occurs in glycolysis
o the other stages of cellular respiration cannot
happen without oxygen
o oxygen is only required in oxidative phosphorylation
while the other two can’t happen without oxidative
phosphorylation
Pyruvate Oxidation
● 2nd step of aerobic respiration
● Steps:
1. 6 carbon compound called glucose will convert itself into
three carbon compound called as pyruvate (resulting to
two molecules of pyruvate).
2. The molecules of pyruvate will enter the mitochondria of
a cell and will convert itself into acetyl-coa.
3. The acetyl-coa will enters the krebs cycle
More detailed steps:
1. The pyruvate will enter the mitochondria with the help of
transport protein.
2. Pyruvate will release 2 carbon dioxide (2 pyruvate = 2
CO2)
3. Through the help of pyruvate dehydrogenase, it will
convert itself into acetyl-coa. The enzyme is going to
remove hydrogen from Coenzyme A.
4. The released hydrogen atom from Coenzyme A will
attach itself with the NAD+ converting itself into NADH.
5. Coenzyme A will attach itself with this carbon of
pyruvate converting itself into Acetyl CoA
6. This Acetyl CoA with the two carbon compounds is
ready to enter the Krebs Cycle or also called as Citric
acid cycle where the two carbon atoms will get released
in the form of carbon dioxide.
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 BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration
Summary:
● 6 carbon dioxides are released
● 1 glucose -> 2 pyruvate -> 2 acetyl-coa -> 4 carbon
dioxide
○ In total, 6 carbon dioxide molecules are
released from glucose.
○ The rest amount of energy is released in the
form of energy carrier that is NADH and
FADH2 that will enter the electron transport
chain where it will convert itself into ATP
molecule and the electrons that are released in
this process will be gained by the final acceptor
that is oxygen that will convert itself into water
molecule.
Krebs Cycle
● Also called as the Tricarboxylix Acid Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle
● Takes place in matrix or fulid of the mitochondria
o This is where mitochondrial DNA is found and
where fatty acid breakdown takes place.
● Krebs cycle is another process where energy is released
from the breaking of the chemical bond
● Carbon dioxide and electrons are released
● Similar to the Calvin Cycle but in reverse.
● Completes the breakdown of glucose
○ Takes the pyruvate (3-carbons) and breaks it
down, the carbon and oxygen atoms end up in
CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water)
○ Hydrogens and electrons are stripped and
loaded into NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH
and FADH2, respectively
● Production of only 2 more ATP but loads up the coenzymes
with H+ and electrons which move to the 3rd stage
- In the mitochondrion, the glucose molecule is gradually
being broken down. Some of the breakdown steps
release energy that is captured directly as ATP. In these
steps, the phosphate group is transferred from a
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pathway intermediately straight to ADP. This is the
process called Substrate-level phosphorylation.
Production of ATP is still present at this point.
Where do the electrons go?
● Energy from the chemical bonds are freed (excited
electrons are released)
● The electrons get to ride the electron transport train
which is the final step in the breakdown of glucose
● The electron carriers take the electrons to a group of
proteins which are present in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria which is the electron transport chain
● As electrons move this specific chain, they move from a
higher to a lower energy level and are ultimately passed
on to oxygen. Combining to the oxygen, water is then
produced.
● Point at which ATP is produced (electrons make the
ATP)
Chemical Reactions:
● a 2-carbon molecule and a 4-carbon molecule are
combined to form a 6-carbon molecule.
● That 6-carbon molecule undergoes multiple biochemical
changes during the cycle and at the end, the original
4-carbon molecule is produced.
● Each time a carbon molecule loses one carbon, a
carbon dioxide is released. So two carbon dioxides are
formed during the conversion of the 6-carbon molecule
back to the 4-carbon molecule.
● Acetyl CoA. starting point for the citric acid cycle
Steps:
1. The acetyl group from acetyl CoA is transferred to
oxaloacetate to form citrate.
2. Four different enzymatic reactions then lead to the
formation of succinate. These steps form two carbon
dioxides, two NADHs, and one ATP.
3. Succinate is then recycled back to oxaloacetate through
three more reactions. These steps produce FADH2 and
one more NADH
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 BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration
Electron Transport Chain
● Electron carriers loaded with electrons and protons from the
Krebs cycle move to this chain-like series of steps
(staircase)
● As electrons drop down the stairs, the energy released is
used to form a total of 32 ATP molecules
● Oxygen waits at the bottom of the staircase, picks up
electrons and protons and in doing so becomes water
Pathway of the electron transport chain:
● The electron transport chain is in the cristae of the
mitochondrion
● Most of the chain’s components are proteins, which exist in
multiprotein complexes. They undergo oxidation and
reaction (Redox reaction) where they either accept or donate
electrons.
● The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they
accept and donate electrons electrons drop in free energy as
they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2, forming
H2O
● As all these take place, the ATP synthase which is an
enzyme, creates the ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
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Diagram of the Process:
- Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
- Kreb cycle occurs in the Matrix
- Electron transport chain occurs inside the membrane
of the mitochondria (Cristae)
- The diagram shows what stage the C2O is being
released, how the oxygen is utilized by the electron
transport chain. Moreover, as electron carriers enter
the electron transport chain, oxygen is there to
receive electrons to form water
Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
● The breakdown of organic molecules is an exergonic
process. Can take place in the presence or absence of
oxygen.
○ Fermentation is a partial degradation of
sugars that occurs without O2. (Absence of
oxygen)
○ Aerobic Respiration consumes organic
molecules and O2 and yields ATP. (Presence
of oxygen)
Types of Fermentation
● Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that
regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis
● Two common fermentations:
○ Alcohol Fermentation
- where pyruvate is converted to
ethanol in two steps, with the first
releasing CO2.
- Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used
in brewing, winemaking, and baking
○ Lactic acidFermentation
- pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming
lactate as an end product, with no
release of CO2.
- Lactic acid fermentation by some
fungi and bacteria is used to make
cheese and yogurt
- Human muscle cells use lactic acid
fermentation to generate ATP when
O2 is scarce. (Example is doing
vigorous exercises)
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 BOTAFUN: Cellular Respiration
3. In this pathway Phosphofructokinase is a rate limiting
enzyme. It is active when the concentration of ADP is
high, and it is less active when the concentration of ADP
and ATP are low and high, respectively. Therefore, if
there is sufficient ATP, in the system, the pathway slows
down
● This is a type of end product inhibition since ATP is the
end product of glucose catabolism.

