UG - B.Com - Tamil - 102 34-Managerial Economics - 2629

mofg;gh gy;fiyf;fofk;
Njrpaj; ju epu;zaf; FOtpd; %d;whk; Rw;Wj;jukjpg;gPl;by; A+(CGPA:3.64)

Kjy;jug; gy;fiyf;fofk; kw;Wk; jd;dhl;rpj; jFjpAk; ngw;wJ
fhiuf;Fb - 630 003
njhiyepiyf;fy;tp ,af;ffk;
gp.fhk;.
,uz;lhkhz;L - %d;whk; gUtk;
102 34 – epu;thfg; nghUshjhuk;
Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

Author :
Dr. A. Hema Malini
Principal
S.S.A College of Arts and Science
A. Thekkur
Sivaganga Dist
“The Copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University”
All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording
or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the
Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.
Reviewer:
Dr. R. Ganapathi
Assistant Professor of Commerce,
Directorate of Distance Education,
Alagappa University,
Karaikudi -630003.
SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE Mapping in Book
eph;thfg; nghUshjhuk;
myF - 1: Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; 1 - 13

Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
tiuaiw kw;Wk; eph;thf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
mwpjy; tiuaiw tha;g;G Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ,uz;L Kf;fpa
gzpfs; eph;thf nghUshjhu ty;Yeh;fs
myF - 2: Njit gFg;gha;T 14- 30

Njit gFg;G tiuaiw kw;Wk; Njit Nfhl;ghL Njitapd;
nefpo;rr
; p
myF - 3: Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy 31 - 49

Njit fzpg;G tiuaiw Njit fzpg;G epiyfs; ey;y Njit
fzpg;gpw;fhd tp\aq;fs; Njit fzpg;G El;gq;fs; rh;Nt
Kiwfs; Gs;spapy; Kiwfs; Njit fzpg;G Gjpa
nghUl;fSf;F
myF - 4 toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiy

mspg;G kw;Wk; re;ij rkd; epiy – mspg;G tiuaiw kw;Wk; 50 – 63
mspg;G Nfhl;ghL mspg;G Nfhl;ghLfSf;F tpjptpyf;Ffs; -
mspg;gpy; cs;s khw;wk; my;yJ khw;wk; mspg;G epfo;rr ; p
mspg;G nefpo;rr; pia eph;zapf;Fk; fhuzpfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
re;ij rkd; epiy kw;Wk; re;ij rkd; epiyapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wk;.
myF - 5: cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T

cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T tiuaiw kw;Wk; mjd; gzpfs; cw;gj;jp 64 - 73
mlf;f tpiyfs;
myF - 6: nryT gFg;gha;T

nryT gFg;gha;T tiffs; nryT kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp 74 - 90
vz;zpf;iffSf;Fk; cs;s rhh;G gzpfs; Fiwe;j epiyapy;
nryT kw;Wk; cw;gj;jpapd; rhh;G jd;ik ePz;l mbg;gilapy;
nryT kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp vz;zpf;ifapy; rhh;G epiy
myF - 7 : yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup

epWtdj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs; - yhgj;ij mjpfhpf;Fk; khly; - 91 - 102
epWtdj;jpd; nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghL fahh;l; kw;Wk; khh;ft
; pd;
elj;ij Nfhl;ghL Nkhp]pd; tsh;rr; pia mjpfg;gLj;jjy; khly;
ngskhypif ];Nlbq; kw;Wk; ildkpf; khly; tpy;ypak;rpd;
NkNdrhpd; b];fphprdhp Nfhl;ghL
SYLLABI Mapping In Book
myF - 8;;: tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy nfhs;iffs;
tUkhd gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy eph;za nfhs;iffs; tUkhdk; 103 - 114

tiuaiw tiffs; tUkhdk; kw;Wk; tpiyeph;za nefpo;rr ; p
Njitf;Fk; cs;s rhh;G tpiy eph;za nfhs;iffs;
Nehf;fq;fs; khly;fs
myF -- 9 rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;> 115 - 135

Nkf;Nuh . nghUshjhuk
rhpahd Nghl;b epoypy; rhpahd tpiy eph;zak; re;ij – re;ij
fl;likg;G – rhpahd Nghl;b tpiy rhpahd Nghl;bapy;
ntspapLk; vz;zpf;if eph;zapj;;jy; - fiwe;j fhy
njhopy;Jiw rkd;epiy – rhpahd Nghl;bapy; ePz;l fhyj;jpy;
njhopy;Jiw rkd; epiy rhpahd Nghl;bapy; ePz;l fhy
epWtdj;jpd; rkd; epiy
myF - 10 nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak

tpiy ep;h;zak; rhpaw;w Nghl;b #oy; VfNghfk; tpiy eph;zak; 136 - 158
,uz;L VfNghfk; VfNghfk; Nghl;bfs; XypfhNghyp – tpiy
eph;za jiyik kw;Wk; cl;$l;L xypfhNghyp tpiy eph;za
jiyik – LMfg;Nghyp njhopy;Jiw gFg;gha;T
myF - 11 : Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk

NkNyhl;l nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; mjd; epthuzq;fs; mbg;gil 159 - 176
fUj;Jf;fs; nghUshjhu tpfpjhr;rhuk; FwpaPL vz;fs; Njrpa
tUkhd Bg;Nyl;lh;];
myF - 12: EfHT nray;ghL KjyPl;L nray;ghL

Efh;jYk; KjyPLk; EfUjy; gzp KjyPl;L gzp %yjdj;jpd; 177 - 202
FWfpa jpwd; tzpf vjph;ghh;g;Gfs; ky;bgpisahh; f;rpNyl;lh;
myF - 13: cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs

epiyepWj;Jjy; nfhs;iffs; nghUshjhu epiyahd jd;ik 203 - 229
epiyahd ed;ikf;fhd %yf;$Wfs; gzf;Nfhl;ghL
nfhs;iffs; thptpjpg;G nfhs;iffs; Neuf;nfhs;if kw;Wk;
Neubf;fl;Lg;ghLfs;
myF - 14: tzpf Row;rp

tzpfr;rf;fuk; - mjd; tiuaiw kw;Wk; rpwg;gpay;Gfs; - 230 - 266
Nfhl;LghLfs; epthuzq;fs; kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghLfs; tzpf
rf;fuKk; tzpf KbTfSk; gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gztPo;rr ; p
gztPf;fj;jpd; tiffs; tiuaiw mij fl;Lg;gLj;j
vLf;fg;gLk; topfs; gz tPo;rr; p gzthl;lk;.
khjpup tpdhj;jhs; 267

nghUslf;fk;
myF - I Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; gf;fk; 1-13
1.1 mwpKfk;
1.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
1.3 nghUs;
1.4 tiuaiw:
1.5 epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
1.6 epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;
1.7 epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; nray;ghLfs;:
1.8 RUf;fk;
1.9. Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rhpghh;f;f gjpy;fs;
1.10 ghpe;Jiuf;fgl;l thrpg;Gfs;
myF- II Njit gFg;gha;T gf;fk; 14 - 30

2.1 mwpKfk;
2.2. Nehf;fq;fs;
2.3 nghUs; kw;Wk; Njit tpjp
2.4 Njit gFg;gha;T
2.5 Njitapd; nefpo;r;rp
2.6 RUf;fk;
2.7 cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;fhd gjpy;fs;
2.8 ghpe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
myF- III Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy gf;fk; 31 - 50

3.1 mwpKfk;
3.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
3.3 Njit Kd;fzpg;G
3.4 Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
3.5 ey;y Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd msTNfhy;fs;
3.6 Njit Kd;fzpg;G Kiwfs; my;yJ El;gq;fs;
3.6.1 fzf;nfLg;G Kiwfs;
3.6.2 Gs;sptptu Kiwfs;
3.7 Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;G.
3.8 RUf;fk;
3.9 cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;fs;
myF-IV toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiy gf;fk;: 51 - 63

4.1 mwpKfk;
4.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
4.3 toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiy
4.4 toq;fy; rl;lk;
4.5 toq;fy; rl;lj;jpw;F tpjptpyf;Ffs;
4.6 tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wq;fs;
4.7 tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; p
; pj;jd;ikia jPHkhdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
4.9 eilKiw Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
4.10 re;ij rkepiy kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiyapd; khw;wq;fs;
4.11 RUf;fk;
myF- V cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T gf;fk; 64 - 73

5.1 mwpKfk;
5.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
5.3 cw;gj;jpapd; nghUs; kw;Wk; fhuzpfs;
5.4 cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
5.5 cw;gj;jp nryT
5.6 RUf;fk;
myF - VI nryT gFg;gha;T gf;fk;: 74 - 90

6.1 mwpKfk;
6.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
6.3 nryTfspd; tiffs;
6.4 nryT nray;ghL
6.5 nryT-ntspaPl;L cwT
6.5.1 nryT - FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ntspaPl;L cwT
6.5.2 nryT ntspaPl;L cwTfs; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F.
6.6 RUf;fk;
6.8 ghpe;Jiuf;fg;;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
myF - VII yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup gf;fk;: 91 - 102

7.1 mwpKfk;
7.2 epWtdj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;
7.3 yhg mjpfupg;G khjpup
7.4 epWtdj;jpd; nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghL
7.5 irHl; kw;Wk; khHr; elj;ij Nfhl;ghL
7.6 khup]pd; tsHr;rp mjpfupg;G khjpup>
7.7 ghNkhypd; epiyahd kw;Wk; ildkpf; khjpupfs;
7.8 tpy;ypak;rdpd; epHthf tpUg;gg;gb Nfhl;ghL
7.9 RUf;fk;
7.10. cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;fhd gjpy;fs;
myF -VIII tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy nfhs;iffs; gf;fk;: 103 - 114
8.1 mwpKfk;
8.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
8.3 tUtha;
8.4 nghUs; kw;Wk; tiffs;
8.5 tUtha;fF ; k; tpiy nefpo;rr; pf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwT
8.6 tpiy nfhs;iffs;
8.7 tpiy nfhs;iffspd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
8.8 tpiy Kiwfs;
8.9 RUf;fk;
myF - IX rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;> Nkf;Nuh
nghUshjhuk;
gf;fk; 115 - 135
9.1 mwpKfk;
9.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
9.3 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;
9.4 re;ij kw;Wk; re;ij mikg;G
9.5 epiwT Nghl;b
9.6 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy ntspaPL jPHkhdpj;jy;
9.7 FWfpa fhy epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; cWjpahd rkepiy
9.8 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; FWfpa fhy njhopy; rkepiy
9.9. epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy cWjpahd rkepiy
9.10 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy njhopy; rkepiy.
9.11 RUf;fk;
myF X nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak; gf;fk;: 136- 158
10.1 mwpKfk;
10.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
10.3. NkhNdhNghyp
10.4 VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; tpiy ghFghL
10.5 ,Ujug;G VfNghfk;
10.6 VfNghf Nghl;b
10.7 xypNfhNghyp
10.8 $l;L xypNfhNghyp kw;Wk; tpiy jiyik
10.9 ,UKid
10.10 njhopy; gFg;gha;T
10.11 RUf;fk;
myF XI Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;; gf;fk;: 159 - 176
11.1 mwpKfk;
11.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
11.3 Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; mjd; rpy eltbf;iffs;
11.4 mbg;gil fUj;Jf;fs;
11.5 ngupa nghUshjhu tpfpjq;fs;
11.6 FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
11.7 Njrpa tUkhd tpyf;fpfs;
11.8 RUf;fk;
myF XII EfHT nray;ghL KjyPl;L nray;ghL gf;fk;: 176 – 202
12.1 mwpKfk;
12.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
12.3 EfHT nray;ghL
12.3.1 KjyPlL; nray;ghL
12.4 %yjdk; kw;Wk; tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; XusT nray;jpwd;
12.5 ngUf;fp
12.6 KLf;fp
12.7 RUf;fk;
myF XIII cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; gf;fk;: 203 - 229

13.1 mwpKfk;
13.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
13.3 cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
13.4 nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik
13.5 nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; fUtpfs;
13.6 gztpay; nfhs;if
13.7 epjpf; nfhs;if
13.8 ,aw;gpay; nfhs;if my;yJ Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;
13.9 RUf;fk;
myF- XIV tzpf Row;rp gf;fk;: 230 - 266
14.1 mwpKfk;
14.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
14.3 tzpf Row;rpfspd; nghUs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfs;
14.4 tzpf Row;rpfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;
14.5 tzpf Row;rpfs; kw;Wk; tzpf KbTfs;
14.6 gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk;
14.6.1 gztPf;fk; nghUs;
14.6.2 gztPf;fk; tiffs;
14.6.3 gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; eltbf;iffs;
14.7 gzthl;lk;
14.7.1 gzthl;lk; nghUs;
14.7.2 gzthl;lk; tiffs;
14.7.3 gzthl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;
14.8 RUf;fk;
14.10 gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
khjpup tpdhj;jhs; gf;fk; - 267

epHthf nghUshjhuk; Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd;
mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
myF - I Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd;
mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
1.1 mwpKfk; Fwpg;G
1.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
1.3 nghUs;
1.4 tiuaiw:
1.5 epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
1.7 epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; nray;ghLfs;:
1.8 RUf;fk;
1.9. Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rhpghh;f;f gjpy;fs;
1.10 ghpe;Jiuf;fgl;l thrpg;Gfs;
1.1. mwpKfk;: epHthf nghUshjhuk;

epHthf nghUshjhuj;ijg; gbg;gjd; Nehf;fk;> jw;NghJ
fpilf;ff;$ba tsq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd KbntLf;Fk;
nray;Kiwiag; gbg;gNj MFk;> mjpy; tsq;fspd; Njit
kpfg;ngupaJ> Mdhy; tsq;fspd; toq;fy; FiwthfNt cs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf> xU N`hl;lypy;> krhyh Njhir jahupf;f>
cupikahsH kdjpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;> xU Njhir jahupg;gjpy;
cs;s nryT kw;Wk; fpilf;Fk; jd;ik. mjhtJ khT> rikay;fhuH
fpilf;Fk;> fTz;lH gha;];> gad;ghl;L rpWtHfs;> krhyh nghUl;fs;>
thbf;ifahsHfs; kw;Wk; Njhirapd; tpiyia epHzapj;jy;.
gw;whf;Fiwahy; vOk; NjHTfis mtH nra;a Ntz;Lk;. RUf;fkhf>
epHthf nghUshjhuk; Njit kw;Wk; fpilf;ff;$ba tsq;fspd;
toq;fy; kw;Wk; mjd; xJf;fL P kw;Wk; gad;ghL Mfpatw;iwg;
ghHg;gjd; %yk; Kbit vLf;f cjTfpwJ vd;gij ehk;
njhFf;fyhk;. tutpUf;Fk; mj;jpahaq;fspy; tptuq;fis NkYk;
gbg;Nghk;.
1.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
myF topahfr; nrd;w gpwF> cq;fshy; KbAk;
1. epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; nghUisg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ
2. epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij mwpe;J nfhs;StJ.
3. epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; gy;NtW Nehf;fq;fis milahsk;
fhz;gJ.
4. epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij czHtJ.
Self-Instructional Material
1
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; 5. epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; ,uz;L Kf;fpa nray;ghLfspy;
ftdk; nrYj;JtJ.
1.3 nghUs;
xU tzpfj;jpy; vjpHnfhs;Sk; md;whl gpur;rpidfisj;
Fwpg;G
jPHg;gjw;fhd nghUshjhuf; fUj;Jfs;> Nfhl;ghLfs;> fUtpfs; kw;Wk;
topKiwfspd; Ma;T kw;Wk; mjd; gad;ghLfSld; epHthf
nghUshjhuk; ifahs;fpwJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;>
epHthf nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ nghUspay; Nfhl;ghL kw;Wk; epHthff;
Nfhl;ghl;bd; xUq;fpize;j Ma;T MFk;. tzpfj;jpy; fpilf;Fk;
tsq;fis xJf;fL P nra;tjpYk; gad;gLj;JtjpYk; KbntLf;f
Nkyhsiu ,J Mjupf;fpwJ.
NkYk;> epHthf nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ tzpfj;jpy; KbTfis
vLg;gjpy; Nkyhsiu Mjupf;f nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghL kw;Wk; msT
El;gq;fis (fzpjk; kw;Wk; Gs;sptptuk;) gad;gLj;Jtjd;
fyitahFk;.
tzpfj;jpy; KbntLf;Fk; gFjpfs; mlq;Fk;
· KjyPL nra;af;$ba epjpfspd; kjpg;gPL
· tzpf gFjpiaj; NjHe;njLg;gJ
· ·jahupg;G NjHT
· ·cfe;j ntspaPl;il jPHkhdpj;jy;
· ·tpw;gid caHT
epHthf nghUshjhu El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ve;jnthU
tzpf KbitAk; gFg;gha;T nra;ayhk;> Mdhy; ,J nghJthfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ:
· ,lH gFg;gha;T - Mgj;J kw;Wk; rkr;rPuw;w jfty;fis
mstpLtjw;Fk; Mgj;ij epHtfpg;gjw;fhd KbTtpjpfspy;
mtw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; gy;NtW khjpupfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
· cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T - cw;gj;jp jpwd;> cfe;j fhuzp xJf;fL
P >
nryTfs;> mstpyhd nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; epWtdj;jpd;
nryT nray;ghl;il kjpg;gpLtjw;F ikf;Nuh nghUshjhu
El;gq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd .
· tpiy gFg;gha;T - gupkhw;w tpiy epHzak;> $l;L jahupg;G
tpiy epHzak;> tpiy ghFghL> tpiy nefpo;rr ; p kjpg;gPLfs;
kw;Wk; cfe;j tpiy Kiwiaj; NjHe;njLg;gJ cs;spl;l
gy;NtW tpiy KbTfis gFg;gha;T nra;a ikf;Nuh
nghUshjhu El;gq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd .
2
· %yjd gl;n[l; - xU epWtdj;jpd; %yjd nfhs;Kjy;
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd;
KbTfis Muha KjyPlL
; Nfhl;ghL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ . mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
1.4 tiuaiw
epHthf nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ epHthf KbntLf;Fk; rpf;fy;fSf;F
cfe;j jPHTfisf; fz;lwpa Ez;zpa nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghL Fwpg;G
kw;Wk; msT Kiwfspd; njhFg;G MFk;.

gy;NtW epGzHfspd; $w;Wg;gb> epHthf nghUshjhuk;
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ:
"epHthf nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ nghJ kw;Wk; jdpahH epWtdq;fs;
vjpHnfhs;Sk; KbntLf;Fk; rpf;fy;fSf;F nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghL
kw;Wk; topKiwiag; gad;gLj;JtjhFk;".
- nkf;Fl;fd; kw;Wk; NkhaH
“tzpff; nfhs;iffis tFg;gjpy; nghUshjhu gFg;gha;T vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;gijf; fhz;gpg;gNj epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd;
Nehf;fk;".
- N[hay; Bd;
epHthfj;jhy; KbntLg;gjw;Fk; Kd;Ndhf;fpj; jpl;lkpLtjw;Fk;
trjpahf tzpf eilKiwAld; nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghl;il
xUq;fpizj;jy;".
- ];ngd;rH kw;Wk; rPfy;Nkd;
"tzpf epiyikia gFg;gha;T nra;a nghUshjhu rpe;jid
Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;Jtij epHthf nghUshjhuk; ifahs;fpwJ"
- nkf;ehaH & kupak;
tzpf kw;Wk; njhopy;Jiw epWtdq;fspy; rk;ge;jg;gl;l epHthf
rpf;fy;fSf;F nghUshjhuj;jpd; fUj;Jfs;> Nfhl;ghLfs; kw;Wk;
El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtij epHthf nghUshjhuk; Ma;T
nra;fpwJ. ,e;j nrhy; ikf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;> Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
kw;Wk; ehza nghUshjhuk; Mfpatw;Wld; khwp khwp
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk;

Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy
vOJq;fs;
M. cq;fs; gjpiy myF Kbtpy; nfhLf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld;
xg;gpLf
1. epHthf nghUshjhuj;ij tiuaWf;fTk;
3
1.5 eph;thf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;;:
epHthf ,yf;Ffis miltjw;F tsq;fs; vt;thW kpfTk;
jpwikahf ,af;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wpa Ma;Tjhd; epHthf
nghUshjhuk;. rpwe;j KbTfis vLf;f tzpf #o;epiyfis
Fwpg;G
gFg;gha;T nra;tjw;fhd kjpg;Gkpf;f fUtpahFk;.
xt;nthU tzpf kw;Wk; njhopy;Jiw epWtdq;fSk; mjpfgl;r
tpisTfis <l;Ltij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,e;j Nehf;fj;ij
miltjw;F> xU NkyhsH gy khw;W topfspypUe;J xU Fwpg;gpl;l
eltbf;iffisj; NjHe;njLg;gjpy; jdJ KbntLg;gjpy; ftdk;
nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. mt;thwhd epiyapy;> NkyhsH nghUshjhuf;
Nfhl;ghl;bd; mk;rq;fspYk;> nghUshjhu gFg;gha;tpd; fUtpfspYk;
ey;y mwpitf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;> mit KbntLf;Fk;
nray;ghl;by; Neubahf <Lgl;Ls;sd.
tzpf kw;Wk; njhopy;fspy; epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
Fwpj;J ];ngd;rH kw;Wk; rPfy;Nkd; gpd;tUkhW tpthjpj;jdH:
(1) cz;ikahd tzpf elj;ij kw;Wk; epge;jidfSf;F ghuk;gupa
jj;JthHj;j fUj;Jf;fSf;F ,lkspj;jy;:
epHthf nghUshjhuk; ghuk;gupa nghUshjhuj;jpd; fUtpfs;>
El;gq;fs;> khjpupfs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfis cz;ikahd tzpf
eilKiwfs; kw;Wk; xU epWtdk; nray;gl Ntz;ba #oYld;
xUq;fpizf;fpwJ. vl;tpd; khd;];gy
P ;bd; $w;Wg;gb> “epHthf
nghUshjhuk; gy nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghLfis rjp nra;Ak; Kw;wpYk;
gFg;gha;T rpf;fy;fSf;Fk; epHthfk; vjpHnfhs;s Ntz;ba
nfhs;iffspd; rpf;fy;fSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilntspiaf; Fiwf;f
Kaw;rpf;fpwJ".
(2) nghUshjhu cwTfis kjpg;gpLjy;: epHthf nghUshjhuk;
tUkhdk;> Njitapd; nefpo;rr ; p> nryT msT> ,yhg gFg;gha;T
Nghd;w gy;NtW tzpf fhuzpfSf;F ,ilapyhd nghUshjhu
cwTfis kjpg;gpLfpwJ.
(3)njhlHGila nghUshjhu msTfis Kd;dwptpj;jy;: nryT>
yhgk;> Njit> %yjdk;> cw;gj;jp> tpiy Nghd;w gy;NtW
nghUshjhu msTfis fzpg;gjpy; epHthf nghUshjhuk;
epHthfj;jpw;F cjTfpwJ kw;Wk; Mjupf;fpwJ. xU tzpf NkyhsH
epr;rakw;w #oypy; nray;gl Ntz;bapUg;gjhy;> mJ $wg;gl;l
msTfspd; mbg;gilapy; vjpHfhy gzpr;#oiy vjpHNehf;FtJ
Kf;fpak;.
(4)Fwpg;gplj;jf;f ntspg;Gw rf;jpfisg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ: xU
epWtdj;ij ghjpf;Fk; midj;J Kf;fpa fhuzpfisAk; epHthfk;
Self-Instructional Material milahsk; fhz Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j fhuzpfis ntspg;Gw kw;Wk; cs;
4
fhuzpfs; vd ,uz;L gpupTfshfg; gpupf;fyhk;. ,e;j fhuzpfis
KOikahf Gupe;J nfhs;tjpy; epHthfj;jpw;F cjTtjd; %yk; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
epHthf nghUshjhuk; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.

(m) ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs; : xU epWtdk; ,e;j fhuzpfspd; kPJ ve;j
fl;Lg;ghl;ilAk; nrYj;j KbahJ. ,e;j fhuzpfisf; ftdpg;gjd; Fwpg;G
%yk; epWtdj;jpd; jpl;lq;fs;> nfhs;iffs; kw;Wk; jpl;lq;fs;

tbtikf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ehl;bd; nghUshjhu mikg;G> tzpfr;
Row;rpfs;> Njrpa tUkhdk; kw;Wk; Njrpa cw;gj;jpapy; Vw;w
,wf;fq;fs;> murhq;fj;jpd; njhopy;Jiw nfhs;if> murhq;fj;jpd;
tHj;jfk; kw;Wk; epjpf; nfhs;if> tuptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;if> cupkf;
nfhs;if> ehl;bd; ntspehl;L tHj;jfj;jpy; Nghf;Ffs; Nghd;w
Fwpg;gplj;jf;f ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs;. ehl;by; nghJthd njhopy;Jiw
cwT kw;Wk; gy epWtdj;jpd; KbntLf;Fk; nray;Kiwapy;
vjpHkiwahf jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;.
(M) cs; fhuzpfs; : ,e;j fhuzpfs; xU epWtdj;jpd;
fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; tUfpd;wd. ,e;j fhuzpfs; jpdrup tzpf
nray;ghl;Lld; njhlHGilait. ,e;j fhuzpfisg; gw;wpa Mokhd
Ma;T> rpwe;j tzpf KbTfis cUthf;Ftjpy; epHthfj;jpw;F
cjTfpwJ.
(,) tzpff; nfhs;iffspd; mbg;gil: epHthff; nghUshjhuk;
vd;gJ tzpff; nfhs;iffspd; ];jhgff; nfhs;ifahFk;. epHthff;
nghUshjhuj;jpd; Ma;Tfs; kw;Wk; fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy;
tzpff; nfhs;iffs; jahupf;fg;gLfpd;wd> ,J Njrpa kw;Wk;
rHtNjr nghUshjhuj;jpy; epfof;$ba td;Kiw my;yJ jpBH
khw;wq;fSf;F vjpuhf epHthfj;ij vr;rupf;fpwJ. vdNt> epHthf
nghUshjhuk; mjd; KbntLf;Fk; nray;ghl;by; epHthfj;jpw;F
cjtpahf ,Uf;Fk;.
epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; jd;ik:
1. tzpf/epWtdq;fspd; (,aw;ifapy; ikf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;)
KbntLf;Fk; rpf;fy;fSf;F cfe;j jPHTfisf;
fz;lwptjw;fhd gFg;gha;tpy; epHthf nghUshjhuk; mf;fiw
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
2. epHthf nghUshjhuk; xU eilKiw nghUs; vdNt ,J
tpNtfkhd kw;Wk; ajhHj;jkhdJ.
3. epHthf nghUshjhuk; tptupf;fpwJ> ftdpf;fg;gl;l nghUshjhu
epfo;T vd;d (NeHkiw nghUshjhuk;) kw;Wk; ,Uf;f
Ntz;baij gupe;Jiuf;fpwJ (newpKiw nghUshjhuk;)
4. mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. (,aw;ifapy; fUj;jpay;)
5
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; 5. epHthf nghUshjhuk; xl;Lnkhj;j nghUshjhuj;jpd;
ghHitapy; epWtdq;fspd; rpf;fy;fis gFg;gha;T nra;fpwJ
(,aw;ifapy; Nkf;Nuh)
6. ,J tzpf rpf;fy;fSf;F cfe;j jPHitf; fz;lwpa
Fwpg;G
cjTfpwJ (rpf;fy; jPHf;Fk;)
epHthf nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; gpw Jiwfs;
epHthf KbntLg;gjw;fhd mjd; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; fUj;JfisAk;
gupe;Jiug;gjw;fhf epHthf nghUshjhuk; kw;w JiwfSld; mjd;
cwitf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mbg;gilapy; ,J nghUshjhuj;jpd; xU
fpis. epHthf nghUshjhuk; Gs;sptptuq;fs;> fzpjk;> fzf;fpay;
kw;Wk; nray;ghl;L Muha;rr; p Nghd;w rpy ghlq;fSld; neUf;fkhf
njhlHGilaJ.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; II I rupghHf;fTk;

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. ve;j ,uz;L fhuzpfs; epWtdj;ij ghjpf;fpwJ?

epHthf nghUshjhuk; ,uz;L Kf;fpa fpisfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
mit
1. ikf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
2. Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
ikf;Nuh kw;Wk; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; ,uz;Lk; tzpf
gFg;gha;tpw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd> mit tzpfr; #oiyg;
gFg;gha;T nra;tjw;Fk; eilKiw tzpf rpf;fy;fSf;fhd
jPHTfisf; fhzTk; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
ikf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
jdpegH epWtdk;> xU jdpg;gl;l EfHNthH> xU jdpg;gl;l njhopy;
kw;Wk; gy Nghd;w nghUshjhuj;jpd; rpwpa jdpg;gl;l myFfspd;
gFg;gha;it ,J ifahs;fpwJ.
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
,J KO nghUshjhuj;jpd; Ma;T. tzpfr; Row;rpfs;> tuptpjpg;G>
ntspAwTf; nfhs;if> njhopyhsH cwTfs; Nghd;w murhq;fj;jpd;
Njrpa tUkhd nghUshjhuf; nfhs;iffs; Nghd;w gy;NtW
fhuzpfisAk; ,J Gupe;Jnfhs;fpwJ.
6
tzpf rpf;fy;fs;:
Kf;fpa tzpf rpf;fy;fs;: mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
1. nray;ghl;L my;yJ cs; rpf;fy;fs;

2. Rw;Wr;#oy; my;yJ ntspg;Gw rpf;fy;fs;
nray;ghl;L rpf;fYf;F ikf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ: Fwpg;G
epWtdj;jpw;Fs; vOk; midj;J rpf;fy;fSk; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;.

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf: rpy mbg;gil cs; rpf;fy;fs;
1. tzpfj;jpd; NjHT kw;Wk; cw;gj;jpapd; jd;ik
2. epWtdj;jpd; msT NjHT
3. njhopy;El;gj;jpd; NjHT
4. tpiy NjHT
5. tpw;gidia vt;thW Nkk;gLj;JtJ
6. tpiy Nghl;bia vt;thW vjpHnfhs;tJ
7. Gjpa KjyPLfis vt;thW KbT nra;tJ
8. yhgj;ijAk; %yjdj;ijAk; vt;thW epHtfpg;gJ
9. ruf;Ffis vt;thW epHtfpg;gJ
,e;j rpf;fy;fspy; ngUk;ghyhdtw;iwf; ifahSk; ikf;Nuh
nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghLfs; gpd;tUkhW
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; Nfhl;ghL:
,J EfHNthH elj;ijia tpsf;FfpwJ. xU nghUis thq;fyhkh
Ntz;lhkh vd;gij EfHNthH vt;thW jPHkhdpg;ghH? nghUl;fspd;
tpiy> mtw;wpd; tUkhdk;> Rit kw;Wk; /Ng\d;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSf;F EfHNthH vt;thW gpujpgypf;fpwhHfs;?
RUf;fkhf> ,J mlq;Fk;
 Kd;dwptpg;G Njit
 tpiy kw;Wk; tpepNahf khw;wq;fs;> tUkhdj;jpd; jhf;fk;
kw;Wk; Njitf;fhd khw;W> yhgk; kw;Wk; Njit cwT kw;Wk;
gytw;wpd; Nfhupf;if gjpy;fs;>
cw;gj;jp Nfhl;ghL
,J cs;sPL kw;Wk; ntspaPl;Lf;F ,ilapyhd cwit tpsf;FfpwJ.
,J ve;j epiyikfspd; fPo; tpsf;FfpwJ> nryTfs; mjpfupf;fpd;wd
my;yJ Fiwfpd;wd@ cw;gj;jpapd; cs;sPl;bd; xU fhuzpapd;
myFfs; kw;w fhuzpfis khwhky; itj;jpUf;Fk;NghJ cw;gj;jp
khwpypapd; nkhj;j ntspaPL vt;thW mjpfupf;Fk;@ xU Fwpg;gpl;l
mstpyhd tsq;fspypUe;J cw;gj;jpapd; xU ntspaPL vt;thW
mjpfgl;rkhf ,Uf;f KbAk;> cw;gj;jpapd; ntspaPl;bd; cfe;jjhf
vg;gb jPHkhdpf;f KbAk;
RUf;fkhf> jahupg;Gfspd; Nfhl;ghL yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f
ntspaPl;bw;fhd cs;sPl;L cwT> cw;gj;jp nray;ghL> cw;gj;jpapd;
7
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; fhuzpfs;> nryT kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp cwT> nryT - ntspaPl;L
cwit FWfpa fhyj;jpy; gFg;gha;T nra;jy; kw;Wk; tzpfj;jpd;
ePz;l fhy re;jpg;G Nghd;w fhuzpfis cs;slf;fpaJ vd;W ehk;
$wyhk;. tpUk;gpa Nehf;fq;fis ntspNa.
Fwpg;G
re;ij gFg;gha;T
,e;j gFg;gha;T ntt;NtW re;ij epiyikfspd; fPo; tpiyfs;
vt;thW epHzapf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij tpsf;FfpwJ> tpiy epHzak;
tpUk;gj;jf;fJ> rhj;jpakhdJ kw;Wk; yhgfukhdJ@ xU Nghl;b
re;ijapy; tpw;gidia tpupthf;FtJ kw;Wk; gpw fhuzpfs;.
RUf;fkhf> ,e;j gFg;gha;T tpiyia jPHkhdpf;f> ntt;NtW re;ij
fl;likg;Gfspy; tpiyiag; Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ> tpiyf; nfhs;iffs;>
Kiwfs; kw;Wk; cj;jpfs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; cw;gj;jp myFfspy;
ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ.
yhg gFg;gha;T
,e;j gFg;gha;T jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit> fhuzp re;ijapy; cs;sPl;L
tpiyfs;> jahupg;G re;ijapy; ,ay;G kw;Wk; Nghl;bapd; msT>
jahupg;G re;ijapy; khwptUk; epiyikfspd; fPo; tpiy elj;ij
Mfpatw;why; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk; fhuzpfspy; nray;gLfpwJ.
RUf;fkhf> ntt;NtW re;ij fl;likg;Gfs;> tpiyf; nfhs;iffs;>
Kiwfs; kw;Wk; cj;jpfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; tpiyia epHzapg;gjw;fhd
cw;gj;jpapd; tpisthf vLf;fg;gl;l gFg;gha;tpy; KbTfs;
vLf;fg;gLfpd;wd> ,e;j gFg;gha;tpypUe;J vLf;fg;gl;l KbTfspy;
,ilntsp-$l Gs;sp gFg;gha;T> nryTf; Fiwg;G kw;Wk; fl;Lg;ghL
Mfpait mlq;Fk;. tpfpj gFg;gha;T> yhgk; ngw Njitahd
cw;gj;jp> tPzhtijf; Fiwj;jy; Nghd;wit>
%yjdj;jpd; Nfhl;ghL
epWtdj;jpd; ntw;wp %yjdj;jpd; jpwikahd xJf;fL P kw;Wk;
epHthfj;jhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ. %yjdj;Jld; njhlHGila
Kf;fpa gpur;rpidfs; KjyPl;L jpl;lj;jpd; NjHT> %yjdj;jpd;
nray;jpwid kjpg;gpLjy; kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd; kpfTk; jpwikahd
xJf;fL
P .
KjyPlL; KbTfs;
%yjd gl;n[l; KbTfs;> KjyPlb ; d; xJf;fPL kw;Wk; gad;ghL>
%yjd nryT> %yjd mikg;G> %yjdj;jpd; kPjhd tUthia
mjpfupf;f> Nghd;wit.
nghUshjhu Kd;fzpg;G kw;Wk; Kd;Ndhf;fp jpl;lkply;
,e;j jpl;lkplYf;F murhq;f nfhs;if> Nghl;b> Ntiytha;g;G>
njhopyhsH> tpiy kw;Wk; tUkhd epiyfs; Nghd;w Kf;fpa
Self-Instructional Material ntspg;Gw fhuzpfisg; Gupe;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. epjp> kf;fs;> re;ij
8
kw;Wk; jahupg;Gfs; Nghd;w cs; fhuzpfSld;> KjyPL> ,yhgq;fs;>
jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; re;ijfspd; mbg;gilapy; vjpHfhyj;ijj; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
jpl;lkpl nghUshjhuj;jpd; Nghf;FfSf;F Kd;dwptpg;G mtrpak;.

