TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM:

Prepared by capt.m.peivast
Spring 2009
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM:

Observation of the distribution of the earth’s magnetic field shows it is to be similar to

the field of the uniformly magnetized sphere, although somewhat irregular.

The earth has a magnetic field around it, the magnetic field of the earth is similar to
that which would be produced by a short bar magnet situated near the earth’ center.

The axis of this imaginary magnet passes through an approximate position 70 n and
97 w in the northern hemisphere and 72 s and 154 e in the southern hemisphere, they
are called magnetic poles of the earth. (They do not coincide with the true north and
true south poles of the earth).

Lines of the force come out of the earth from the red pole (south pole) and enter the
blue pole (north pole).
These lines are perpendicular to the earth’ surface where they leave and enter; at
other places they are inclined to the surface.
The angle between the direction of inclination of line of force and the earth’s
horizontal surface is called dip. Somewhere near the earth geographic equator, each
line of force becomes parallel to the earth and the dip becomes zero.

Dip = 0

dip
dip

M.S.H M.EQ. M.N.H.

An imaginary line on the earth surface joining all places where the dip is zero is called
magnetic equator or aclinic line.

A line joining all places having the same dip is called an isoclinic.

The north and south magnetic poles are places where the dip is 90 degrees. A magnet
bar on the earth’s surface will show the direction of the magnetic north at that place.

In north magnetic latitude the dip is (+) sign and in the south magnetic latitude the dip
is (-) sign.
VARIATION:

The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian at a place is the
magnetic variation at that place, it is named easterly or positive when the north
seeking end of the needle lies to the east of the true meridian and westerly or negative
when the north seeking end lies to the west of the true meridian lines.

VARIATION

Lines, which join places of equal magnetic variation, are called isogonics lines or
isogonals.

THE EARTH TOTAL FORCE:

The value of the earth ‘s total magnetic force is not the same all over the surface of
the earth. The intensity, in general least near the magnetic equator and greatest near,
but not at the magnetic poles.

A freely suspended magnetic needle under the influence of the earth’s magnetic field
alone will come to rest in the line of the total force; the vertical plane passing through
the line of force at a place is the plan of the magnetic meridian at that place.
THE TOTAL FORCE CAN BE RESOLVED INTO TWO COMPONENTS;

I) Vertical component called “z”, this component has very little effect on a
magnetic compass except when the vessel heels.
II) Horizontal components called “h”; this is the main force that gives the
compass its north seeking property.

i)At the equator there is no dip ….h = total force and z=0
ii)As we move towards the pole ……dip increases and “h” decreases…z increases.
iii)When dip = 45….”h”= “z and’ at poles … h = 0 and total force = z

The compass is mostly efficient when “h” is greatest i.e. at the magnetic equator and
it becomes less effective as we move towards the pole.

The magnetic compass is so designed that the card always remains horizontal. the
card is free to move only in the horizontal plane, this is achieved by suspending the
card so that the center of the gravity of the card along with the needles is below the
point of suspension. Since the card can only move in the horizontal plane it is only the
horizontal component “h” which has effect on the needle. The effect of the earth’s
horizontal component is to cause a couple that makes the needle always lie in the
magnetic meridian, the horizontal force “h” immediately acts and produces a couple
which brings the needle back into the meridian, it is this couple therefore that keeps
the needle always pointing north, if the couple is strong, greater will be the ability of
the needle to remain pointing towards the north and also to come back quicker if
displaced to either side ,if the couple is weak then the needle will oscillate about the
north and be sluggish in its movement.

The strength of this couple depends only on the magnitude of “h”.

Magnetic Material:

Magnetic materials are those substances which are capable of being magnetised.They
are mainly ferrous materials, other substances (non-metallic and non-ferrous) which
can not be magnetized or are extremely difficult to be magnetized are called non-
magnetic materials.

Small microscopic regions exist in ferromagnetic materials, which called domains, in

a piece of an un- magnetized iron the direction of domains are arranged in a random
manner.
Induced Magnetism:

Magnetism, which is present only when the material is under the influence of an
external field.

Permanent magnetism:

Magnetism, which remains for a long period without any appreciable reduction,
unless the substance is subjected to a demagnetizing force, is called permanent
magnetism.

Residual magnetism: that which remains after magnetizing forces are removed.

Pole of magnets: in a magnet the magnetic force is concentrated near the ends, called
poles and the quantity of magnetism concentrated there is called, pole strength.

Every magnet is surrounded by a magnetic field; the direction of field is always from
the red (south pole) towards the blue (north pole).

Between the magnets the like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.

Earth North Pole is blue; hence all red poles of magnets are attracted towards the
earth north and vice versa.

