NAME: MARIA FE A.

MINGUILLAN

MSTSCIE.ED

TITLE:

A LITERATURE REVIEW ON IMPACT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON TEACHING

AND LEARNING

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Basilaia, G., Kvavadze, D. (2020). Transition to online education in schools during a

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SUMMARY

Schools are the second place after home where students’ behavior and future
educational success are shaped. At schools there are many elements or factors that
can influence the teaching and learning. Learning is more important than teaching.
Teaching has no value if it does not result in learning on the part of students. It helps a
student in encouraging good study habits, in increasing motivation and in developing
abilities and skills, in knowing the results of progress and in getting appropriate
feedback.

As we go along with this pandemic situation many teachers, learners and parents
affected in such a way of educating their children in a new normal setting. Thus,
teachers finding a new technique which is suitable to the needs of the learner. There is
a big impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on teaching and learning across the world.
Various studies have been carried in terms of the different class levels that suits and
need to be explored further. So, with the policy level intervention which is important to
improve the situation of each and every one. Teachers and learners must used also the
online tools to enhance or improve the teaching and learning process. They also used
ICT as one the tool to develop professionalism among teachers and to enhance their
skills when it comes in manipulating the said tool. The COVID 19 pandemic change the
lives of our teachers, learners and parents as well in nurturing education. Though many
of them uses different online platforms to uplift the standard of education they also find
ways to explore further those countries that cannot access internet or low internet
connection. Therefore, they should encourage learners to used different platforms and
engaging them in such a way of showing, manipulating and exploring those tools.
SYNTHESIS

With the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19), school throughout the world are
implementing their educational continuity plan. For students around the country,
classroom learning has become distance learning. Despite the uncertainty around
closed schools, teachers can still provide some continuity for their students. With secure
network, school administrators can give teachers the connectivity and collaboration
tools to help them connect with students, parents and colleagues. Educators provide
essential services to a variety of learners. Give teachers better tools to collaborate,
educate and succeed.

The pedagogy in continuing education through online help them especially for the
teachers that needs trainings to enhance their capability when it comes in manipulating
the tool that is being used by the teacher. E-learning tools have played a crucial role
during this pandemic, helping schools and universities facilitate student learning during
the closure of universities. While adapting to the new changes, staff and student
readiness needs to be gauged and supported accordingly. The learners with a fixed
mindset find it difficult to adapt and adjust, whereas the learners with a growth mindset
quickly adapt to a new learning environment. There is no one-size-fits-all pedagogy for
online learning. There are a variety of subjects with varying needs. Different subjects
and age groups require different approaches to online. Online learning also allows
physically challenged students with more freedom to participate in learning in the virtual
environment, requiring limited movement.

Some are the opportunity of the teachers in continuing the teaching and learning.
Teachers are obliged to develop creative initiatives that assist to overcome the
limitations of virtual teaching. Teachers are actively collaborating with one another at a
local level to improve online teaching methods. There are incomparable opportunities
for cooperation, creative solutions and willingness to learn from others and try new tools
as educators, parents and students share similar experiences. Many educational
organizations are offering their tools and solutions for free to help and support teaching
and learning in a more interactive and engaging environment. Online learning has
provided the opportunity to teach and learn in innovative ways unlike the teaching and
learning experiences in the normal classroom setting.

The lesson learnt from the COVID-19 pandemic is that teachers and students/learners
should be oriented on use of different online educational tools. After the COVID-19
pandemic when the normal classes resume, teachers and learners should be
encouraged to continue using such online tools to enhance teaching and learning.