tzpf #oYf;F Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ
,J ehl;bd; xl;Lnkhj;j nghUshjhu> r%f kw;Wk; murpay; Fwpg;G
#o;epiyia cs;slf;fpaJ. ehl;bd; nghUshjhu #oypy; gpd;tUk;

fhuzpfs; cs;sd:
· ehl;bd; nghUshjhu mikg;gpd; tif
· cw;gj;jp> Ntiytha;g;G> tUkhdk;> tpiyfs;> Nrkpg;G kw;Wk;
KjyPLfspy; nghJthd Nghf;Ffs;
· epjp epWtdq;fspd; nray;ghl;bd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk;
Nghf;Ffs; v.fh. tq;fpfs;> fhg;gPl;L epWtdq;fs;
· ntspehl;L tHj;jfj;jpy; msT kw;Wk; Nghf;Ffs;.
cjhuzkhf. rHtNjr re;ijapy; fr;rh vz;nzapd; tpiyapy; Vw;w
,wf;fq;fs; ,e;jpahtpy; Bry; kw;Wk; ngl;Nuhy; tpiyia
ghjpf;fpd;wd.
· murhq;f nghUshjhu nfhs;iffs; jdpahH epWtdq;fspd;
tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd .,J njhopy;Jiw nfhs;if> tpiyf;
nfhs;if
· r%f fhuzp cjhuzk; nrhj;J cupikfs; kw;Wk;
gof;ftof;fq;fs;
· murpay; #oy; - tzpf cjhuzj;jpw;fhd murhq;f
mZFKiw [dehafthjp> Nrhryp];l;
· nghUshjhuj;jpd; jpwe;j epiy kw;Wk; cs;ehl;L re;ijapy;
gy Njrpa epWtdq;fspd; nry;thf;F.
epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH jdJ gFg;gha;T jpwd; kw;Wk;
kpfTk; tsHe;j El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; epHthfj;jpw;F
cjTfpwhH. ntw;wpfukhd KbntLg;gJ kw;Wk; vjpHfhy Nkk;gl;l
jpl;lkply; Mfpatw;wpd; rpf;fyhd rpf;fy;fisj; jPHf;f mtH
Kaw;rpf;fpwhH.
epHthf nghUshjhu gq;F gpd;tUkhW RUf;fpr; nrhy;yyhk;:
1. mtH nghUshjhu tbtq;fis Nkf;Nuh kl;lj;jpy; gbj;J>
mtH gzpGupAk; Fwpg;gpl;l epWtdj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij gFg;gha;T
nra;fpwhH.
2. vg;NghJk; khwptUk; nghUshjhur; #oiy ,yhgfukhd
tzpf topfshf khw;Wtjw;fhd epfo;jfTfis mtH njhlHe;J
Muha Ntz;Lk;.
9
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; 3. mtH xU epWtdj;jpd; tzpf jpl;lkply; nray;Kiwf;F
cjTfpwhH kw;Wk; nryT-gad; gFg;gha;it nray;gLj;JfpwhH.
4. xU epWtdj;jpd; cs; nray;ghL njhlHghd KbTfspy;
epHthfj;jpw;F mtH cjTfpwhH> mjhtJ tpiy khw;wq;fs;>
Fwpg;G
KjyPlL; j; jpl;lq;fs;> cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba
nghUl;fs;/Nritfs; tif> gad;gLj;j Ntz;ba cs;sPLfs;>
cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;ba El;gq;fs;> epWtdj;jpd;
tpupthf;fk;/RUf;fk;> %yjd xJf;fL
P > Gjpa Miyfspd; ,Ug;gplk;>
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; cw;gj;jpapd; msT> jhtu cgfuzq;fis
khw;WtJ> tpw;gid Kd;fzpg;G> ruf;F Kd;fzpg;G Nghd;wit.
5. $Ljyhf> xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH Njrpa tUkhdk;>
kf;fs; njhif> tzpf Row;rpfs; Nghd;w ngupa nghUshjhu
Fwpfhl;bfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; epWtdj;jpd; nray;ghl;by;
mtw;wpd; rhj;jpakhd tpisit gFg;gha;T nra;fpwhH.
6. nghJ cwTfs;> me;epa nryhtzp kw;Wk; tHj;jfk; kw;Wk;
epWtdj;jpd; nray;ghl;by; ehza kw;Wk; epjpf; nfhs;ifapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fspd; jhf;fj;ijg; gw;wp epWtdj;jpw;F mtH mspj;j
MNyhrid Kf;fpakhdJ.
7. mtH> Nghl;bapy; cs;s epWtdq;fspd; nghUshjhu
gFg;gha;itAk; nra;fpwhH. mtH nghUshjhuj; juitr; Nrfupj;J>
epWtdk; nray;gLk; #oiyg; gw;wpa midj;J Kf;fpakhd
jfty;fisAk; Muha Ntz;Lk;.
8. epHthf nghUshjhu ty;Yeupd; kpf Kf;fpakhd nray;ghL
njhopy;Jiw re;ijapy; tpupthd Muha;r;rpia elj;JtjhFk;.
9. ,e;j ghj;jpuq;fs; midj;ijAk; nra;a> xU epHthf
nghUshjhu epGzH xU tpupthd Gs;sptptu gFg;gha;it
Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
10. mtH tpopg;Gld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; mOj;jq;fis
rkhspf;Fk; jpwd; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
11. tup tpfpjq;fs;> Nghl;bahsupd; tpiy kw;Wk; jahupg;G Nghd;w
nghUshjhu jfty;fisAk; mtH epHthfj;jpw;F toq;FfpwhH.
mtHfs; jq;fs; kjpg;Gkpf;f MNyhridia murhq;f
mjpfhupfSf;Fk; toq;FfpwhHfs;.
1.7 epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; nray;ghLfs;
epHthf nghUshjhu ty;Yeupd; nray;ghLfs; ,uz;L fhuzpfisf;
ftdpf;f Ntz;Lk;> mjhtJ xU tzpf epWtdj;ij ghjpf;Fk; cs;
fhuzpfs; kw;Wk; ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs;.
,J njhlHghd gpd;tUk; Nfs;tpfspy; epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH
Self-Instructional Material epHthfj;jpw;F MNyhrid toq;fyhk;
10
cs; fhuzpfs;:
1. mLj;j epjpahz;bw;fhd tpw;gid gl;n[l; vd;dthf ,Uf;f mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
Ntz;Lk;?
2. mLj;j Mz;L ruf;F njhlHghd nfhs;if vd;dthf
,Uf;Fk;? Fwpg;G
3. mLj;j Mz;Lf;fhd cw;gj;jp ml;ltiz vd;dthf ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;?
4. Cjpaf; nfhs;if vd;dthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;?
5. epWtdj;jpd; fld; nfhs;ifapy; ve;j tifahd khw;wk;
Njit?
6. mLj;j Mz;Lf;fhd gzk; njhlHghd nfhs;if vd;dthf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;?
7. mLj;j Mz;Lf;fhd yhg gl;n[l; vd;dthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;?
ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs;:
epHthf nghUshjhu ty;YeUf;F Fiwe;j fl;Lg;ghl;ilf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; fhuzpfs; ,it. tzpfr; #oYld; njhlHGila
fhuzpfs; ,it> ,jpy; xU epWtdk; nray;gl Ntz;Lk;:
1. murhq;fj;jpd; tzpff; nfhs;if
2. Nghl;b
3. murhq;fj;jpd; nghUshjhuf; nfhs;if
4. tzpf re;ijapy; Row;rp Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs;
NkNy cs;s fhuzpfisg; gw;wp rpe;jpf;Fk;NghJ> epHthf
nghUshjhu ty;YeH rpf;fy;fis epHtfpf;f gupe;Jiuf;f KbAk;
1. murhq;fj;jpd; nfhs;iffspy; vd;d khw;wq;fs; eilngw;W
tUfpd;wd> NkYk; ,e;jj; Jiwapy; vjpHfhyj;jpy; vd;d khw;wq;fs;
Vw;glf;$Lk;?
2. vjpHfhyj;jpy; Njrpa nghUshjhuj;jpy; ve;j tifahd Row;rp
Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs; vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpd;wd?
3. epWtdj;jhy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fspd; Njitf;fhd
vjpHghHg;Gfs; vd;d?
4. cw;gj;jp nrytpy; vd;d khw;wq;fs; epfOk; vd;W
vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ?
epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; nray;ghLfs;
1. tpw;gid Kd;fzpg;G kw;Wk; re;ij Muha;r;rp
2. epWtdq;fspd; nghUshjhu gFg;gha;T
3. njhopy;Jiwapd; tpiyf; nfhs;if
4. %yjd jpl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp jpl;lk;
5. ghJfhg;G gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; fzpg;Gfs;
6. tHj;jfk; kw;Wk; kf;fs; njhlHGfs; Fwpj;j MNyhrid Self-Instructional Material
11
Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; 7. tsHr;rpailahj nghUshjhuq;fspd; gFg;gha;T
8. Rw;Wr;#oy; Kd;fzpg;G
epHthf nghUshjhu epGzupd; nghWg;Gfs;
xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH> epHthfj;jpw;F cjTtjw;Fk;
Fwpg;G
Mjutspg;gjw;Fk;> jdJ nghWg;Gfis njspthf mwpe;J nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. jdJ epWtdj;jpy; KjyPL nra;ag;gl;l %yjdj;jpd; kPJ
epahakhd ,yhgk; <l;Ltjw;fhd Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; mtH epidtpy;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
epWtdq;fs; vg;NghJNk yhg mjpfupg;Gf;fhfj; NjLtjpy;iy> Mdhy;
tsHe;J tUk; tupirapy; tzpfj;jpy; njhlHe;J yhgj;ijj; njhlu
Ntz;Lk;.
1. ntw;wpfukhd fzpg;Gfis cUthf;Fjy;
epHthfk; vjpHfhyj;ijg; gw;wpa KbTfis vLf;f Ntz;Lk;> ,J
epr;rakw;wJ. ,e;j epr;rakw;w jd;ikia Kw;wpYkhf mfw;w
KbahJ> Mdhy; nghUshjhu #oypd; mwptpay; fzpg;Gfspd; %yk;
mijf; Fiwf;f KbahJ.
mtH jdJ tzpfj;jpy; Gjpa Kd;Ndw;wq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;
mt;tg;NghJ jdJ fzpg;Gfis jpUj;j KbAk;.
mtH jdJ fzpg;gpy; khw;wj;ijf; fz;lTld;> mjw;Nfw;g
epHthfj;ij vr;rupf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2. njhlHGfis guhkupj;jy;:
xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH jdJ gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;
Kd;dwptpg;GfSf;fhf juT %yq;fSld; njhlHGfis epWtp
guhkupf;f Ntz;Lk;
,e;j Jiwapy; epGzHfshf ,Uf;Fk; egHfSld; mtH jdJ
gzpAld; rpy njhlHGfisf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
mtH njhopy;Kiw rq;fq;fspy; Nru Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; mtUf;F Gjpa
jfty;fis toq;Fk; gj;jpupiffSf;F FONru Ntz;Lk;.
3. epHthfj;ij KOikahf mwptJ
xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH KbntLg;gjpy; kw;Wk; Kd;Ndhf;fpj;
jpl;lj;jpy; gq;Nfw;f Ntz;Lk;. jpwikahd FO gq;Nfw;Gf;fhf mtH
jdJ FO cWg;gpdHfspilNa Vw;Wf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
rpwg;Gj; jpl;lq;fspYk; mtH gzpfis vLf;f KbAk;.
mtH jdJ fUj;Jf;fis njhopy;El;g uPjpahfTk; njhopy;El;g
uPjpahfTk; jdJ gq;FjhuHfSf;F njspthf ntspg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; IV
vOJq;fs;
12
M. cq;fs; gjpiy myF Kbtpy; nfhLf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld; xg;gpLf 1.
epHthf nghUshjhu ty;Yeupd; ,uz;L nghWg;GfisAk; $Wq;fs; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk
1.8 RUf;fk;
epHthf nghUshjhuk;> epHthf nghUshjhuk;> Kf;fpaj;Jtk;> ,ay;G Fwpg;G
kw;Wk; epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Nehf;fk; gw;wpa gy;NtW

epGzHfspd; tiuaiw> xU ey;y Ez;zwpit toq;Ftjd; %yk;
epHthf nghUshjhuk; mwpKfk; Fwpj;j gl;ljhupfSf;F xl;Lnkhj;j
myF mspf;fpwJ. kw;w xOf;f ghlq;fSld; ,ize;J epHthf
nghUshjhuj;jpd; ,ilepiy mZFKiwfisAk; ,J Fwpg;gpLfpwJ.
,J epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; gq;ifAk;> epWtdq;fspd;
KbntLf;Fk; nray;ghl;by; mtuJ Kf;fpa Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijAk;
cUthf;FfpwJ> Fwpg;ghf rhk;gy; epwg; gFjpfs; tzpf epWtdj;ij
Mz;LNjhWk; ghjpf;Fk;.
1.9 Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;fs;
1. "tzpf epiyikia gFg;gha;T nra;a nghUshjhu rpe;jid
Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;Jtij epHthf nghUshjhuk; ifahs;fpwJ"
2. cs; fhuzpfs; kw;Wk; ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs;
3. xU epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH jdJ gFg;gha;T jpwd; kw;Wk;
kpfTk; tsHe;j El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; epHthfj;jpw;F
cjTfpwhH. ntw;wpfukhd KbntLg;gJ kw;Wk; vjpHfhy Nkk;gl;l
jpl;lkply; Mfpatw;wpd; rpf;fyhd rpf;fy;fisj; jPHf;f mtH
Kaw;rpf;fpwhH.
4. m. ntw;wpfukhd fzpg;Gfis cUthf;Fjy;
M. njhlHGfis guhkupj;jy;
1. rq;fud;.v]; 2004. EpHthf nghUshjhuk;. khHfk; ntspaPL
2. Fg;jh.[p.v]; 2009. epHthf nghUshjhuk;. lhlh nkf;uh - `py;
v[{Nf\d; gpiuNtl; ypkpnll;.
3. fhtpup.MH.b.MH.Rj ehaf;. ANf> fpup[h.vk; kw;Wk;
lhf;lH.kPdhf;\p.MH .2010. epHthf nghUshjhuk;. v];.re;j;> GJ jpy;yp.
4. kNf];tup.Nf.vy; kw;Wk; tH\;dp MH.vy; 2014. epHthf
nghUshjhuk;. 22 tJ gjpg;G> re;j; rd;];> GJ jpy;y
13
Njit gFg;gha;T
myF II Njit gFg;gha;T
2.1 mwpKfk;
2.2. Nehf;fq;fs;
Fwpg;G
2.4 Njit gFg;gha;T
2.6 RUf;fk;
2.1 mwpKfk;
xt;nthU re;ij guptHj;jidAk; xU gupkhw;wj;ij cs;slf;fpaJ
kw;Wk; xt;nthU ehSk; gy gupkhw;wq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd. re;ij
vd;gJ nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritia thq;FtJ kw;Wk; tpw;gid
nra;tJ. xU thq;FgtH (thq;FgtH) re;ijapy; ,Ue;J nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; Nritfisf; NfhUfpwhH kw;Wk; tpw;gidahsHfs;
thq;FgtUf;F nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfis toq;FfpwhHfs;.
nghUshjhuj;jpd; gb> Nfhupf;if "xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;F xU
Fwpg;gpl;l tpiyf;F thq;fg;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd;
msT" vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf> ,e;jpahtpy; 10>000
fhHfs; ruhrupahf &.6>00>000/-tpiyapy; thq;fg;gl;lhy;>fhHfSf;fhd
tUlhe;jpu Njit 10000 a+dpl;Lfs; 6>00>000/- vd;w tpfpjj;jpy; vd;W
ehk; $wyhk;.
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; re;ijg; nghUshjhuj;jpd; ce;J rf;jpahf
khWfpwJ. vdNt> cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; cs;sPl;L tpiyfspy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fis NkyhsHfs; fzpf;f ,J kpf Kf;fpakhd epHthf
fhuzpahfpwJ. Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; gw;wpa mwpT NkyhsUf;F
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba nghUl;fs;> msT> cw;gj;jpapd; tpiy
kw;Wk; mjd; tpw;gid tpiy Fwpj;J rpwe;j KbTfis vLf;f
cjTfpwJ.
2.2 Nehf;fq;fs;:
,e;j myF gbg;gjd; %yk;> Njit gFg;gha;T nghUshjhu
gFg;gha;tpd; xU Kf;fpa gFjpahFk; vd;gij khztH
Gupe;Jnfhs;thH. jtpu> Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; rkk;> ehl;bd;
nghUshjhu epiyikfs; rkepiy epiyapy; cs;sd vd;w
fUj;ijAk; mtH Gupe;Jnfhs;thH. Njit my;yJ
nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikapd; khw;wq;fs; epHthf KbT vLg;gjw;F vij
Self-Instructional Material cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;> vt;tsT cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;>
14
vg;NghJ cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;> vq;F nghUl;fis tpepNahfpf;f Njit gFg;gha;T
Ntz;Lk;.
Njit: Njit vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; xU nghUspd;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l msit eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; Fwpg;G
thq;Ftjw;fhd jpwd; kw;Wk; tpUg;gk;. vdNt> xU nghUspd; Njit
mijg; ngWtjw;fhd tpUg;gk;> tpUg;gk; kw;Wk; mjw;fhd fl;lzk;
nrYj;Jk; jpwd; Mfpatw;iwf; Fwpf;fpwJ. Jy;ypakhf> Njit
vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyfl;lj;jpy; EfHNthH tpUk;Gk; kw;Wk;
gy;NtW tpiyapy; thq;ff;$ba xU ey;y msT vd;W ehk; $wyhk;.
Nfhug;gl;l tpiyf;Fk; mstpw;Fk; cs;s cwT Nfhupf;if tisT
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ve;jnthU tzpfKk; vg;NghJNk Njitapd; msitj; jPHkhdpf;f
fzprkhd njhifiaAk; Neuj;ijAk; nrytpl Kaw;rpf;fpwJ> kf;fs;
jq;fs; jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;F itj;jpUf;fpwhHfs;.
mtHfSila nghUl;fspy; vt;tsT cz;ikapy; ve;j tpiyapYk;
tpw;f KbAk;? jtwhd kjpg;gPLfs; Nfhupf;ifia Fiwj;J
kjpg;gpl;lhy; my;yJ Njit mjpfkhf kjpg;gplg;gl;lhy; ,og;Gfs;
ml;ltizapy; vQ;rpapUf;Fk;. Njit vd;gJ nghUshjhuj;ij
cw;rhfg;gLj;j cjTfpwJ> mJ ,y;yhky; tzpfq;fs; vijAk;
cw;gj;jp nra;ahJ.
Njit toq;fYld; neUf;fkhf njhlHGilaJ . nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;F EfHNthH jq;fshy; ,ad;w kpff; Fiwe;j tpiyia
nrYj;j Kaw;rpf;Fk;NghJ> rg;isaHfs; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f
Kaw;rpf;fpd;wdH. rg;isaHfs; mjpf fl;lzk; t#ypj;jhy;>
Nfhug;gl;l msT nrhl;Lfs; kw;Wk; rg;isaHfs; NghJkhd
,yhgq;fis <l;l NghJkhd jahupg;Gfis tpw;f KbahJ.
rg;isaHfs; kpff; Fiwthf fl;lzk; t#ypj;jhy;> Nfhug;gl;l msT
mjpfupf;fpwJ> Mdhy; Fiwe;j tpiyfs; rg;isaHfspd; nryTfis
<Lnra;ahJ my;yJ yhgj;ij mDkjpf;fhJ.
xU ey;y my;yJ Nritapd; KiwaPL> Nghl;bapLk; nghUl;fspd;
fpilf;Fk; jd;ik> epjp fpilg;gJ kw;Wk; xU ey;y my;yJ
Nritapd; fpilf;Fk; jd;ik Nghd;w rpy fhuzpfs; Njitia
ghjpf;fpwJ.
Njit tpjp: xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; Nfhug;gl;l xU nghUspd;
msT mjd; tpiy FiwAk; NghJ mjpfupf;fpwJ> nrl;lup]; gupg];.
(mjhtJ kw;w tp\aq;fs; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;)
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; I
15
Njit gFg;gha;T Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy
vOJq;fs;
M. cq;fs; gjpiy myF Kbtpy; nfhLf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld; xg;gpLf
1. Njit tpjp – tptup\
Fwpg;G
2.4 Njit gFg;gha;T
Njit ml;ltiz: xU EfHNthH xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy;
eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; thq;ff;$ba xU ey;y msitf;
fhl;Lk; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz.
ml;ltiz - 1: NghNthd;Nlhtpw;fhd Nfhupf;if ml;ltiz
Nghnthd;Nlhtpd; tpiy (200 kpy;yp) &ghapy; msT Nfhug;gl;lJ
50 1
45 2
40 3
35 5
30 7
25 9
20 12
15 15
10 20
Nfhupf;if tisT:
midj;J EfHNthH tpUg;gKs;s kw;Wk; eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiy
kl;lj;jpy; thq;ff;$ba xU nghUspd; nkhj;j msitf; Fwpf;Fk;
tisT> njhlHGila nghUl;fs;> tUkhdk; kw;Wk; gpw khwpfs;
Mfpatw;wpd; tpiyfis itj;jpUf;Fk;.
Nfhupf;if tisT vd;gJ Nfhupf;if ml;ltizapd; tiufiyg;
gpujpgypg;ghFk;. tpiy 'xa;' mr;rpy; Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ
kw;Wk; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; ntt;NtW tpiy kl;lq;fspy; Nfhug;gLk; msT
'vf;];' mr;rpy; Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. tistpd; xt;nthU
Gs;spAk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l msitf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l
Self-Instructional Material tpiyapy; Nfhug;gLk;. cjhuzkhf 200 kpy;yp Nghnthd;Nlhtpd;
16
tpiy &. 10> ,e;j tisT EfHNthH (50 tFg;gpy; cs;s Njit gFg;gha;T
khztHfs;) 20 myFfis thq;FthH vd;W $WfpwJ. tpiy &. 50
xU khztH kl;LNk mij thq;FthH.
bkhz;l; tisT> (DD) vd;gJ ,lkpUe;J tykhf fPo;Nehf;fp rha;e;j
tisthFk;> ,J tpiy tPo;rr ; pailAk; NghJ> Nfhug;gl;l msT Fwpg;G
caHfpwJ vd;gijf; fhl;LfpwJ. tpiyf;Fk; msTf;Fk; ,ilapyhd

,e;j jiyfPo; cwT Njit tpjp vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Nfhupf;ifapy; khw;wq;fs;:
Nfhupf;if jPHkhdpg;gtHfs; khWk;NghJ Nfhupf;if tistpd; khw;wk;
Vw;gLfpwJ. Rit kw;Wk; tpUg;gj;NjHTfs; kw;Wk; tUkhdq;fs;
khw;wg;gLk;NghJ> tpiyf;Fk; msTf;Fk;,ilapyhd mbg;gil cwT
khw;wq;fs; (khw;wq;fs;) Nfhug;gLfpwJ. , J KO Njit
tisitAk; Nky;Nehf;fp (tyJGwkhf) khw;WfpwJ kw;Wk; Njit
mjpfupg;G vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ> Vnddpy; me;j nghUl;fspd;
mjpfkhdit me;j tpiyapy; Nfhug;gLfpd;wd. fPo;Nehf;fpa khw;wk;
(,lJGwk;) Njit FiwT vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. MfNt>
tpiyiaj; jtpu NtW khwpfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf
Nfhupf;if tistpy; khw;wk; Vw;glf;$Lk; vd;gij ehq;fs;
Gupe;Jnfhs;fpNwhk;.
Nfhupf;if tistpd; ePl;bg;G kw;Wk; RUf;fk;:
tpiy tPo;rr
; pAld; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> mjpfkhd nghUl;fs;
thq;fg;gLfpd;wd> gpd;dH Njit tistpd; ePl;bg;G cs;sJ.
tpiy caHTld; Fiwe;j msT Nfhug;gLk;NghJ> Njitapd;

RUf;fk; cs;sJ. tpiyfspd; mjpfupg;G Njitapd; RUf;fj;ij
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ vd;gij NkNy cs;s tiuglj;jpypUe;J ehk; Gupe;J
nfhs;syhk;.
Njit nray;ghL vd;gJ me;j nghUl;fspd; jw;Nghija tpiyfs;
kw;Wk; njhlHGila nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs;> khw;W tUkhd epiyfs;
kw;Wk; Njitia ghjpf;Fk; gpw khwpfspd; khw;W kjpg;Gfs;
Mfpatw;wpy; vt;tsT nghUl;fs; thq;fg;gLk; vd;gij tptupf;Fk;
xU nray;ghL MFk;. xU ey;y Njitf;fhd msit epHzapf;Fk; Self-Instructional Material
17
Njit gFg;gha;T xNu fhuzp tpiy my;y. kw;w Kf;fpakhd fhuzp tUkhdk;.
tUkhd caHT rhjhuz nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;Fk;. xU
rpy nghUl;fSf;F juk; Fiwe;j nghUl;fs; vd;W
ngauplg;gl;Ls;sJ> mjw;fhf tUkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ Njit
Fwpg;G FiwAk;. xU ey;y Njitia ghjpf;Fk; kw;nwhU Kf;fpakhd
fhuzp kw;w nghUl;fspd; tpiy. Nkw;$wpa fhuzpfisj; jtpHj;J
ey;yjw;fhd Njitia ghjpf;Fk; gpw fhuzpfs;:
· kf;fs;njhifapy; khw;wq;fs;
·/Ng\dpy; khw;wq;fs;
· Rit khw;wq;fs;
· tpsk;guj;jpy; khw;wq;fs;
xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l Nfhupf;if jPHkhdpg;gtHfs;
khWk;NghJ Nfhupf;ifapy; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ> mJ gpd;tUk;
rkd;ghl;by; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Qd X = f (Px, Pr, Y, T, Ey, Ep, Adv….)
Qd X = ey;y 'X' Nfhug;gl;l msT
Px = ey;y X ,d; tpiy
Pr = njhlHGila ed;ikf;fhd tpiy
Y = EfHNthupd; tUkhd epiy
T = EfHNthupd; Rit kw;Wk; tpUg;gk;
Ey = vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; tUkhdk;
Ep = vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; tpiy
Adv = tpsk;gu nryT
NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;l Nfhupf;if nray;ghL Njitf;Fk; gpw
fhuzpfSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwit ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ. nghUl;fspd;
tpiy (gpvf;];)> tUkhdk; (xa;)> njhlHGila nghUl;fspd; tpiy
(gpMH)> EfHNthupd; Rit kw;Wk; tpUg;gk; (b)> vjpHghHf;fg;gLk;
tUkhdk; (<) kw;Wk; tpsk;gu nryT Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J vf;];
vf;]; Nfhug;gLk; msT khWgLk;. (ml;th) mikg;G nrytopj;jJ.
Nfhupf;ifia epHzapg;gtHfs;:
xU nghUspd; Njitia ghjpf;Fk; gy;NtW fhuzpfs; cs;sd.
mit:
1. ey;ytw;wpd; tpiy: xU nghUspd; tpiy Njitf;fhd Kf;fpakhd
jPHkhdpg;gjhFk;. tpiy kw;Wk; Njit jiyfPo; njhlHGilait.
mjpf tpiy Fiwthf Njit kw;Wk; NeHkhwhf cs;sJ.
2. njhlHGila nghUl;fspd; tpiy: khw;W nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; epug;G
Self-Instructional Material nghUl;fs; Nghd;w njhlHGila nghUl;fspd; tpiyAk; Njitia
18
ghjpf;fpwJ. khw;wPLfisg; nghWj;jtiu> xU nghUspd; tpiy Njit gFg;gha;T
caHT mjd; khw;wPl;bw;fhd Njit mjpfupf;f toptFf;fpwJ. epug;G
nghUl;fspd; tp\aj;jpy;> xU nghUspd; tpiyapy; tPo;rr ; p ,U
nghUl;fSf;Fk; Njit mjpfupf;f toptFf;fpwJ.
3. EfHNthH tUkhdk;: ,J Neubahf Nfhupf;ifAld; njhlHGilaJ. Fwpg;G
EfHNthupd; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gl;l khw;wk;> ngUk;ghyhd
nghUl;fSf;fhd mtuJ Njitia fzprkhf ghjpf;fpwJ.
nrytopg;G tUkhdk; mjpfupj;jhy;> Njit mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4. Rit> tpUg;gk;> ehfupfq;fs; kw;Wk; gof;ftof;fq;fs;: ,it xU
nghUspd; Njitia ghjpf;Fk; kpfTk; gaDs;s fhuzpfs;.
EfHNthupd; Rit> gof;fk; my;yJ tpUg;gq;fspy; khw;wk;
,Uf;Fk;NghJ> mtUila Njit khWk;. r%fj;jpy; cs;s
ehfupfq;fSk; gof;ftof;fq;fSk; ek;Kila gy Nfhupf;iffis
jPHkhdpf;fpd;wd.
5. kf;fs; njhif: kf;fs;njhifapd; msT mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;>
nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. nkhj;j
kf;fs;njhifapy; khw;wk; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ xU nghUspd; re;ij Njit
fzprkhf khWfpwJ.
6. gzg; Gof;fj;jpy;: Gof;fj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; gzk;> Njit
mjpfkhfpwJ kw;Wk; NeHkhwhf.
7. gzj;jpd; kjpg;G: gzj;jpd; kjpg;G re;ijapy; xU nghUspd;
Njitia jPHkhdpf;fpwJ. gzj;jpd; kjpg;gpy; caHT my;yJ tPo;rr; p
Vw;gLk;NghJ> ntt;NtW nghUl;fspd; xg;gPlL
; tpiyfspYk; mtw;wpd;
NjitapYk; khw;wq;fs; ,Uf;fyhk;.
8. thdpiy epiy: thdpiy vd;gJ rpy nghUl;fSf;fhd Njitia
jPHkhdpf;Fk; xU Kf;fpa fhuzpahFk;.
9. tpsk;guk; kw;Wk; tpw;gidj;jpwd;: xU nghUSf;F tpsk;guk;
kpfTk; ftHr;rpfukhdjhf ,Ue;jhy;> Njit mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
,NjNghy; tpw;gidAk; tpsk;guKk; gaDs;sjhf ,Ue;jhy;>
nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
10. EfHNthupd; vjpHfhy tpiy vjpHghHg;G: vjpHfhyj;jpy; tpiyfs;
mjpfupf;Fk; vd;W EfHNthH vjpHghHj;jhy;> mtH jw;Nghija
tpiyapy; mjpfkhf thq;ff;$Lk;> vdNt mtuJ Njit
mjpfupf;Fk;.
11. murhq;f nfhs;if (tuptpjpg;G): mjpf tup tpiyia mjpfupf;Fk;
kw;Wk; Njitia Fiwf;Fk;> mNj Neuj;jpy; Fiwe;j tup tpiyia
Fiwj;J Njitia ePl;bf;Fk;.
19
Njit gFg;gha;T 12. fld; trjpfs;: fld; trjpfs; fpilg;gijg; nghWj;J
nghUl;fspd; Njit khWk;. trjpfs; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ>
Njit mjpfk;.
13. nghUl;fspd; gad;ghLfspd; ngUf;fk;: gz;lj;jpw;F gy gad;fs;
Fwpg;G ,Ue;jhy;> xU nghUis xU Nehf;fj;jpw;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jtij tpl
Njit mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Njit NtWghLfs;: Njit tiffs;
xU egH tpUk;Gk; nghUl;fs; my;yJ Nritfspd; msT vd
Nfhupf;if tiuaWf;fg;glyhk;> ,J gzk; nrYj;Jk; jpwd; kw;Wk;
tpUg;gj;jhy; Mjupf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Njit tiffs;:
1. Neub kw;Wk; kiwKf Njit: (my;yJ) jahupg;ghsHfspd;
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; EfHNthH nghUl;fs;:
,Wjp EfHNthuhy; Neubahf EfHTf;F gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit Neub Njit vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ
(vLj;Jf;fhl;L: b \Hl;fSf;fhd Njit). kPJ nghUl;fisAk;
NritfisAk; cw;gj;jp jahupg;ghsHfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
nghUl;fSf;F kWGwk; Njit. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: xU [Tsp Miy
%yk; gUj;jpf;fhd Njit)
2. ngwg;gl;l Njit kw;Wk; jd;dhl;rp Njit:
xU jahupg;G mjd; gad;ghl;il rpy Kjd;ik jahupg;Gfspd;
gad;ghl;bypUe;J ngWk;NghJ> mJ ngwg;gl;l Njit vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: fhUf;fhd NjitapypUe;J
ngwg;gl;l laHfSf;fhd Njit) jd;dhl;rp Njit vd;gJ
RahjPdkhfg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba xU jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit.
(vLj;Jf;fhl;L: xU ryit ,ae;jpuj;jpw;fhd Njit)
3. ePbj;j kw;Wk; ePbj;j nghUl;fs; Njit:
ePbj;j nghUl;fs; vd;gJ xU fhyj;jpw;Fs; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l Kiw
gad;gLj;jf;$bait (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: Ez;ziy mLg;G) ePbj;j
nghUl;fs; xU Kiw kl;LNk gad;gLj;jg;glyhk; (vLj;Jf;fhl;L:
Ngz;l;-cjtp)
4. cWjpahd kw;Wk; njhopy; Njit:
cWjpahd Njit vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;Gf;fhd
Njit. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: Nlht; Nrhg;) xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;Jiwapd;
jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit njhopy; Njit (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: ,e;jpahtpy;
v/F Njit)
5. nkhj;j re;ij kw;Wk; re;ijg; gpupT Njit:
re;ijfspd; Njitapd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpupT gpupT Njit vd
Self-Instructional Material miof;fg;gLfpwJ (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: nghwpapay; khztHfspd;
20
kbf;fzpdpfSf;fhd Njit) ,e;jpahtpy; gy;NtW gpupTfshy; Njit gFg;gha;T
kbf;fzpdpfSf;fhd Njitapd; nkhj;j njhif nkhj;j re;ij
Njit. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: ,e;jpahtpy; kbf;fzpdpfSf;fhd Njit)
6. FWfpa fhy kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy Njit:
FWfpa fhy Njit vd;gJ tpiy khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; tUkhd Vw;w Fwpg;G
,wf;fq;fSf;F cldb vjpHtpidAld; Nfhupf;ifia Fwpf;fpwJ.
ePz;lfhy Njit vd;dntd;why;> NghJkhd Neuj;Jld; re;ij
rupnra;jYf;Fg; gpwF tpiy> gjtp caHT my;yJ jahupg;G Nkk;ghL
Mfpatw;wpd; khw;wq;fspd; tpisthf ,J ,Uf;Fk;.
7. $l;L Njit (Joint Demand) kw;Wk; $l;L Njit (Composite
Demand):
xU tpUg;gj;ij g+Hj;jp nra;a xNu Neuj;jpy; ,uz;L nghUl;fs;
xd;NwhL xd;W Nfhug;gLk;NghJ> mJ $l;L my;yJ epug;G Njit
vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: ngl;Nuhy; kw;Wk; ,U rf;fu
thfdq;fSf;fhd Njit) xU $l;L Njit vd;gJ gytpjkhd
gad;ghLfSf;F ey;yJ. (vLj;Jf;fhl;L: gy;NtW Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf
,Uk;G fk;gpfSf;fhd Njit)
8. tpiy Njit> tUkhd Njit kw;Wk; FWf;F Njit:
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. khw;W tUkhd tUkhdj;jpy; EfHNthH
NfhUk; msT tUkhd Njit. FWf;F Njit vd;gJ 'vf;];' vd;w
nghUspd; Nfhug;gl;l msitf; Fwpf;fpwJ> ,J njhlHGila
nghUl;fspd; tpiyahd 'xa;' tpiyf;F vf;]; my;yJ mjw;F
khw;whf ,Uf;fyhk;.
tpiy Njit: xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; xU ey;y Fwpg;gpl;l
msTfis eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; thq;Ftjw;fhd jpwd;
kw;Wk; tpUg;gk;.
tUkhd Njit: xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; fpilf;ff;$ba
tUkhdj;jpy; xU nghUis thq;Ftjw;fhd jpwd; kw;Wk; tpUg;gk;.
re;ij Njit: xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; kf;fs; tpUk;Gk; kw;Wk;
eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; thq;ff;$ba xU ey;y my;yJ
Nritapd; nkhj;j msT. ,J jdpg;gl;l Nfhupf;iffspd; njhif.
FWf;F Njit: njhlHGila nghUl;fspd; jw;Nghija tpiyapy;
xU nghUs; my;yJ Nritia thq;Ftjw;fhd jpwd; kw;Wk;
tpUg;gk; mjhtJ khw;wPLfs; my;yJ epug;G nghUl;fs;. cjhuzkhf>
muprpapd; tpiy mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ kf;fs; NfhJikia mjpfk;
thq;FfpwhHfs;.
tpjptpyf;fhd Nfhupf;if tisT: nghUl;fspd; tpiy mjpfupj;j
NghjpYk;> gw;whf;Fiw gak; Nghd;w fhuzq;fshy; kf;fs; mjpfkhf
21
Njit gFg;gha;T thq;f KidfpwhHfs; my;yJ mJ Kw;wpYk; mtrpakhd ey;yjhf
,Uf;fyhk;.
xt;nthU re;jHg;gj;jpYk; #o;epiyapYk; Nfhupf;if rl;lk;
nghUe;jhJ. Nfhupf;if rl;lk; gadw;wjhf khWk; #o;epiyfs;
Fwpg;G rl;lj;jpd; tpjptpyf;Ffs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j Kf;fpakhd
tpjptpyf;Ffs; rpy fPo; cs;sd.
1. fp/ngd; nghUl;fs;:
rpy rpwg;G tif jho;thd nghUl;fs; fp/ngd; nghUl;fs; vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. kypthd tiffshd g[;uh Nghd;w jpid>
cUisf;fpoq;F Nghd;w kypthd fha;fwpfs; ,e;j tifapd; fPo;
tUfpd;wd. maHyhe;ijr; NrHe;j rH uhgHl; fp/ngd; Kjd;Kjypy;
kf;fs; jq;fs; tUkhdj;jpy; mjpfkhdtw;iw cUisf;fpoq;F
Nghd;w jho;thd nghUl;fSf;fhfTk;> tUkhdj;jpy; Fiwthf
,iwr;rpf;fhfTk; nrytopg;gijf; ftdpj;jdH. cUisf;fpoq;if
gpujhd czit thq;fpa gpwF> ,iwr;rp thq;Ftjw;F mtHfsplk;
gpujhd czT cUisf;fpoq;F cgup ,y;iy. vdNt
cUisf;fpoq;fpd; tpiy caHT kf;fis mjpf cUisf;fpoq;F
thq;f epHge;jpj;jJ> ,jdhy; cUisf;fpoq;fpd; Njitia
caHj;jpaJ. ,J Nfhupf;if rl;lj;jpw;F vjpuhdJ. ,J fp/ngd;
Kuz;ghL vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. Fwpg;gplj;jf;f EfHT / ntgpyd; tpisT:
Nfhupf;if rl;lj;jpw;F ,e;j tpjptpyf;F NjhH];ld; ntg;nyd;
Kd;itj;j Nfhl;ghl;Lld; njhlHGilaJ. ituq;fs; Nghd;w xU rpy
nghUl;fs; r%fj;jpd; gzf;fhu kw;Wk; nry;te;jHfshy;
thq;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs; rhjhuz
kdpjHfSf;F vl;lhj msTf;F mjpfkhf cs;sd. ituj;jpd; tpiy
caHe;jhy;> mjd; fTut kjpg;G mjpfkhFk;. vdNt ,e;j
nghUl;fspd; tpiy FiwAk; NghJ> EfHNthH ,e;j nghUl;fspd;
fTut kjpg;G FiwAk; vd;W epidf;fpwhHfs;. vdNt ,e;j
nghUl;fspd; Nfhug;gl;l msT mtw;wpd; tpiy tPo;rr ; pAld;
FiwfpwJ. vdNt Nfhupf;if rl;lk; ,q;F ey;yjy;y.
3. ntspg;gilahd Njitfs;:
rpy tp\aq;fs; etPd tho;f;ifapd; Njitfshfpd;wd. vdNt
mtw;wpd; mjpf tpiy ,Ue;jNghjpYk; mtw;iw thq;f Ntz;Lk;.
btp ngl;bfs;> Ml;Nlhnkhigy;fs; kw;Wk; FspHrhjd ngl;bfs;
Nghd;wtw;wpd; Njit mtw;wpd; tpiy mjpfupj;j NghjpYk;
Fiwatpy;iy. ,e;j tp\aq;fs; me;j];jpd; milahskhf
khwptpl;ld. vdNt mit caUk; tpiy ,Ue;jNghjpYk;
Self-Instructional Material thq;fg;gLfpd;wd.
22
4. mwpahik: Njit gFg;gha;T
xU EfHNthupd; mwpahik vd;gJ kw;nwhU fhuzpahFk;> rpy
rkaq;fspy; mjpf nghUl;fis mjpf tpiyf;F thq;f mtiuj;
J}z;LfpwJ. ,J Fwpg;ghf cz;ik> EfHNthH Fiwe;j tpiyapy;
,Ug;gij tpl mjpf tpiy kw;Wk; Kj;jpiuaplg;gl;l nghUl;fs; Fwpg;G
juj;jpy; rpwe;jJ vd;W ek;Gk;NghJ.
5. mtruepiy:
NghH> gQ;rk; Nghd;w mtru fhyq;fspy;> tPLfs; mrhjhuzkhd
Kiwapy; ele;J nfhs;fpd;wd. FLk;gq;fs; gw;whf;Fiwia
mjpfupf;fpd;wd kw;Wk; mjpf tpiyf;F $l mjpf nfhs;Kjy;
nra;tjd; %yk; NkYk; tpiy caHitj; J}z;Lfpd;wd> Vnddpy;
mit fpilf;fhJ vd;w mr;rk;. . kWGwk;> kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ>
tpiyfs; tPo;rr; p vd;gJ EfHNthH Njitg;gl;lhy; mjpfkhff;
NfhUtjw;F NghJkhd epge;jid my;y.
6. tpiyfspy; vjpHfhy khw;wq;fs;:
FLk;gq;fSk; Cf tzpfHfshf nray;gLfpd;wd. tpiyfs;
caUk;NghJ> tpiyfs; ,d;Dk; cauf;$Lk; vd;w mr;rj;jpy;
FLk;gq;fs; mjpf msT nghUl;fis thq;f Kidfpd;wd. tpiyfs;
NkYk; FiwAk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; NghJ> vjpHfhyj;jpy; ,d;Dk;
Fiwe;j tpiyapy; nghUl;fis thq;f mtHfs; fhj;jpUf;fpwhHfs;.
vdNt tpiyfs; FiwAk; NghJ Nfhug;gl;l msT FiwfpwJ.
7. ehfuPf khw;wk;:
/Ng\d; kw;Wk; Ritfspy; khw;wk; xU nghUspd; re;ijia
ghjpf;fpwJ. xU b[pl;ly; Nfkuh xU rhjhuz ifNaL Nfkuhit
khw;Wk;NghJ> gq;Ffis mopf;f gpe;ijatw;wpd; tpiyapy; ve;j
msTk; Fiwf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. kWGwk; b[pl;ly; Nfkuhf;fs;> mjd;
tpiy cauf;$Lk; vd;whYk; mjpf thbf;ifahsHfisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. Nfhupf;if rl;lk; gadw;wjhfpwJ.
8. MHg;ghl;l tpisT:
,J caH tUkhdf; FOf;fspd; EfHT Kiwiag; gpd;gw;Wtjw;fhd
Fiwe;j tUkhdf; FOf;fspd; Nghf;iff; Fwpf;fpwJ. mtHfs;
thq;Fk; jpwd; ,y;yhtpl;lhYk; mz;il ehLfspd; EfHT gpd;gw;w
xU nghUis thq;FtH.
9. ];Ndhg; tpisT:
rpy thq;FgtHfSf;F mrhjhuzkhd my;yJ jdpj;Jtkhd
jahupg;Gfis nrhe;jkhf itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;> mit
kw;wtHfsplkpUe;J NtWgl;lit vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. ,e;j
#o;epiyapy; tpiy caUk;NghJ $l nghUl;fspd; Njit mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk;. Self-Instructional Material
23
Njit gFg;gha;T 10. Cf nghUl;fs; / fhyhtjpahd nghUl;fs; / gUtfhy
nghUl;fs;:
gq;Ffs; Nghd;w Cf nghUl;fs; Nfhupf;if rl;lj;ij
gpd;gw;Wtjpy;iy. tpiyfs; caUk;Nghnjy;yhk;> tHj;jfHfs;
Fwpg;G tpiyfs; NkYk; caUk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fpwhHfs;> vdNt mtHfs;
mjpfkhf thq;FfpwhHfs;. nry;y ,ayhj nghUl;fis fhuzkhf
mbg;gil njhopy;El;g tsHr;rp kUe;jpd; gad;ghl;L ntspNa
fhyhtjpahd nghUl;fs; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. tpiy tPo;r;rpAld; $l
,JNghd;w nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit cauhJ
11. gUtfhy nghUl;fs;:
M/g;-rPrdpy; (gUtfhy nghUl;fs;) gad;gLj;jg;glhj nghUl;fSk;
,Nj Nghd;w Nfhupf;if elj;ijf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLk;.
12. FWfpa tpepNahfj;jpy; cs;s nghUl;fs;:
kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l mstpy; fpilf;Fk; my;yJ vjpHfhyj;jpy;
fpilg;gJ epr;rakw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk; nghUl;fSk; Nfhupf;if rl;lj;ij
kPWfpd;wd.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; III rupghHf;fTk;
vOJq;fs;
M. cq;fs; gjpiy myF Kbtpy;
nfhLf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld; xg;gpLf
1. tpiy Njit vd;gjd; mHj;jk; vd;d?