Intensity of magnetization: within the bar the intensity of the magnetization is much
greater than in the surroundings.

Susceptibility: is a ratio between the intensity of the magnet station and the intensity
of magnetizing force causing magnetization.
Retentivity: a ferromagnetic substance that retains much its magnetism in the
absence of an external field is said to have high retentivity.

Coercivity: the strength of a reverse field require to reduce the magnetism of a

magnet to zero is called coercivity.

It is the horizontal component of the earth’s field that gives the magnetic compass its
directive property, hence this component is called the directive force at a compass,
“h” which is component of the total force depends on the angle of the dip.

At the magnetic equator “h” is the greatest, and as the latitude increases, “h”
decreases until near the magnetic poles, it is zero, hence in high magnetic latitude
where “h” is weak, the magnetic compass becomes unreliable.

H.F.

Z
Ship magnetism:

Due to the large quantities of magnetic materials that go into its construction, a ship
has two types of magnetism:

i)Permanent magnetism: all the hard iron in a ship will acquire some permanent
magnetism during its building. This will not alter much but will assume a constant
value later, this is called the ship’s permanent magnetism.

ii)Induced magnetism: the soft iron in a ship will be magnetized by the earth’s
magnetic field in a direction and amount depending on the strength and direction
of earth’s field, as the ship alters heading and latitude the polarity and the strength
of the induced magnetism will change. This is called induced magnetism.

Effect of the ship’s magnetism on the magnetic compass;

A compass needle will lie in the magnetic meridian if there is no disturbing force. The
magnetic material in a ship causes however disturbing magnetic field. Therefore at
any moment the total field at a magnetic compass is a combination of the fields due
to;

i)The earth’s magnetism

ii)The ships permanent magnetism (hard iron)
iii)The ship’s induced magnetism (soft iron), which varies with the course and
geographic latitude.
The field due to the ships permanent magnetism and induced magnetism together
form the ships magnetic field. Hence the forces acting on a compass needle at any
moment can be shown as in the figure below:

M.N C.N.

Direction of the
Ships magnetic
field

The needle will no longer point toward the magnetic north but in a direction, which is
a resultant of the directive force and the ships magnetic field, this is called ”
deviation”, since the field due to the induced magnetism varies with the course and
geographical latitude, the deviation also varies accordingly.

CORRECTION OF DEVIATION

Though the effect of permanent and induced magnetism cannot completely be

eliminated, it can be reduced sufficiently to enable the magnetic compass to be used
accurately for navigation. This is done by placing the correctors around the compass
which compensate the deviating forces .the residual deviation is then obtained by
swinging the ship and is tabulated on a deviation card or presented as a deviation
curve by a qualified person called the compass adjuster.
 I)Permanent magnetism correctors.

These are permanent bar magnets about 9 inches long inserted into fixed sockets
underneath the compass in three directions, f & a / athwart ship and vertical.
The magnetic field of these magnets acts on the compass needle in the opposite
direction to the field due to the ships permanent magnetism,
Vertical magnets are also called heeling error magnets and are placed vertically in a
moveable bucket.

i)Soft iron sphere

A pair of soft iron sphere is normally placed athwart ship.

These acquire induced magnetism from the earth’s field and cause and
effect on the compass to compensate the effect of induced magnetism.

ii)Flinders bar

This is a vertical soft iron bar placed on the fore and aft side of the
compass .on normal ships it is generally on the fore side, this also
compensate for induced magnetism of the ship.
THE FORCES CAUSING DEVIATION

FORCE “P”

“P” is the fore and aft component of the forces at the compass due to the ships
permanent magnetism, it is + “p” if the force causing the deviation towards the bow
and _ “p” if the force causing the deviation toward the stern .

When considering the force “p”, therefore it is convenient to think “+p” as the result
of the vessel permanently being magnetized blue forward and red aft, and “-p” as the
result of the vessel being permanently magnetized red forward and blue aft.

a force “p” act continually at the compass .it is a constant force for a given vessel and
given compass position .it doesn’t vary with change of direction of the ship’s head or
with change of magnetic latitude.
CONCLUSION;

1. Deviation is semicircular
2. Deviation varies as sin of compass course
3. Maximum deviation occurs in east-west heading
4. Deviation varies as 1/HF
FORCE “Q”

“Q” is athwart ships component of the force at the compass due to the ship’s
permanent magnetism. It is (+Q) if the force causing the deviation toward the
starboard side and (_Q) if the force causing deviation toward the port side.
CONCLUSION;
1. Deviation is semicircular
2. Deviation varies as cos. compass course
3. Maximum deviation occurs at north=south heading
4. Deviation varies as 1/HF
FORCE “R”

“R” is the permanent force and the deviation due to it must therefore vary inversely as
“h” and it is the vertical effect above or below the compass .it is + when the attraction
of the compass needle is down ward and toward the keel and _ when the attraction is
toward the mast head.