EASY

As technology advances and user experience improves, so too does the popularity
of online education. It’s been proven to be a successful method of learning and offers a
number of different benefits when compared with traditional education. While it is
beneficial, it also has certain challenges. Understanding the advantages of online
learning is important because it could help you make big decisions regarding your or
your child’s education. In this article, we will discuss the importance of online learning to
students and teachers. Every student learns differently, and in traditional education,
children must adapt to the pace of the class or be left behind. One advantage of online
learning is that children have more freedom to work at their own pace, which improves
their learning experience and helps them build a better understanding with their teacher.
This is also important for the teacher because it helps them structure their classes to
suit the individual learning requirements of each child. The outcome: improved grades
and a more enjoyable experience for the student and the teacher. Children learn better
and feel more comfortable learning in an environment of their choosing. This isn’t
always possible in a classroom but is one of the key advantages of online learning. As a
teacher, you understand where you work best, whether it’s in the library, at home or
anywhere else. Being able to take a laptop or tablet into your ideal working environment
helps children maximize their potential and gain the most from their education.
Everyone works differently and some students may prefer the classroom, but for those
that don’t, this flexibility can have a positive impact on how they absorb information and
help them improve their grades. Within a short span of the COVID-19 pandemic, many
have shared their works on teaching and learning in different ways. Several schools,
colleges and universities have discontinued face-to-face teachings. There is a fear of
losing 2020 academic year or even more in the coming future. The need of the hour is
to innovate and implement alternative educational system and assessment strategies.
The COVID-19 pandemic has provided us with an opportunity to pave the way for
introducing digital learning. This aims to provide a comprehensive report on the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic on online teaching and learning.
TITLE

Deposition distribution of the New Coronavirus(SARS-CoV-2) in the Human airways

upon exposure to cough-generated droplets and aerosol particles

REFERENCES

World Health Organization. WHO announces COVID-19 outbreak a

pandemic. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-
covid-19/news/news/2020/3/who-announces-covid-19-outbreak-a-pandemic (2020).

Chen, N. et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel

coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. The Lancet 395, 507–513
(2020).

Sohrabi, C. et al. World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the
2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int. J. Surg. 76, 71–76 (2020).

CDC. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/faq.html (2020).

SUMMARY

In order to measure the deposition distribution of cough-generated droplets and

aerosol particles containing SARS-CoV-2, they applied the Stochastic Lung Deposition
Model a model of geometry of the airways along the path of an inhaled particle that is
being selected randomly, whereas deposition probabilities are computed by
deterministic formulae. It was found out that the probability of direct infection of the
acinar airways a thin layer of epithelial cells covering airways and alveoli is due to
inhalation of particles emitted by a bystander airway is about 7 times higher than in the
acinar airways, they conclude that the COVID-19 pneumonia must be precede by
SARS-CoV-2 infection of the upper airways in most cases. The one-week difference
observed in several patients between the onset of their initial mild symptoms and
precipitous clinical deterioration provides a precious window for prevention of
pneumonia and ARDS by blocking or essentially reducing the transport of the virus
towards the acinar airways. Therefore, disinfection of the mucosa of the upper ways
may help to avoid or prolong the improvements or progression of the disease. In
addition, by using a tissue or cloth in order to absorb droplets and aerosol particles
emitted by own coughs of infected patients before re-inhalation is highly recommended
even if they are alone in quarantine.

SYTHESIS

The new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been emerged as a rapidly
spreading pandemic. The disease is thought to spread mainly from person-to-person
through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or
talks. The pathogen of COVID-19 is the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus
2 (SARS-CoV-2). It infects the cells binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
receptor (ACE2) which is expressed by cells throughout the airways as targets for
cellular entry. Although the majority of persons infected with SARS-CoV-2 experience
symptoms of mild upper respiratory tract infection, in some people infections of the
acinar airways result in severe, potentially fatal pneumonia. However, the induction of
COVID-19 pneumonia requires that SARS-CoV-2 reaches the acinar airways. While
huge efforts have been made to understand the spread of the disease as well as the
pathogenesis following cellular entry, much less attention is paid to how SARS-CoV-2
from the environment reach the receptors of the target cells. The aim of the present
study is to characterize the deposition distribution of SARS-CoV-2 in the airways upon
exposure to cough-generated droplets and aerosol particles. For this purpose, the
Stochastic Lung Deposition Model has been applied. Particle size distribution, breathing
parameters supposing normal breathing through the nose, and viral loads were taken
from the literature. We found that the probability of direct infection of the acinar airways
due to inhalation of particles emitted by a bystander cough is very low. As the number of
viruses deposited in the extra thoracic airways is about 7 times higher than in the acinar
airways, we concluded that in most cases COVID-19 pneumonia must be preceded by
SARS-CoV-2 infection of the upper airways. Our results suggest that without the
enhancement of viral load in the upper airways, COVID-19 would be much less
dangerous. The period between the onset of initial symptoms and the potential clinical
deterioration could provide an opportunity for prevention of pneumonia by blocking or
significantly reducing the transport of viruses towards the acinar airways. Therefore,
even non-specific treatment forms like disinfection of the throat and nasal and oral
mucosa may effectively keep the viral load of the upper airways low enough to avoid or
prolong the progression of the disease. In addition, using a tissue or cloth in order to
absorb droplets and aerosol particles emitted by own coughs of infected patients before
re-inhalation is highly recommended even if they are alone in quarantine