nghUshjhuj;jpy;> nefpo;rr; p vd;w nrhy; xU khwpapy; tpfpjhrhu
(rjtPjk;) khw;wj;ij kw;nwhU khwpapy; tpfpjhrhu (rjtPjk;)
khw;wj;Jld; xg;gpLfpwJ. ey;ytw;wpd; tpiy khw;wq;fs;> gpw
nghUl;fspd; tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;> tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; gpw fhuzpfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fshy; xU ed;ik
Nfhug;gLk; msT ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. nefpo;rr ; p vd;gJ tpiy my;yJ
tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jhy; Nfhug;gl;l msT vt;tsT
ghjpf;fg;gLk; vd;gjw;fhd xU eltbf;ifahFk;.
Njitapd; nefpo;rr ; p vd;gJ xU nghUspd; tpiy tPo;rr ; pahy; xU
nghUspd; Njitf;F gjpyspf;Fk; msit tptupf;f nghUshjhu
ty;YeHfshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU njhopy;El;g nrhy; MFk;. tpiy
tPo;rr
; p Nfhug;gl;l msT mjpfupg;gjw;Fk; NeHkhwhfTk;
toptFf;fpwJ.
Nfhupf;ifapd; nefpo;r;rp gpd;tUkhW ,Uf;fyhk;:
Self-Instructional Material · tpiy nefpo;rr
; p
24
· tUkhd nefpo;r;rp kw;Wk; Njit gFg;gha;T
· FWf;F nefpo;rr
; p
tpiy nefpo;r;rp
xU nghUspd; tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpw;F EfHNthupd; gjpy;
nghUl;fspd; Njitapd; tpiy nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikahy; Fwpg;G
mstplg;gLfpwJ. tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf Nfhug;gl;l

msTfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fspd; gpujpgypg;G Nfhupf;ifapd; tpiy
nefpo;rr
; p vd Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. tpiyapd; rjtPj khw;wj;jhy;
Nfhug;gl;l mstpd; rjtPj khw;wj;ij tFg;gjd; %yk; Nfhupf;ifapd;
tpiy nefpo;rr; p mstplg;gLfpwJ.
tpiy nefpo;rr
; p = Nfhug;gl;l tpfpjhrhu khw;wk; / tpfpjhrhu mstpy;
tpiyapy; khw;wk;
Nfhug;gl;l Nfhug;gl;l mstpyhd rjtPj mstpyhd rjtPj

khw;wk; = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
tpiyapy; rjtPjk; khw;wk;
------
Q/Q 10
= --------- = ------ = 0.5
ΔP / P 20
ΔQ = Nfhug;gl;l msT khw;wk;
ΔP = tpiyapy; khw;wk;
P = tpiy
Q = msT Nfhug;gl;lJ
cjhuzj;jpw;F:
Nfhug;gl;l msT & .500 tpiyapy; 20 myFfs;. tpiy rupe;jhy; &.
400 ,J 32 a+dpl;LfSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;Fk;. vdNt & .100
tpiyapy; Vw;gl;l khw;wj;jpd; tpisthf 12 a+dpl;Lfs; Nfhug;gl;l
mstpd; khw;wk;.
Njitapd; tpiy nefpo;rr
; p = 500/20 x 12/100 = 3
Nfhupf;ifapd; tpiy nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikia epHzapg;gtHfs;
xU nghUspd; tpiy nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikapd; rupahd kjpg;G gy;NtW
fhuzpfshy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ. nghUshjhu ty;YeHfshy;
fUjg;gLk; ,uz;L fhuzpfs; khw;wPLfs; kw;Wk; Neuk; fpilg;gJ .
xU jahupg;Gf;F rpwe;j khw;wPLfs;> Njitf;F tpiy
nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ik mjpfk;. ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F> me;j jahupg;Gf;fhd
Njitapd; tpiy nefpo;rr
; p mjpfk;. Njitahd nghUl;fspd; tpiy
25
Njit gFg;gha;T nefpo;rr
; p Mlk;guq;fis tpl Fiwe;j nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikiaf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Nfhupf;ifapd; nefpo;r;rp gpd;tUk; fhuzpfisg; nghWj;jJ:
1. nghUl;fspd; jd;ik: NjitfSf;fhd Njit jtpHf;fKbahjJ>
Fwpg;G Vnddpy; tpiy khw;wj;Jld; Njit mjpfk; khwhJ. Mdhy;
Mlk;guq;fSf;fhd Njit ,aw;ifapy; kPs; jd;ik nfhz;lJ.
2. gad;ghl;bd; ePsk;: gytifahd gad;ghLfisf; nfhz;l xU
nghUSf;F xg;gPll; stpy; kPs; Njit cs;sJ.
3. khw;wPLfspd; tuk;G: mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd khw;wPLfisf;
nfhz;l gz;lj;jpw;F xg;gPll ; stpy; kPs; Njit cs;sJ. Fiwthd
khw;wPLfisf; nfhz;l xU nghUSf;F xg;gPll ; stpy; cWjpaw;w
Njit cs;sJ.
4. tUkhd epiy: Fiwe;j tUkhdk; cs;stHfis tpl mjpf
tUkhdk; cs;stHfs; tpiy khw;wq;fshy; Fiwthf
ghjpf;fg;gLfpwhHfs;.
5. nghUl;fSf;F nrytplg;gl;l tUkhdj;jpd; tpfpjk;: tUkhdj;jpy;
xU rpwpa gFjpia gz;lj;jpw;fhf nrytpLk;NghJ> tpiy khw;wk;
Nfhupf;ifia ghjpf;fhJ> vdNt Njit ,aw;ifapy; jtpHf;f
KbahjJ.
6. Nfhupf;ifapd; mtruk; / thq;Ftij xj;jpitj;jy;: rpy
nghUl;fspd; Njit kpfTk; cWjpaw;wJ> Vnddpy; ePq;fs; mij
thq;Ftij xj;jpitf;f KbahJ. cjhuzkhf ve;jnthU
Neha;ff
; hd kUe;JfisAk; cldbahf thq;fp cl;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
7. xU nghUspd; MAs;: nghUl;fs; ePbj;jjhf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. vdNt Njitapd; nefpo;r;rp mjpfk;.
tpiy khw;wq;fs; re;ijapy; ePbj;j nghUl;fSf;fhd Njitia
kpfTk; ghjpf;fpd;wd.
8. xU nghUspd; nfhs;Kjy; mjpHntz; / Njit kPz;Lk;: mbf;fb
thq;Fk; nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mupjhf thq;fpa nghUl;fis tpl
mjpf kPs; jd;ik nfhz;lJ.
9. Neuk;: FWfpa fhyj;jpy; Njit Fiwthf kPs; ,Uf;Fk;> Mdhy;
ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F nghUl;fspd; Njit mjpf kPs; ,Uf;Fk;.
gpd;tUgit tpiy kw;Wk; msT Nfhug;gl;l khw;wq;fspd;
rhj;jpakhd fyitahFk;. xt;nthU fyitapd; rha;T gpd;tUk;
tiuglq;fspy; rpj;jupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
1. xg;gPll
; stpy; kPs; Njit ((vl;> 1) tpiyapy; xU rpwpa
rjtPj khw;wk; Nfhug;gl;l msTfspy; ngupa khw;wj;jpw;F
toptFf;fpwJ.
26
2. nra;jgpd; kPs; Njit (vl;=∞) Njit gFg;gha;T
tpiyapy; xU rpwpa khw;wk; vy;iyaw;w

njhifahy; Nfhug;gLk; msit khw;Wk;.
3. xg;gPll
; stpy; cWjpaw;w Njit
(vl;<1) tpiyapy; khw;wk; rpwpajhf Fwpg;G
toptFf;fpwJ
4. Nfhug;gl;l mstpyhd rjtPj khw;wk;.
5. tpiyapy; rjtPjk; khw;wj;ijg; nghUl;gLj;jhky;
Nfhug;gl;l msT khwhJ.
6. a+dpl; nefpo;r;rp Njit (vl;=1) Nfhug;gl;l mstpd; rjtPj
khw;wk;> mJ Vw;gLj;jpa tpiyapd; rjtPj khw;wj;jpw;F
rkk;.
tUkhd nefpo;rr
; p
Nfhupf;ifapd; tUkhd nefpo;rr

; p tUkhdj;jpy; khw;wj;jpw;F
Nfhug;gl;l mstpd; gpujpgypg;ig mstpLk;. tUkhdj;jpd; rjtPj
khw;wj;jhy; Nfhug;gl;l mstpd; rjtPj khw;wj;ij tFg;gjd; %yk;
,J mstplg;gLfpwJ. tUkhdk; 10% mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ xU
nghUspd; Njit 20% mjpfupj;jhy;> me;j nghUl;fspd; tUkhd
nefpo;rr
; p NeHkiw kw;Wk; xg;gPll
; stpy; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; vd;W
$wg;gLfpwJ. tUkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ czTf;fhd Njit
khwhky; ,Ue;jhy;> tUkhd nefpo;rr ; p g+[;[pakhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Njitapd; vjpHkiw tUkhd nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ik tUkhd caHT
tpistpf;Fk; NghJ xU nghUspd; Njit tPo;rr ; pailtjhff;
$wg;gLfpwJ.
gpd;tUgit gy;NtW tifahd tUkhd nefpo;rr

; pj;jd;ik:
g+[;[pa tUkhd nefpo;rr

; p: jdpegupd; tUkhdj;jpd; mjpfupg;G me;j
nghUl;fspd; Njitapy; ve;j tpj;jpahrj;ijAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ. (Ei = 0)
vjpHkiw tUkhd nefpo;rr

; p: EfHNthupd; tUkhdj;jpd; mjpfupg;G
me;j nghUl;fis Fiwthf thq;Ftjw;F toptFf;fpwJ. (Ei <0).
xw;iwahl;rp tUkhd nefpo;rr

; p: tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk;
ed;ikf;fhd Njitapd; mNj rjtPj khw;wj;jpw;F toptFf;fpwJ. (Ei
= 1). tUkhd nefpo;r;rp 1I tpl ngupaJ: tUkhdj;jpd; khw;wk;
tUkhdj;jpd; khw;wj;ij tpl me;j nghUl;fspd; Njitia
mjpfupf;fpwJ. (Ei;> 1). Self-Instructional Material
27
Njit gFg;gha;T tUkhd nefpo;rr; p 1 I tplf; FiwT: tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk;
nghUl;fspd; Njitia mjpfupf;fpwJ> Mdhy; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;ij tpl Fiwe;j rjtPjj;jpy;. (Ei <1).
Fwpg;G
FWf;F nefpo;r;rp
xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUspd; Nfhug;gl;l msT kw;w nghUl;fspd;

tpiyf;F Vw;g khWgLk;. FWf;F nefpo;rr ; p vd;gJ kw;nwhU
nghUspd; tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf xU nghUspd;
Nfhug;gl;l mstpd; kWnkhopia mstpLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf fhgpapd;
tpiy caUk;NghJ Njapiy Njit mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,q;Nf
Njapiyf;fhd Njitapd; FWf;F nefpo;rr ; p mjpfk;.
,uz;L nghUl;fs; khw;whf ,Ue;jhy;> mit Njitf;F rhjfkhd

FWf;F nefpo;rr
; piaf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> ,uz;L nghUl;fs; xUtUf;nfhUtH g+Hj;jpnra;jhy;
vjpHkiw tUkhd nefpo;rr ; p Vw;glyhk;.
xU nghUspd; mstpd; kWnkhop kw;nwhU ed;ikapd; tpiyapy;

khw;wk; Nfhug;gLtJ gpd;tUk; #j;jpuj;Jld; fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.
nghUl;fspd; Njitapy;% khw;wk; A.

Ec = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
nghUl;fspd; tpiyapy;% khw;wk; B.
,uz;L nghUl;fs; njhlHgpy;yhj nghUl;fshf ,Ue;jhy;> xU ey;y
tpiyapd; mjpfupg;G kw;w nghUl;fSf;fhd Njitapy; ve;j
khw;wj;ijAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> lhlh cg;gpd; tpiy
tPo;rr
; p N`hz;lh mNk]pd; Njitapy; ve;j khw;wj;ijAk;
Vw;gLj;jhJ.
fpuh]; nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
NkyhsHfSf;fhd KbntLf;Fk; eltbf;iffSld; Nfhupf;ifapd;

FWf;F nefpo;rr
; p Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhfpwJ.
1. cw;gj;jpapy; cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;ba nghUl;fspd; msit

jPHkhdpg;gjpy;.
2. tpiyfis epHzapg;gjpy; nryT mbg;gilapy; kl;Lky;y>

tpiyfspd; mbg;gilapYk; njhlHGila nghUl;fs;. (tpiy
epHzak;)
28
4. rHtNjr tHj;jfj;jpy; vij Vw;Wkjp nra;a Ntz;Lk;> vq;Nf Njit gFg;gha;T
Vw;Wkjp nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
5. me;epa nryhtzpapy;
6. xU njhopw;Jiwia Njrpakakhf;Ftjw;F Fwpg;G
7. nghJ epjpaj;jpy.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; III
vOJq;fs;
1. FWf;F nefpo;rr; pj;jd;ik - tptup
2.6 RUf;fk;:
,e;j myF> ePq;fs; Nfhupf;ifapd; nghUs;> Njitia
epHzapg;gtHfs; kw;Wk; gy;NtW tifahd Nfhupf;iffs; kw;Wk;
mjd; Njitfspd; nefpo;rr
; p Mfpatw;iwg; gw;wp mwpe;J
nfhz;BHfs; . ,e;j mwpT> nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidia mwpa> Njit
vd;d> mij xU epWtdj;jpy; vt;thW fzf;fpl Ntz;Lk; vd;gijg;
Gupe;Jnfhs;s itf;Fk;.

1.xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; Nfhug;gl;l xU nghUspd; msT
mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ mjd; tpiy mjpfupf;fpwJ> nrl;lup]; gupg];.
(mjhtJ kw;w tp\aq;fs; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;)
2.xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy; eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; xU

ey;y Fwpg;gpl;l msTfis thq;Ftjw;fhd jpwd; kw;Wk; tpUg;gk;.
3.FWf;F nefpo;rr
; p vd;gJ kw;nwhU nghUspd; tpiyapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf xU nghUspd; Nfhug;gl;l mstpd;
kWnkhopia mstpLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf fhgpapd; tpiy caUk;NghJ
Njapiy Njit mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,q;Nf Njapiyf;fhd Njitapd;
FWf;F nefpo;rr
; p mjpfk;.
29
Njit gFg;gha;T 2.8 gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
1. rq;fud;.v]; 2004. epHthf nghUshjhuk;. khHfk; ntspaPL
Fwpg;G
lhf;lH.kPdhf;\p.MH .2010. epHthf nghUshjhuk;. v];.re;j;> GJ
jpy;yp.
nghUshjhuk;. 22 tJ gjpg;G> re;j; rd;];> GJ jpy;yp
30
myF III Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
3.1 mwpKfk;
3.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
3.3 Njit Kd;fzpg;G
Fwpg;G
3.4 Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
3.6 Njit Kd;fzpg;G Kiwfs; my;yJ El;gq;fs;
3.6.1 fzf;nfLg;G Kiwfs;
3.6.2 Gs;sptptu Kiwfs;
3.7 Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;G.
3.8 RUf;fk;
3.1 mwpKfk;
xt;nthU epWtdq;fSk; epr;rakw;w #o;epiyapy; nray;gLfpd;wd.
xU mikg;G mjpf Nghl;b> njhopy;El;gj;jpd; Njhy;tp> njhopyhsH
mikjpapd;ik> gztPff ; k;> ke;jepiy kw;Wk; murhq;f rl;lq;fspy;
khw;wk; Nghd;w gy cs; kw;Wk; ntspg;Gw mghaq;fis
vjpHnfhs;fpwJ. ,d;iwa KbTfs; mikg;gpd; vjpHfhyj;ij
ghjpf;fpd;wd. xU epWtdk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; mjd; jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;fhd Njit my;yJ tpw;gid tha;g;Gfis jPHkhdpg;gjd;
%yk; mghaq;fspd; ghjfkhd tpisTfis Fiwf;f KbAk;.
,e;j KbTfs; Kd;dwptpg;gjd; %yk; vLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; gy;NtW topfspy; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. Njit
Kd;fzpg;G vd;gJ xU jpl;lkpl;l nray;KiwahFk;> ,J
vjpHfhyj;jpy; xU epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;G kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd
Njitia fl;Lg;gLj;j Kbahj kw;Wk; Nghl;b rf;jpfspd; njhFg;gpd;
fPo; vjpHghHg;gij cs;slf;fpaJ.
3.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
khzth; ,e;j myfpid gbj;J Kbf;Fk; jWthapy; Njit
Kd;fzpg;G> mjd; epiy> msTNfhy;fs;> Elgq;fs;> Kiwfs; kw;Wk;
fzf;fpLk; Kiwfs; Mfpait fw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;.
3.3 Njit Kd;fzpg;G

I. Nehf;fq;fis epiwNtw;Wjy;:
xt;nthU tzpf myF rpy Kd; jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l Nehf;fq;fSld;
njhlq;FfpwJ vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ. ,e;j Nehf;fq;fis Self-Instructional Material
31
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
epiwNtw;w Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;G cjTfpwJ. xU epWtdk;
re;ijapy; mjd; jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd jw;Nghija
Njitia kjpg;gpLfpwJ kw;Wk; epHzapf;fg;gl;l ,yf;Ffis mila
Kd;NdWfpwJ.
Fwpg;G
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU mikg;G jdJ jahupg;Gfspy; 50> 000

a+dpl;Lfis tpw;gid nra;Ak; ,yf;if epHzapj;Js;sJ. mj;jifa
re;jHg;gj;jpy;> mikg;G mjd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;ig
nra;Ak;. epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;>
mikg;G rupahd eltbf;iffis vLf;Fk;> ,jdhy; epHzapf;fg;gl;l
Fwpf;Nfhis mila KbAk;.
II. gl;n[l;ilj; jahupj;jy;:
nryTfs; kw;Wk; vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; tUtha;fis kjpg;gpLtjd; %yk;

gl;n[l;il cUthf;Ftjpy; ,e;j epiy Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.
cjhuzkhf> xU mikg;G mjd; jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit &.
10>10>00>00 myFfshf ,Uf;Fk;. mt;thwhd epiyapy;>
vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; nkhj;j tUtha; 10 * 100000 = &. 10>00>000. ,e;j
topapy;> Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;G epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; gl;n[l;il
jahupf;f cjTfpwJ.
Nghf;F jpl;l Kiw fzf;fpy; NkYk; %d;W Kiwfis

Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ> mit gpd;tUkhW:
I. tiufiy Kiw:
xU tiuglj;jpd; cjtpAld; xU epWtdj;jpd; vjpHfhy tpw;gidia

Kd;dwptpf;f ,J cjTfpwJ. tpw;gid juT xU tiuglj;jpy;
jpl;lkplg;gl;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; jpl;lkplg;gl;l Gs;spfspy; xU tup
tiuag;gLfpwJ.
II. Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; cw;gj;jpia cWjpg;gLj;Jjy;:
,J xU epWtdk; mjd; cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; Ml;NrHg;G eltbf;iffis

fl;Lg;gLj;j cjTfpwJ. jahupg;Gfspd; Kd;dwptpf;fg;gl;l
Njitf;Nfw;g cw;gj;jp nra;tJ xU epWtdj;jpd; tsq;fis
tPzhf;Ftijj; jtpHf;f cjTfpwJ. ,J xU epWtdj;jpw;F
Njitf;Nfw;g kdpj tsj;ij mkHj;j cjTfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf>
xU epWtdk; jdJ jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;Fk; vd
vjpHghHf;fpwJ vd;why;> mjpfupj;j Njitia g+Hj;jp nra;a $Ljy;
ciog;igj; NjHTnra;ayhk;.
32
III. tpupthf;Fk; epWtdq;fs;:
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
Nfhupf;ifapd; Kd;fzpg;G epWtdj;jpd; tzpfj;jpd; tpupthf;fk;

Fwpj;J jPHkhdpf;f cjTfpwJ vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ.
jahupg;GfSf;fhd vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; Njit mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> Fwpg;G
NkYk; tpupthf;f epWtdk; jpl;lkpl;bUf;fyhk;. kWGwk;>
jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit FiwAk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gl;lhy;>
epWtdk; tzpfj;jpy; KjyPli ; lf; Fiwf;fyhk;.
m. Nkyhz;ik KbTfis vLg;gJ:
,J jhtuj; jpwidj; jPHkhdpj;jy;> %yg;nghUl;fspd; Njitia

jPHkhdpj;jy; kw;Wk; ciog;G kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd; fpilg;ig cWjp
nra;jy; Nghd;w Kf;fpakhd KbTfis vLf;f cjTfpwJ.
M. nray;jpwid kjpg;gPL nra;jy;:
,J jpUj;jq;fisr; nra;a cjTfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU

epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ
rupahd eltbf;iffis vLj;J mjd; jahupg;Gfspd; juj;ij
caHj;Jtjd; %yk; my;yJ tpsk;guq;fSf;F mjpf nryT
nra;tjd; %yk; Njit msit Nkk;gLj;jyhk;.
,. muRf;F cjTjy;:
,wf;Fkjp kw;Wk; Vw;Wkjp eltbf;iffis xUq;fpizf;fTk;>

rHtNjr tHj;jfj;ijj; jpl;lkplTk; murhq;fj;jpw;F cjTfpwJ .
3.3. Njit Kd;dwptpg;G

gpd;tUk; KbTfis jpwk;gl vLf;f NkyhsH Nfhupf;if
Kd;dwptpg;G cjTk;.
FWfpa fhy KbTfs; mlq;Fk;

· cs;sPLfspd; nfhs;Kjy;
· nghUshjhuj;ij guhkupj;jy;
· ruf;F epiy
· tpw;gid ,yf;Ffis mikj;jy;
· tpepNahf tiyaikg;G
· Ntiy Nkyhz;ik
· jiyefu
· tpiyf; nfhs;if
33
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy · tpsk;guf; nfhs;if
ePz;l fhy KbTfs; mlq;Fk;
Fwpg;G · ,Uf;Fk; jpwd; tpupthf;fk;

· jahupg;G fyitapd; gy;tifg;gLj;jy;
· ifafg;gLj;jy; tsHr;rp
· jhtuj;jpd; ,lk; khw;wk;
· %yjd rpf;fy;fs;
· ePz;l fhy fld;
· kdpjts jpl;lkply;
jpwk;gl fzpf;f> gpd;tUk; eltbf;iffs; vLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;:
· Fwpf;Nfhs;fspd; milahsk;
· jahupg;G kw;Wk; re;ijapd; jd;ik
· Nfhupf;ifia epHzapg;gtHfs;
· fhuzpfspd; gFg;gha;T
· njhopy;El;gj;jpd; NjHT
· Jy;ypaj;ij Nrhjpf;fpwJ
Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;Gf;F gpd;tUgit Njit:
· nghUj;jkhd cw;gj;jp jpl;lkply;

· nghUj;jkhd nfhs;Kjy; nfhs;if
· nghUj;jkhd tpiyf; nfhs;if
· tpw;gidahsHfSf;fhd ajhHj;jkhd tpw;gid ,yf;Ffis
mikj;jy;
· epjp Njitfis Kd;dwptpj;jy;
· tzpf jpl;lkply; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu jpl;lk;
· kdpj rf;jp Njitfisj; jpl;lkpLjy;
nghUj;jkhd Kd;fzpg;G El;gj;ijj; NjHe;njLf;f>

NkyhsH/Kd;dwptpg;ghsH gpd;tUtdtw;iw epiwNtw;w KbAk;:
1. Kd;fzpg;G rpf;fypd; jd;ikia tiuaWf;fTk;

2. tprhuizapd; fPo; cs;s jutpd; jd;ikia tpsf;Fq;fs;
3. gaDs;s Kd;fzpg;G El;gq;fspd; jpwd;fs; kw;Wk; tuk;Gfis
tptupf;fTk;.
34
4. NjHT KbT vLf;ff;$ba rpy Kd;dNu jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
msTNfhy;fis cUthf;Fq;fs;.

Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy Fwpg;G
vOJq;fs;
1. Kbtpy; rk;ge;jg;gl;l KbTfspd; tiffisf;
Fwpg;gpLq;fs;
3.4 Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy:

Nkw;$wpa fhuzpfisj; jtpu> Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;ig ghjpf;Fk; gpw
Kf;fpa fhuzpfs; gpd;tUkhW:
a. Kd;dwptpg;Gfspd; fhyk;:
Njit Kd;fzpg;ig ghjpf;Fk; xU Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf ,J

nray;gLfpwJ. Njit Kd;fzpg;gpd; Jy;ypak; mjd; fhy msitg;
nghWj;jJ.
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; %d;W tiffshf ,Uf;fyhk;> mit gpd;tUkhW

tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
1.FWfpa fhy fzpg;Gfs;:
Xuhz;L mit nghJthf kw;Wk; mDgtk; CopaHfs; jPHg;G

mbg;gilapy; vd;W Kd;D}fpg;GfSf;F> epWtdj;jpd; cw;gj;jp
nfhs;if> tpiyf; nfhs;if> fld; nfhs;if kw;Wk; tpepNahff;
nfhs;if Mfpatw;iw jPHkhdpf;f FWfpa fhy Kd;dwptpg;Gfs;
Kf;fpak;.
2. ePz;l fhy fzpg;Gfs;:
,J 5-10 Mz;Lfs; kw;Wk; mwptpay; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; Gs;sptptu

Kiwfspd; mbg;gilapy; ,Uf;Fk; fzpg;Gfisf; Fwpf;fpwJ. xU
Gjpa jahupg;G mwpKfk;> tzpfj;jpd; tpupthf;fk; my;yJ $Ljy;
epjp Njit Fwpj;J jPHkhdpf;f Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; cjTfpd;wd.
3. kpf ePz;l fhy fzpg;Gfs;:
,J 10 Mz;LfSf;Fk; Nkyhd fzpg;Gfisf; Fwpf;fpwJ.

kf;fs;njhifapd; tsHr;rp> nghUshjhuj;jpd; tsHr;rp> xU ehl;bd;
35
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
murpay; epiyik kw;Wk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; rHtNjr tHj;jfj;jpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Mfpatw;iw jPHkhdpf;f ,e;j fzpg;Gfs;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
Fwpg;G Nkw;$wpa fzpg;Gfspy;> FWfpa fhy Kd;dwptpg;G ePz;l fhy

Kd;dwptpg;gpy; tpyfiyf; Fwpf;fpwJ. vdNt> FWfpa fhy
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; ePz;l fhy fzpg;Gfis tpl Jy;ypakhdit.
4. fzpg;Gfspd; epiy:
,J Nfhupf;if Kd;dwptpg;ig xU ngupa mstpw;F ghjpf;fpwJ.