NOTE: the values of P, Q & R do not change with heading or magnetic

latitude, but the amount of deviation caused by them varies as vessel changes
latitude, because the strength of the directive force (HF) acting on needle
changes.
INDUCED MAGNETISM (SOFT IRON- TEMPORARY):

Certain magnetic materials become strongly induced when held in a magnetic field, but lose
their magnetism if removed from the field or acquires a different strength and polarity, such
material is called soft iron and magnetism produced is called “soft iron magnetism”.
The induction into soft iron depends upon:

i) The strength of inducing field. (Magnetic latitude)

ii) The disposition of soft iron (is it vertically, obliquely…)
iii) The direction of ships head.
The position of soft iron with respect to compass may be Complex, and to allow us to treat
this mathematically, we resolve into mutually perpendicular directions. Thus we say all soft
irons are either horizontal and thus induced by (H) or vertical and thus induced by (Z)

FORE AND AFT CONTINUOUS HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON (H.S.I):

Full induction part induction No induction

(Where the force enters is Blue, where comes out is Red)

ATHWART SHIP CONTINUOUS HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON (H.S.I).

HF HF
Full induction Part induction No induction

VERTICAL SOFT IRON (V.S.I.) FORD. OR ABAFT OF COMPASS:

Compass Z compass compass Z

VSI. Induced at No “Z” in Equator VSI. induced at

Any heading No VSI. Induction Any heading
VSI. induction NOT depending
Upon to ship’s heading”
V.S.I WITH POLES BELOW OR ABOVE OF COMPASS:

VSI. Is fully induced but has No effect

On deviation as long as vessel remains
Upright
THE EFFECT OF CHANGE OF MAGNETIC LATITUDE:

i) H.S.I (horizontal soft iron):

The strength of induction in the soft iron depends directly upon “H”.
The directive force of compass also depends directly on “H”, then the stronger the compass
field of magnetism, the smaller the dev.
As both directive & deviating force depends directly on “H”, there will be no change in
deviation with change of magnetic latitude.

ii) V.S.I (vertical soft iron):

The strength of induction in soft iron depends directly upon “Z” thus the directing force and
hence deviation varies and “Z”. [1]

The directive force of compass varies as “H”. The stronger the compass, the smaller the
deviation => dev.~1/H [2]
Z
Combining these [1]&[2] ⇒ Deviation ~
H

Or Deviation~ tan. Dip

DEV. DUE TO FORE &AFT HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON (H.S.I):

H Dev.~sin.(2Comp. co)
W E
Conclusions:
i) On “N-S” heading the soft iron is fully induced, but No deviation.
ii) On “W-E” heading soft iron is not induced, so no deviation.
iii) On inter cardinal headings soft iron is partly induced with Maximum deviation.
iv) The deviation is Quadrantal.
“Dev. is proportional to sin 2 compass course “

DEV.DUE TO ATHWART SHIP HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON (H.S.I.)

Dev. ~ sin. (2 comp. Co)

W E

Conclusions:
i) On “N-S” heading the soft iron is not induced so no dev.
ii) On “E-W” headings full induction but no dev.
iii) On inter- cardinal headings soft iron partly induced with Maximum deviation.
iv) The deviation is Quadrennial.
“ Deviation is proportional to sin.2compose course.”

If the effects of F&A and athwart ship H.S.I were exactly equal , there would be no residual
deviation. But on ships athwart ship effect is usually the largest, because the effective poles
are closer to the compass and thus resulting in residual deviation. Note also the magnetic
hemisphere the vessel is in, has no significant effect.
DEVIATION DUE TO V.S.I:
Conclusions:
a) V.S.I. Fully induced irrespective
of course
b) Max. dev. on “E-W” heading by
Compass.
c) Dev. is semi circular

“Dev.~ sin. Compass course”

Similar deviations from various causes grouped together, and these deviations take the name
of coefficient, of which there are five when the ship is upright. These are known as
coefficients; A-B-C-D-E.
If the coefficients are known. Then the actual deviation on any heading can be calculated by
using following formula:

Deviation = A+B sin.(co.)+C cos.(co.)+D sin.(2 co.)+E cos.(2 co.)

Alternatively the coefficients can be computed from a table of deviation. This process is
known as Analyzing the Deviation, by convention if obtained value by coefficient is East, it
is nemed (+) and if west (-).