ESSAY

The new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been emerged as a rapidly
spreading pandemic originating from Wuhan, China. There are currently few studies that
define the pathophysiological characteristics of COVID-19, and there is great
uncertainty regarding its mechanism of spread. However, the disease is thought to
spread: mainly from person-to-person, or through respiratory droplets produced when
an infected person coughs, sneezes or talks which can land in the mouths or noses of
people who are nearby or possibly be inhaled into the lungs . Virologic assessment of
COVID-19 also suggests that the transmission is droplet-, rather than fomite-, based -.

The pathogen of COVID 19 is the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

(SARS-CoV), which infects the cells binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
receptor primarily in the respiratory system. Cells expressing ACE2 can be found
throughout the airways, and therefore, cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2 can also take place
throughout the airways. Although the majority of persons infected with SARS-CoV-2
experience symptoms of mild upper respiratory tract infection, in some people infections
of the acinar airways result in severe pneumonia potentially leading to significant
hypoxia with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and death. However, the
induction of COVID-19 pneumonia and ARDS requires that SARS-CoV-2 reaches the
lower airways
While huge efforts have been made to understand the spread of COVID-19 disease as
well as its pathogenesis following cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2, much less attention is
paid to how viruses from the environment reach the receptors of the target cells in the
respiratory system. The aims of the present study are to quantify the deposition
distribution of cough-generated droplets and aerosol particles carrying SARS-CoV-2, to
estimate the amount of deposited SARS-CoV-2 in different parts of the human airways
upon exposure to cough generated droplets and aerosol particles, and to discuss its
consequences on the pathogenesis of COVID-19.

In order to measure the deposition of new Coronavirus they used Stochastic Lung
Deposition Model that is being applied and originally developed by Obringer and
Hofmann. The particle deposition in the extra thoracic airways is computed using
empirical formulae based on particle deposition measurements in hollow airways casts.

Deposition in the intrathoracic airways is simulated by reconstructing the path of inhaled

particles in a stochastic lung structure. Stochastic means that airway lengths, diameters,
branching angles and gravity angles of the airways along the path of an inhaled particle
is selected randomly from distributions of these parameters obtained by statistical
analysis of morphometric data measured by Raabe. The geometry of the acinar airways
was taken from the description of Haefeli-Bleuer and Weibel.

Inhalation of air after a bystander cough could theoretically induce pneumonia without
first developing an active infection in the extra thoracic airways, because material
emitted by coughing directly reaches the acinar airways according to our models.
Considering the viral load of the deposited mass, however, such direct induction of
COVID-19 pneumonia requires either very large viral loads in the particles inhaled or
very long exposures to particles with moderate viral loads. The latter underlines the
importance of ventilation in rooms of infected people.

Another example for prolonged exposure is the continuous re-inhalation of own coughs
of infected patients, which may contribute to the progression of the disease. Therefore,
reducing the re-inhalation of own coughs could significantly prolong, or even block the
onset of further, more severe phases of COVID-19. Therefore, using a tissue or cloth in
order to absorb droplets and aerosol particles emitted by own coughs of infected
patients before re-inhalation is highly recommended even if they are alone in
quarantine.