Nkf;Nuh epiy> njhopy; epiy kw;Wk; cWjpahd epiy vd %d;W
epiyfspy; Nfhupf;if Kd;dwptpg;ig Nkw;nfhs;s KbAk;. Nkf;Nuh
kl;lj;jpy;> njhopy;Jiw cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; Njrpa tUkhd xJf;fPL
Nghd;w nghJthd nghUshjhu epiyikfSf;F Kd;dwptpg;Gfs;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. njhopy; kl;lj;jpy;> Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; tHj;jf
rq;fq;fshy; jahupf;fg;gl;L Gs;sptptu juTfspd; mbg;gilapy;
jahupf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
NkYk;> njhopy; kl;lj;jpy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;Jiwapd; Fwpg;gpl;l

nfhs;ifiag; nghWj;J tpw;gid nra;ag;gLk; jahupg;Gfis
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; ifahSfpd;wd. kWGwk;> cWjpahd kl;lj;jpy;> xU
Fwpg;gpl;l epWtdj;jpd; Fwpg;gpl;l nfhs;ifiag; nghWj;J mjd;
jahupg;Gfspd; Njitia kjpg;gpLtjw;F Kd;dwptpg;Gfs;
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. xU epWtdk; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;>
EfHNthupd; Rit kw;Wk; tpUg;gj;NjHTfs;> njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk;
Nghl;b cj;jpfs; Nghd;w gy;NtW fhuzpfisf; fUJfpwJ> mNj
Neuj;jpy; mjd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njitia Kd;dwptpf;fpwJ.
5. fzpg;Gfspd; jd;ik:
Njit Kd;fzpg;ig ghjpf;Fk; Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf ,J

mikfpwJ. xU Kd;dwptpg;G Fwpg;gpl;l my;yJ nghJthdjhf
,Uf;fyhk;. xU nghJthd Kd;dwptpg;G tzpfr; #oypd;
cyfshtpa glj;ij toq;FfpwJ> mNj Neuj;jpy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
Kd;dwptpg;G xU epWtdk; nray;gLk; tzpfr; #oiyg; gw;wpa
Ez;zwpit toq;FfpwJ.
nghJthf> epWtdq;fs; ,U Kd;dwptpg;GfisAk; xd;whfj;

NjHTnra;fpd;wd> Vnddpy; mjpfg;gbahd nghJikg;gLj;jy;
Nfhupf;ifapd; Jy;ypakhd kjpg;gPl;ilf; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ kw;Wk;
36
kpfTk; Fwpg;gpl;l jfty;fs; jpl;lkply; kw;Wk; nray;gLj;jYf;fhd
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
Nghjpa mbg;gilia toq;FfpwJ.

tpjptpyf;fhd Nfhupf;if cz;ikahd Njitf;F rkkhf Fwpg;G
,Uf;Fk;NghJ xU Kd;dwptpg;G ntw;wpfukhf ,Uf;Fk; vd;W

$wg;gLfpwJ. Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd rupahd Kiw
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;lhy; kl;LNk ,J rhj;jpakhFk;. xU jahupg;Gf;fhd
Njitia Kd;dwptpg;gjw;F Kd; fUj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;ba
msTNfhy;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
I Jy;ypak;:
Nfhupf;ifapd; cz;ikahd glj;ij mila xU mikg;G
Kd;dwptpg;Gfis cz;ikahd Gs;sptptuq;fSld; neUf;fkhf
khw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ> ,J jPHkhdpf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> tutpUf;Fk; Mz;Lfspy; tpw;gidapy;
mjpfupg;G ,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ jtwhd fzpg;G. kWGwk;> mLj;j Mz;by;
tpw;gidapy; 30% mjpfupg;G ,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ xU Jy;ypakhd
fzpg;G.
II. MAs;:
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; epiwa Neuk;> gzk; kw;Wk; Kaw;rpfis

cs;slf;fpapUg;gjhy; mit ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F gad;gLj;jf;$ba
tifapy; Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,J
Fwpf;fpwJ.
III. nefpo;T jd;ik:
Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; rupnra;af;$bajhfTk; khw;wq;fSf;F Vw;wjhfTk;

,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ. ,d;iwa epr;rakw;w
kw;Wk; ,lH rhHe;j tzpfr; #oypy;> EfHNthupd; Rit kw;Wk;
tpUg;gq;fspy; tpiuthd khw;wk; fhzg;gLfpwJ> ,J jahupg;Gfspd;
Njitia ghjpf;fpwJ. vdNt> xU mikg;G nra;j Nfhupf;if
fzpg;Gfs; me;j khw;wq;fis gpujpgypf;f Ntz;Lk;.
IV. Vw;Fk; jd;ik:
,J Nfhupf;if Kd;dwptpg;gpd; kpf Kf;fpakhd msTNfhiyf;

Fwpf;fpwJ. xU mikg;G vspa kw;Wk; vspjhd Kiwfisg;
gad;gLj;jp mjd; Nfhupf;ifia Kd;dwptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. $Ljyhf>
epWtdq;fs; ve;jnthU rpf;fy;fisAk; vjpHnfhs;shj tifapy;
37
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
Kiwfs; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> epWtdq;fs; nghJthf
Nkk;gl;l Gs;sptptu Kiwfis tpUk;Gfpd;wd> mit fbdkhdit
kw;Wk; rpf;fyhdit vd;gij ep&gpf;ff;$Lk;.
Fwpg;G V. fpilf;Fk;:
Kd;dwptpg;GfSf;F NghJkhd kw;Wk; GJg;gpj;j juT fpilf;f

Ntz;Lk; vd;W ,J Fwpg;gpLfpwJ. Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; rupahd Neuj;jpy;
nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;> ,jdhy; re;ij Njit njhlHghd Njitahd
Vw;ghLfs; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
VI. rhj;jpakhd:
Nfhupf;if Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; epahakhdjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;F

,J fhuzkhfpwJ> ,jdhy; mijg; gad;gLj;Jk; egHfshy; mit
vspjpy; Gupe;J nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
VII. nghUshjhuk;:
Njit Kd;fzpg;G nghUshjhu uPjpahf gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;. Kd;dwptpg;G nryTfs; Fiwf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk;
ed;ikfis mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; II

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. Njitia Kd;dwptpg;gjw;F Kd; fUj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;ba
xU jahupg;G - ,uz;L msTNfhy;fis gl;baypLq;fs;
3.6 Njit Kd;fzpg;G Kiwfs;

xU gaDs;s El;gj;ijj; NjHe;njLg;gJ ve;jnthU Nfhupf;if
Kd;dwptpg;gpw;Fk; Kf;fpa rthyhf khWk;. vjpHfhyj;jpy; mghaq;fs;
kw;Wk; epr;rakw;w jd;ikfis vjpHghHf;f epWtdq;fSf;F cjTk;
Fwpg;gpl;l Kiw vJTk; ,y;iy. nghJthf> Kd;fzpg;G NfhUtjw;F
,uz;L mZFKiwfs; cs;sd.
Kjy; mZFKiw epGzHfsplkpUe;J EfHNthupd; thq;Fk; elj;ij
njhlHghd jfty;fis Nrfupg;gjd; %yk; my;yJ fzf;nfLg;Gfis
elj;Jtjd; %yk; Njitia Kd;dwptpg;gij cs;slf;FfpwJ.
kWGwk;> ,uz;lhtJ Kiw Gs;sptptu El;gq;fs; %yk; fle;jfhy
juitg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; Njitia Kd;dwptpg;gjhFk; .
Self-Instructional Material nghJthf> Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;G El;gq;fs; ,uz;L tiffshFk;.

38
1. fzf;nfLg;G Kiw
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
2. Gs;sptptu Kiw
3.6.1 fzf;nfLg;G Kiw:

fzf;nfLg;G Kiw vd;gJ Njitfis Kd;dwptpg;gjw;fhd kpfTk; Fwpg;G
nghJthd kw;Wk; Neub Kiwfspy; xd;whFk;. ,J FWfpa

fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiw EfHNthupd; vjpHfhy
nfhs;Kjy; jpl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; mtHfspd; Nehf;fq;fis
cs;slf;fpaJ. ,e;j Kiwapy;> xU epWtdk; EfHNthUld; jq;fspd;
jw;Nghija jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd Njitia
jPHkhdpf;f fzf;nfLg;Gfis elj;JfpwJ kw;Wk; mjw;Nfw;g vjpHfhy
Njitia Kd;dwptpf;fpwJ.
,e;j Kiw %d;W topfspy; clw;gapw;rpia Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ:
1. epGzHfspd; fUj;J fzpg;G

2. re;ij gupNrhjid Kiw
3. nly;gp Kiw
I. epGzHfspd; fUj;Jf; fzpg;G:
,q;Nf> ,e;j Kiwapy;> ty;YeHfs; jahupg;G Fwpj;j mtHfspd;

jukhd fUj;ij toq;FkhW Nfl;Lf; nfhs;sg;gLfpwhHfs;. nghJthf>
xU epWtdj;jpy;> tpw;gid gpujpepjpfs; ntt;NtW gFjpfs;>
gpuhe;jpaq;fs; my;yJ efuq;fspy; jahupg;Gf;fhd Njitia
kjpg;gplf;$ba epGzHfshf nray;gLfpwhHfs;. tpw;gid gpujpepjpfs;
EfHNthUld; neUq;fpa njhlHgpy; ,Ug;gjhy;@ EfHNthupd; vjpHfhy
nfhs;Kjy; jpl;lq;fs;> re;ij khw;wj;jpw;fhd mtHfspd;
vjpHtpidfs; kw;Wk; Nghl;bapLk; gpw jahupg;GfSf;fhd mtHfspd;
czHTfs; Mfpatw;iw mtHfs; ed;F mwpthHfs;. mit
epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njitf;fhd Njhuhakhd kjpg;gPl;il
toq;Ffpd;wd. ,e;j Kiw kpfTk; vspikahdJ kw;Wk; Fiwe;j
tpiy.
khwhf> ,e;j Kiw gpd;tUk; tuk;Gfis vjpHnfhs;fpwJ:
m. epGzHfspd; re;ij jpwd;fs; kw;Wk; mtHfspd; mDgtj;ijg;

nghWj;J kjpg;gPLfis toq;FfpwJ. ,e;j jpwd;fs; jdp egUf;F
NtWgLfpd;wd. ,e;j topapy;> Jy;ypakhd Nfhupf;if fzpg;Gfis
cUthf;FtJ fbdk;.
39
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
M. kjpg;gPl;lhsupd; mfepiy jPHg;ig cs;slf;fpaJ> ,J
kjpg;gPl;bw;F Nky; my;yJ Fiwthf kjpg;gpl toptFf;Fk;.
,. re;ij gw;wpa Nghjpa jftiyf; nfhz;bUf;ff;$ba tpw;gid

Fwpg;G gpujpepjpfs; toq;fpa juitg; nghWj;jJ.
<. nkhj;j Njrpa cw;gj;jpapy; khw;wk;> fld; fpilg;gJ kw;Wk;

njhopy;Jiwapd; vjpHfhy tha;g;Gfs; Nghd;w fhuzpfis
Gwf;fzpf;fpwJ> ,J Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;F cjtpahf ,Uf;Fk;.
II. nly;gp Kiw:
,e;j Kiwapy;> vjpHfhyj;jpy; jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Fwpj;j

jq;fs; fUj;Jfisg; ngw ty;YeHfs; FOtpypUe;J jdpj;jdpahf
Nfs;tpfs; Nfl;fg;gLfpd;wd. xUkpj;j fUj;J fpilf;Fk; tiu ,e;j
Nfs;tpfs; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; Nfl;fg;gLfpd;wd. $Ljyhf> xt;nthU
epGzUf;Fk; FOtpy; cs;s gpw epGzHfshy; nra;ag;gl;l
kjpg;gPLfs; Fwpj;j jfty;fs; toq;fg;gLfpd;wd> ,jd;%yk;
mtH/mts; kw;wtHfspd; kjpg;gPLfisg; nghWj;J mtuJ/mts;
kjpg;gPLfisj; jpUj;j KbAk;. ,e;j topapy;> Kd;dwptpg;Gfs; kpfTk;
Jy;ypakhd KbntLg;gij mila epGzHfspilNa FWf;F
Nrhjid nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
kw;wtHfspd; kjpg;gPLfspy; gjpyspf;f my;yJ gupe;Jiufis toq;f

vg;NghJk; epGzH mDkjpf;fg;gLfpwhH. ,Ug;gpDk;> epahakhd
jPHg;ig vspjhf;Ftjw;Fk; xsptl;l tpisitf; Fiwg;gjw;Fk;
epGzHfspilNa kjpg;gPLfisg; gupkhwpf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ epGzHfspd;
ngaHfs; mehkNjakhf itf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,e;j Kiwapd; Kf;fpa ed;ik vd;dntd;why;> gy tsq;fis

nrytopf;fhky; gy ty;YeHfs; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; mZfg;gLtjhy;
,J Neuk; kw;Wk; nryT Fiwe;jjhFk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j Kiw
mfepiy KbntLg;gpw;F toptFf;Fk;.
III. re;ij gupNrhjid Kiw:

,e;j Kiw xU jahupg;Gf;fhd jw;Nghija kw;Wk; vjpHfhy Njit
njhlHghd Njitahd jfty;fis Nrfupg;gij cs;slf;FfpwJ.
,e;j Kiw cz;ikahd re;ij epiyikfspd; fPo; EfHNthH
elj;ij Fwpj;j Ma;Tfs; kw;Wk; Nrhjidfis Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ.
,e;j Kiwapy;> re;ijfspd; rpy gFjpfs; kf;fs; njhif> tUkhd
epiyfs;> fyhr;rhu gpd;dzp kw;Wk; EfHNthupd; Rit Nghd;w xj;j
mk;rq;fSld; NjHe;njLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
40
re;ij Nrhjidfs; tpiyfs; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fis khw;Wtjd;
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
cjtpAld; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd> ,jdhy; Njitapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fs; gjpT nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j KbTfs; vjpHfhy
Njitia Kd;dwptpf;f cjTfpd;wd.
Fwpg;G
,e;j Kiwapd; gy;NtW tuk;Gfs; cs;sd> mit gpd;tUkhW:
m. tpiyAaHe;j Kiwiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ@ vdNt> ,J rpwpa

mstpyhd epWtdq;fshy; kypT ngwhJ
M. NtiyepWj;jq;fs;> murpay; cWjpaw;w jd;ik kw;Wk; ,aw;if

NguopTfs; Nghd;w gy;NtW r%f-nghUshjhu epiyikfspd;
fhuzkhf Nrhjidfspd; KbTfis ghjpf;fpwJ.
3.6.2 Gs;sptptu Kiwfs;:

Gs;sptptu Kiwfs; Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;G Kiwfspd; rpf;fyhd
njhFg;ghFk;. ,e;j Kiwfs; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F Njitia
Kd;dwptpf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j Kiwapy;> tuyhw;W juT kw;Wk;
FWf;F ntl;L juTfspd; mbg;gilapy; Njit fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
tuyhw;Wj; juT vd;gJ Ke;ija Mz;Lfspd; ,Ug;Gepiyfs; kw;Wk;
re;ij Ma;T mwpf;iffs; Nghd;w gy;NtW %yq;fspypUe;J
ngwg;gl;l fle;j fhy juitf; Fwpf;fpwJ. kWGwk;> jdpegHfSld;
NeHfhzy;fis elj;Jtjd; %yKk; re;ij Ma;Tfis
Nkw;nfhs;tjd; %yKk; FWf;F ntl;L juT Nrfupf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fzf;nfLg;G Kiwfisg; Nghyd;wp> Gs;sptptu Kiwfs; nryT
Fiwe;j kw;Wk; ek;gfkhdit> Vnddpy; ,e;j Kiwfspy;
mfepiyj;jd;ikapd; cWg;G Fiwthff; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Nghf;F jpl;l Kiw:
Nghf;F Kd;fzpg;G my;yJ Fiwe;j rJu Kiw vd;gJ tzpf

Kd;dwptpg;gpd; fpshrpf;fy; KiwahFk;. ,e;j Kiwapy;> Njitia
Kd;dwptpg;gjw;F mjpf msT ek;gfkhd juT Njitg;gLfpwJ.
$Ljyhf> ,e;j Kiw fle;j fhy Nghf;FfSf;F fhuzkhd
tpw;gid kw;Wk; Njit Nghd;w fhuzpfs; vjpHfhyj;jpy; mg;gbNa
,Uf;Fk; vd;W fUJfpwJ.
,e;j Kiwapy;> Ke;ija Mz;L fzf;Ffspd; Gj;jfq;fspypUe;J

vLf;fg;gl;l fle;jfhy juTfis gFg;gha;T nra;tjd; %yk;
tpw;gid fzpg;Gfs; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. Gjpa epWtdq;fisg;
nghWj;jtiu> mNj Jiwapy; Vw;fdNt ,Uf;Fk; epWtdq;fspypUe;J
41
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
tpw;gidj; juT vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiw xU nghUspd;
Njitia Kd;dwptpg;gjw;fhf tpw;gidapd; Neu-njhlH juitg;
gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
Fwpg;G II. nghUj;jkhd Nghf;F Kiw:
,e;j Fiwe;jgl;r rJu Kiwapy;> Gs;sptptu El;gq;fspd;

cjtpAld; tpw;gidapd; Neu-njhlH juTfSf;F Nghf;F tup
(tisT) nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,uz;L tifahd Nghf;Ffs;
fzf;fpy; vLj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. ,J gpd;tUkhW
tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ:
m. Neupay; Nghf;F:
tpw;gid mjpfupj;J tUk; Nghf;iff; fhl;Lk; xU Nghf;iff;

Fwpf;fpwJ. Neupay; Nghf;fpy;> NeH NfhL Nghf;F rkd;ghl;ilg;
gpd;gw;WtJ nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ:
v]; = A + Bb
v]; = Mz;L tpw;gid
b = Neuk; (Mz;Lfspy;)
A kw;Wk; B Mfpait epiyahdit
gp tpw;gidapd; tUlhe;jpu mjpfupg;G msit mspf;fpwJ
M. mjpNtf Nghf;F:
,e;j Kiwapy;> Nghf;Ffs; fle;j Mz;Lfspy; tpw;gid mjpfupf;Fk;
tpfpjj;jpy; my;yJ epiyahd tpfpjj;jpy; jpl;lkplg;gl;Ls;sd.
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; nghUj;jkhd Nghf;F rkd;ghL gpd;tUkhW:
Y = aT b
Y = Mz;L tpw;gid
b = Mz;Lfspy; Neuk;
a kw;Wk; b Mfpait epiyahdit
,ij klf;iffshf khw;wpdhy;> rkd;ghL gpd;tUkhW:
gjpT Y = gjpT a + b gjpT T.
,e;j Kiwapd; Kf;fpa ed;ik vd;dntd;why;> mijg;
gad;gLj;JtJ vspJ. NkYk;> ,e;j Kiwapd; juTj; Njit kpfTk;
FiwthfNt cs;sJ (tpw;gidj; juT kl;LNk Njitg;gLtjhy;)>
vdNt ,J kypthd KiwahFk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j Kiw rpy
tuk;Gfshy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ> mit gpd;tUkhW:
42
1. ,J khwpfspy; fle;j fhy khw;wq;fspd; tPjKk;
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
vjpHfhyj;jpYk; mg;gbNa ,Uf;Fk; vd;W fUJfpwJ> ,J
eilKiw #o;epiyfspy; nghUe;jhJ.
2. FWfpa fhy kjpg;gPLfSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jj; jtwptpl;lhy;>
epiwa Vw;w ,wf;fq;fSld; Nghf;F Row;rpahf ,Uf;Fk; Fwpg;G
3. rhHG kw;Wk; RahjPd khwpfSf;F ,ilapyhd cwit

mstplj; jtwptpl;lJ.
III. ngl;b-n[d;fpd;]; Kiw:
,J FWfpa fhy fzpg;GfSf;F kl;LNk gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU

Kiwiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,e;j Kiw ePz;lfhy Nghf;if
ntspg;gLj;jhj epiyahd Neu-njhlH juTfSld; kl;LNk
Nfhupf;ifia Kd;dwptpf;fpwJ. Neu tupir juT khjhe;jpu my;yJ
gUtfhy khWghLfis rpy bfpup tof;fj;Jld; rpj;jupf;Fk;
#o;epiyfspy; ,J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf> FspHfhyj;jpy;
fk;gsp Milfspd; tpw;gid fzpg;Gfis kjpg;gpLtjw;F ,e;j
Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
ghNuhnkl;upf; Kiw:
ghNuhnkl;upf; Kiwapy;> fle;j epfo;Tfs; my;yJ epfo;fhyj;jpy;

epfOk; Kf;fpa khwpfs; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; Njit
fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Nrkpg;G> KjyPL kw;Wk; tUkhdk; Nghd;w gy;NtW
nghUshjhu Fwpfhl;bfisf; fzpf;fTk; ,e;j Kiw
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j El;gk; tzpf eltbf;iffspd; nghJthd
Nghf;if jPHkhdpf;f cjTfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwapd; Kf;fpa ed;ik
vd;dntd;why;> fle;j fhy juT ,y;yhj epiyapy; $l ,J
nghUe;Jk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> Gjpa jahupg;Gfspd; tp\aj;jpy; ,e;j Kiw
nghUe;jhJ. $Ljyhf> nghUshjhu fhl;b kw;Wk; Njitf;F
,ilapy; Neu jhkjk; ,y;yhjNghJ mJ mjd; nghUe;jf;$ba
jd;ikia ,of;fpwJ.
Rw;Wr;#oy; Kiwfs;:
vf;NfhNdhnkl;upf; Kiwfs; Gs;sptptuf; fUtpfis Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd

nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghLfSld; ,izf;fpd;wd. ,e;j Kiwahy;
nra;ag;gl;l fzpg;Gfs; NtW ve;j KiwiaAk; tpl kpfTk;
ek;gfkhdit. xU vf;NfhNdhnkl;upf; khjpup ,uz;L tifahd
Kiwfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ: gpd;dilT khjpup kw;Wk; xNu Neuj;jpy;
rkd;ghLfs; khjpup.
43
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy i. gpd;dilT Kiwfs;:
gpd;dilT Kiwapy;> xU jahupg;Gf;fhd Nfhupf;if nray;ghL
kjpg;gplg;gLfpwJ> mq;F Njit rhHG khwp kw;Wk; Nfhupf;ifia
epHzapf;Fk; khwpfs; RahjPdkhd khwp. xNu xU khwp kl;LNk
Fwpg;G
Nfhupf;ifia ghjpf;fpwJ vd;why;> mJ xw;iw khwp Nfhupf;if
nray;ghL vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy;> vspa gpd;dilT
El;gq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Njit gy khwpfshy;
ghjpf;fg;gLfpwnjd;why;> mJ gy khwp Njit nray;ghL vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt> mj;jifa tp\aj;jpy;> gy gpd;dilT
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
vspa kw;Wk; gy gpd;dilT El;gq;fs; gpd;tUkhW
tpthjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd:
a. vspa gpd;dilT:
,uz;L khwpfs; ,ilNaahd cwitg; gbg;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mq;F

xd;W RahjPd khwp kw;Wk; kw;nwhd;W rhHG khwp. vspa
gpd;dilitf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd rkd;ghL gpd;tUkhW:
Y = a + bx
,q;Nf> X ,d; nfhLf;fg;gl;l kjpg;Gf;F Y = kjpg;gplg;gl;l kjpg;G
b = X ,y; xU myF khw;wj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l Y ,d; khw;wj;jpd;

msT
a kw;Wk; b = khwpypfs;
M. gy gpd;dilT:
,J xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l RahjPd kw;Wk; rhHG khwpfSf;F
,ilapyhd cwitg; gbf;fpwJ. ,uz;L RahjPd khwpfs; kw;Wk; xU
rhHG khwpapd; tp\aj;jpy;> gy gpd;dilitf; fzf;fpl gpd;tUk;
rkd;ghL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ:
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2
,q;Nf> Y (rhHG khwp) = nfhLf;fg;gl;l X1 kw;Wk; X1 kjpg;Gf;F Y
,d; kjpg;gplg;gl;l kjpg;G
X1 kw;Wk; X2= RahjPd khwpfs;

b1 = X1 ,y; xU myF khw;wj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l Y ,d;
khw;wj;jpd; msT
b2 = X2 ,y; xU myF khw;wj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l Y ,d;
khw;wj;jpd; msT
a, b1 kw;Wk; b2 = khwpypfs;
44
gpw Gs;sptptu eltbf;iffs;:
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
Gs;sptptu Kiwfisj; jtpu> Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;F NtW Kiwfs;
cs;sd. ,e;j eltbf;iffs; kpfTk; Fwpg;gpl;lit kw;Wk; Fwpg;gpl;l
juTj;njhFg;GfSf;F kl;LNk gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt>
mtw;wpd; gad;ghl;il midj;J tifahd Muha;r;rpfSf;Fk; Fwpg;G
nghJikg;gLj;j KbahJ.
gy;NtW tifahd Gs;sptptu eltbf;iffs; gpd;tUkhW
tpthjpf;fg;glyhk;:
FwpaPl;L vz;:
,J xU khwp my;yJ njhlHGila khwpfs; FOtpy; Vw;w
,wf;fq;fis Ma;T nra;a gad;gLj;jg;gLk; eltbf;iffis fhy
/ mbg;gil fhyj;ijg; nghWj;J Fwpf;fpwJ. xU nghUspd; tpiy
kw;Wk; msT Mfpait nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; epjp Muha;r;rpapy;
nghJthfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd> mit rpf;fYf;F fhuzkhd
gy;NtW fhuzpfisf; fz;lwpe;J fzf;fplg;gLfpd;wd.
Kf;fpakhf ehd;F tifahd FwpaPl;L vz;fs; cs;sd> mit
gpd;tUkhW:
m. vspa FwpaPl;L vz;:
,J mbg;gil Mz;ilg; nghWj;J xw;iw khwpapy; xg;gPlL
;
khw;wj;ij mstpLk; vz;izf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
M. $l;L FwpaPl;L vz;:
,J mbg;gil Mz;Lld; njhlHGila khwpfs; FOtpy;
njhlHGila khw;wj;ij mstpLk; vz;izf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
,. tpiy FwpaPl;L vz;:
,J ntt;NtW fhyfl;lq;fspy; xU nghUspd; tpiyapy; xg;gPl;L
khw;wj;ij mstpLk; vz;izf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
<. msT FwpaPl;L vz;:
ntt;NtW fhyfl;lq;fspy; xU nghUSf;F cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;>
Efug;gLk; my;yJ tpw;fg;gLk; nghUl;fspd; cly; mstpyhd
xg;gPlL
; khw;wj;ij mstpLk; vz;iz ,J Fwpf;fpwJ.
Neu tupir gFg;gha;T:
rkkhd ,ilntsp Neu ,ilntspapy; njhlHr;rpahd
mtjhdpg;Gfspd; gFg;gha;T Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;F Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf: xU epWtdj;jpd; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;J jw;Nghija
epiyik tiu mjd; tsHr;rpia gFg;gha;T nra;jy;. nghJj; Jiw>
nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; Muha;r;rp Nghd;w gy;NtW Jiwfspy; Neuj;
njhlH gFg;gha;T nghUe;Jk;.
Neu tupir gFg;gha;tpd; gy;NtW $Wfs; gpd;tUkhW:
m. kjr;rhHgw;w Nghf;F: Self-Instructional Material
45
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
,J T My; Fwpf;fg;gLk; kw;Wk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy;
epyTk; Nghf;iff; Fwpf;fpwJ. juTj; njhlUf;fhd kjr;rhHgw;w
Nghf;F Nky;Nehf;fp my;yJ fPo;Nehf;fp ,Uf;fyhk;. nghUl;fspd;
tpiyapy; mjpfupg;G Nghd;w xU khwp mjpfupg;gij Nky;Nehf;fpa
Fwpg;G
Nghf;F fhl;LfpwJ@ mNjrkak;> fPo;Nehf;fpa Nghf;F Neha;fspd;
tPjj;jpd; rupT kw;Wk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l jahupg;Gf;fhd tpw;gid Nghd;w
Fiwe;J tUk; fl;lq;fisf; fhl;LfpwJ.
M. FWfpa Neu miyT:
,e;j Kiwapd; %yk; FWfpa fhy Nghf;Ffspd; gFg;gha;T
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,ij gpd;tUk; %d;W Nghf;Ffshf tifg;gLj;jyhk;:
1. gUtfhy Nghf;F:
,J SMy; Fwpf;fg;gLk; Nghf;iff; Fwpf;fpwJ kw;Wk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
fhyj;jpw;F Mz;LNjhWk; epfo;fpwJ. ,j;jifa Nghf;FfSf;F
fhuzk; thdpiy> jpUtpohf;fs; kw;Wk; NtW rpy gof;ftof;fq;fs;.
gUtfhy Nghf;Ff;fhd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; FspHfhyj;jpy; fk;gsp
Njit mjpfupg;gJ kw;Wk; jPghtspf;F mUfpy; ,dpg;Gf;fhd tpw;gid
mjpfupg;G.
2. Row;rp Nghf;F:
,J xU tUlj;jpw;Fk; Nkyhf ePbf;Fk; Nghf;iff; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,J rp
My; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Row;rp Nghf;Ffs; njhlHr;rpahd my;yJ
gUtfhy ,ay;Gilait my;y. Row;rp Nghf;Ff;F xU vLj;Jf;fhl;L
tzpf Row;rp.
3. xOq;fw;w Nghf;F:
,aw;ifapy; FWfpa kw;Wk; fzpf;f Kbahj Nghf;iff; Fwpf;fpwJ
kw;Wk; I My; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ. xOq;fw;w Nghf;FfSf;F
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; g+fk;gq;fs;> vupkiy ntbg;Gfs; kw;Wk; nts;sk;.
KbT kuk; gFg;gha;T:
,J xU epWtdj;jpy; KbntLf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; khjpupiaf;
Fwpf;fpwJ. KbT ku gFg;gha;tpy;> xU rpf;fYf;fhd rpwe;j jPHit
jPHkhdpf;f xU ku tif mikg;G tiuag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
gFg;gha;tpy;> ntt;NtW tpUg;gq;fs; Kjypy; milahsk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd> ,jdhy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpf;fiyj; jPHf;f
tpz;zg;gpf;fyhk;.
mjd; gpwF> xt;nthU tpUg;gj;jpd; KbTfisAk; ehk;
fz;Lgpbf;fyhk;. ,e;j tpUg;gq;fs;/KbTfs; xU rJu KidAld;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd> mNj Neuj;jpy; KbTfs; xU tl;l Kid
%yk; ep&gpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xU KbT kuj;jpd; Xl;lk; ,lkpUe;J
tykhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
46
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
vOJq;fs;
Fwpg;G
xg;gpLf
1. Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd ,uz;L El;gq;fs; ahit?
3.7 Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;G:

Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;dwptpg;G xU rthyhd
gzpahFk;. Gjpa jahupg;Gfs; vd;gjhy; ,jw;F rpwg;G jpwd;fs;
kw;Wk; El;gq;fSk; Njit. mbg;gil Nfhupf;if fzf;fPLfSf;F
ek;gfkhd juT ,y;iy. gpw epWtdq;fspd; mDgtq;fSk;
fpilf;ftpy;iy.
vdNt> Gjpa jahupg;Gfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; epWtdq;fs; Njit

Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd Gjpa El;gq;fis ek;g Ntz;bapUf;Fk;. Gjpa
ahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd Kf;fpakhd Kiwfs;
gpd;tUkhW:
Gjpa jahupg;Gfis Kd;dwptpg;gij Nehf;fp N[hay; Bd; MW
rhj;jpakhd mZFKiwfis nra;fpwhH. mit gpd;tUkhW:
1. Nrhjid re;ijg;gLj;jy;:
,J Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd ep&gpf;fg;gl;l
KiwahFk;. NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l rpy re;ijfspy; Gjpa jahupg;Gfis
xU Nrhjid tof;fhf tpw;gid nra;tJ ,jpy; mlq;Fk;. Nrhjid
re;ijg;gLj;JjYf;fhf> jahupg;G rpwpa mstpy; jahupf;fg;gLfpwJ>
my;yJ ,wf;Fkjp nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,J JiwrhH filfs; my;yJ
$l;LwT r%fk; Nghd;w tpepNahf Nrdy;fs; %ykhfNth my;yJ
Neub mQ;ry; %ykhfNth nra;ag;gLfpwJ. khjpup re;ijapd;
mbg;gilapy; nkhj;j Njit fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Mdhy;> khjpup re;ij
kw;Wk; KO mstpyhd re;ijapd; KjpHr;rpaw;w jd;ikf;fhd
nfhLg;gdit jPHkhdpg;gjpy; rpukk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
2. fUj;Jf;fzpg;G:
,e;j Kiwapd; fPo;> Gjpa jahupg;Gf;fhd Njitia xU rpy
thbf;ifahsHfSld; kjpg;gplyhk;. rhj;jpakhd thq;FgtHfis
Neubahf mZfp> jahupg;Gfis thq;f MHtkhf cs;sPHfsh vd;W
Nfl;fyhk; . ,J khjpup fzf;nfLg;G Kiwahf nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
47
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
khjpup kw;Wk; thbf;ifahsHfspd; cz;ikahd MHtj;ij
Muha;tjhy;> ,e;j Kiw fbdkhfpwJ.
3. gupzhk mZFKiw:
ngaH nghUisf; Fwpg;gjhy;> Gjpa jahupg;G Vw;fdNt ,Uf;Fk;
Fwpg;G
jahupg;gpypUe;J gupzhk tsHr;rpahff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. fzpdpfspy;>
Nyg; lhg; vd;gJ Nkir NkypUe;J xU gupzhk tsHr;rpahFk; kw;Wk;
Nlg;nyl; kbapy; ,Ue;J xU gupzhkkhFk;. ,e;j mZFKiw
gaDs;sjhf khWk;> Gjpa jahupg;G Vw;fdNt ,Uf;Fk; jahupg;Gf;F
neUf;fkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ kl;LNk.
4.khw;W mZFKiw:
Gjpa jahupg;Gfs; jw;NghJs;s jahupg;GfSf;F khw;whf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;fhd khw;W mZFKiw
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf: jput Nrhg;G fopg;giw Nrhg;
Nff;fpw;F khw;whf> jput nfhR ePuhtp nfhR RUSf;F khw;whf
cs;sJ
5.khWgl;l mZFKiw:
,e;j mZFKiw jahupg;G mwpT kw;Wk; jahupg;Gfspd;
tpw;gidahsHfspd; mDgtj;ij ek;gpAs;sJ. tpepNahf];jHfs;
thbf;ifahsHfspd; NjitfisAk; tpUg;gq;fisAk; jPHkhdpf;f
KbAk;. ,e;j ,izg;gpd; %yk;> xU Gjpa jahupg;G
thbf;ifahsHfspd; <Hg;igAk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;siyAk; ngw;wpUf;fpwjh
vd;W tpahghup nrhy;yf;$ba epiyapy; ,Ug;ghH.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; IV.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. khw;W mZFKiw - ePq;fs; vd;d nrhy;fpwPHfs; ?
3.8 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF ePq;fs; gy;NtW kl;lj;jpy; xU Nfhupf;ifia vt;thW
Kd;dwptpg;gJ vd;gijf; fw;Wf; nfhz;BHfs; kw;Wk; xU ey;y
Njit Kd;fzpg;Gf;F gy;NtW Kiwfs; my;yJ El;gq;fs;
gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;wd. Gjpa jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njitia vt;thW
fzpg;gJ vd;gijAk; ePq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhz;BHfs;.
1. FWfpa fhy KbTfs; kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy KbTfs;
2. Jy;ypak; kw;Wk; MAs;
3. Gs;sptptu Kiw kw;Wk; fzf;nfLg;G Kiw
48
4. Gjpa jahupg;Gfs; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ Nfhupf;if Kd;fzpg;gpd; khw;W
Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy
mZFKiw gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.,Uf;Fk; jahupg;GfSf;F khw;whf.
cjhuzkhf: jput Nrhg;G fopg;giwf;F khw;whf cs;sJ. Nrhg;
Nff;> jput nfhR ePuhtp nfhR RUSf;F khw;whFk;.
Fwpg;G
3.10 gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l mstPLfs;
nghUshjhuk;. 22 tJ gjpg;G> re;j; rd;];> GJ jpy;yp.
49
toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy myF- IV toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
Fwpg;G 4.1 mwpKfk;
4.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
4.4 toq;fy; rl;lk;
4.5 toq;fy; rl;lj;jpw;F tpjptpyf;Ffs;
; p
; pj;jd;ikia jPHkhdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
4.9 eilKiw Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
4.11 RUf;fk;
4.1 mwpKfk;;
xU nghUspd; toq;fy; vd;gJ cw;gj;jpahsHfs; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
tpiyapy; tpw;gidf;F toq;ff;$ba kw;Wk; jahuhf ,Uf;Fk; me;j
nghUl;fspd; msT. ftdpf;f Ntz;ba xU Kf;fpakhd tp\ak;
vd;dntd;why;> toq;fy; gw;whf;FiwAld; njhlHGilaJ . ,jd;
nghUs; tpepNahf tpiyiaf; nfhz;l gw;whf;Fiw nghUl;fs;
kl;LNk@ ,ytrkhff; fpilf;Fk; nghUl;fSf;F tpepNahf tpiy
,y;iy.
4.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;
,e;j myF khztUf;F toq;fy;> toq;fy; ml;ltiz> toq;fy;
rl;lk; kw;Wk; tpepNahf nefpo;rr
; p Mfpatw;iwf; fw;Wf;nfhs;s
cjTfpwJ. ,e;j fw;wy; khztUf;F rg;is gw;wpa eilKiw
gad;ghl;L mwpitf; fw;Wf;nfhs;s cjTfpwJ kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiyia epiyepWj;Jtjpy; jdJ fUj;Jf;fis Mjupf;fpwJ
kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiyapd; khw;wq;fSld; nghUe;jf;$ba msTf;F
jd;id nefpo itf;Fk;.
toq;fy; vd;gJ xU ey;y my;yJ Nritapd; gy;NtW msTfisf;
Fwpf;fpwJ> ,J jahupg;ghsHfs; rhj;jpakhd midj;J re;ij
tpiyapYk; tpw;f jahuhf cs;sJ. toq;fy; xU jahupg;ghsupd;
ntspaPl;ilf; Fwpf;fyhk; my;yJ re;ijapy; cs;s midj;J
cw;gj;jpahsHfspd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpiaAk; (re;ij toq;fy;)
Fwpf;fyhk;. xU ed;ikf;fhd mjpf tpiy> tsq;fSf;fhd
Self-Instructional Material nryitr; nrYj;jpa gpwF xU tzpfj;jpw;F mjpf yhgk; fpilf;Fk;.
50
re;ij rkepiy: toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
bkhz;l; (jpl;lk;) kw;Wk; toq;fy; (jpl;lk;) Mfpatw;iw xd;whf
itf;Fk;NghJ > xU fl;lj;jpy;> toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit tisTfs;
Fwpg;G
ntl;Lfpd;wd. ntl;Lk; Gs;sp re;ijapd; rkepiy vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j re;jpg;gpy; cs;s tpiy rkepiy tpiy
vd;Wk;> msT rkepiy msT vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
xU nghUspd; tpiy caUk;NghJ> mjd; toq;fy; mjpfupf;fpwJ

kw;Wk; tpiy FiwAk; NghJ> mjd; toq;fy; FiwfpwJ". ,jdhy;
tpw;gidf;F toq;fg;gLk; msT Neubahf tpiyAld; khWgLk;.
mjhtJ mjpf tpiy> ngupaJ toq;fy;> kw;Wk; NeHkhwhf.
,ij ,uz;L fhuzq;fshy; tpsf;fyhk;:

1. tpiyapd; mjpfupg;G nghJthf mjpf ,yhgq;fis
cw;gj;jpahsHfis mjpfupj;j msTfis toq;f toptFf;fpwJ>
kw;Wk;
2. ePz;l fhykhf> mjpf yhgk; fhuzkhf> Gjpa jahupg;ghsHfs;
cw;gj;jpj; Jiwapy; Eioayhk;> ,J cw;gj;jpapd; mjpfupg;Gf;F
toptFf;Fk;.
toq;fy; rhjhuz rl;lk; mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd jahupg;GfSf;F

gutyhf nghUe;Jk;. toq;fy; rl;lj;jpy; rpy tpjptpyf;Ffs; cs;sd>
xU ey;y tpiyapy; khw;wk; NeHkiwahd jpirapy; toq;fg;gl;l
mjd; msT khw;wj;jpw;F toptFf;fhJ.

vOJq;fs;
1. toq;fy; rl;lk; - tptup
51
rkepiy
4.4 toq;fy; rl;lk;
toq;fy; tpjp vd;gJ vy;yh #o;epiyfSf;Fk; nghUe;Jk; xU
cyfshtpa nfhs;if my;y. cz;ikapy;> toq;fy; rl;lj;jpw;F
Fwpg;G
gy;NtW Kf;fpakhd tpjptpyf;Ffs; cs;sd.
4.5 toq;;fy; rl;lj;jpw;F tpjptpyf;Ffs;
toq;fy; rl;lj;jpw;F rpy tpjptpyf;Ffs; fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
· tpahghuj;jpy; khw;wk;
· NkhNdhNghyp
· Nghl;b
· mope;JNghff;$ba nghUl;fs;
· msT fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; rl;lk;
· tptrha nghUl;fs;
· fiy kw;Wk; Vy nghUl;fs;
1. tpahghuj;jpy; khw;wk;
jw;Nghija tzpfj;jpypUe;J ntspNaWtjd; %yk; tpw;gidahsH
Kw;wpYk; Gjpa tzpfj;jpy; Eioa jpl;lkpl;bUf;fyhk;. vdNt
jw;Nghija tzpfk; %lypd; tpspk;gpy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> tpw;gidahsH
jdJ nghUl;fis mopf;f Fiwe;j tpiyapy; tpw;fyhk;. vdNt
,q;NfAk; toq;fy; rl;lk; gpd;gw;wg;gltpy;iy.
2. VfNghfk;
Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd cw;gj;jpahsHfs; re;ijapd;
tpepNahfj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;NghJ> toq;fy; rl;lk; nray;glhJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> VfNghf tp\aj;jpy; (xw;iw tpw;gidahsH)
nghUl;fspd; tpiy mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhYk; toq;fg;gl;l xU ngupa
msit mtrpakhf toq;ff;$lhJ. VfNghfj;jpd; re;ij fl;Lg;ghL
re;ijapy; Njit mbg;gilapy; re;ij tpiyia epHzapf;f
mDkjpf;fpwJ.
3. Nghl;b
xU jd;dyf;FO kw;Wk; VfNghf Nghl;b Nghd;w gpw re;ij
fl;likg;Gfs; mjpf Nghl;bia vjpHnfhs;sf;$Lk;> vdNt Fiwe;j
tpiyapy; mjpf msTfis tpw;f Kd;te;J toq;fy; rl;lj;ij
kWf;fpd;wd.
4. mope;JNghff;$ba nghUl;fs;
mope;JNghff;$ba nghUl;fspd; re;jHg;gq;fspy;> rg;isaH
jahupg;Gf;F Nrjk; Vw;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; ,og;Gfisj; jtpHg;gjw;fhf
Fiwe;j tpiyapy; mjpf msTfis tpw;f Kd;tUthH.
5. msT fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; rl;lk;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;ba ed;ikfspd; msT my;yJ re;ijapy;
ey;yij tpw;f Ntz;ba tpiy cr;rtuk;G Fwpj;J murhq;fk; rpy
52
tpjpKiwfis tpjpj;Js;s ,lj;jpy; mjpf tpiyf;F mjpf msT toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
tpw;f rg;isaHfs; Kd;tu KbahJ.
6. tptrha nghUl;fs;
Fwpg;G
Ntshz; nghUl;fspd; cw;gj;jpia xU Fwpg;gpl;l vy;iyf;F mg;ghy;
mjpfupf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy;> tpiyfs; mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhYk;
tpepNahfj;ij ,e;j tuk;ig kPwp mjpfupf;f KbahJ@
jahupg;ghsUf;F mjpf msTfis toq;f Kbatpy;iy.
7. fiy kw;Wk; Vy nghUl;fs;
mj;jifa nghUl;fspd; tpepNahfj;ij mjd; Njitf;Nfw;g vspjhf
mjpfupf;fNth Fiwf;fNth KbahJ. ,jdhy;> tpiyfs;
mjpfupj;jhYk; mjpf msTfis toq;FtJ fbdk;.
8. /Ng\d; nghUl;fSf;F ntspNa
nghUl;fs; ghzpapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ tpw;gidahsHfs; mjpf
tpiyf;F tpw;fyhk;. Mdhy; rpy nghUl;fs; /Ng\Df;F ntspNa
nrd;W ,g;NghJ eilKiwapy; ,y;iy. ,j;jifa nghUl;fs;
tpw;gidahsHfshy; ,e;j nghUl;fis mopf;f Fiwe;j tpiyapy;
tpw;fg;gLfpd;wd.
9. nghUshjhu ke;jepiy
tzpfq;fs; ntt;NtW fl;lq;fisf; fle;J nry;fpd;wd> NkYk;
tpw;gidahsHfs; ,e;j tzpf njhlHghd khw;wq;fSf;F Vw;g khw;w
Ntz;Lk;. Fiwe;j nghUshjhu fl;lq;fspd; NghJ>
tpw;gidahsHfSf;F mjpfupf;Fk; tpiyfspd; ed;ik ,Uf;fhJ>
vdNt ,JNghd;w fbdkhd fhyq;fspy;> nryTfis
kPl;nlLg;gjw;fhf tpiy caHitf; fhzhjNghJ $l mtHfs;
nghUl;fis tpw;fpwhHfs; . vdNt toq;fy; rl;lk; ,e;j
tp\aj;jpYk; nghUe;jhJ.
10. epjpapd; cldb Njit
tpw;gidahsH cldbahf epjp Njitg;gLk; Neuj;ij
vjpHnfhs;sf;$Lk;. ,e;j #o;epiyapy;> mtH re;ijapy; Fiwe;j
tpiyapy; $l nghUl;fis toq;ff;$Lk;.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; II rupghHf;fTk;

Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. toq;fy; rl;lj;jpy; VNjDk; ,uz;L tpjptpyf;Ffisf; $wTk;?
53
rkepiy
tpepNahfj;jpy; 'mjpfupg;G' kw;Wk; 'FiwT' vd;gJ tpiyapy; ve;j
khw;wKk; ,y;yhky; toq;fg;gl;l mstpd; khw;wj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;.
Fwpg;G
Mifahy;> tpepNahf ml;ltizia tyJGwkhfTk;> ,lJGwkhfTk;
toq;Ftijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
xt;nthU tpiyapYk; mjpfkhf jahupf;fTk; tpw;fTk; tpUg;gk;
rk;ge;jg;gl;l tpepNahfj;jpy; mjpfupg;G Vw;glyhk;
1. njhopy;El;gj;jpy; Nkk;ghLfs;
2. gpw nghUl;fspd; tpiyapy; FiwfpwJ
3. nghUisg; nghUj;jkhf;Ftjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cw;gj;jp
fhuzpfspd; tpiyapy; FiwT.
4. nghUisg; nghUj;jkhf;Ftjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cw;gj;jp
fhuzpfspd; tpiyapy; mjpfupg;G.
toq;fg;gl;l mstpd; mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; tpepNahf mjpfupg;G
Mfpatw;iw xUtH njspthf NtWgLj;j Ntz;Lk;. tpepNahfj;jpy;
mjpfupg;G vd;gJ KO tpepNahf tisTk; tyJGwj;jpy; xU Gjpa
epiyf;F khwptpl;lJ vd;gjhFk;.
,J xl;Lnkhj;jkhf xU Gjpa tisthFk;> mNjrkak; toq;fg;gl;l
mstpd; mjpfupg;G vd;gJ mjpf tpiyapy; mjpfk;
ghjpf;fg;gLtjhFk;. tpepNahf tisT xd;Nw.
mNj tpepNahf tisTld; xU ,af;fk; tpiy khw;wj;jpd;
tpisthf toq;fg;gLk; msTfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fisf;
Fwpf;fpwJ. ,J tpepNahf ml;ltizapy; ve;j khw;wj;ijAk;
Fwpf;ftpy;iy.
gpd;jq;fpa rha;thd tpepNahf tisT:
rg;is rl;lk; mjpf tpiyf;F toq;fg;gLk; vd;W $WfpwJ. Mdhy;
,J rpy Neuq;fspy; ,J xU Gs;sp tiu kl;LNk ey;yjhf
,Uf;Fk;> mjd;gpwF Fiwthf mjpf tpiyf;F toq;fg;gLfpwJ.
vdNt tpepNahf tisT ,lJGwk; gpd;Ndhf;fp rha;thfj;
njhlq;FfpwJ.
caUk; Cjpaq;fs; mjpf Ntiyiaj; J}z;Lfpd;wd> Mdhy; xU
fl;lj;jpw;Fg; gpwF> Xa;TNeuk; ciog;Gf;F Kd;Dupik
mspf;fg;gLfpwJ> vdNt mjpf Cjpaq;fs; njhopyhsHfis
Fiwthf Ntiy nra;a J}z;Lfpd;wd> NkYk; tpLKiw $l
cs;sd.
rpwg;G tpepNahf tisT:
murhq;fk; xU epiyahd tpfpjj;jpy; kpd;rhuk; mspf;fpwJ vd;W
itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;. tpepNahf tisT tiuglj;jpy; SS1 tisitg;
ghHf;Fk;. OP tpiyapy;> toq;fg;gl;l msT OQ kw;Wk; mjw;F Nky;
54
,y;iy vd;gij ,J fhl;LfpwJ. xJf;fL
P Kiwapd; fPo; toq;fy; toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
tisT SS1 tisT NghyTk; njupfpwJ.
$l;L toq;fy; kw;Wk; $l;L toq;fy; Fwpg;G
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ,uz;L nghUl;fs; xd;whf
toq;fg;gLk;NghJ> mJ xU $l;L tpepNahfkhFk;. cjhuzkhf:
NfhJik kw;Wk; ckp> kiwfs; kw;Wk; vYk;Gfs;. ,q;Nf> xd;W
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;NghJ> kw;nwhd;wpd; cw;gj;jpAk; ,aw;ifahfNt
epfo;fpwJ.
tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk;:
nfhLf;fg;gl;l ey;y my;yJ Nritapd; rg;isaHfs; cw;gj;jp
my;yJ ntspaPl;il khw;Wk;NghJ tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
mjpf jpwikahd my;yJ Fiwe;j tpiy cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwfs;
my;yJ re;ijapy; Nghl;bahsHfspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; khw;wk; Nghd;w
Gjpa njhopy;El;gq;fspd; tpisthf tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk;
Vw;gLfpwJ .
tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk; toq;fy; tistpd; khw;wj;jpw;F toptFf;fpwJ
> ,jdhy; re;ijapy; Vw;wj;jho;T Vw;gLfpwJ> ,J tpiyfs; kw;Wk;
Njitia khw;Wtjd; %yk; rup nra;ag;gLfpwJ. toq;fy;
mjpfupj;jhy;> tpepNahf tisT tyJGwkhf khWfpwJ> mNj
Neuj;jpy; tpepNahfj;jpy; FiwT tpepNahf tisit ,lJGwkhf
khw;WfpwJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU Gjpa njhopy;El;gk; cw;gj;jpahsHfSf;fhd
Nfkpq; fd;Nrhy; cw;gj;jpapd; tpiyiaf; Fiwj;jhy; > toq;fy;
rl;lj;jpd;gb> fd;Nrhy;fspd; ntspaPL mjpfupf;Fk;. re;ijapy; mjpf
ntspaPl;ilf; nfhz;L> fd;Nrhy;fspd; tpiy tPo;rr ; pailaf;$Lk; >
,J re;ijapy; mjpf NjitiaAk;> fd;Nrhy;fspd; xl;Lnkhj;j
tpw;gidiaAk; cUthf;Fk;.
toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit tisTfs;
xU tiuglj;jpy; ,uz;L khwpfs; jpl;lkpLtjd; %yk; toq;fy;
kw;Wk; Njitia khw;Wtjd; tpisTfis rpj;jupf;f KbAk;.
fpilkl;l vf;];-mr;R msitf; Fwpf;fpwJ kw;Wk; nrq;Fj;J Y-
mr;R tpiyiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ. toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit tisTfs;
xd;wpize;J tiuglj;jpd; eLtpy; xU "vf;];" cUthfpd;wd@
tpepNahf tisT Nky;Nehf;fp kw;Wk; Njit tisT fPo;Nehf;fp
Rl;bf;fhl;LfpwJ . ,uz;L tisTfs; ntl;Lk; ,lj;jpy; jw;Nghija
toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njitfspd; mbg;gilapy; tpiy kw;Wk; msT
cs;sJ.
Njit epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ tpepNahfj;jpy; NeHkiwahd
khw;wk; tpepNahf tisit tyg;Gwkhf khw;WfpwJ> ,jd; tpisthf
xU FWf;Fntl;L Fiwe;j tpiyiaAk; mjpf msitAk; jUfpwJ. Self-Instructional Material
55
toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij tpepNahfj;jpy; vjpHkiwahd khw;wk; tisit ,lJGwkhf
rkepiy
khw;WfpwJ> ,jdhy; tpiyfs; caUk; kw;Wk; msT FiwfpwJ.
toq;fy; vLj;Jf;fhl;by; khw;wk;
Fwpg;G
2010fspd; Kw;gFjpapy;> tl mnkupf;fhtpy; N\y; uhf;
mikg;GfspypUe;J vz;nziag; gpupj;njLf;Fk; xU Kiwahf
i`l;uhypf; KwpT ("/g;Nuf;fpq;") tsHr;rp vz;nza; re;ijapy;
tpepNahfj;jpy; rhjfkhd khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jpaJ . xngf; my;yhj
vz;nza; cw;gj;jp ehnshd;Wf;F xU kpy;ypad; gPg;gha;fSf;F Nky;
caHe;jJ> Vnddpy; ngUk;ghyhd vz;nza; tl mnkupf;fhtpy;
gpsTgLtjpypUe;J te;jJ .
vz;nza; toq;fy; mjpfupj;jjd; fhuzkhf> 2008 Mk; Mz;by;
vy;yh Neuj;jpYk; caHe;j 147 lhyiu vl;ba xU gPg;gha; tpiy>
gpg;utup 2016 ,y; 27 lhyuhff; Fiwe;jJ. Fiwe;j tpiyfs; mjpf
Njitia cUthf;Fk; vd;W nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; fzpj;Js;sdH
vz;nza; vd;whYk;> ,e;j Nfhupf;if cyfpd; gy gFjpfspYk;
Nkhrkile;J tUk; nghUshjhu epiyikfshy; Fiwf;fg;gl;lJ.
Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk; vg;NghJ Vw;gLk;?
4.7 tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rp

tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr ; p xU nghUspd; tpepNahfj;jpw;Fk; mjd;
tpiyf;Fk; ,ilapy; xU msT cwit epWTfpwJ. vdNt>
nefpo;rr; p vd;w fUj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp xU nghUspd; tpiyapy;
Vw;gl;l khw;wj;Jld; tpepNahfj;jpy; vz;fspd; khw;wj;ij
ntspg;gLj;jyhk;. nefpo;rr; pj;jd;ikia tpepNahfj;jpd; kw;w
jPHkhdpg;gtHfsplKk; fzf;fpl KbAk; vd;gij epidtpy; nfhs;f.
nghUl;fspd; tpepNahfj;ij ghjpf;Fk; Kf;fpa fhuzp mjd; tpiy.
toq;fy; tpiy ,Oit tpfpjk; MFk; ,d; xU nghUspd;
toq;fg;gl;l msT tpOf;fhl;L khw;wkhFk; tpiy tpOf;fhl;L
khw;wkhFk;.
Es = [(Δq / q) × 100] ÷ [(Δp / p) × 100] = (Δq / q) (Δp / p)
Δq = toq;fg;gl;l mstpd; khw;wk;
q=toq;fg;gl;l msT
p = tpiyapy; khw;wk;
p = tpiy
cjhuzkhf
56
epWtdk; A mjd; cw;gj;jpapy; 300 a+dpl;Lfis & .4 tpiyapy; rkepiy
toq;fpaJ. tpiy & .8 Mf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> toq;fg;gl;l msT
500 a+dpl;Lfshf mjpfupf;fpwJ. tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rpiaf; Fwpg;G
fz;lwpaTk;.
tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rp
= 200/4 x 4/300
= 200/300 = 0.67
g+[;[pa nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ik vd;gJ tpiy khw;wq;fshf toq;fg;gl;l
msT khwhJ. cjhuzkhf> rg;isaHfs; nfhLf;fg;gl;l msT Oa I
cw;gj;jp nra;tjpYk;> mij re;ijapy; vij Ntz;LkhdhYk;
re;ijapy; nfhl;LtjpYk; njhlHe;J ,Ue;jhy;.
vy;iyaw;w nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikiag; nghWj;jtiu> rg;is nefpo;rr ; p
tpiy xgpy; vy;iyaw;wJ> Vndd;why; vJTk; Fiwe;j tpiyapy;
toq;fg;gLtjpy;iy> Mdhy; Xgpw;fhd tpiyapy; xU rpwpa mjpfupg;G
rg;is g+[;[paj;jpypUe;J fhytiuapd;wp ngupa mstpw;F cau
fhuzkhfpwJ> ,J jahupg;ghsHfs; toq;Ftijf; Fwpf;fpwJ me;j
tpiyapy; Nfhug;gLk; ve;jj; njhifAk;.
tpepNahfj;jpd; myF nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikiag; nghWj;jtiu>
Njhw;wj;jpd; %yk; tiuag;gl;l ve;j NeH NfhL tpepNahf tisTk;
xU myF nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
tpepNahf tisT nrq;Fj;J mr;ir ntl;Lk;NghJ> mJ xg;gPll ; stpy;
kPs; tpepNahfkhFk;. tpepNahf tisT fpilkl;l mr;irf;
Fiwf;Fk;NghJ> mJ xg;gPll ; stpy; cWjpaw;w rg;is MFk;.
tpepNahf tistpypUe;J nefpo;r;rp
tpepNahfj;jpd; tpiy nefpo;rr ; piaf; fzf;fpl ,d;Dk; ,uz;L
topfs; cs;sd > ,it ,uz;Lk; tpepNahf tisitg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. Gs;sp nefpo;rr ; p vdg;gLk; tpepNahf tistpd;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l fl;lj;jpy; nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikia ehk; fzf;fplyhk;
my;yJ tpy;-nefpo;rr; p vdg;gLk; ,uz;L tpiyfSf;F ,ilapy;
fzf;fplyhk;.
tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikiaf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd
tpepNahfj;jpd; tpy;-nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikiaf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd
#j;jpuk;:
Es = ( dq / dp) × (p / q)
,q;Nf dq/dp vd;gJ tpepNahf tistpd; rha;T
tpepNahfj;jpd; tpy; nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikiaf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd
#j;jpuk;
Es = [(q1 - q2) / (q1 + q2)] × [( p1 + p2) / (p1 - p2)]
57
toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij 4.8 tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikia jPh;khdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;:
rkepiy
1. rupahf cWjpaw;w rg;is
xU Nrit my;yJ gz;lj;jpw;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l mstpyhd rg;is
Fwpg;G cs;sJ> mjd; Fwpg;gpl;l msT tpiy vJthf ,Ue;jhYk; mij
toq;f KbAk;. mj;jifa Nrit my;yJ nghUl;fSf;fhd
tpepNahf nefpo;rr
; p g+[;[pakhFk;. xU KOikahd cWjpaw;w
tpepNahf tisT vd;gJ Y- mr;Rf;F ,izahd xU NeH NfhL.
tpiyiag; nghUl;gLj;jhky; toq;fy; mg;gbNa cs;sJ vd;gjd;
gpujpepjpahFk;.
Nkhdhyprhtpd; Xtpak; Nghd;w gpuj;Naf nghUl;fspd; toq;fy; ,e;j
tiff;Fs; tUfpwJ. rYifapd; tpiy vJthf ,Ue;jhYk;> mjd;
tpepNahfj;ij ehk; mjpfupf;f top ,y;iy.
2. xg;gPl;lstpy; Fiwe;j-kPs; toq;fy;

tpiyapd; khw;wj;Jld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk; xg;gPll
; stpy;
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gz;lj;jpw;F
xg;gPll
; stpy; Fiwthd kPs; tpepNahfk;
,Ug;gjhf ehq;fs; $WfpNwhk;. mj;jifa
re;jHg;gj;jpy;> tpepNahfj;jpd; tpiy nefpo;rr ; p 1 f;Fk; Fiwthd
kjpg;igf; fUJfpwJ.
3. xg;gPl;lstpy; mjpf-kPs; toq;fy;
tpiyapd; khw;wj;Jld; xg;gpLk;NghJ tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk;
xg;gPll
; stpy; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gz;lj;jpw;F xg;gPll ; stpy;
mjpf kPs; toq;fy; ,Ug;gjhff; $WfpNwhk;. mj;jifa
re;jHg;gj;jpy;> tpepNahfj;jpd; tpiy nefpo;rr ; p 1 I tpl mjpfkhd
kjpg;igf; fUJfpwJ.
4. xw;iwahl;rp kPs;
xU a+dpl; nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikAld; $ba xU nghUSf;F> xU
nghUspd; rg;is mstpd; khw;wk; mjd; tpiyapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;jpw;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;>
nghUl;fspd; tpiy kw;Wk; toq;fy; ,uz;bYk; Vw;gLk; khw;wk;
xUtUf;nfhUtH tpfpjhrhukhf rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;. Rl;bf;fhl;l>
mj;jifa tof;fpy; tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; p xd;Wf;F rkk;. NkYk;>
xU xw;Wik kPs; tpepNahf tisT Njhw;wk; topahf nry;fpwJ.
5. rupahf kPs; toq;fy;
xU KOikahd kPs; tpepNahfj;Jld; $ba xU nghUs; vy;iyaw;w
nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mj;jifa re;jHg;gj;jpy;>
tpiyapy; xU rpwpa tPo;rr ; pAld; toq;fy; g+[;[pakhfp> tpiyapy;
rpwpJ caHTld; vy;iyaw;wjhfpwJ. mj;jifa xU nghUspd;
58
rg;isaHfs; ve;jnthU nghUl;fspd; msitAk; mjpf tpiyf;F toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
toq;f jahuhf ,Uf;fpwhHfs; vd;gijNa ,J Fwpf;fpwJ. xU
KOikahd kPs; tpepNahf tisT vf;];-mr;Rf;F ,izahd xU
Fwpg;G
NeH NfhL.
tpepNahfj;jpd; FWf;F nefpo;rr ; p
f;&ad;> vy;.thHl; kw;Wk; V. gty; MfpNahH M];jpNuypa tptrha
cw;gj;jpfSf;fhd tpepNahf nefpo;rr ; pj;jd;ikia kjpg;gpLifapy;
tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ik Fwpj;j ,e;j Gjpa fUj;ij
mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sdH.
vt;thwhapDk;> tpepNahfj;jpd; FWf;F (tpiy) nefpo;rr ; p> kw;nwhU
nghUspd; tpiy (ney; vd;W nrhy;Yk;NghJ) khWk;NghJ xU
nghUspd; (v.fh. ntg;gk;) toq;fg;gl;l mstpd; khw;wj;ij mstpLk;.
,ij ntspg;gLj;jyhk;
,q;Nf> Esc vd;gJ nefpo;rr
; p ,iz nray;jpwd; nfhz;lJ. xU
ed;ikf;fhd tpiy caHT khw;W ed;ik toq;fg;gLk; msT
tPo;rr
; pf;F toptFf;Fk; vd;gijf; Fwpf;Fk; vg;NghJk;
vjpHkiwahdJ. cjhuzkhf> ney; tpiyia 1 rjtPjk;
caHj;jpdhy; NfhJik toq;fg;gLk; msit 0.22 rjtPjk;
Fiwf;fyhk;.
ep[ tho;f;ifapy; tpepNahfj;jpd; FWf;F nefpo;rr
; p vd;w fUj;J
Kf;fpakhdJ> tptrha nghUl;fspd; tp\aj;jpy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
tifapy;. epyk; xU gw;whf;Fiw fhuzp vd;gjhy;> tptrhapfs; mjd;
gad;ghL Fwpj;J ftdkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf> ney;
tpiy caHe;jhy;> NfhJik cw;gj;jpapy; ,Ue;J epyk; jpUg;gp
tplg;gLk;> ,jdhy; toq;fg;gLk; NfhJikapd; msT FiwAk;.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; IV I rupghHf;fTk;

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; pia jPHkhdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; ahit?
4.9 eilKiw Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:

toq;fy; tpiy nefpo;rr
; p Kf;fpak; ,y;
· tPl;Ltrjp toq;fy; - mjpfupj;J tUk; Njitf;F gjpyspf;Fk;
tpjkhf Gjpa tPLfspd; cWjpaw;w toq;fy; - tPl;Lr; nry;tk;>
kypT Nghd;wtw;Wf;fhd tpisTfSld; nrhj;J tpiyfis
caHj;JfpwJ
59
toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij · vz;nza; njhopy; - cyfshtpa Njit tpuptilAk; NghJ
rkepiy
xngf; kw;Wk; xngf; my;yhj ehLfs; fr;rh vz;nza;
cw;gj;jpia mjpfupf;f KbAkh?
Fwpg;G
· tHj;jfk;: mjhtJ xU ehl;bd; Vw;Wkjpj; njhopy;fspd;
Vw;Wkjp Njit mjpfupj;jhy; khw;W tpfpjj;jpy; Nja;khdj;jpw;F
gjpyspf;Fk; jpwd; - gupkhw;w tPjj;ij Nkf;Nuh nfhs;ifapd;
fUtpahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; ehLfSf;F Kf;fpakhdJ
· nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs;: gy fbdkhd kw;Wk; nkd;ikahd
nghUl;fspd; cWjpaw;w toq;fy; - tpiyfis mjpf
epiyaw;wjhf Mf;FfpwJ - Fwpg;ghf tYthd Cf nray;ghL
cs;s re;ijfspy; - cyfshtpa czT tpiy
gztPf;fj;Jld; ,izg;G
· njhopyhsH re;ij: njhopyhsH tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; p vd;gJ
Cjpa NtWghLfis tpsf;Fk; xU fhuzpahFk; - mjhtJ
Gyk;ngaHe;j njhopyhsHfs; njhopyhsH gw;whf;Fiwiag;
Nghf;f kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rpia Nkk;gLj;j
cjtyhk;
· Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L ,ilntsp:
nghUshjhu Row;rpapd; ntt;NtW Gs;spfspy; SRAS ,d;
khWk; nefpo;rr
; p
· Njit mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ GJg;gpf;fj;jf;f vuprf;jp Mjhuq;fis
toq;Ftjw;fhd nefpo;rr
; p v.fh. capup vupnghUs;fs;> #upa
rf;jp
· miu nghJ nghUl;fs; - mjhtJ VHNtt;];> Nkhl;lHNt];> gPr;
Nghd;w nghJg; nghUl;fs; $l;lkhfTk; neupryhfTk; khWk; -
$Ljy; gadUf;F toq;Ftjw;fhd XusT nryT caUk;
· xU re;ijapy; murhq;fj;jpd; jiyaPL - mjpfgl;r kw;Wk;
Fiwe;jgl;r tpiyfs; my;yJ kiwKf tup kw;Wk; khdpaq;fs;
Fwpj;j Nfs;tpfSf;F ePq;fs; gjpyspf;fpwPHfs; vd;why;>
,JNghd;w ve;jnthU re;ij jiyaPl;bd; KbTfisAk;
ghjpg;gjpy; tpepNahfj;jpd; tpiy nefpo;r;rpapd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg; gw;wp ePq;fs; vg;NghJk; xU gaDs;s
gFg;gha;T Gs;spia cUthf;fyhk;.
tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikia ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfSf;fhd

epidt+l;ly; ,q;Nf (,d;nd]; uhgpd;rdpd; kupahij)
1. Eiotjw;fhd jilfs; - v.fh. fhg;Gupikfs; my;yJ tpsk;gu

nryT mjpfkhdJ Gjpa epWtdq;fs; re;ijapy; Eiotij
fbdkhf;Fk;
60
2. %yg;nghUl;fs; - %yg;nghUl;fs; cldbahf fpilj;jhy;> toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij
rkepiy
cw;gj;jpia tpupthf;FtJ xg;gPll
; stpy; vspjhf ,Uf;Fk;
3. ruf;F - Vuhskhd gq;F cs;s tzpfq;fs; tpepNahfj;ij
Fwpg;G
vspjpy; mjpfupf;Fk;.
4. Neuk; - gy tptrha nghUl;fs; FWfpa fhyj;jpw;F
toq;fg;gLtJ rup nra;a Neuk; vLf;Fk;.
5. cjpup jpwd; - tzpfq;fs; KOj; jpwDld; ,aq;ftpy;iy
vd;why; mit tpepNahfj;ij mjpfupf;f KbAk;. Vuhskhd
cjpup ciog;G kw;Wk; %yjd tsq;fs; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ
ke;jepiyapy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; toq;fy;
ngUk;ghYk; kpf kPs;jd;ik nfhz;lJ
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; V. I rhpghh;f;fTk;
vOJq;fs;
nfhLf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld; xg;gpLf.
1. eilKiw Kf;fpaj;Jtk; Njitg;gLk; ve;j ,uz;L
JiwfisAk; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;?

xU Nghl;b re;ijapy;> xU ey;y my;yJ Nritapd; Njit kw;Wk;
toq;fy; rkepiy tpiyia jPHkhdpf;fpwJ.
rkepiy re;ij:
Nfhug;gl;l kw;Wk; toq;fg;gl;l msTfs; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; tpiyapy;
rkepiy milag;gLfpwJ. toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit tisTfs;
xd;wpizf;Fk; xUq;fpize;j tpiy kw;Wk; msitf; fhz;gpg;gjd;
%yk; xU tiuglj;jpy; rkepiyapy; xU re;ijia ehk;
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;j KbAk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> mzpy; tpul;bia tpw;gtHfs; 500500500 a+dpl;
mzpy; tpul;bia \ $5$5 lhyH milahsk;> xU NfDf;F 5 vd;w
tpiyapy; tpw;f jahuhf ,Ug;gjhf fw;gid nra;J ghUq;fs;. me;j
tpiyapy; 500500500 a+dpl; mzpy; tpul;bia thq;FNthH jahuhf
,Ue;jhy;> ,e;j re;ij \ $5$5 lhyH milahsk;> 5 kw;Wk; 500500500
Nfd;fspd; tpiyapy; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
epiyapd;ikapd;
re;ijfs; Vw;wj;jho;Tfis mDgtpf;Fk; Nghnjy;yhk;-xOq;fw;w
tpiyfs;> cgupfs; kw;Wk; gw;whf;Fiwia cUthf;Fjy;-re;ij
rf;jpfs; tpiyfis rkepiyia Nehf;fp nrYj;Jfpd;wd.
61
toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij tpiy rkepiyia tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ xU cgup cs;sJ>
rkepiy
,J tpw;gidahsHfis cgupfis mfw;w jq;fs; tpiyia
Fiwf;f Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
Fwpg;G
rkepiyf;F fPNo ve;j tpiyapYk; xU gw;whf;Fiw ,Uf;Fk;> ,J
ey;y mjpfupg;Gf;F toptFf;fpwJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> buhfd; tpul;bapd; tpiy jw;NghJ \$6$6 lhyH
milahsk;> xU NfDf;F 6 vd;W fw;gid nra;J ghUq;fs;. buhfd;
tpul;Lk; 400400400 Nfd;fis kl;LNk kf;fs; thq;f tpUk;GfpwhHfs;>
Mdhy; tpw;gidahsHfs; 600600600 Nfd;fis me;j tpiyapy; tpw;f
jahuhf cs;sdH. buhfd; tpul;bapd; tpw;fg;glhj Nfd;fSf;fhf
thq;FgtHfis <Hg;gjw;fhf tpw;gidahsHfs; jq;fs; tpiyia
Fiwg;ghHfs;.
rkepiyapy; khw;wq;fs;
toq;fy; kw;Wk; / my;yJ Njitia epHzapg;gjpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fs; Gjpa rkepiy tpiy kw;Wk; msit tpistpf;fpd;wd.
toq;fy; my;yJ Njitapy; khw;wk; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gioa tpiy
,dp xU rkepiyahf ,Uf;fhJ. mjw;F gjpyhf> xU gw;whf;Fiw
my;yJ cgup ,Uf;Fk;> NkYk; xU Gjpa rkepiy ,Uf;Fk; tiu
tpiy gpd;dH rupnra;ag;gLk;.
cjhuzkhf> Mf;fpukpg;G a+dpfhHd;fspd; jpBH gilnaLg;G
,Ug;gjhf itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;. a+dpfhHd; tpul;bia midj;J
tpiyapYk; thq;f tpUk;Gk; mjpfkhd kf;fs; ,Ug;ghHfs;> ,jdhy;
Njit mjpfupf;Fk;. mry; tpiyapy;> a+dpfhHd; tpul;Lk; gw;whf;Fiw
,Uf;Fk;> tpw;gidahsHfSf;F toq;fg;gl;l msT kw;Wk; Nfhug;gl;l
msT kPz;Lk; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; tiu tpiyia mjpfupf;f rkpf;iQ
nra;fpwJ.
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; VI

vOJq;fs;
1. rkepiy re;ij vd;why; vd;d?
4.11 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF toq;fy; fUj;ij RUf;fkhff; $WfpwJ@ toq;fy;
rl;lj;jpw;F mjd; tpjptpyf;Ffs;> tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr; p kw;Wk;
tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikia jPHkhdpf;Fk; fhuzpfSld;. ,J
re;ij rkepiy kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiyapd; khw;wq;fs; gw;wpa
njspthd glj;ijAk; jUfpwJ.
62
4.12. cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;fs; rkepiy
1. xU nghUspd; tpiy caUk;NghJ> mjd; toq;fy;
mjpfupf;fpwJ kw;Wk; tpiy FiwAk; NghJ> mjd; toq;fy;
Fwpg;G
FiwfpwJ ".
2. VfNghfk; kw;Wk; Nghl;b
3. ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ,uz;L nghUl;fs; xd;whf
toq;fg;gLk;NghJ> mJ xU $l;L tpepNahfkhFk;. cjhuzkhf:
NfhJik kw;Wk; ckp> kiwfs; kw;Wk; vYk;Gfs;. ,q;Nf>
xd;W cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;NghJ> kw;nwhd;wpd; cw;gj;jpAk;
,aw;ifahfNt epfo;fpwJ.
4. mjpf jpwikahd my;yJ Fiwe;j tpiy cw;gj;jp
nray;Kiwfs; my;yJ re;ijapy; Nghl;bahsHfspd;
vz;zpf;ifapy; khw;wk; Nghd;w Gjpa njhopy;El;gq;fspd;
tpisthf tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ .
5. nra;jgpd; nefpo;rr
; p toq;fy;> myF nefpo;r;rp kw;Wk; rupahd
kPs; toq;fy;
6. nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs;: gy fbdkhd kw;Wk; nkd;ikahd
nghUl;fspd; cWjpaw;w toq;fy; - tpiyfis mjpf
epiyaw;wjhf Mf;FfpwJ - Fwpg;ghf tYthd Cf nray;ghL
cs;s re;ijfspy; - cyfshtpa czT tpiy
gztPf;fj;Jld; ,izg;G.
njhopyhsH re;ij: njhopyhsH tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr ; p
vd;gJ Cjpa NtWghLfis tpsf;Fk; xU fhuzpahFk; -
mjhtJ Gyk;ngaHe;j njhopyhsHfs; njhopyhsH
gw;whf;Fiwiag; Nghf;f kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;jpd; nefpo;rr
; pia
Nkk;gLj;j cjtyhk;
7. Nfhug;gl;l kw;Wk; toq;fg;gl;l msTfs; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;
tpiyapy; rkepiy milag;gLfpwJ. toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit
tisTfs; xd;wpizf;Fk; xUq;fpize;j tpiy kw;Wk;
msitf; fhz;gpg;gjd; %yk; xU tiuglj;jpy; rkepiyapy;
xU re;ijia ehk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;j KbAk;.
4.13. gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
rq;fud;.v]; 2004. epHthf nghUshjhuk;. khHfk; ntspaPL
jpy;yp.
63
rkepiy
myF V: cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T