Energy Tally
● Aerobic Respiration
○ 1 Glucose molecule = 36 ATPs
○ - Glycolysis 2 ATP
- Kreb’s Cycle 2 ATP
- Electron Transport 2 ATP
Total: 36 ATPs
● Anaerobic Respiration
○ 1 Glucose molecule = 2 ATPs
○ Anaerobic organisms cannot be too energetic
but are important for global recycling of carbon

Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback

Mechanisms
● Cellular respiration must be regulated in order to provide
balanced amount of energy in the form of ATP
● The cell must generate a number of intermediate
compounds that are used in the anabolism and
catabolism of macromolecules
● Through feedback inhibition, the end product of a
pathway will inhibit the enzyme. An enzyme that initiates
the pathway to prevent the cell from producing more of a
particular substance than what is needed.
● Feedback inhibition
- The most common mechanism for control.
- A process where a product feeds back to shutdown
its pathway.
- mon fermentations:
○ ATP regulates respiration (Stop signal)
- If ATP concentration begins to drop, ●
respiration speeds up;
- When there is plenty of ATP,
respiration slows down.
● Control of catabolism is based mainly on regulating the Youtube links for further understanding
activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic
Glycolysis
pathway
- https://youtu.be/SUPQVg1vO0Q
Pyruvate Oxidation
- https://youtu.be/RQJvOS41Cu0
Citric Acid Cycle
- https://youtu.be/F6vQKrRjQcQ
Feedback Mechanism in Glycolysis Electron Transport Chain
1. The third step in glycolysis is the phosphorylation of - https://youtu.be/zJNx1DDqIVo
Fructose-6-phosphate which is catalyzed by the enzyme
Phosphofructokinase
2. A Second ATP molecule donates a high energy
phosphate to Fructose-6-phosphate which produces
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.

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