TITLE
THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC MASKS THE WAY PEOPLE PERCEIVE FACES

REFERENCES

Tsao, D. Y. & Livingstone, M. S. Mechanisms of face perception. Annu. Rev.

Neurosci. 31, 411–437 (2008).

Canada, P. H. A. of. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Measures to reduce COVID-19

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(2020).

CDC. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Centers for disease control and
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Dhamecha, T. I., Singh, R., Vatsa, M. & Kumar, A. Recognizing disguised faces: Human
and machine evaluation. PLoS ONE 9, e99212 (2014).

Stephan, B. C. M. & Caine, D. What is in a view? The role of featural information in the
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(2007).

Kret, M. & De Gelder, B. Islamic headdress influences how emotion is recognized from
the eyes. Front. Psychol. 3, 1–13 (2012).
Carragher, D. & Hancock, P. J. Surgical face masks impair human face matching
performance for familiar and unfamiliar faces (2020).

Gosselin, F. & Schyns, P. G. Bubbles: A technique to reveal the use of information in

recognition tasks. Vis. Res. 41, 2261–2271 (2001).

SUMMARY

The current study provides novel evidence for quantitative and qualitative changes in
the processing of masked faces. These changes in performance, together with the
alteration along the processing style of partially occluded faces, could have significant
effects on activities of daily living, including social interactions, as well as other
situations involving personal interactions such as education. Previous research already
indicated that reduced face perception abilities following age-related macular
degeneration is accompanied by negative consequences of social disengagement, a
decrease in the level of social confidence, and a general decrease in quality of life.
Given that wearing masks has rapidly become an important norm in countries around
the globe, future research should explore the social and psychological implications
of this behavior.

SYTHESIS

The unprecedented efforts to minimize the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic

introduce a new arena for human face recognition in which faces are partially occluded
with masks. Here, we tested the extent to which face masks change the way faces are
perceived. To this end, we evaluated face processing abilities for masked and
unmasked faces in a large online sample of adult observers (n = 496) using an adapted
version of the Cambridge Face Memory Test, a validated measure of face perception
abilities in humans. As expected, a substantial decrease in performance was found for
masked faces. Importantly, the inclusion of masks also led to a qualitative change in the
way masked faces are perceived. In particular, holistic processing, the hallmark of face
perception, was disrupted for faces with masks, as suggested by a reduced inversion
effect. Similar changes were found whether masks were included during the study or
the test phases of the experiment. Together, we provide novel evidence for
quantitative and qualitative alterations in the processing of masked faces that could
have significant effects on daily activities and social interactions.

ESSAY

Faces are among the most informative and significant visual stimuli in human
perception. Brief presentation of a person’s face readily exposes their identity, gender,
emotion, age, and race1. The unprecedented efforts to minimize the effects of the novel
coronavirus include a recommendation (and in most countries, a requirement) to wear
face masks in public to reduce virus transmission. Around the globe, mask-wearing is
being introduced as a new requirement as governments ease restrictions to reopen the
economy. This new constraint introduces a whole new arena for face recognition in
which typical and commonly encountered faces are partially occluded. Given the
importance of intact face processing to everyday life and to social interactions, it is
imperative to characterize how wearing masks might hamper these abilities.

A reduction in recognition of masked faces is predicted by previous research. In

one such study, a small sample of human participants were found to be impaired in
recognition of masked faces. In a separate study, recognition accuracy was similarly
reduced when different features (eyes, mouth, nose) of the face were systemically
removed. Other studies showed that the recognition of facial expressions is modulated if
the lower part of the face is occluded by a scarf or ethnic related headdresses. More
recently, it was found that surgical masks impair face perception of familiar and
unfamiliar faces. These findings are also consistent with experiments in which Gaussian
masks (i.e., bubbles) were parametrically added to face images, revealing that the
mouth and eye regions are among the most important sources of information that
support face identification. Together, these previous studies suggest that the occlusion
of specific face features can impair face recognition abilities. However, the extent of this
impairment and the perceptual-cognitive mechanism that mediates it remain unclear.
The current study aims to address these outstanding questions.