Fwpg;G 5.1 mwpKfk;
5.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
5.3 cw;gj;jpapd; nghUs; kw;Wk; fhuzpfs;
5.4 cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
5.5 cw;gj;jp nryT
5.6 RUf;fk;
5.1 mwpKfk;:
cw;gj;jp nray;ghL vd;w nrhy; cs;sPLfs; kw;Wk; mit jahupf;Fk;
ntspaPLfSf;F ,ilapyhd cwitf; Fwpf;fpwJ. cw;gj;jpr;
nray;ghl;bd; Ma;T nfhLf;fg;gl;l tsq;fs; my;yJ cs;sPLfspd;
njhFg;G kw;Wk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhopy;El;gj;Jld; milaf;$ba
mjpfgl;r ntspaPli
; l epWTtij Nehf;fp ,af;fg;gLfpwJ
5.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:
cw;gj;jp> cw;gj;jp nray;ghL EZf;fq;fs; kw;Wk; mjDld;
njhlHGila nryT Mfpatw;wpd; mHj;jj;ij khztH njspthf
Gupe;J nfhs;s KbAk;.
5.3 cw;gj;jpapd; nghUs; kw;Wk; fhuzpfs;:
cw;gj;jp nray;ghl;il cUthf;Fk; cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwfspd;
njhFg;gpd; %yk; cs;sPLfs; ntspaPLfshf khw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
RUf;fkhf> "cw;gj;jp" vd;w nrhy; xU ey;y nghUis
cUthf;FtijNah my;yJ mjpfupg;gijNah Fwpf;f gad;gLfpwJ >
,jdhy; mjd; kjpg;G mjpfupf;Fk;.
cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpfs;
NfhJikia cw;gj;jp nra;a xUtUf;F epyk;> njhopyhsHfs;>
buhf;lHfs;> Foha; fpzW> tpijfs;> g+r;rpf;nfhy;ypfs;> rhjfkhd
fhyepiy kw;Wk; cuq;fs; Nghd;wit Njit. ,it midj;Jk;
cw;gj;jp my;yJ cw;gj;jpiag; ngw cw;gj;jp my;yJ cs;sPLfs;
vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
etPd nghUshjhu ty;YdHfspd; $w;Wg;gb> cw;gj;jpapd; ehd;F
fhuzpfs; cs;sd: (i) epyk; (ii) ciog;G (iii) %yjdk; (iv)
njhopy;KidT.
1. epyk;: epyk; vd;gJ ,aw;ifapypUe;J ,ytrkhff; fpilf;Fk;
cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpahFk;. mjpy;> kz;zpd; Nkw;gug;gpy;
kl;Lky;yhky;> Nkw;gug;gpw;Ff; fPOk; Nkw;gug;Gf;F NkNyAk;
Self-Instructional Material ,aw;ifapd; kw;w ,ytr gupRfSk; NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd@
64
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> fhLfs;> jhJf;fs;> kz;zpd; tsk;> ePH cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T
Nghd;wit. khH\ypd; $w;Wg;gb> "epyk; vd;gJ kdpjdpd;

cjtpf;fhf> epyj;jpYk; ePupYk;> fhw;W> xsp kw;Wk;
ntg;gj;jpy; ,aw;ifahdJ Rje;jpukhf toq;Fk; nghUs; Fwpg;G
kw;Wk; rf;jpfs;." epyk; ,aw;if tsk; vd;Wk;

miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. ciog;G: ciog;G vd;gJ cw;gj;jpapd; xU kdpj fhuzp.
mjpy; kdpjdpd; midj;J kd kw;Wk; cly; nray;ghLfSk;
NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd> mit gzk; rk;ghjpg;gjw;fhf
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. xU jr;R> fUg;G-];kpj;> nerthsH>
MrpupaH> tof;fwpQH kw;Wk; kUj;JtH Nghd;Nwhupd;
Nritfs; ciog;G vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
3. %yjdk;: %yjdk; vd;gJ kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l
fhuzpahFk;> ,J mjpf cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
,ae;jpuq;fs;> fUtpfs;> %yg;nghUl;fs;> fl;blq;fs;>
uapy;Nt> njhopw;rhiyfs; Nghd;w fhuzpfs; %yjdk; vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. rk;ghjpf;f KjyPL nra;Ak;NghJ xU
kdpjidf; fhg;ghw;WtJ %yjdk; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
4. njhopy;KidT: cw;gj;jpapd; kw;w midj;J fhuzpfisAk;
EfHNthH re;ijf;F xU jahupg;G my;yJ Nritahf
,izf;Fk; ufrpa top. njhopy;KidNthupd; xU
vLj;Jf;fhl;L r%f Clf Ng];Gf; (FB) ,d; gupzhkkhFk;.
khHf; [{f;fHngHf; jdJ r%f Clf tiyaikg;gpd; ntw;wp
my;yJ Njhy;tpf;fhd mghaj;ij jdJ jpdrup
ml;ltizapy; ,Ue;J me;j eltbf;iff;F xJf;fj;
njhlq;fpaNghJ Vw;Wf;nfhz;lhH. Fiwe;jgl;r rhj;jpakhd
cw;gj;jpia mtH FwpaPlhf;fpa Neuj;jpy;> [{f;fHngHf;fpd;
ciog;G kl;LNk cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpahf ,Ue;jJ.

vOJq;fs;
1. cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpfs; ahit ?
65
cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T 5.4 cw;gj;jp nray;ghL:
Fwpg;G ,e;j nray;ghL xU ntspaPl;il ,uz;L cs;sPLfSld;
njhlHGgLj;JfpwJ. %yjdkhdJ xU Kf;fpa gq;iff;
nfhz;bUe;jJ kw;Wk; ntspaPl;by; mjd; tpisit
Gwf;fzpf;ff;$ba msTf;F ciog;G kpFe;j xU njhopw;Jiwia
fw;gid nra;a Kbe;jhy;> xNu xU cs;sPl;ilf; nfhz;l cw;gj;jp
nray;ghl;ilf; nfhz;bUg;gJ nghUj;jkhdJ> ciog;G kw;Wk; cwT
,U gupkhzkhf ,Uf;Fk; > mjhtJ Y = f (X) tbtj;jpd;> ,q;F Y
vd;gJ ntspaPL kw;Wk; X vd;gJ cs;sPL. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j
epiyik tho;f;ifapy; re;jpf;f tha;g;gpy;iy>
vdNt> eilKiwapy;> ntspaPL Fiwe;jJ ,uz;L cs;sPLfspd;
nray;ghlhf ,Uf;Fk; vspa tof;F.
nghUshjhu Nfhl;ghl;by;> ehq;fs; %d;W tifahd cw;gj;jp
nray;ghLfspy; mf;fiw nfhz;Ls;Nshk;.
1.xU khwp cs;sl P ;Lld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
2.,uz;L khwp cs;sL P fSld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
3.midj;J khwp cs;sPLfSld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
xU khwp cs;sPl;Lld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
khwp tpfpjhr;rhuj;jpd; rl;lk;:
nghUshjhuj;jpy;> xU khwp cs;sPl;Lld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL khwp
tpfpjhr;rhuj;jpd; ed;F mwpag;gl;l rl;lj;Jld; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
khwp tpfpjj;jpd; rl;lk; nghUshjhuj;jpd; mbg;gil tpjpfspy;
xd;whFk;. ,J Xuq;fl;lg;gl;l tUthiaf; Fiwf;Fk; rl;lk; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
xU fhuzp rup nra;ag;gl;lJ kw;Wk; gpw khwp khwp tpfpjj;jpd; tpjp>
xU fhuzp khwpAld; cs;sPL-ntspaPl;L cwT my;yJ cw;gj;jp
nray;ghl;ilf; fhl;LfpwJ> mNj Neuj;jpy; cw;gj;jpapd; gpw
fhuzpfs; epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
cjhuzkhf> xU tptrhap rhFgb nra;a 20 Vf;fH epyk; cs;sJ.
epyj;jpy; rpy epiyahd KjyPL cs;sJ> mjhtJ> mjd; %yjdk;@
xU Foha;> xU gz;iz tPL kw;Wk; gz;iz ,ae;jpuq;fs;. xU
epyk; kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd; msT cw;gj;jpapd; epiyahd fhuzpahf
fUjg;gLfpwJ. vt;thwhapDk;> tptrhap mjd; rhFgbapy; gzpahw;w
Ntz;ba Mz;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia NtWgLj;jyhk;. ciog;G vd;gJ
khwp fhuzp. Mz;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; ntspaPl;il
khw;Wk;.
,Wjpapy; tUthiaf; Fiwf;Fk; rl;lk;
cw;gj;jpr; nray;ghl;by; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; khwp fhuzpapd; mstpd;
xt;nthU mjpfupg;G Fiwe;JtUk; XusT tUthiaf; nfhLf;Fk;
66
vd;W ,e;jr; rl;lk; Fwpg;gpltpy;iy. cw;gj;jp nray;ghl;by; cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; khwp fhuzpapd; mstpd; Muk;g mjpfupg;G

mjpfupf;Fk; XusT tUkhdj;ij <l;lf;$Lk;. vt;thwhapDk;>
gad;gLj;jg;gl;l khwp fhuzpapd; msit mjpfupg;gjpy;> nkhj;j Fwpg;G
ntspaPl;by; XusT mjpfupg;G Fiwaj; njhlq;Fk; my;yJ XusT

tUkhdk; Fiwaj; njhlq;Fk; xU Gs;spia vl;Lk;.
cw;gj;jpapd; %d;W epiyfs;:
cw;gj;jpapd; %d;W epiyfs; nkhj;j> tpspk;G kw;Wk; ruhrup jahupg;G
tisTfspd; rupTfs;> tbtq;fs; kw;Wk; njhlHGfshy;
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Kjy; fl;lk; ruhrup jahupg;G tistpd;
NeHkiwahd rha;thy; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ> ,J ruhrup jahupg;G
kw;Wk; tpspk;G jahupg;G tisTfSf;F ,ilapyhd FWf;Fntl;by;
KbfpwJ@ ,uz;lhtJ epiy nkhj;j jahupg;G tistpd; cr;rj;jpy;>
tpspk;G jahupg;G vjpHkiwahf khWk; tiu njhlHfpwJ @ nkhj;j
jahupg;G tisT vjpHkiwahf rha;e;jpUf;Fk; tuk;gpy; %d;whtJ
epiy cs;sJ.
epiy I ,y;> ruhrup jahupg;G NeHkiwahdJ kw;Wk; mjpfupj;J
tUfpwJ. ,uz;lhk; fl;lj;jpy;> tpspk;G jahupg;G NeHkiwahdJ>
Mdhy; FiwfpwJ. %d;whk; fl;lj;jpy;> nkhj;j jahupg;G Fiwe;J
tUfpwJ.
rkcw;gj;jp (INrhf;tz;l;):
xU cw;gj;jp nray;ghl;ilg; Gupe;J nfhs;s> ,uz;L khwp
cs;sPLfSld;> xU INrhf;thd;l; vd;why; vd;d vd;gij tpsf;f
Ntz;Lk;. xU INrhf;tz;l; vd;gJ EfHNthupd; myl;rpa tistpd;
xU epWtdj;jpd; vjpnuhypahFk;. ,J cs;sPLfspd; midj;J
NrHf;iffisAk; fhl;Lk; xU tisT> ,J xNu mstpyhd
ntspaPl;ilf; nfhLf;Fk;. 'INrh' vd;gJ rkk; vd;Wk; 'msT'
vd;why; msT vd;Wk; nghUs;.vdNt> xU INrhf;thd;l; xU
epiyahd mstpyhd ntspaPl;ilf; Fwpf;fpwJ. INrhf;tz;l; tisT
"rk jahupg;G tisT" my;yJ "cw;gj;jp myl;rpak; tisT"
my;yJ INrh-jahupg;G tisT vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
INrhf;tz;Lfspd (rk cw;gj;jp) gz;Gfs;
1. xU INrhf;tz;l; fPo;Nehf;fp tyJGwk; rha;thf cs;sJ.
mjhtJ vjpHkiwahf rha;e;jpUf;Fk;. mNj mstpyhd
ntspaPl;bw;F> kw;w khwpapd; msit mjpfupf;f xU khwpapd;
msitf; Fiwf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ.
2. mjpf INrhf;tz;l; ngupa ntspaPl;ilf; Fwpf;fpwJ. mjhtJ>
xU cs;sPl;bd; mNj msT kw;Wk; gpw cs;sPl;bd; ngupa
msTld;> ngupa ntspaPL cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;. Self-Instructional Material
67
cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T 3. ,uz;L INrhf;thz;l;fSk; xd;iwnahd;W ntl;Ltjpy;iy
Fwpg;G my;yJ njhlhJ. ,uz;L INrhf;thz;Lfs; xd;Nwhnlhd;W
FWf;fpl;lhy; my;yJ njhl;lhy;> ,J ,uz;L tisTfspy;
xU nghJthd Gs;sp ,Uf;Fk; vd;gijAk;> ,uz;L
cs;sPLfspd; xNu msT ,uz;L ntt;NtW epiy
ntspaPl;il cUthf;f KbAk; vd;gijAk; ,J Fwpf;Fk;.
(mjhtJ 400 kw;Wk; 500 myFfs;) ,J mgj;jkhdJ
4. INrhfhd;l; vd;gJ Njhw;wj;jpw;F Ftpe;jjhFk;. ,jd; nghUs;
mjd; rha;T tisTld; ,lkpUe;J tykhf FiwfpwJ. NtW
thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> xU cs;sPl;bd; msit
mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> kw;w cs;sPl;bd; %yjdj;ijf; Fiwg;gjd;
%yk; ciog;G vd;W nrhy;Yq;fs;> %yjdj;jpd; %yjdj;jpd;
msitf; Fiwg;gjd; %yk;> $Ljy; ciog;Gf;F %yjdj;jpd;
Fiwe;j myFfs; jpahfk; nra;ag;gLtijf; fhz;fpNwhk;.
midj;J khwp cs;sPLfSld; cw;gj;jp nray;ghL
cw;gj;jp nghUshjhuj;jpy; neUq;fpa njhlHGila Nfs;tp
vd;dntd;why;> cs;sPl;L fhuzpfspd; tpfpjhrhu mjpfupg;G nkhj;j
cw;gj;jpia vt;thW ghjpf;Fk;. ,J mstpw;fhd tUthapd; Nfs;tp
kw;Wk; %d;W rhj;jpakhd #o;epiyfisg; gw;wp xUtH rpe;jpf;fyhk;:
1. cw;gj;jpapd; midj;J cs;sPLfs; my;yJ fhuzpfspd;
mjpfupg;Gf;F Vw;wthW ntspaPL rupahf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> mJ
mstpw;F epiyahd tUkhdk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> cw;gj;jpapy; ,U klq;F cs;sPLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> ntspaPLk; ,ul;bg;ghFk;. MfNt> cs; kw;Wk;
ntsp nghUshjhuq;fs; kw;Wk; nghUshjhuq;fs; xUtUf;nfhUtH
rkepiyg;gLj;Jk;NghJ mstpw;F epiyahd tUkhdk;
vl;lg;gLfpwJ.
2. midj;J cs;sPLfSk; tpfpjhrhukhf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ

ntspaPL tpfpjhrhuj;ij tpl mjpfkhf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> mJ
mstpw;F tUkhdj;ij mjpfupg;gJ vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J
epWtdj;jpw;fhd nryitf; Fiwg;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. mstpw;fhd
tUthia mjpfupg;gjpy; ntspaPl;bd; mjpfupg;Gf;F xU fhuzpahf
ntspg;Gw nghUshjhuq;fs; ,Uf;fyhk;. vdNt> cs;sPLfs;
,ul;bg;ghf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> ,e;j tp\aj;jpy; ntspaPL
,ul;bg;ghFk;.
3. midj;J cs;sPLfSk; tpfpjhrhukhf mjpfupg;gjhy; ntspaPL
tpfpjhrhuj;ij tpl Fiwthf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> mij
Self-Instructional Material mstpw;fhd tUthiaf; Fiwg;gJ my;yJ mstpw;F tUthiaf;
68
Fiwg;gJ vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. ,e;j tp\aj;jpy;> cs; my;yJ cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T
ntspg;Gw nghUshjhuq;fs; nghJthf cs; my;yJ ntspg;Gw

nghUshjhuq;fshy; nty;yg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt> ehk; cs;sPLfis
,ul;bg;ghf;fpdhy;> ntspaPL mjpfupf;Fk;> Mdhy; ,U klq;fpw;Fk; Fwpg;G
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. xU INrhf;tz;l; vijf; Fwpf;fpwJ?
5.5 cw;gj;jp nryT

epiyahd kw;Wk; khwf;$ba nryTfs;
epiyahd nryTfs; vd;gJ ntspaPl;by; NtWglhjit kw;Wk;
nghJthf thlif> fhg;gPL> Nja;khdk;> mikf;Fk; nryTfs; kw;Wk;
rhjhuz yhgk; Mfpait mlq;Fk;. mit XtHn`l;]; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd .
khWgLk; nryTfs; vd;gJ ntspaPl;by; khWgLk; nryTfs;> mit
Neub nryTfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd . tof;fkhd khwp
nrytpdq;fSf;fhd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfspy; vupnghUs;> %yg;nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; rpy njhopyhsH nryTfs; mlq;Fk;.
,e;j nkhj;j epiyahd nryT> nkhj;j khwp nryT kw;Wk; nkhj;j

nryT; gpd; tUk; tiuglj;ij ehk; ghh;f;fyhk;:
nkhj;j epiyahd nryTfs;

ntspaPL mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ nkhj;j epiyahd nryTfs; (b.v/g;.rp)
epiyahdit vd;gjhy;> tisT vd;gJ nryT tiuglj;jpy;
fpilkl;l NfhL.
nkhj;j khwp nryTfs; Self-Instructional Material

69
cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T nkhj;j NtWgl;l fl;lzf; (TVC) tisT gpujpgypf;Fk;> xU KLf;fp
Fwpg;G tpfpjj;jpy; tiu rupTfspy; FW tUkhdj;ij Fiwe;J rl;lk;.
nkhj;j nryTfs;
nkhj;j nryT (brp) tisT nkhj;j epiyahd kw;Wk; nkhj;j khwp
nryTfs; NrHg;gjd; %yk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. mjd; epiy epiyahd
nryTfspd; msit gpujpgypf;fpwJ> NkYk; mjd; rha;T khwp
nryTfis gpujpgypf;fpwJ.
ruhrup epiyahd nryTfs;
nkhj;j epiyahd nryTfis ntspaPl;lhy; tFg;gjd; %yk; ruhrup
epiyahd nryTfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. epiyahd nryT mjpfupf;Fk;
ntspaPl;lhy; tFf;fg;gLtjhy;> ruhrup epiyahd nryTfs;
njhlHe;J tPo;rr
; pailAk;. ruhrup epiyahd nryT (AFC) tisT
njhlHe;J rupit Nehf;fp> ,lkpUe;J tykhf ,Uf;Fk;.
ruhrup khwp nryTfs;

nkhj;j epiyahd khwp nryTfis ntspaPl;lhy; tFg;gjd; %yk;
ruhrup khwp nryTfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
ruhrup NtWgl;l fl;lzf; (AVC vd;gJ) tisT ,lkpUe;J tykhf

fPNo Kjy; rha;T kzpf;F> gpd;dH xU Fiwe;jgl;r Gs;sp mila>
kPz;Lk; caUk;.
tistpd; %d;W fl;lq;fis tpsf;Fk; khwp tpfpjhr;rhuj;jpd;
nfhs;ifapd; fhuzkhf V.tp.rp 'A' tbtj;jpy; cs;sJ:
1. khwp fhuzpfSf;fhd tUthia mjpfupg;gJ> ,J ruhrup
nryTfs; tPo;rr
; pailar; nra;fpwJ> mijj; njhlHe;J:
2. epiyahd tUkhdk;> mijj; njhlHe;J:
3. tUkhdk; Fiwe;J> nryTfs; cau fhuzkhfpd;wd.
70
ruhrup nkhj;j nryT cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T
ruhrup nkhj;j nryT (Vbrp) ruhrup nryT my;yJ myF nryT

vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ruhrup nkhj;j nryTfs; epWtdj;jpd;
Nfhl;ghl;by; xU Kf;fpa nrythFk;> Vnddpy; mit tsq;fs; Fwpg;G
vt;tsT jpwikahf gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpd;wd.

nkhj;j epiyahd khwp nryTfis ntspaPl;lhy; tFg;gjd; %yk;
ruhrup khwp nryTfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
ruhrup epiyahd nryTfs; (AFC)

kw;Wk; ruhrup khwp nryTfs; (AVC)
Mfpatw;iwr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; ruhrup nkhj;j nryT (ATC)
fzf;fpl KbAk;. Vbrp tisTk; 'A' tbtj;jpy; cs;sJ> Vnddpy;
,J V.tp.rp tistpypUe;J mjd; tbtj;ij vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ> ,J
khwp fhuzpf;F tUthiaf; Fiwg;gijj; njhlq;FfpwJ.
nkhj;j nryTfSf;fhd gFjpfs;

nkhj;j epiyahd nryTfs; kw;Wk; nkhj;j khWgLk; nryTfs;
ruhrup epiyahd kw;Wk; ruhrup khwp nryT tisTfspd; fPo;
me;je;j gFjpfs;.
tpspk;G nryTfs;
tpspk;G nryT vd;gJ xU $Ljy; myF ntspaPl;il cw;gj;jp

nra;tjw;fhd nryT MFk; . ntspaPL xU myF mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ
nkhj;j nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ijf; fzf;fpLtjd; %yk; ,ijf;
fhzyhk;. tpspk;G nryTfs; khwp nrytpdq;fspypUe;J
71
cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T ngwg;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; mit khwp tpfpjhr;rhuj;jpd; nfhs;iff;F
Fwpg;G cl;gl;lit .
cw;gj;jp nray;ghl;bd; epHthf gad;ghL
cw;gj;jp nray;ghLfs; kpfTk; RUf;fkhdit kw;Wk; ek;gj;jfhjit

vd;W Njhd;wpdhYk;> cz;ikapy; mit jHf;fuPjpahdit kw;Wk;
gaDs;sit. KbntLg;gjpy; mit cjtpfshfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd> Vnddpy; mit ,uz;L jpirfspy;
topfhl;Ljy;fis toq;f KbAk;:
1. nfhLf;fg;gl;l cs;sPLfspd; njhFg;gpypUe;J mjpfgl;r

ntspaPl;il vt;thW ngWtJ
2. cs;sPLfspd; Fiwe;jgl;r jpul;lypypUe;J nfhLf;fg;gl;l
ntspaPl;il vt;thW ngWtJ.
epr;rakhf> kpfTk; rpf;fyhd rpf;fy;fspy;> mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd

cs;sPLfs; kw;Wk; ntspaPLfSld;> NjHTKiw fzpjk;
rpf;fyhfpwJ. Mdhy; rkPgj;jpy;> Neupay; epuyhf;fj;jpd; tsHr;rp ,e;j
rpf;fyhd rpf;fy;fisf; ifahs Kbe;jJ. epHthf KbntLg;gjpy;
rpf;fyhd cw;gj;jp nray;ghLfspd; gad;ghL kpd;dZ fzpdpfspd;
tsHr;rpAld; NkYk; vspjhf;fg;gl cs;sJ.

vOJq;fs;
1. epiyahd nryTfs; vd;why; vd;d?
5.6 RUf;fk;
,e;j myF cw;gj;jpapd; KO fUj;ijAk; xU nray;ghlhfTk;>
cw;gj;jpr; nrytpdj;Jld; ntspaPl;NlhL mjd; rhHgpay;
jd;ikiaAk; Fwpf;fpwJ.
72
cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T
1. (i) epyk; (ii) njhopyhsH (iii) %yjdk; (iv) njhopy;KidT.
2. xU INrhf;thd;l; xU epiyahd ntspaPl;ilf; Fwpf;fpwJ. Fwpg;G
3. epiyahd nryTfs; vd;gJ ntspaPl;by; NtWglhjit kw;Wk;

nghJthf thlif> fhg;gPL> Nja;khdk;> mikf;Fk; nryTfs; kw;Wk;
rhjhuz yhgk; Mfpait mlq;Fk;. mit XtHn`l;]; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd

jpy;yp.
73
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
myF VI: nryT gFg;gha;T
6.1 mwpKfk;
Fwpg;G
6.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
6.4 nryT nray;ghL
6.5.1 nryT - FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ntspaPl;L cwT
6.5.2 nryT ntspaPl;L cwTfs; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F.
6.6 RUf;fk;
6.8 ghpe;Jiuf;fg;;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;
6.1 mwpKfk;:
tzpf epHthfpfs; ,yhgq;fis epHzapj;jy; kw;Wk; tup nrYj;Jjy;>
Nghd]; kw;Wk; <Tj;njhif Nghd;w njhlHGila tp\aq;fisj;
jtpu NtW Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf nryT Gs;sptptuq;fisg; gad;gLj;j
tpUk;Gtjpy;iy. cjhuzkhf> nfhLf;fg;gl;l Miy my;yJ
Jiwapd; nray;ghl;Lf;F kpfTk; ,yhgfukhd tPjj;ij mtHfs;
jPHkhdpf;f tpUk;gyhk;@ tUq;fhy thbf;ifahsUf;F vd;d tpiy
Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij mtHfs; mwpa tpUk;gyhk;@ xU Fwpg;gpl;l
cj;juit Vw;fyhkh vd;gij ngUk;ghYk; mtHfs; njupe;J nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;@ Gjpa ,ae;jpuj;ij thq;FtJ yhgfukhdjh vd;gij
mtHfs; mwpa tpUk;gyhk;@ ve;j tpw;gid Nrdy;fisg; gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk; vd;gij mtHfs; jPHkhdpf;f Ntz;bapUf;Fk;. ,e;j
fzf;fPLfs; nrytpdq;fSld; njhlHGilajhf ,Ug;gjhy;>
njhopyjpgH nrytopf;f Ntz;ba nryT> Kd;dhy; ,Ug;git kw;Wk;
Fwpg;gpl;l Kd;nkhoptpy; guprPypf;fg;gLtJ Fwpj;J MHtkhf cs;shH.
xU etPd epWtdj;ij ,af;Ftjpy;> Njitg;gLk; #o;epiyfs;

khWgl;l jd;ik nfhz;lit> khw;Wj; jpl;lq;fspd; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
xg;gPlb
; w;F nryTfspd; ntt;NtW fUj;Jf;fisg; ghHg;gJ mtrpak;.
epHthff; fl;Lg;ghl;Lf;F> epHthfg; nghWg;gpd; gFjpfs; kw;Wk;
epHthfpaplk; xg;gilf;fg;gl;l nrytpdq;fSf;fhd mjpfhuj;jpd; gb
nryTfs; tifg;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
6.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
khztH nryTf; fUj;Jf;fisf; fw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;@ mjd;
tifg;ghL kw;Wk; nryT ntspaPl;L cwTfs;. jtpu> khztH
74
FWfpa kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy nryT ntspaPl;L cwitg; gw;wp yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
njhopy;El;g uPjpahf Gupe;J nfhs;s KbAk;.

nfhLf;fg;gl;l #o;epiyf;F Vw;g tzpf KbTfs; vLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
nryTf; fUj;jha;T fpl;lj;jl;l xt;nthU tzpf KbtpYk;
EiofpwJ kw;Wk; rupahd tifahd nryitg; gad;gLj;JtJ
Kf;fpak;.
ftdk; nrYj;j nryTf; fUj;Jf;fis tiuaWj;jy; kw;Wk;

NtWgLj;JtJ mtrpak;
1. tof;fkhd epjpf; fzf;fpayhy; jahupf;fg;gLk; nryT

kjpg;gPLfs; midj;J epHthf gad;ghLfSf;Fk; nghUe;jhJ
2. ntt;NtW tzpf rpf;fy;fs; gy;NtW tifahd nryTfSf;F
miog;G tpLfpd;wd.
gy;NtW tifahd Nkyhz;ik rpf;fy;fSf;F nryT nghUl;fspd;

ntt;NtW NrHf;iffs; nghUj;jkhdit.
cz;ikahd nryT kw;Wk; tha;g;G nryT:
cz;ikahd nryTfs; vd;gJ xU ey;y my;yJ Nritiag;

ngWtjw;Nfh my;yJ cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Nfh cz;ikahd nryT
MFk;. ,e;j nryTfs; nghJthf fzf;F Gj;jfq;fspy; gjpT
nra;ag;gLk; nryTfs;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> nrYj;jg;gl;l cz;ikahd
Cjpaq;fs;> thq;fpa nghUl;fspd; tpiy> tl;b nrYj;Jjy;
Nghd;wit> ,e;j nryTfs; KOikahd nryTfs; my;yJ nrytpd
nryTfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
xU ey;y my;yJ Nritapd; tha;g;G nryT tUthapd;

mbg;gilapy; mstplg;gLfpwJ> me;j ey;y my;yJ Nritia NtW
rpy khw;W gad;ghLfspy; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; rk;ghjpf;f KbAk;.
rpwe;j khw;W gad;ghl;il nra;ahjjd; %yk; kd;dpf;fg;gl;l tUtha;
vd;Wk; ,J tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. rpwg;G gad;ghl;ilf; nfhz;l xU
nghUspd; tha;g;G nryT g+[;[pakhFk;.
epHthf KbntLg;gjpy;> xU nghUspd; cz;ikahd nryT my;y>

Mdhy; mjd; tha;g;G nryT Mfpatw;iwf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;tJ
mtrpak;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU fyg;G [Tsp Miyapd; nerT
gpuptpd; yhgj;ij jPHkhdpf;f> E}ypd; tha;g;G nryit ehk; fUj;jpy;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy; mjd; cz;ikahd nryT my;y. Self-Instructional Material
75
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup khw;W topfspilNa KbntLg;gjpy; epHthfj;jpw;F tha;g;G nryT
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> A f;F Kd; mtUf;F ,uz;L
Fwpg;G khw;W topfs; cs;sd vd;W itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;:
1. & .1>00>000 kw;Wk; xU gf;up nrYj;jpa gpd;dH efuj;jpd;

kj;jpa tl;lhuj;jpy; xU fil itj;jpUj;jy;
2. ve;jnthU Gf;fpAk; ,y;yhky; NtW ve;j ,lj;jpYk; xU fil
itj;jpUj;jy;.
,uz;L khw;W topfisAk; xg;gpLk; NghJ> kj;jpa tl;lhuj;jpy; xU

filia itj;jpUg;gjd; %yk; mtH rk;ghjpf;ff;$ba $Ljy;
tUthia A fzf;fpy; vLj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;> mtH NtnwhU
,lj;jpy; Gf;uP msitg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; mtH milaf;$ba
yhgk;. vdNt> kj;jpa tl;lhuj;jpy; xU fil itj;jpUg;gjw;fhd
tha;g;G nryT & .1>00>000 kw;Wk; mjDld; tl;b kd;dpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
xU njhiyJ}uj;jpy; 50 Vf;fH epyj;ij ,ytrkhf my;yJ 2 Vf;fH
efUf;F mUfpy; & .50>000 tpiyapy; xU khepyf; fofj;jpw;F NjHT
nra;ag;gl;lJ. ,ytr epyj;jpd; tha;g;G nryT cs;slf;fpaJ
1. rhiyfs; fl;Ltjw;fhd nryT kw;Wk;

2. uapy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J epue;jukhf tpyfp ,Ug;gJ.
,jd; tpisthf> tha;g;G nryT vd;gJ xU fzf;fplg;gl;l nryT

MFk;.
fzf;fplg;gl;l nryTfs; cz;ikapy; nra;ag;glhj nryTfs;>

Mdhy; Ra nrhe;jkhd fhuzpfspd; Ntiytha;g;G ,y;yhjpUe;jhy;
Vw;gLk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> cupikahsH Nkyhsupd; tp\aj;jpy;>
epHthf nray;ghLfspd; tpiy ngUk;ghYk; Gwf;fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j nryT xU epWtdj;jpd; fzf;F Gj;jfq;fspy; gjpT
nra;ag;gltpy;iy vd;whYk; xU cz;ikahd nryT kw;Wk; tzpf
KbTfis vLg;gjpy; epHthfk; mijg; Gwf;fzpf;ff;$lhJ.
mjpfupf;Fk; nryT (NtWgl;l nryT) kw;Wk; rd;f; nryTfs;
tzpfr; nray;ghl;bd; epiy my;yJ ,ay;G khw;wj;jpd; fhuzkhf

mjpfupf;Fk; nryT $Ljy; nryT MFk;. khw;wk; gy tbtq;fis
vLf;ff;$Lk;. v.fh.. xU Gjpa jahupg;G tupiar; NrHg;gJ> xU Gjpa
,ae;jpuj;ijr; NrHg;gJ> tpepNahf Nrdiy khw;WtJ> xU
,ae;jpuj;ij xU rpwe;j ,ae;jpuj;jhy; khw;WtJ Nghd;wit> ,e;j
nryT Gjpjhf mikf;fg;gl;l tzpfj;jpw;F nghUe;jhJ.
76
rd;f; nryT vd;gJ tzpf eltbf;iffspd; epiy my;yJ yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
jd;ikapd; khw;wj;jhy; ghjpf;fg;glhj my;yJ khw;wg;glhj xd;whFk;.
nray;ghl;bd; epiy vd;dthf ,Ue;jhYk; mJ mg;gbNa ,Uf;Fk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf: fle;j fhy nrytpdq;fspd; fld; ngWjy; v.fh.
Nja;khdk;.
%o;fpa nryT kw;Wk; mjpfupf;Fk; nryT Mfpatw;Wf;F

,ilNaahd NtWghL kjpg;gPl;L khw;Wfspy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpwJ.
ntt;NtW khw;Wfspd; tp\aj;jpy; mjpfupf;Fk; nryTfs;

tpj;jpahrkhf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt mjpfupf;Fk; nryTfs;
KbntLg;gjw;fhd gFg;gha;tpy; epHthfj;jpw;F nghUj;jkhdit.
%o;fpa nryT> NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l khw;wPl;ilg; nghUl;gLj;jhky;

mg;gbNa ,Uf;Fk;.
vdNt> khw;W topfis kjpg;gPL nra;tjpy; epHthfj;jhy; ,J

fUjg;gl Ntz;bajpy;iy> Vnddpy; mit midtUf;Fk;
nghJthdJ.
nryT vd;gJ xU %o;fpa nryT my;yJ NtWgl;l nryT vd;gij

xt;nthU jdpg;gl;l tof;fpd; #o;epiyfspd; ntspr;rj;jpy; kl;LNk
jPHkhdpf;f KbAk;. ,t;thW xU Fwpg;gpl;l nryT cUg;gb xU
tof;fpy; %o;fpa nrythfTk; kw;nwhd;wpy; NtWgl;l nrythfTk;
,Uf;fyhk;.
fle;j nryT kw;Wk; vjpHfhy nryTfs;
fle;jfhy nryTfs; vd;gJ fle;j fhyq;fspy; nra;ag;gl;l

cz;ikahd nryTfs; kw;Wk; mit fzf;Ffspy;
NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,J mbg;gilapy; gjpTnra;jy; nray;ghL kw;Wk;
epHthfj;ijg; nghWj;jtiu nrayw;w nray;ghL. mjpfg;gbahd
nrytpdq;fSf;fhd fhuzpfisf; fz;lwpa> gpNuj gupNrhjid
KbTfis epHthfk; Njlyhk;> VNjDk; ,Ue;jhy;> mtw;iwf;
Fiwg;gjw;F vijAk; nra;a Kbahky;.
vjpHfhy nryTfs; rpy vjpHfhy fhyk; my;yJ fhyq;fspy; Vw;gLk;

nryTfs;. mtHfspd; cz;ikahd ,og;G xU Kd;dwptpg;G kw;Wk;
mtw;wpd; Nkyhz;ik xU kjpg;gPlhFk;. ,e;j nryTfs; epHthf
KbTfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j xNu nryTfs;> Vnddpy; mit
epHthff; fl;Lg;ghl;Lf;F cl;gl;l xNu nryTfs;. vjpHfhy nryTfs;
77
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup kpf mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> mtw;iwf; Fiwf;f epHthfk; jpl;lkplyhk;
my;yJ mtw;iwr; re;jpg;gjw;fhd topfisAk; topfisAk;
fz;lwpayhk;.
Fwpg;G
FWfpa fhy kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy nryTfs;
epiyahd Miy kw;Wk; %yjd cgfuzq;fs; xNu khjpupahf

,Uf;Fk;NghJ FWfpa fhy nryTfs; ntspaPlb ; y; khWgLk;. Miy
kw;Wk; cgfuzq;fs; cs;spl;l midj;J cs;sPl;L fhuzpfSk;
khWgLk; NghJ ePz;lfhy nryTfs; ntspaPl;by; khWgLk;.
cldb vjpHfhyj;jpy; mjpf cw;gj;jp nra;ayhkh Ntz;lhkh

vd;gij xU epWtdk; jPHkhdpf;f Ntz;bapUf;Fk; NghJ FWfpa
fhy nryTfs; nghUj;jkhdit. ,e;j tof;fpy; xU Gjpa Miyia
mikg;gJ epuhfupf;fg;gl;L> nfhLf;fg;gl;l Miyf;F epWtdk;
Nkyhsuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
xU Gjpa Miyia mikg;gjh vd;gij epWtdk; jPHkhdpf;f