Normal face perception is characterized by a unique processing style that

emphasizes holistic aspects of the face rather than its specific features. Maurer and
colleagues distinguish between three types of configural processes that contribute to
face perception: 1. detecting the first-order relations that define faces (i.e., two eyes
above a nose and mouth), 2. integrating the features into a coherent gestalt, and 3.
processing second-order relations between features. Face masks conceal the lower
part of the face, including the mouth and nose area. This information is critical for
processing the face as a whole, and, therefore, it is expected that at least some aspects
of holistic processing would be disrupted by a mask covering part of a face.

Previous research demonstrated a relationship between holistic processing and

face perception performance. For example, face recognition accuracy was found to be
correlated with the extent to which observers process the faces holistically.
Neuropsychological investigations have shown that alterations of holistic processing are
associated with deficits in face perception abilities. For example, disruption in holistic
processing has been observed in individuals with acquired and
congenital prosopagnosia, further emphasizing the significance of this form of
processing to face perception. The importance of holistic processing has also been
demonstrated in observers with normal face perception abilities. Indeed, previous
research documented a robust deficit in the perception of inverted vs. upright faces that
is termed the face inversion effect (FIE). The FIE is disproportionately larger for faces
compared with other visual categories and is often considered as a signature of
disrupted holistic processing of faces. Notably, it was demonstrated that the lower part
of the face (mouth region) has a disproportional contribution to holistic processing
compared with the upper part (eye region), such that the inversion manipulation impairs
recognition of the mouth much more than the eyes.

The COVID-19 outbreak has led to widespread adoption of face masks as a

primary line of protection. Given that previous research has already shown that
occlusion of face parts hinders face perception abilities and can also reduce holistic
processing, we predict that face masks will disrupt face perception abilities and change
the way faces are processed. To directly test these predictions, we used the Cambridge
Face Memory Test (CFMT) , which is a widely used and established test of face
recognition abilities. Specifically, we created an identical version of this task in which
faces were masked, and examined performance differences across these two versions.
To test whether any reduction in face perception is accompanied by a qualitative
change in holistic face perception, we also constructed upright and inverted versions of
the test phase. The study was conducted online in a large sample (nearly 500
participants across two experiments) and provides a comprehensive, novel account of
face recognition abilities with and without masks.
TITLE: Urban street tree biodiversity and antidepressant prescriptions

REFERENCES

Heinz, A., Deserno, L. & Reininghaus, U. Urbanicity, social adversity and

psychosis. World Psychiatry 12, 187–197 (2013).

McDonald, R. I. et al. Research gaps in knowledge of the impact of urban growth on

biodiversity. Nat. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0436-6 (2019).

Bratman, G. N. et al. Nature and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective. Sci.
Adv. 5, eaax903 (2019).

Ramaswami, A. Unpacking the urban infrastructure nexus with environment, health,

livability, well-being, and equity. One Earth 2, 120–124 (2020).

Endreny, T. A. Strategically growing the urban forest will improve our world. Nat.
Commun. 9, 10–12 (2018).

SUMMARY
 We live in an increasingly urban world. The future of biodiversity conservation and
people’s health depends on urban landscapes and respective urban planning decisions.
Our finding suggests that street trees—as small-scale, publicly accessible urban
greenspace—could contribute to an “aquagenic environment”, i.e. nature-based
solutions that can help close the gap in health inequalities between individuals with low
and high SES. Incorporating unintentional nature experience into everyday life around
the home could be important for mental health. As such, street trees should be planted
equally throughout a city to ensure those who are socially disadvantaged have equal
access to nearby nature, thereby safeguarding urban health equity and preventing
green gentrification. As employees with low SES are more likely to be prescribed
antidepressants, ecosystem service accounting models can quantify the financial saving
to employers and the public health system following such street tree planting projects.
Street trees planted equitably in residential areas may provide nature-based solutions
for cities to achieve nexus of SDG targets relating to health and wellbeing (SDG 3.4
“promote mental health and well-being”), sustainable cities (SDG 11.7 “provide
universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces”), reducing
inequality (SDG 10.3 “ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities”) and
conserving terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15.9 “integrate ecosystem and biodiversity
values into…local planning”). We propose that retrofitting greenspace, namely street
trees, in urban areas may promote mental health, reduce social inequalities and
contribute to multiple Sustainable Development Goals.

SYNTHESIS

Growing urbanization is a threat to both mental health and biodiversity. Street trees
are an important biodiversity component of urban greenspace, but little is known about
their effects on mental health. Here, we analyzed the association of street tree density
and species richness with antidepressant prescribing for 9751 inhabitants of Leipzig,
Germany. We examined spatial scale effects of street trees at different distances
around participant’s homes, using Euclidean buffers of 100, 300, 500, and 1000 m.
Employing generalized additive models, we found a lower rate of antidepressant
prescriptions for people living within 100 m of higher density of street trees—although
this relationship was marginally significant (p = 0.057) when confounding factors were
considered. Density of street trees at further spatial distances, and species richness of
street trees at any distance, were not associated with antidepressant prescriptions.
However, for individuals with low socio-economic status, high density of street trees at
100 m around the home significantly reduced the probability of being prescribed
antidepressants. The study suggests that unintentional daily contact to nature through
street trees close to the home may reduce the risk of depression, especially for
individuals in deprived groups. This has important implications for urban planning and
nature-based health interventions in cities.

ESSAY

Growing urbanization is a threat to both mental ill health and biodiversity. As global
urban cover is projected to increase to 1.9 million km 2 with 5.2 billion people expected to
live in urban areas by 2030, action is needed to reduce future risks to both people and
nature. Urban nature-based solutions, such as planting trees, might be a preventative
solution to tackle both mental health challenges and biodiversity loss. As such, growing
the urban forest could address the nexus between sustainable and healthy cities and aid
progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on human health and
wellbeing (SDG 3), creating sustainable cities (SDG 11) and conserving terrestrial
ecosystems (SDG 15). In order to address these SDGs–and because space in cities is
scarce due to increasing urbanization–policymakers, urban planners and designers
need information about which specific aspects of the urban forest influence human
health.

The urban forest comprises all trees in an urban area — from individual trees to tree
assemblages and forested areas on both public and private land. In this study, we focus
on a specific type of the urban forest: individual street trees. Street trees are an
important component of the urban forest because: (1) they contribute to the
conservation of native tree species, (2) they are public amenities located throughout the
urban matrix, and (3) they can be easily retrofitted into urban areas where opportunities
for growing the urban forest are limited. Street trees also provide various ecosystem
services for human health and well-being, such as air quality and climate change
adaptation. To date, little is known, however, about the potential impact of street trees
on mental health.

Urban greenspace has a positive benefit on people experiencing mental ill health . The
focus of much of this work has been on exposure to the quantity of generic urban
greenspace often measured using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) or
the density of tree canopy. Far less work has examined the influence of specific types or
ecological quality—e.g. tree species richness of urban greenspace on mental health. As
mental health outcomes are influenced by the type of environment and its ecological
quality, more knowledge is needed on the types and ecological qualities of the urban
greenspace that have a benefit for mental health. Such evidence can inform health
professionals, urban foresters, city planners, and urban designers on the required
policy, planning, and management decisions necessary to ensure the urban forest has a
positive impact on both public health and nature conservation.

With respect to mental health, most studies on the effects of greenspace on mental
health use self-reported measures with high variability in the number of different
measures used. This variability of measures used to assess mental health make
comparability, and aggregating evidence on the effects of urban greenspace on mental
health, difficult. There is a need for more objective indices of mental health
Antidepressant prescriptions provides such an objective indicator for depression
prevalence.

While other studies have investigated the quantity of greenspace and antidepressant
prescriptions only one study has investigated antidepressant prescriptions in relation to
street trees. At an area-level, across 31 districts of London, Taylor et al. found that a
higher density of street trees was significantly associated with fewer antidepressant
prescriptions. To date, no study has investigated the relationship between ecological
quality of street trees and antidepressant prescriptions . It is therefore unknown whether
ecological quality (i.e. species richness) or quantity of street trees matter.

Often, epidemiological studies on the association of greenspace exposure on mental

health examine area-level effects, in which the quantity of greenspace is measured at a
geographically defined area (e.g. London borough, Lower Super Output Area) As the
previous studies examined area-level greenspace or street trees and antidepressant
prescriptions, they are limited by the ecological fallacy—whereby relationships found at
the aggregate area-level may not exist at the individual-level. Individual-level data
allows for a more detailed investigation of the association between street trees and
antidepressants. While one study examined individual-level greenspace exposure
(using NDVI) and antidepressant medication no study has yet examined individual-level
exposure to ecological quality of street trees and antidepressant prescriptions.

TITLE : Goats work for food in contra freeloading task

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van Os, J. M. C., Mintline, E. M., DeVries, T. J. & Tucker, C. B. Domestic cattle (Bos
taurus taurus) are motivated to obtain forage and demonstrate contrafreeloading. PLoS
ONE 13, e0193109 (2018).

SUMMARY

Overall, high CFL proportions in both selection lines, increasing interest in

approaching the closed door in dwarf goats, and shorter approach times towards the
closed door compared to the open door in dairy goats indicate that both dairy and dwarf
goats were motivated to work for a resource in the presence of the same resource for
free. The two selection lines of goats differed in the changes of the probabilities to
choose CFL with increasing trial number and regarding the comparison of approach
times towards the open versus towards to closed door. These results might reflect
differences in stress reactivity towards the CFL task, potentially related to selection for
productivity or differences during ontogeny. Our findings suggest that goats seem to be
motivated to solve a CFL task, stressing the need for the provision of cognitive
challenges to improve the welfare of farm animals.

SYNTHESIS

Contra freeloading (CFL) is the phenomenon when animals work for a resource
although an identical resource is available for free. Possible explanations for CFL are
that animals seek context for species-specific behaviors or to control their
environments. We investigated whether goats show CFL and whether breeding for
productivity traits has altered its occurrence. In a manipulation task, we compared two
selection lines: 27 Nigerian dwarf goats, not bred for productivity traits, and 30 dairy
goats, bred for high milk yield. Over 10 trials, each goat could perform one of three
behaviors: not participating in the trial, feeding for free from an open door, or opening a
sliding door for a feed of similar value. The results were analyzed using an Item
Response Tree (IRTree) generalized linear mixed model (GLMM). The fitted
probabilities to participate were > 0.87 over all trials in both selection lines. For dwarf
goats, the probability of choosing the closed door, and thereby demonstrating CFL,
increased from 0.30 in Trial 1 to 0.53 in Trial 10. For dairy goats, this probability was
constant at approximately 0.43. Unlike dwarf goats, dairy goats were faster to approach
the closed compared to the open door. Overall, our results suggest that both selection
lines were similarly interested in CFL.

ESSAY

Contra freeloading (CFL) describes the phenomenon when animals, given the
choice, work for a resource even though an identical resource is simultaneously
available for free. This phenomenon contradicts optimal foraging theory (e.g.) which
suggests that an animal will maximize the net energy gain by choosing the food source
providing most energy for the lowest cost. Although CFL is documented in captive
wildlife and domestic pigs, cattle, goats, and chicken it has not been reported in animals
living in the wild. One prominent theory to explain the occurrence of CFL is the
Information Primacy Model. It assumes that CFL is driven by the urge to gather
information about optimal food sources in a natural environment where food shortages
can occur. As a result, if food deprivation increases, optimal foraging strategies will
increase and the preference to gather information decreases. The need to explore the
environment might, therefore, be an important adaptive mechanism and possibly
explain why CFL occurs in animals in captivity where food is abundant.