Ntz;bapUf;Fk; NghJ ePz;l fhy nryTfs; nghUj;jkhdit. ePz;l
fhy nryTfs; rpwe;j mstpyhd jhtuq;fisj; jpl;lkpl cjTk;>
my;yJ mtuJ Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf epWtdj;jpd; rpwe;j msT .
,jdhy; ePz;l fhy nryTfs; Gjpa epWtdq;fisj;
njhlq;Ftjw;Fk;> jw;NghJs;s epWtdq;fspd; tpupthf;fj;jpw;Fk;
cjtf;$Lk;.
epiyahd nryT kw;Wk; khwp nryT
xU Fwpg;gpl;l mstpyhd ntspaPl;bd; msT khw;wq;fisg;

nghUl;gLj;jhky; epiyahd nryT nkhj;jj;jpy; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;.
cw;gj;jpapd; mstpyhd khw;wq;fshy; mit ghjpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.
ntspaPL ,y;yhjNghJ $l mit Vw;gl Ntz;bapUf;Fk;. xU
a+dpl;Lf;F njhFjp kw;Wk; epiyahd nryTfSf;F ,ilNa xU
jiyfPo; cwT cs;sJ. ,jdhy; nkhj;j epiyahd nryTfs;
mstpd; khw;wj;Jld; khwhJ> Mdhy; xU a+dpl; njhFjpf;F
NeHkhwhf njhFjpf;F khWgLk;. nkhj;j cw;gj;jp mjpfupj;jhy;> xU
a+dpl;Lf;F epiyahd nryTfs; Fiwe;J NeHkhwhf ,Uf;Fk;.
nkhj;j khwp nryTfs; njhFjp khw;wq;fSf;F Neub tpfpjj;jpy;

NtWgLfpd;wd. mstpd; mjpfupg;G vd;gJ nkhj;j khwp nryTfspy;
tpfpjhrhu mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; njhFjp KbTfspy; FiwT Mfpait
nkhj;j khwp nryTfspy; tpfpjhrhu rupit Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. njhFjp
78
kw;Wk; nkhj;j khwp nryTfSf;F ,ilNa xU Neupay; cwT yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
cs;sJ> Mdhy; khwp nryTfs; xU a+dpl;Lf;F epiyahdit.
nryTfspd; khWghL ntspaPl;NlhL njhlHGilaJ kw;Wk; Neu

fhuzpf;F my;y vd;gijf; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;. ePz;l fhykhf
,Ue;jhYk;> vy;yh nryTfSk; khWgLk;.
miu khwp nryTfs; vd;gJ epiyahd my;yJ khwf;$ba ,uz;L

cr;repiyfSf;F ,ilapy; tpOk; nryT MFk;. mit njhFjp
khw;wq;fs; njhlHghf Kw;wpYk; khwf;$bait my;y my;yJ
Kw;wpYk; rup nra;ag;gltpy;iy. mit xypapd; mNj jpirapy;
khWfpd;wd> Mdhy; mjw;F Neub tpfpjj;jpy; ,y;iy.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf: kpd;rhu gpy;fspy; ngUk;ghYk; epiyahd fl;lzk;
kw;Wk; EfHT mbg;gilapy; fl;lzk; Mfpait mlq;Fk;@ xU
tpw;gidahsH khj rk;gsk; kw;Wk; tpw;gid msT njhlHghd
fkp\d; ,uz;ilAk; ngwyhk;.
nryTfs; kw;Wk; ,yhgq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mstpyhd FWfpa

fhy khw;wq;fspd; tpisit Kd;dwptpg;gjpy; epiyahd kw;Wk;
khwf;$ba nryTfSf;F ,ilapyhd NtWghL Kf;fpakhdJ. ,e;j
NtWghL gpNuf; <t; tpsf;fg;glq;fs;> Neub nryT kw;Wk; nefpo;thd
gl;n[l;Lfs; Mfpa fUj;Jf;fSf;Fk; toptFj;Js;sJ.
Neub nryT kw;Wk; kiwKf nryTfs; (fz;Lgpbf;ff;$ba kw;Wk;

nghJthd nryTfs;)
xU Neub my;yJ fz;Lgpbf;ff;$ba nryT vd;gJ xU myF

nray;ghl;Lld; vspjhfTk; kWf;fKbahkYk; milahsk;
fhzf;$ba xd;whFk;. nghJthd my;yJ kiwKf nryTfs;
ve;jnthU Miy> Jiw my;yJ nray;ghL my;yJ ve;jnthU
jdpg;gl;l ,Wjp jahupg;Gf;Fk; fz;Lgpbf;f Kbahjit.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU gpupT Nkyhsupd; rk;gsk;> gpupT nryT nra;Ak;
gpupthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> mJ xU Neub nrythFk;. nghJ Nkyhsupd;
khj rk;gsk;> gpupTfspy; xd;W nryT nra;Ak; myF vd;why;> mJ
xU kiwKf nrythFk;.
njhlHGila nryT myF milahsk; fhzg;glhky; Neub kw;Wk;

kiwKf nryTfspd; fUj;Jf;fs; mHj;jkw;wit. NtWghL
Kf;fpakhdJ> Vnddpy; rpy #o;epiyfspy;> xU nghUspd; jdpg;gl;l
myFfisf; fz;Lgpbf;f Kbahj Kf;fpakhd nryTfs;
ntspaPl;by; khWgLk; kw;Wk; Fwpg;gpl;l ntspaPl;L KbTfshy;
rpf;fyhd topfspy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,af;f ,ae;jpuq;fSf;fhd
79
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup kpd;rhu rf;jp ngUk;ghYk; fz;Lgpbf;f Kbahj nryTf;F xU
vLj;Jf;fhl;L> ,Ug;gpDk; ntspaPl;by; khWgLk;.
Fwpg;G
nghJthd cw;gj;jp nryTfs; (gy jahupg;Gfspd; nryTfs;)
rpy cw;gj;jp epWtdq;fspy; ,uz;L> mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ntt;NtW
jahupg;Gfs; xw;iw> nghJthd cw;gj;jp nray;Kiw kw;Wk; xU
%yg;nghUspypUe;J ntspg;gLfpd;wd. fr;rh vz;nziar;
Rj;jpfupg;gjpy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gl;l gy;NtW tifahd ngl;Nuhypa
nghUl;fs; xU gof;fkhd vLj;Jf;fhl;L. nghJthd nrayhf;fj;jpd;
Kbtpy; kl;LNk mit jdp jahupg;Gfshf milahsk;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd> nghJthf mit gpsT M/g; Gs;sp vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
gpsT M/g; Gs;sp tiu Vw;gLk; nryTfs; nghJthd nryTfs; -

ve;jnthU Neub my;yJ jHf;fuPjpahd KiwapYk; jdp
jahupg;Gfis fz;Lgpbf;f Kbahj nryTfs;. ,e;j nryTfs;
jdpg;gl;l jahupg;GfSld; milahsk; fhzg;gl Ntz;ba
mtrpakpy;iy.
mj;jifa nryTfis milahsk; fhz;gJ xU jahupg;G

epWj;jg;gLjy; my;yJ NtWtopapy;yhky;> xU Gjpa jahupg;ig
mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy;> Vw;fdNt cs;s jahupg;Gfis khw;wpaikj;jy;
my;yJ kWtbtikj;jy; kw;Wk; Vw;fdNt cs;s jahupg;G
tupirapd; cWg;gpdHfspilNa kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd tpiy
NtWghl;ilj; NjHe;njLg;gJ Nghd;w Kbtpy; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
$l;L nryT:
jahupg;G nryTf;F> nghJthd jahupg;Gfspd; ,uz;L gue;j

tiffis NtWgLj;JtJ tpUk;gj;jf;fJ: $l;L jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
khw;W jahupg;Gfs;. xU nghUspd; cw;gj;jpapy; mjpfupg;G kw;nwhU
nghUspd; ntspaPlb ; y; mjpfupg;G Vw;gLk;NghJ> jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
mtw;wpd; nryTfs; ghuk;gupakhf $l;L vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzkhf epyf;fupapypUe;J vupthA cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;NghJ>
Nfhf; kw;Wk; gpw nghUl;fSk; ntspg;gLfpd;wd. gpe;ijaJ epyf;fup
nfhs;Kjy; tpiyia $l;L nrythff; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
khwhf> xU nghUspd; ntspaPl;by; mjpfupg;G kw;w jahupg;Gfspy;

Fiwg;Gld; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> jahupg;Gfs; khw;W vd;W
miof;fg;glyhk;. ];yhf; kw;Wk; ];By; $l;L jahupg;Gfs;> Mdhy;
v/F jz;lthsq;fs; kw;Wk; v/F fk;gpfs; khw;W jahupg;Gfs;.
80
mtru kw;Wk; xj;jpitf;ff;$ba nryTfs; yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
Fiwe;j gl;rk; rpy fhyj;jpw;F xj;jpitf;ff;$ba nryTfs;

xj;jpitf;ff;$ba nryTfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd> v.fh. fl;blk;
kw;Wk; ,ae;jpuq;fs; njhlHghd guhkupg;G. ,uz;lhk; cyfg;
Nghupd;NghJ> uapy;Nt kw;Wk; gpw njhopw;rhiyfspYk; gzpfs;
tpiue;J tUtjhy; ngUk;ghyhd guhkupg;G fpl;lj;jl;l
xj;jpitf;fg;gl;lJ. guhkupg;G nrytpdq;fis ,JNghd;w
xj;jpitg;gJ ke;jkhd nray;ghl;bd; fhyq;fspy; Ntiytha;g;ig
cUthf;FfpwJ> ,jdhy; Row;rp vjpHg;G eltbf;ifahf
nray;gLfpwJ.
ghf;nfl; kw;Wk; Gj;jf nryTfs;
ghf;nfl; nryTfs; ntsp egHfSf;F jw;Nghija gz
nfhLg;gdTfis cs;slf;fpa nryTfisf; Fwpf;fpd;wd. kWGwk;>
Nja;khdk; Nghd;w Gj;jfr; nryTfSf;F jw;Nghija
gzg;gupkhw;wq;fs; Njitapy;iy. Gj;jfr; nryTfs; rpy
re;jHg;gq;fspy; khWgLk; kw;Wk; rpy re;jHg;gq;fspy; cldbahff;
fz;lwpaf;$bait> vdNt Neub nryTfspd; xU gFjpahf khWk;.
nrhj;Jf;fis tpw;W mtw;iw thliff;F itj;jpUg;gjd; %yk;

Gj;jf nryTfis ghf;nfl; nryTfSf;F khw;wyhk;. thlif gpd;dH
Nja;khdk; kw;Wk; tl;b Mfpatw;iw khw;Wk;.
khw;W kw;Wk; tuyhw;W nryT
tuyhw;W nryTfs; vd;gJ xU Miyf;F Kjypy; nrYj;jg;gl;l

tpiyapy; mjd; tpiy vd;W nghUs;. khw;W nryT vd;gJ mNj
Miyiag; ngWtjw;F jw;NghJ nrYj;j Ntz;ba tpiy.
cjhuzkhf: thq;Fk; NghJ xU ,ae;jpuj;jpd; tpiy vd;why;> 1974
,y; & .15>000 vd;Wk;> jw;Nghija tpiy & .85>000 MfTk;
,Ue;jhy;> & .15>000 mry; nryT tuyhw;W nrythFk;> & .85>000
khw;whf cs;sJ nryT.
fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$ba kw;Wk; fl;Lg;gLj;j Kbahj nryTfs;
nryitf; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ guprPyidapd; nghWg;gpd; msitg;

nghWj;jJ. fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$ba nryT vd;gJ epHthfpahy;
xOq;FgLj;jg;gLtjw;F epahakhdjhf ,Uf;Fk; vd;W
tiuaWf;fg;glyhk;> mjd; nryT milahsk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
nghWg;gpd; xU kl;lj;jpy; fl;Lg;ghlw;w xU nryT NtW rpytw;wpy;

fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$bajhff; fUjg;glyhk;> nghJthf caH kl;lj;jpy;.
Neub nghUs; kw;Wk; Neub njhopyhsH nryTfs; nghJthf
fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$bait. rpy nryTfs; fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$bait> kw;wit Self-Instructional Material
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yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup ,y;iy. kiwKf ciog;G> nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; kpd;rhuk; nghJthf
fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$bait.
Fwpg;G ruhrup nryT> tpspk;G nryT kw;Wk; nkhj;j nryT
ruhrup nryT vd;gJ cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nkhj;j msthy;

tFf;fg;gl;l nkhj;j nryT MFk;. tpspk;G nryT vd;gJ xU
$Ljy; myF cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhd $Ljy; nryT MFk;. rpy
Neuq;fspy;> XusT nryit mstpl ,ayhJ. cjhuzj;jpw;F. xU
epWtdk; 10>000 kPl;lH Jzpia cw;gj;jp nra;jhy;> 10001 kPl;lH
Jzpia cw;gj;jp nra;tjpy; Vw;gLk; nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ij
jPHkhdpf;f KbahJ. Fwpg;gplj;jf;f mstpyhd myFfis
vLj;Jf;nfhs;tjd; %yk; rpukj;ij jPHf;f KbAk;.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. ruhrup nryTfs; vd;why; vd;d?
6.4 nryT nray;ghLfs;

epHthf nghUshjhu epGzH nryT juTf;F kpfTk; nghUe;jf;$ba
rkd;ghL my;yJ tistpd; tifiaj; NjHe;njLg;gij
vjpHnfhs;fpwhH. %d;W tifahd nray;ghLfs; cs;sd: Neupay;>
,Ugb kw;Wk; fd.
Neupay; nryT nray;ghLfs;:
xU Neupay; nryT nray;ghL gpd;tUkhW ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;:
TC = k + ƒ (Q)
TC vd;gJ nkhj;j nryT> k vd;gJ nkhj;j epiyahd nryT

kw;Wk; ,J xU epiyahdJ kw;Wk; ƒ(Q) vd;gJ khwp nryT MFk;>
,J ntspaPl;bd; nray;ghlhFk;.
,J khw;whf ,t;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;: TC = Y = a + bQ.
,q;Nf nryT nray;ghL gpd;tUk; (kiwKf) mDkhdq;fspd;

mbg;gilapy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLfpwJ:
1. ntspaPL g+[;[pakhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> nkhj;j nryT nkhj;j

epiyahd nryTf;F rkk;. NkYk;> FWfpa fhyk; FWfpajhf
,Ug;gjhy;> epiyahd nryTfs; tiuaiwahy; %o;fpAs;sd
82
(tuyhw;W) nryTfs; vd;gJ NkyhsH. nkhj;j epiyahd nryT yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
jpwd; tiu ntspaPl;bd; midj;J kl;lq;fspYk; epiyahdjhf
,Ue;jhy;> nkhj;j nrytpy; VNjDk; mjpfupg;G nkhj;j khwp
nrytpy; khw;wj;ijf; fz;lwpa KbAk;. ,d;Dk; njspthfr;
nrhy;tjhdhy;> njhlHGila ntspaPl;L tuk;igf; fhl;bYk;
fhuzp tpiyfs; khwhky; ,Ue;jhy;> cs;sPLfis
,ul;bg;ghf;FtJ ntspaPli ; l rupahf ,ul;bg;ghf;f toptFf;Fk;.
NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> khwp fhuzpf;F epiyahd
tUkhdk; ,Uf;Fk;.
2. Fiwe;J tUk; tUtha; rl;lj;jpd; nray;ghl;il ehq;fs;
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpNwhk;. glj;jpy; cs;s Neupay; nryT nray;ghL
epWtdj;jpd; FWfpa fhy nryT epiyia gpujpgypf;fpwJ.
FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> jpwd; (my;yJ jhtu msT) rup
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. vdNt epWtdk; mjd; cw;gj;jp tpfpjj;ij
jpwd; tiu khw;wyhk; (mjhtJ> jw;NghJs;s Miyld;).
3. ntspaPl;bd; tpupthf;fj;Jld; ruhrup (nkhj;j) nryT FiwfpwJ.
ruhrup nryT ,t;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;:
AC = Y / Q.
Y vd;gJ nkhj;j nryT kw;Wk; Q ntspaPL MFk;.
Nehpay; b.rp tisT:
tpspk;G nryT ,t;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;:
MC ∆Y / ∆Q = b
nryT nray;ghL njhlHr;rpahf ,Ue;jhy;> tpspk;G nryT vd

ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;
MC = d (TC) / dQ
83
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup ,uz;L #o;epiyfspYk;> MC = b kw;Wk; MC epiyahdJ kw;Wk;
,J xU Neupay; nryT rkd;ghL MFk;.
Fwpg;G
Neupay; my;yhj Vbrp tisT:
FWfpa fhy Xl;lk; Gs;sptptu nryT nray;ghLfs; NeHNfhl;Lf;F

xU rhHGilajhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j rhHG> Nfha;d; thjpLtijg; Nghy>
“xU epWtdj;jpd; TPP tistpd; njhlHGila tuk;gpy; epfo;e;jhy;
mJ epahakhdjhfTk;> cz;ikapy; epahakhdjhfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
,U jpirfspYk; njhlHGila tuk;igj; jhz;b ntspaPL
Njitg;gLk; kw;Wk; Kd;fzpg;G Nehf;fq;fSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
Neupay; nryT nray;ghLfis tpupthf;FtJ jtwhd kw;Wk;
Gs;sptptuuPjpahd Kf;fpa KbTfis cUthf;Fk;. "
tif # 2. ,Ugb nryT nray;ghL:
khwp fhuzpf;F Fiwe;J tUtJ ,Ue;jhy;> nryT nray;ghL ,Ugb

MfpwJ. TPP tpfpjhrhuj;jpw;F mg;ghw;gl;l xU Gs;sp cs;sJ. vdNt>
khwp fhuzpapd; tpspk;G cly; jahupg;G Fiwe;JtpLk;. TPP
cz;ikapy; tpOe;jhy; MPP vjpHkiwahf ,Uf;Fk;. NtW
thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ntspaPl;by; $Ljy; mjpfupg;G nra;a
Kbahj xU Gs;sp cs;sJ. vdNt nryTfs; ,e;j Gs;spiaj;
jhz;b caUk;> Mdhy; ntspaPl;lhy; KbahJ. ,j;jifa nryT
nray;ghL fPNo tptupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ:
Neupay; my;yhj TC tisT
nryT nray;ghL Neupay; vd;why;> nkhj;j nryT tisitj;

jahupg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rkd;ghL NghJkhdJ. Mdhy; ,Ugb
nryT nray;ghL xU tisitf; nfhz;Ls;sJ - Q ,d; kpf
caHe;j mLf;F tpl xU tisT Fiwthf cs;sJ. Q - 0>
mjhtJ ntspaPL vJTk; jahupf;fg;glhjNghJ nkhj;j nryT
epiyahd nryTf;F rkk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> Q mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ>
Self-Instructional Material epiyahd nryT khwhky; ,Uf;Fk;. Mifahy;> nkhj;j
84
nrytpdq;fspd; mjpfupg;G khwp nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fisf; yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
fz;lwpa KbAk;.
Neupay; kw;Wk; ,Ugb nryT nray;ghLfSf;F ,ilapyhd Kf;fpa

NtWghL khwp fhuzpfSf;fhd tUthiaf; Fiwf;Fk; gFjp vd;gij
Kd;dpiyg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. nryT nray;ghL Neupay; vd;why;>
khwf;$ba nryT epiyahd tpfpjj;jpy; mjpfupf;fpwJ. epWtdk;
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; jw;Nghija ,af;fj; jpwidg; nghUl;gLj;jhky;
Neupay; nryT nray;ghLfs; cs;sd vd;W fUJtJ kpfTk;
epahakhdjhFk;. FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ntspaPL jw;NghJs;s Miy
kw;Wk; cgfuzq;fspd; ,aw;gpay; jpwd; tuk;Gfis vl;Lk;NghJ>
Fiwe;J tUk; tUtha; rl;lj;jpd; (my;yJ khwp tpfpjhr;rhuj;jpd;)
nray;ghl;bd; fhuzkhf khwp nryTfs; caUk;.
tif # 3. fd nryT nray;ghL:
ghuk;gupa nghUshjhuj;jpy;> fd nryT nray;ghl;il ehk;

gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,J Neupay; my;yJ ,Ugb nryT
nray;ghl;by; Gs;sptptu uPjpahf Fwpg;gplj;jf;f Nkk;ghLfis
toq;fhJ. NkYk;> cw;gj;jp ftiyfspy; nryT elj;ij njhlHghd
Gs;sptptu fUJNfhis Nrhjpf;f> fzf;fpLtJ> tpsf;FtJ kw;Wk;
gad;gLj;JtJ kpfTk; fbdk;.
fd nryT nray;ghL %d;W kiwKf mDkhdq;fis

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ:
1. Q = 0 Mf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> nkhj;j nryT nkhj;j epiyahd

nryTf;F rkk;.
2. nkhj;j epiyahd nryT jpwd; tiu ntspaPl;bd; kl;lj;jpy;

epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk; (Ke;ija ,uz;L epfo;Tfisg; Nghy).
3. ntspaPl;L tpupthf;fj;Jld; khwp fhuzpf;F tUthia

mjpfupg;gjw;fhd Muk;g fl;lk; cs;sJ@ mjd;gpwF xU Gs;spia Self-Instructional Material
85
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup mile;jJ (CLUty; Gs;sp)> mjpy; khwf;$ba fhuzpf;F epiyahd
tUtha; ,Uf;Fk;@ ,Wjpahf> khwp fhuzpf;F Fiwe;J tUtJ
cs;sJ. RUf;fkhf> fd nryT tistpy; ,uz;L tisTfs;
Fwpg;G
cs;sd> xd;W Q ,d; kpf caHe;j mLf;F tpl Fiwthf cs;sJ.

vOJq;fs;

xg;gpLf
1. xU Neupay; nryT nray;ghL vt;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ

nryT ntspaPl;L cwtpd; Ma;T ,uz;L mk;rq;fisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ
1. FWfpa fhyj;jpy; nryT ntspaPl;L cwT kw;Wk;

2. ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F nryT ntspaPl;L cwT
FWfpa fhyk; vd;gJ epiyahd fUtpfspYk; mikg;gpd; mstpYk;

khw;wq;fis mDkjpf;fhj xU fhykhFk;. vdNt> ePz;l fhykhf>
cw;gj;jpapd; epiyahd fhuzpfshy; ve;jnthU tuk;Gk; ,y;yhky;
ntspaPl;il mjpfupf;f KbAk;> Vnddpy; mit khw;wg;gLk; jpwd;
nfhz;lit.
6.5.1 FWfpa fhyj;jpy; nryT ntspaPl;L cwT
FWfpa fhyj;jpy; nryT ntspaPl;L cwT gpd;tUkhW Ma;T

nra;ag;glyhk;
1. ruhrup epiyahd nryT

Self-Instructional Material 2. ruhrup khwp nryT
86
3. ruhrup nkhj;j nryT yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
ruhrup epiyahd nryT kw;Wk; ntspaPL
mjpf ntspaPL> FiwthdJ xU a+dpl;Lf;F epiyahd nryT.

mjhtJ ruhrup epiyahd nryT. fhuzk;> nkhj;j epiyahd
nryTfs; mg;gbNa ,Uf;fpd;wd> ntspaPl;by; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;Jld;
khwhJ.
ruhrup khwp nryT kw;Wk; ntspaPL
nfhLf;fg;gl;l Miyapy; mjpfkhd myFfs; cw;gj;jp

nra;ag;gLtjhy; ruhrup khwp nryTfs; Kjypy; tPo;rr
; paile;J
gpd;dH caUk;. ,J xU epiyahd Miyapy; khwp fhuzpfspd;
mjpf myFfisr; NrHf;Fk;NghJ> cs;sPLfspd; nray;jpwd; Kjypy;
mjpfupf;fpwJ> gpd;dH FiwfpwJ. khwf;$ba fhuzpfs; kpff;
Fiwe;j mstpyhd ntspaPl;ilf; fhl;bYk; xU epWtdj;jpd;
cfe;j ntspaPl;bw;F mUfpy; XusT jpwikahf cw;gj;jp nra;a
Kidfpd;wd. mjpf ntspaPl;ilg; ngwyhk;> Mdhy; mjpf ruhrup
khwp nrytpy;.
ruhrup nkhj;j nryT kw;Wk; ntspaPL
ruhrup nkhj;j nryTfs; (ruhrup nryTfs;) Kjypy; Fiwe;J gpd;dH
Nky;Nehf;fp caUk;. ,J ruhrup epiyahd nryT kw;Wk; ruhrup
khwp nryT Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,q;Nf> khwp nrytpd;
caHT epiyahd nrytpd; tPo;rr ; pia tpl Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;>
ruhrup nkhj;j nryT ,d;Dk; Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl ,Uf;Fk;. ruhrup
epiyahd nrytpd; tPo;rr
; pia tpl ruhrup khwp nrytpd; caHT
mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJjhd; ruhrup nkhj;j nryT caHitf;
fhz;gpf;Fk;.
Fiwe;jgl;r nryT ntspaPlL ; epiy vd;gJ ruhrup nkhj;j nryT
Fiwe;jgl;rk; kw;Wk; ruhrup khwp nryT my;y. cz;ikapy;>
Fiwe;j gl;r nryT ntspaPl;L kl;lj;jpy;> ruhrup khwp nryT mjd;
Fiwe;jgl;rj;ij tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; (ruhrup khwp nryT).
Fiwe;j nryT ntspaPlL ; epiy cfe;j ntspaPl;L epiy. ,J
mjpfgl;r ntspaPl;L epiy my;y. xU cWjpahd Mkp Fiwe;jgl;r
nryT ntspaPl;L msit tpl mjpfkhf cw;gj;jp nra;a KbT
nra;fpwJ.
87
Fwpg;G
FWfpa ud; ntspaPl;L nryT tisTfs;
ntspaPL Fiwe;j kl;lj;jpypUe;J caH kl;lq;fSf;F

caUk;NghJ ruhrup epiyahd nryT tisT tPo;rr; pailtijAk;
nryT ntspaPl;L cwTfs; fhzyhk;. MfNt> ruhrup epiyahd
nryT tistpd; tbtk; xU nrt;tf i`g;gHNghyh MFk;. ruhrup
khwp nryT tisT (V.tp.rp tisT) Kjypy; tpOe;J gpd;dH
caHfpwJ. vdNt ruhrup nkhj;j nryT tisT (Vbrp tisT).
,Ug;gpDk;> V.tp.rp tisT Vbrp tisit tpl Kd;djhfNt cauj;
njhlq;FfpwJ. NkYk;> ntspaPl;bd; Fiwe;j nryT epiy Vbrp
tistpy; cs;s Gs;sp vy;bf;F xj;jpUf;fpwJ> Vtprp tistpy;
,Uf;Fk; vy;tp Gs;spf;F my;y.
tpspk;G nryT tisT mtw;wpd; Fiwe;jgl;r Gs;spfspy; V.tp.rp

tisT kw;Wk; V.b.rp tisT ,uz;ilAk; ntl;LfpwJ. tpspk;G
nryT (vk;.rp) ruhrup nryT (Vrp) I tpl Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ
V.rp.ia fPNo ,Of;Fk;. MC I tpl AC mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ
AC I NkNy ,Of;Fk;. MC AC f;F rkkhf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ AC I
NkNy my;yJ fPo;Nehf;fp ,Of;fhJ. vdNt vk;.rp tisT Vrp
tisit mjd; kpff; Fiwe;j Gs;spapy; ntl;LfpwJ. ruhrup khwp
nryT tisitg; gw;wpa epiy ,J Nghd;wJ> ,J vk;.rp NkNy
nry;fpwjh my;yJ fPNo Nghfpwjh vd;gjpy; ve;j tpj;jpahrKk;
Vw;glhJ.
V.tp.rp> V.b.rp kw;Wk; V.v/g;.rp Mfpatw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd cwit

gpd;tUkhW RUf;fkhff; $wyhk;:
1. AFC kw;Wk; AVC ,uz;Lk; tpOe;jhy;> ATC tpOk;.
2. AFC tpOe;jhYk; AVC caHe;jhy;@
1. V.tp.rp caHT tpl V.v/g;.rp tPo;rr

; p mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;
,lj;jpy; V.b.rp tpOk;.
2. AFC ,d; tPo;rr
; p AVC ,d; caHTf;F rkkhd ,lj;jpy;
Self-Instructional Material ATC tpohJ.
88
3. V.tp.rp caHT tpl V.v/g;.rp tPo;rr
; p Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk; yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
,lj;jpy; V.b.rp caUk;.
6.5.2 nryT ntspaPl;L cwT ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F

ePz;l fhykhdJ FWfpa fhyj;jpy; epHzapf;fg;gl;l nryTfs;
cl;gl midj;J nryTfisAk; khw;wf;$ba ePz;l fhykhFk;.
ePz;l fhykhf> njhopy;KidNthH mtUf;F Kd; gy khw;W
topfisf; nfhz;Ls;shH> ,jpy; gy;NtW tifahd kw;Wk;
jhtuq;fspd; msTfs; cs;sd. ,jdhy; epWtdk; jdJ Miyia
KOikahf khw;wpaikf;f NghJkhd Neuk; ,Ug;gjhy; epiyahd
nryTfs; vJTk; ,y;iy. NkYk; midj;J nryTfSk; khWgLk;.
vy;iyaw;w ruhrup nryT tisTfSf;F toptFf;Fk; vz;zw;w
rpwpa msTfs; %yk; xU epWtdj;jpw;F xU Miy khWgLk; NjHT
,Ue;jhy; fw;gid nra;J ghUq;fs;. mj;jifa re;jHg;gj;jpy;> ,e;j
FWfpa fhy ruhrup nryT tisTfis cs;slf;fpa nkd;ikahd
tisT ePz;l fhy ruhrup nryT tisT MFk;.
NkNy cs;s glj;jpy; ePq;fs; fhzf;$baJ Nghy> ePz;l fhy

ruhrup nryT tisT midj;J SAC fSf;Fk; njhLfpd;wJ. NtW
thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ePz;l fhy ruhrup nryT tistpd;
xt;nthU Gs;spAk; rpy SAC ,y; xU njhLNfhL MFk;. vdNt> xU
epWtdk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntspaPl;il cUthf;f tpUk;Gk;
Nghnjy;yhk;> mJ njhlHGila SAC ,y; ,aq;FfpwJ.
NkNy cs;s glj;jpypUe;J> xU ntspaPL OM I cUthf;f> ePz;l

fhy ruhrup nryT tistpd; njhlHGila Gs;sp 'G' vd;gij
ePq;fs; mtjhdpf;fyhk;. NkYk;> njhlHGila v];Vrp v];Vrp 2
MFk; .
Mifahy;> epWtdk; G Gs;spapy; SAC2 ,y; ,aq;FfpwJ .

,NjNghy;> epWtdk; mjd; ntspaPl;Lj; Njitapd; mbg;gilapy;
ntt;NtW SAC fisj; NjHT nra;fpwJ. SAC 3 cld; OM
ntspaPl;il cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Fk; epWtdk; rhj;jpakhFk; . Self-Instructional Material
89
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup ,Ug;gpDk;> ,J v];Vrp 2 cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ mjpf cw;gj;jp
nryTf;F toptFf;Fk; . kWGwk;> mjpf ntspaPL OV I cUthf;f>
Fwpg;G epWtdj;jpw;F SAC3 Njitg;gLfpwJ . epWtdk; mjw;fhf SAC2 Ig;
gad;gLj;jpdhy;> mJ mjpf myF xw;Wikia tpistpf;Fk;.
Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs;
gjpiy vOJq;fs;
1. nryT ntspaPl;L cwtpd; ,uz;L mk;rq;fs; ahit?
6.6 RUf;fk;
epWtdj;jpd; ve;jnthU ntw;wpf;Fk; nryT Kf;fpa fhuzpahf
,Ug;gjhy;> ntspaPl;NlhL njhlHGila FWfpa kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy
,uz;bYk; nryT gFg;gha;T Fwpj;J Muha Ntz;baJ mtrpak;.
,e;j myF NkNy $wg;gl;l mk;rq;fisg; gw;wpa njspthd Gupjiy
mspf;fpwJ.
1. ruhrup nryT vd;gJ cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nkhj;j msthy;
tFf;fg;gl;l nkhj;j nryT MFk;
2. Neupay; nryT nray;ghLfs;:
1. xU Neupay; nryT nray;ghL gpd;tUkhW
ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;:
TC = k + ƒ (Q)
2. nryT ntspaPl;L cwTf;F ,uz;L mk;rq;fs; cs;sd: mit
o FWfpa fhyj;jpy; nryT ntspaPl;L cwT kw;Wk;
o ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F nryT ntspaPl;L cwT
jpy;yp.
90
myF- VII: yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
7.1 mwpKfk;
7.3 yhg mjpfupg;G khjpup
7.4 epWtdj;jpd; nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghL
7.5 irHl; kw;Wk; khHr; elj;ij Nfhl;ghL
7.6 khup]pd; tsHr;rp mjpfupg;G khjpup>
7.7 ghNkhypd; epiyahd kw;Wk; ildkpf; khjpupfs;
7.8 tpy;ypak;rdpd; epHthf tpUg;gg;gb Nfhl;ghL

7.9 RUf;fk;
7.1 mwpKfk;
tzpfj;jpd; cupikahsHfspd; eyDf;fhf tzpf eltbf;iffspy;
yhgk; <l;LtJ vd;gJ yhgk; kw;Wk; ve;jnthU tzpfj;jpd;
ntw;wpapd; Kjd;ik eltbf;ifahfTk; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,yhg
mjpfupg;G vd;gJ FWfpa my;yJ ePz;l fhy nray;KiwahFk;>
,jd; %yk; xU epWtdk; kpfg;ngupa yhgj;ij toq;Fk; tpiy
kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L msit jPHkhdpf;fpwJ.
7.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;:
khztd; ,e;j myfpy; epWtdj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;> gy;NtW
Nfhl;ghLfs; kw;Wk; khjphpfs; Mfpait tptuj;Jld; gbj;J
nfhs;syhk;.

epWtdq;fspd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fq;fs;:
 yhg mjpfupg;G
 tpw;gid mjpfupg;G
 mjpfupj;j re;ij gq;F / re;ij Mjpf;fk;
 r%f / Rw;Wr;#oy; ftiyfs;
 yhgk; jpUg;jp mspf;fpwJ
91
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup  $l;LwT
rpy Neuq;fspy; Fwpf;Nfhs;fspd; xd;Wld; xd;W cs;sJ.

Fwpg;G
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> re;ijg; gq;if mjpfupf;f Kw;gLk; epWtdk;>
FWfpa fhyj;jpy; Fiwe;j ,yhgj;jpw;F toptFf;Fk;> Mdhy; ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f cjTfpwJ. epWtdq;fs;
ngUk;ghYk; xNu Neuj;jpy; gy kw;Wk; Kuz;ghlhd Fwpf;Nfhs;fisg;
gpd;njhlHfpd;wd> NkYk; nghJthf epWtdj;jpw;Fs; jPHf;fg;glhj
Nkhjy;fs; cs;sd. kPz;Lk;> ,e;j ,yf;Ffs; epiyahdit my;y>
Mdhy; mit njhlHe;J jOtp tUfpd;wd.
NguhrpupaH rhHy]; gp. vl;kz;l]

; ; III kw;Wk; MgHd;
gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; [hd; vr;. N`z;l; MfpNahuhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l
Ma;tpd;gb> rhj;jpakhd Nehf;fq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
 rhj;jpakhd kpfg;ngupa tpw;gid msTfisf; nfhz;bUq;fs;

 gq;FjhuHfspd; nry;tj;ij mjpfupf;fTk;
 epWtdj;jpd; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;fTk;
 gq;Fjhuupd; gq;Ffspy; jpUg;jpfukhd tUthiag; ngWq;fs;
 epWtdj;jpd; gpiog;G
 r%f nghWg;Gld; ,Uq;fs;
 xU ey;y epWtd glj;ij itj;jpUq;fs;
,e;j Nehf;fq;fSf;F $Ljyhf> NkyhsHfs; gupe;Jiuj;j rpy

Nehf;fq;fs;:
 jukhd jahupg;Gfis cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;bajd;

mtrpaj;ij mq;ff
P upj;jy;
 xU ey;y Kjyhsp kw;Wk; gpwupd; Njitfis g+Hj;jp
nra;jy;.
 Q1 = yhg mjpfupg;G (MR = MC)
 Q2 = tUtha; mjpfupg;G (MR = 0)
 Q3 = tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzak; (P = MC) - xJf;fL
P
jpwd;
 Q4 = tpw;gid mjpfupg;G - ,Uf;Fk; NghJ mjpfgl;r
tpw;gid
o rhjhuz yhgk; <l;LfpwJ (AR=
Self-Instructional Material ATC)
92
Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy Fwpg;G
vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. epWtdj;jpd; ,uz;L Nehf;fq;fisAk; $Wq;fs;.
7.4 yhgk; mjpfupg;gjpy; Fwpfshtd khly;:

nghUshjhu mbg;gilapy;> epWtdq;fs; yhgj;ij mjpfupg;gjpy;
mf;fiw nfhz;Ls;sd vd;W ehq;fs; fUJfpNwhk;. mjpf yhgk;
vd;why;:
 gq;FjhuHfSf;F mjpf <Tj;njhif.

 Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; Nkk;ghl;Lf;F epjpaspf;f mjpf yhgk;
gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
 mjpf yhgk; epWtdk; ifafg;gLj;Jtjw;F Fiwe;j ghjpg;ig
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
 mjpf yhgk; njhopyhsHfSf;F mjpf rk;gsj;ij mspf;fpwJ
xU epWtdk; mjd; ,yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f NjHTnra;jhy;> mJ

tpspk;G nryT (vk;.rp) tpspk;G tUtha;fF
; (vk;.MH) rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;
kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryT tisT caHe;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; me;j
mstpyhd ntspaPl;il mJ NjHT nra;a Ntz;Lk; vd;W yhg
mjpfupg;G tpjp $WfpwJ . NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ,J
vk;.rp = vk;.MH.
tpspk;G nryT = ey;y xU a+dpl;il cw;gj;jp nra;tjd; %yk;

nryT mjpfupg;G.
tpspk;G tUtha; = tpw;gid tpfpjj;ij khw;wpajd; tpisthf

nkhj;j tUthapy; khw;wk;
xU myF %yk;. tpspk;G tUtha; nkhj;j tUthapd; rha;thFk;.
MC = MR NghJ ntspaPL Vd; NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;lJ
 tpspk;G nryT <tpspk;G tUtha;> gpd;dH cw;gj;jp

nra;ag;gLk; xt;nthU $Ljy; myFf;Fk;> tUtha; nryit
93
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;> ,jdhy; ePq;fs; mjpfkhf
cUthf;FtPHfs;.
Fwpg;G  tpspk;G nryT> tpspk;G tUtha;> gpd;dH cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;

xt;nthU $Ljy; myFf;Fk;> nryT tUthia tpl mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk;> ,jdhy; ePq;fs; Fiwthf cUthf;FtPHfs;.
vdNt> cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; cfe;j msT MC = MR ,y; ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;
yhg mjpfupg;G khjpupapd; tuk;Gfs;:
1.ep[ cyfpy;> filrpahf tpw;fg;gl;l nghUl;fspd; tpspk;G tUtha;

kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryT Mfpatw;iw rupahf mwpe;J nfhs;tJ fbdk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; ed;ikf;fhd Njitapd; tpiy
nefpo;rr
; pj;jd;ikia mwpe;J nfhs;tJ fbdk; - ,J vk;.Miu
jPHkhdpf;fpwJ.
2.,yhg mjpfupg;G tpjpapd; gad;ghL kw;w epWtdq;fs; vt;thW

nray;gLfpd;wd vd;gijg; nghWj;jJ. cq;fs; tpiyia ePq;fs;
mjpfupj;jhy;> kw;Wk; gpw epWtdq;fs; gpd;gw;wpdhy;> Njit jtpHf;f
Kbahjjhf ,Uf;fyhk;. Mdhy;> tpiyia mjpfupf;Fk; xNu
epWtdk; ePq;fs; vd;why;> Njit kPs; ,Uf;Fk;.
3.Njitf;Nfw;g tpiyia khw;Wtjd; tpisit jdpikg;gLj;JtJ

fbdk;. tpiyiaj; jtpu NtW gy fhuzpfshy; Njit khwf;$Lk;.
4.FWfpa fhyj;jpy; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f tpiyia mjpfupg;gJ mjpf

epWtdq;fis re;ijapy; Eioa Cf;Ftpf;Fk;. vdNt epWtdq;fs;
mjpfgl;r ,yhgq;fis tpl FiwthfTk; mjpf re;ijg; gq;ifg;
ngwTk; KbT nra;ayhk;.

vOJq;fs;

xg;gpLf
1. ,yhg mjpfupg;G tpjp vd;d $WfpwJ?
94
7.5 epWtdj;jpd; nghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghL: yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
epWtdq;fs; vt;thW cUthfpd;wd vd;w cz;ikiag;

Gupe;Jnfhs;tNjhL epWtdj;jpd; Nfhl;ghL njhlHGilaJ: mtw;wpd;
Nehf;fq;fs; vd;d> mit vt;thW ele;Jnfhs;fpd;wd kw;Wk;
mtw;wpd; nray;jpwid Nkk;gLj;Jfpd;wd kw;Wk; mit vt;thW
jq;fs; rhd;Wfis epWTfpd;wd kw;Wk; r%fj;jpy; my;yJ xU
nghUshjhuj;jpy; epw;fpd;wd kw;Wk; gy.
epWtdj;jpd; Nfhl;ghL gpd;tUk; Nfs;tpfSf;F gjpyspg;gij

Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sJ:
 ,Ug;G - epWtdq;fs; Vd; cUthfpd;wd> ,Uf;fpd;wd>

nghUshjhuj;jpy; midj;J guptHj;jidfSk; Vd; re;ijapy;
kj;jpa];jk; nra;ag;gltpy;iy?
 mtw;wpd; ve;j guptHj;jidfs; cs;ehl;by; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd
kw;Wk; re;ijapy; Ngr;RthHj;ij elj;jg;gLfpd;wd?
 mikg;G - epWtdq;fs; Vd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l topapy;
fl;likf;fg;gLfpd;wd? Kiwahd kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh cwTfspd;
,ilf;fzpg;G vd;d?
 cWjpahd nray;fs; / nray;jpwd;fspd; gd;Kfj;jd;ik -
ntt;NtW nray;fisAk; epWtdq;fspd; nray;jpwidAk; vJ
J}z;LfpwJ?
vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; kjpg;G mjpfupg;G
tzpfj;jpd; khjpup epWtdj;jpd; Nfhl;ghL vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ .

mjd; vspikahd gjpg;gpy;> epWtdk; mjd; Kjd;ik ,yf;fhf
yhgj;ij mjpfg;gLj;Jtjhf fUjg;gLfpwJ. epWtdj;jpd;
cupikahsH FWfpa fhy ,yhgq;fis Vw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F gjpyhf>
,d;W> epWtdk; ,yhgq;fSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fpwJ> ,J
epr;rakw;w jd;ikiaAk; gzj;jpd; Neu kjpg;igAk; cs;slf;fpajhf
tpupTgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,e;j KOikahd khjpupapy;> epWtdj;jpd;
Kjd;ik Fwpf;Nfhs; ePz;lfhy vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; kjpg;G mjpfupg;G
MFk; .
epWtdj;jpd; kjpg;G epWtdj;jpd; vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ vjpHfhy epfu

gzg;Gof;fq;fspd; jw;Nghija kjpg;G cs;sJ. gzg;Gof;fq;fs;
vspikf;fhd ,yhgq;fSld; rkd;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> ,d;iwa
epWtdj;jpd; kjpg;G> my;yJ mjd; jw;Nghija kjpg;G >
vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; ,yhgq;fs; my;yJ gzg;Gof;fq;fspd; kjpg;G> Self-Instructional Material
95
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup nghUj;jkhd tl;b tpfpjj;jpy; jw;NghJ tiu js;Sgb
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Fwpg;G

vOJq;fs;

xg;gpLf
1. epWtdj;jpd; Kjd;ik Fwpf;Nfhs; vd;d?

7.6 irHl; kw;Wk; khHr; elj;ij Nfhl;ghL:
,e;j Nfhl;ghL Ie;J Nehf;fq;fspy; ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ> mjpy;
Kf;fpa nray;ghl;L epWtd ,yf;Ffis epahakhd Kiwapy;
gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jtjhf mtHfs; ek;GfpwhHfs;> vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf:
I. cw;gj;jp ,yf;F: epiyahd Ntiytha;g;G> jpl;lkplypd; vspik>

NghJkhd nryT nray;jpwid guhkupj;jy; kw;Wk; tsHr;rpia
cWjp nra;jy;. cw;gj;jp mjpfkhf Vw;w ,wf;fkhfNth my;yJ
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba mstpw;Ff; fPNo tuNth Njitapy;iy.
II. ruf;F ,yf;F: vy;yh Neuq;fspYk; xU KOikahd kw;Wk;

trjpahd ruf;Ffis cWjpg;gLj;j> xU Fwpg;gpl;l Fiwe;jgl;r
mstpyhd ruf;Ffis guhkupf;f Ntz;Lk;.
III.tpw;gid ,yf;F: epWtdj;jpd; ];jpuj;jd;ik kw;Wk;

capHtho;tpw;fhd tpw;gidapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; midj;J epWtd
cWg;gpdHfSf;Fk; xU Kf;fpa Fwpf;Nfhshf mikfpwJ> Mdhy;
Fwpg;ghf tpw;gid CopaHfSf;F mjd; nray;jpwid XusT
epHzapj;J tpw;gidia guhkupg;gjpYk; tpupthf;FtjpYk; mtHfspd;
ntw;wpfshy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
IV. re;ij gq;F ,yf;F: ,J tpw;gid ,yf;Ff;F khw;whf

,Uf;fyhk;> Fwpg;ghf re;ij tsHr;rp Kf;fpakhdJ vd;why;. xg;gPl;L
nray;jpwd; mstPl;L cWg;G mjpy; ,Ug;gjhy; caH epHthfk; mij
NkYk; gpd;gw;wf;$Lk;.
V. ,yhg ,yf;F: gq;FjhuHfSf;F <Tj;njhif nrYj;Jtjw;F

kl;Lky;yhky;> kW KjyPlb ; w;fhd $Ljy; Mjhuq;fis cWjp
nra;tjw;Fk; NghJkhd yhgk; mtrpak;.
96
tpiy kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L epiyfisj; NjHe;njLf;Fk; NghJ ,e;j yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
,yf;Ffs; rupnra;aKbahky; Kuz;glf;$Lk; vd;gJ njspthfpwJ.
tpw;gid ,yf;Ff;F Fiwe;j tpiy Njitg;glyhk;> ,yhg ,yf;F
mjpfkhdJ. tpw;gid kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp ,yf;Ffs; ,uz;Lk; caH
ruf;Ffs;> Fiwe;j kl;lj;jpy; ,yhgq;fs; kw;Wk; gytw;iw
Mjupf;ff;$Lk;
irHl; kw;Wk; khHr; Mfpait ,e;j Nkhjy;fisf; ifahSk; ehd;F

topKiwfisf; Fwpf;fpd;wd
I. tzpf KbntLg;gtHfs; jpUg;jpfukhd 'mgpyhi\'

epiyia Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sdH> mjpfgl;rk; my;y.
II. KbntLg;gJ njhlHr;rpahdJ. ntt;NtW Neuq;fspy;
ntt;NtW Fwpf;Nfhs;fisg; gpd;njhlHtJ ntt;NtW
Nehf;fq;fSf;fpilNaahd Nkhjiyf; fzprkhff;
Fiwf;fpwJ.
III. epWtd ke;jq;fspd; ,Ug;G xU Nehf;fj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
nray;jpwid kw;nwhd;wpd; mbg;gilapy; jhf;fhky;
Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F mbf;fb mDkjpf;fpwJ.
IV. epiyahd ,af;f eilKiwfis Vw;Wf;nfhs;tJk;
gad;gLj;JtJk; kpfTk; kiwe;jpUf;Fk; Nkhjiyj;
jtpHf;fpwJ.
7.7 khup]pd; tsHr;rp mjpfupg;G khjpup:
cupikahsHfs; yhgk; kw;Wk; re;ijg; gq;if Nehf;fkhff;

nfhz;Ls;sdH vd;W khup]; Kd;nkhope;jhH. epWtdj;jpd; ([p) rkr;rPH
tsHr;rpia mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; ,e;j ,uz;L ,yf;FfisAk;
mila KbAk;> ,J epWtdj;jpd; jahupg;GfSf;fhd ([pb) Njit
tsHr;rp tpfpjj;ijAk;> epWtdj;jpw;F %yjd tpepNahfj;jpd; tsHr;rp
tpfpjj;ijAk; ([prp) rhHe;Js;sJ. mjd; jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit
kw;Wk; epWtdj;jpw;F %yjd toq;fy; xNu tpfpjj;jpy; tsUk;NghJ
epWtdj;jpd; tsHr;rp tpfpjk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
rPuhd tsHr;rpia mjpfupg;gjw;fhd Nehf;fj;jpy; ,uz;L jilfis

vjpHnfhs;Sk; epWtdq;fSf;F khup]; typAWj;JfpwhH> mit fPNo
tptupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
I. epHthf fl;Lg;ghL :
epWtd Nehf;fq;fis miltjpy; kdpjtsj;jpd; gq;fpd;

Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij khup]; typAWj;JfpwhH. mtiug; nghWj;jtiu> Self-Instructional Material
97
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup FO NkyhsHfspd; jpwd;fs;> epGzj;Jtk;> nray;jpwd; kw;Wk;
NeHik Mfpait epWtdj;jpd; tsHr;rpf;F Kf;fpa fhuzpfshFk;.
Fwpg;G Njitahd mstpyhd epHthf jpwd; njhFg;Gfs; fpilf;fhjJ

tsHr;rpf;F jilfis cUthf;FfpwJ: mtw;wpd; caH kl;l
tsHr;rpapy; cs;s epWtdq;fs;> jw;NghJs;s CopaHfspilNa jpwd;
cr;rtuk;gpd; jilia vjpHnfhs;sf;$Lk;. epHthff; fl;Lg;ghl;il
rkhspf;f> tpUk;gpa jpwd;fSld; epHthff; Fsj;jpd; msit
mjpfupf;f Gjpa Ml;NrHg;Gfs; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
II. epjp fl;Lg;ghL
,J epjp Mjhuq;fis epHtfpf;f Njitahd Gydha;T njhlHghdJ.

xU tpNtfkhd epjpf; nfhs;if Fiwe;jgl;rk; %d;W epjp
tpfpjq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;Fk; vd;W khup];
gupe;Jiuj;jhH> ,J epWtdj;jpd; tsHr;rpf;fhd tuk;ig
epHzapf;fpwJ.
jq;fs; tpUg;gg;gb ep&gpf;f NkyhsHfs; nghJthf xU gupkhw;wj;ij
cUthf;fp> tpUk;GtH
a. kpjkhd fld; gq;F tpfpjk; (r1)>

b. kpjkhd gzg;Gof;f tpfpjk; (r2) kw;Wk;
c. kpjkhd jf;f yhg tpfpjk; (r3).
(m) fld; <f;tpl;b tpfpjk; (r1): ,J fld; thq;fpa %yjdj;jpw;Fk;

cupikahsHfspd; %yjdj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjkhFk;. fld;
gq;F tpfpjj;jpd; caH kjpg;G nehbj;Jg;NghapUf;ff;$Lk;@ vdNt
,e;j tpfpjj;jpd; Fiwe;j kjpg;G tof;fkhf epHthfpfshy;
nehbj;Jg;Nghtijj; jtpHf;f tpUk;gg;gLfpwJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> r1 ,d;
Fiwe;j kjpg;G> mjpf nryT %yjdj;ij rhHe;J ,Ug;gjd;
mbg;gilapy; epWtdj;jpd; tsHr;rpf;F xU jilia
cUthf;ff;$Lk;> mjhtJ gq;F.
(M) gzg;Gof;f tpfpjk; (r2): ,J jw;Nghija nrhj;JfSf;Fk;

jw;Nghija fld;fSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjkhFk;. ,J jw;Nghija
nrhj;Jf;fshy; jw;Nghija fld;fSf;F toq;fg;gLk; ftNu[pd;
Fwpfhl;bahFk;. khup]pd; $w;Wg;gb> xU NkyhsH NghJkhd
gzg;Gof;fk; kw;Wk; ghJfhg;G cs;s xU gpuhe;jpaj;jpy; nray;gl
Kaw;rpf;fyhk;> vdNt mjpf gzg;Gof;f tpfpjj;ij tpUk;GthH.
Mdhy; mjpf r2 Fiwe;j kf#y; jUk; nrhj;Jf;fisf; Fwpf;Fk;>
98
Vnddpy; jput nrhj;Jf;fs; rk;ghjpf;ftpy;iy (gzk; kw;Wk; ruf;F yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
Nghd;wit)> my;yJ Fiwe;j tUkhdj;ij (FWfpa fhy gj;jpuq;fs;
Nghd;wit) rk;ghjpf;fhJ.
(c) jf;fitg;G tpfpjk; (r3): ,J jf;f yhgk; kw;Wk; nkhj;j

,yhgq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd tpfpjk;. ,J <Tj;njhif nrYj;Jk;
tpfpjj;jpd; jiyfPo; MFk;> mjhtJ> jf;f yhgk; vd;gJ epfu
yhgj;jpd; xU gFjp gq;FjhuHfspilNa tpepNahfpf;fg;gltpy;iy.
mjpf jf;fitg;G tpfpjk; tsHr;rpf;F ey;yJ> Vnddpy; jf;f
yhgq;fs; cs; epjp Mjhuq;fis toq;Ffpd;wd. ,Ug;gpDk;> mjpf r3
jf;fitj;j ,yhgq;fspd; mjpf msitf; Fwpf;Fk;> ,J
gq;FjhuHfis vupr;ryilar; nra;ayhk;. vdNt jf;fitg;G
tpfpjj;jpd; kpf caHe;j kjpg;ig itj;jpUf;f NkyhsHfshy;
KbahJ.
7.8 ghNkhypd; epiyahd kw;Wk; ildkpf; khjpupfs;:
xU epWtdj;jpd; Kjd;ik Nehf;fk; ,yhg mjpfupg;Gf;F gjpyhf

mjd; tpw;gidia mjpfupg;gNj vd;W ghNkhypd; khjpup
vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. xU epWtdj;jpd; Fwpf;Nfhs; Fiwe;jgl;r
tUtha; jilf;F cl;gl;L tpw;gid tUthia mjpfupg;gjhFk;.
NguhrpupaH ghNkhky; ,uz;L khly;fis cUthf;fpAs;shH: 1 tJ
epiyahd khjpup kw;Wk; 2 tJ ildkpf; khjpup.
epiyahd khjpup: ,e;j khjpup gpd;tUk; mDkhdq;fis

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ>
1. khjpup xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;F nghUe;Jk; kw;Wk; khjpup

ntt;NtW fhyq;fspy; ,aq;fhJ.
2. epWtdk; jdJ tpw;gid tUthia Fiwe;jgl;r ,yhgf;
fl;Lg;ghl;Lf;F cl;gl;L mjpfupg;gij Nehf;fkhff;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
3. cWjpahd ruptpd; Nfhupf;if tisT ,lkpUe;J tykhf
fPo;Nehf;fp.
4. epWtdj;jpd; ruhrup nryT tisT U-tbt xd;whFk;.
ildkpf; khly;: Nfhupf;ifapd; Kf;fpa jPHkhdfukhd tpsk;gu

nrytpdq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fLikahd Nghl;bfspd; fPo; xU
epWtdj;jpd; tpw;gid tUthia vt;thW ghjpf;Fk; vd;gij ,e;j
khjpup tpsf;FfpwJ. ,e;j khjpupapd; rpy mDkhdq;fs;:
99
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup 1. mjpf tpsk;gu nryT epr;rakhf xU epWtdj;jpd; tpw;gidia
mjpfupf;Fk;.
Fwpg;G 2. re;ij tpiy khwhky; cs;sJ.
3. epWtdj;jpd; Njit kw;Wk; nryT tisTfs; tof;fkhdit.

vOJq;fs;
1. cw;gj;jp ,yf;F vd;why; vd;d ?
7.9 tpy;ypak;rdpd; epHthf tpUg;gg;gb Nfhl;ghL:

epHthf gad;ghl;L mjpfupg;G Nfhl;ghL ngHy;-kPd;];-fy;gpuhy;l; kw;Wk;
tpy;ypak;rd; MfpNahuhy; jdpj;jdpahf cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. ,J
epHthf tpNtff; Nfhl;ghL vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Nfhl;ghL
gq;FjhuHfs; my;yJ epWtdj;jpd; cupikahsHfs; kw;Wk;
NkyhsHfs; ,uz;L jdpj;jdp FOf;fs; vd;w fUj;ij
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.
cupikahsHfs; my;yJ gq;FjhuHfSf;F mjpf <Tj;njhif

Njitg;gLfpwJ kw;Wk; mit. vdNt> yhgj;ij mjpfupg;gjpy;
MHtk;. kWGwk;> NkyhsHfs;> yhg mjpfupg;G jtpu NtW
Nehf;fq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sdH.
tpy;ypak;rdpd; thHj;ijfspy;> "%yjdr; re;ijapd; mOj;jk; kw;Wk;

jahupg;G re;ijapy; Nghl;b ve;j mstpw;F mg+uzkhdJ> MfNt>
NkyhsUf;F ,yhgq;fisj; jtpu NtW ,yf;Ffisj; njhlu
tpUg;gk; cs;sJ." nfhs;if. "
tpy;ypak;rdpd; $w;Wg;gb> "epHthf gad;ghl;L nray;ghL gpd;tUkhW

ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;: U = f (S> M. ID)
,q;Nf> U = epHthf gad;ghL@ S = CopaHfSf;F $Ljy; nryT@ M

= epHthf Cjpaq;fs; kw;Wk; ID = tpUg;gkhd KjyPL
100
epHthf gad;ghl;L nray;ghL epWtdj;jpd; yhgj;ij tpl yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup
Fwpg;G
NkyhsHfspd; gad;ghl;il mjpfupf;fpwJ. NkyhsH jdJ gad;ghl;L
nray;ghl;bd; gpd;tUk; $Wfis mjpfupf;Fk; nfhs;iffisg;
gpd;gw;WthH vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
I. gzpahsHfspd; tpupthf;fk;: CopaHfspd; rk;gs

caHTld;> mtuplk; Gfhuspf;Fk; CopaHfspd; juj;ijAk;
vz;zpf;ifiaAk; mjpfupf;f NkyhsH tpUk;GthH.
II. epHthf Cjpaq;fspy; mjpfupg;G: epHthf gad;ghLk; epHthf
Cjpaq;fisg; nghWj;jJ. nghOJNghf;F nfhLg;gdT>
Mlk;gukhd mYtyfk;> gzpahsHfs; fhH> epWtdj;jpd;
njhiyNgrp Nghd;w trjpfs; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;> ,J
Nkyhsupd; fTutk;> rf;jp kw;Wk; me;j];jpd; ngupa
mstpw;F ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
III. KjyPlb ; d; tpUg;gkhd rf;jp: rhjhuz nray;ghLfSf;Fj;
Njitahdijj; jhz;b KjyPl;il Nkw;nfhs;s Nkyhsupd;
tpUg;gg;gb epHthf gad;ghLk; rhHe;Js;sJ. NkyhsH
Nkk;gl;l njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk; Nkhlk; Miyfspy; KjyPL
nra;af;$ba epiyapy; ,Uf;fpwhH> mit nghUshjhu
uPjpahf jpwikahf ,Uf;fyhk; my;yJ ,y;yhkYk;
,Uf;fyhk;@
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; V.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. epHthf gad;ghl;L nray;ghL vt;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ?
7.10 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF yhgj;ijAk; mjd; yhg mjpfupg;G khjpupfisAk;

,izf;fpwJ. jtpu> ,e;j myF gy;NtW nghUshjhu ty;YeHfspd;
khjpupfs; kw;Wk; mjd; gad;ghl;L nray;ghL Fwpj;J thjpLfpwJ.
1. yhg mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; tpw;gid mjpfupg;G

2. xU epWtdk; mjd; ,yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f NjHTnra;jhy;>
mJ tpspk;G nryT (vk;.rp) tpspk;G tUtha;f;F (vk;.MH) Self-Instructional Material
101
yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryT tisT caHe;J
nfhz;bUf;Fk; me;j mstpyhd ntspaPl;il mJ NjHT
nra;a Ntz;Lk; vd;W yhg mjpfupg;G tpjp $WfpwJ .
Fwpg;G
NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ,J vk;.rp = vk;.MH
3. epWtdj;jpd; Kjd;ik Fwpf;Nfhs; ePz;lfhy
vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; kjpg;G mjpfupg;G MFk; .
4. epiyahd Ntiytha;g;G> jpl;lkplypd; vspik> NghJkhd
nryT nray;jpwidg; guhkupj;jy; kw;Wk; tsHr;rpia
cWjp nra;jy;. cw;gj;jp mjpfkhf Vw;w ,wf;fkhfNth
my;yJ Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba mstpw;Ff; fPNo tuNth
Njitapy;iy.
5. epHthf gad;ghl;L nray;ghL gpd;tUkhW
ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;: U = f (S> M. ID)
7.12 gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gfs;:

jpy;yp.
102
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;
myF VIII: tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy nfhs;iffs;
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
8.1 mwpKfk;
Fwpg;G
8.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
8.3 tUtha;
8.4 nghUs; kw;Wk; tiffs;
8.5 tUtha;f;Fk; tpiy nefpo;rr

; pf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwT
8.6 tpiy nfhs;iffs;
8.7 tpiy nfhs;iffspd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
8.8 tpiy Kiwfs;
8.9 RUf;fk;
8.1 mwpKfk;
tpiyf; nfhs;iffis tFj;jy; kw;Wk; tpiyia epHzapj;jy;
Mfpait epHthf KbntLg;gjpy; kpf Kf;fpakhd mk;rq;fshFk;.
tpiy kpf mjpfkhf mikf;fg;gl;lhy;> xU tpw;gidahsH jd;id
re;ijapypUe;J tpyf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. mJ kpff; Fiwthf
,Ue;jhy;> mtUila tUkhdk; nryTfis <Lfl;lhky; Nghfyhk;>
my;yJ kpfr; rpwe;jjhf ,Uf;ff;$Lk;.
tpiyfis epHtfpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs; kw;Wk; cs;

fhuzpfshf gpupf;fg;glyhk;.
ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs;
i. toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njitfspd; nefpo;rr

; p
ii. epWtdj;jpd; ey;nyz;zk;
iii. re;ijapy; Nghl;bapd; msT
iv. re;ijapd; Nghf;F
v. thq;FgtHfspd; thq;Fk; jpwd;
vi. tpiyfs; Fwpj;j murhq;fj;jpd; nfhs;if. Self-Instructional Material
103
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; cs; fhuzpfs;
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
i. nryTfs;
ii. nkhj;j tpspk;G kw;Wk; tpw;gid tUthia Nehf;fpa epHthff;
Fwpg;G nfhs;if
iii. cw;gj;jpapd; mbg;gil gz;Gfs;
iv. jahupg;G tho;f;if Row;rpapy; cw;gj;jpapd; epiy
v. epWtdj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; jahupg;G NtWghl;bd;
gad;ghl;L Kiw kw;Wk; msT
8.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:
,e;j myF ve;jnthU tzpf epWtdkhd I> e tUthapd; Kf;fpa
mk;rj;ijg; gw;wpa njspthd Gupjiy mspf;fpwJ. ,J tUkhd
Mjhukhf cs;sJ kw;Wk; tUthapd; ,e;j mbg;gilapy;>
Nfhupf;ifapd; tpiy nefpo;rr
; pAld; cwT Ma;T nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
jtpu> tpiyf; nfhs;iffs; kw;Wk; Kiwfs; Ma;T
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
8.3 tUtha;:
tUtha; vd;gJ xU tif tUkhdkhFk;> ,J epWtdj;jhy;
ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,J nkhj;j tUtha;> ruhrup tUtha; kw;Wk; FW
tUtha; njhlHghdJ.
8.4 tUtha; - nghUs; kw;Wk; tiffs;:
nkhj;j tUtha; (bMH) - ,J xU nghUis xU tpiyf;F tpw;gid
nra;tjd; %yk; xU epWtdj;jpd; nkhj;j tUkhdkhFk;.
,ij ehk; ,t;thW Fwpg;gplyhk;:
TR = PXQ
bMH = nkhj;j tUtha;
gp = tpiy
Nf = myFfspd; vz;zpf;if
ruhrup tUtha; (AR) - nkhj;j tUthia tpw;fg;gl;l myFfspd;

vz;zpf;ifAld; tFg;gjd; %yk; mijf; fhzyhk;. ,ij ,t;thW
Fwpf;fyhk;:
Self-Instructional Material AR= TR / Q.

104
bMH = nkhj;j tUtha; tpiy nfhs;iffs;
Nf = myFfspd; vz;zpf;if
tpspk;G tUtha; (vk;.MH) - ,J xU $Ljy; myF tpw;gidapd; Fwpg;G

mjpfupg;G tpisthf nkhj;j tUthAld; $Ljyhf cs;sJ.
bMH kw;Wk; tpiy nefpo;rr

; p my;yJ Njitf;F ,ilapyhd
njhlHG:
mtuJ jahupg;Gf;fhd Njitapd; tpiy nefpo;rr

; p xg;gPl;lstpy;
cWjpaw;wJ vd;why; (vgp <1> 1)> tpiy mjpfupg;G b.MH.
tpiy mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ kw;Wk; vgp xg;gPl;lstpy; kPs; ,Uf;Fk;

NghJ> kWGwk; ehk; ,ijr; nrhy;yyhk; - tpiy FiwAk; NghJ
kw;Wk; vgp xg;gPl;lstpy; kPs; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ (vgp <1)
tpiy mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ kw;Wk; vgp xg;gPl;lstpy; cWjpaw;wJ
kw;nwhU mk;rKk; cs;sJ> tpiy FiwAk; kw;Wk; vgp xg;gPll

; stpy;
cWjpaw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ (vgp <1). filrpahf> epHzapf;fg;gl;l
tpiyfis vg;NghJk; epiyahdjhf itj;jpUf;f KbahJ vd;W
ehq;fs; $wyhk;@ ,J epiy kw;Wk; nghUshjhu epiyikf;F Vw;g
jpUj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
xU Gjpa jahupg;ig mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; NghJ kw;Wk; Nghl;b

gytPdkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ nghUshjhu gFg;gha;T Rl;bf;fhl;baij
tpl mjpf tpiy t#ypf;Fk; eilKiwia nghUshjhu gFg;gha;T
nra;tij tpl epWtdk; Fiwe;j tpiyia t#ypf;Fk;NghJ
CLUty; tpiy epHzak; MFk;.

Fwpg;G:
m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. tpspk;G tUtha; vd;why; vd;d?
8.5 tUtha;f;Fk; tpiy nefpo;r;rpf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwT:

tUtha;f;Fk; tpiy nefpo;rr
; pf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwT Kf;fpakhdJ>
105
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;  Njit ,y;yhj NghJ nefpo;tw;w - tpiy Vw;wj;jpw;Fk; nkhj;j
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
tUtha; caHTf;F toptFf;fpwJ - tpiy 20% caHT Njit
5% NgH kl;LNk RUq;Fk; vd cz;lhf;Fk; (Ngl;> rHf]; = -0.25)
Fwpg;G  Njit kPs; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ - tpiy tPo;rr
; p nkhj;j
tUthapd; caHTf;F toptFf;fpwJ - vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> 10%
tpiy tPo;rr
; p Njit 25% kl;LNk tpuptilaf;$Lk; (ngl; = +2.5)
 Njit Kw;wpYk; cWjpaw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ (mjhtJ ngl; =
g+[;[pak;)> nfhLf;fg;gl;l tpiy khw;wk; mNj tUtha; khw;wj;ij
Vw;gLj;Jk;> v.fh. xU epWtdj;jpd; tpiyapy; 5% mjpfupg;G
mjd; nkhj;j tUthapy; 5% mjpfupg;Gf;F fhuzkhfpwJ
xU Neupay; Njit tisTld; Nfhupf;ifapd; tpiy nefpo;rr

; papd;
,iz nray;jpwd;
1. xU NeH NfhL Njit tisTld; (ngl;) Nfhupf;ifapd; tpiy

nefpo;rr
; p khWgLk;
2. mjpf tpiyapy;> tpiyapy; Fiwg;G xU kPs; tpiy gjpiyf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; - Fiwe;j tpiyfs; nkhj;j tUthia caHj;j
fhuzkhfpd;wd
3. Njit vd;gJ Fiwe;j tpiyapy; tpiy jtpHf;f KbahjJ.
re;ijapy; khw;wk; nkhj;j tUtha;f;F vd;d elf;Fk;?
ngl; cWjpaw;wJ (<1) kw;Wk; xU epWtdk; mjd; tpiyia

caHj;JfpwJ. - nkhj;j tUtha; mjpfupf;fpwJ
ngl; kPs; (>1) kw;Wk; xU epWtdk; mjd; tpiyia Fiwf;fpwJ. -

nkhj;j tUtha; mjpfupf;fpwJ
ngl; kPs; (> 1) kw;Wk; xU epWtdk; tpiyia caHj;JfpwJ nkhj;j

tUtha; FiwfpwJ
ngl; vd;gJ a+dpl; kPs; (=1) kw;Wk; xU epWtdk; tpiyia

caHj;JfpwJ nkhj;j tUtha; mg;gbNa cs;sJ
ngl; -1.5 (kPs;) kw;Wk; epWtdk; tpiyia 4% caHj;JfpwJ nkhj;j

tUtha; FiwfpwJ
ngl; -0.4 (cWjpaw;wJ) kw;Wk; epWtdk; tpiyia 30%

caHj;JfpwJ nkhj;j tUtha; mjpfupf;fpwJ
106
ngl; -0.2 (cWjpaw;wJ) kw;Wk; epWtdk; tpiyia 20% Fiwf;fpwJ tpiy nfhs;iffs;
nkhj;j tUtha; FiwfpwJ
ngl; -4.0 (kPs;) kw;Wk; epWtdk; tpiyia 15% Fiwf;fpwJ. nkhj;j

Fwpg;G
tUtha; mjpfupf;fpwJ.
cw;gj;jpahsHfSf;fhd Njitapd; tpiy nefpo;rr

; papd; gad;
epWtdq;fs; fzpf;f ngl; kjpg;gPLfisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;:
 tpw;gidahsHfspd; nkhj;j tUthapy; tpiyapy; Vw;gl;l

khw;wj;jpd; tpisT
 tpepNahfj;jpy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fisj; njhlHe;J re;ijapy; tpiy
Vw;w ,wf;fk; - ngupa tpiy kw;Wk; tUtha; ghjpg;Gf;Fs;shFk;
nghUl;fspd; cw;gj;jpahsHfSf;F ,J xU fhyfl;lj;jpy;
,Ue;J ,d;ndhU fhyj;jpw;F khWfpwJ.
 Nfhug;gl;l tpiy kw;Wk; msT kPjhd kiwKf tupapd;
khw;wj;jpd; tpisT kw;Wk; tzpfj;jhy; rpy my;yJ midj;J
tupiaAk; EfHNthH kPJ nrYj;j KbAkh vd;gJk;.
 ngl; gw;wpa jfty;fis xU tzpfj;jhy; tpiy ghFghl;bw;Fg;
gad;gLj;jyhk;. re;ijapd; ntt;NtW gpupTfSf;F xNu
jahupg;Gf;F ntt;NtW tpiyfis t#ypf;f xU rg;isaH
jPHkhdpf;fpwhH v.fh. cr;r kw;Wk; M/g; nuapy; gazk; my;yJ
ekJ cs;ehl;L kw;Wk; rHtNjr tpkhd epWtdq;fs; gy
t#ypf;Fk; tpiyfs;.
 tof;fkhf xU tzpfkhdJ EfHNthUf;F mjpf tpiyia
t#ypf;Fk;> mjd; jahupg;Gf;fhd tpiy tpiy jtpHf;f
KbahjJ
8.6 tpiy nfhs;iffs;:

tpiyf; nfhs;if vd;gJ xU epWtdk; mjd; jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; tpiyfs;> kjpg;G> Njit kw;Wk; Nghl;b Mfpatw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; vt;thW epHzapf;fpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. tpiy
cj;jp> kWGwk;> xU epWtdk; mjd; %Nyhgha ,yf;Ffis mila
tpiyia vt;thW gad;gLj;JfpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mjhtJ
tpw;gid msit mjpfupf;f Fiwe;j tpiyia toq;Fjy; my;yJ
gpd;dpizg;igf; Fiwf;f mjpf tpiyfis toq;Fjy;. XusT
tpj;jpahrk; ,Ue;jNghjpYk;> tpiyf; nfhs;if kw;Wk; %Nyhghak;
xd;Wld; xd;W Kidfpd;wd> NkYk; ntt;NtW nfhs;iffs; kw;Wk;
cj;jpfs; gu];guk; gpuj;jpNafkhdit my;y.
107
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiyf; nfhs;ifia cUthf;Fk; NghJ nghJthd fUj;jha;T:
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
1. tzpfj;jpd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
2. epWtdk; itf;fg;gLk; Nghl;b epiyik

Fwpg;G
3. jahupg;G kw;Wk; tpsk;guf; nfhs;iffs;
4. tpiy czHjpwd; jd;ik
5. cw;gj;jpahsHfs; kw;Wk; ,ilj;jufHfspd; Kuz;ghlhd

eyd;fs;
6. tpiy epHzak;
7. tpiyfis epHzapg;gjpy; tzpf rhuh FOf;fspd; nraypy;

Eiojy;
8.7 tpiyf; nfhs;ifapd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:

tpiy KbTfs; vd;gJ gutyhf tiuaWf;fg;gl;l ,yf;if
miltjw;fhd nghJthd %Nyhghaj;jpd; xU gFjpahFk;. epWtdk;
gpd;tUk; xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l Nehf;fq;fis ,yf;fhff;
nfhs;syhk;:
1. KO jahupg;G tupf;Fk; ,yhgq;fis mjpfg;gLj;Jjy;.
2. epWtdj;jpd; ePz;l J}u eyid Nkk;gLj;Jjy;
3. ntt;NtW jahupg;Gfs; vjpHnfhs;Sk; khWgl;l Nghl;b

#o;epiyfSf;F Vw;wthW tpiyfisj; jOTjy;
4. gy;NtW EfHNthH njhopy;fis ghjpf;Fk; nghUshjhu

epiyikfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fisr; re;jpf;f tpiyfis
khw;Wtjw;fhd tise;J nfhLf;Fk; jd;ik
5. re;ij CLUty;> re;ij Fiwj;jy; kw;Wk; Muk;gfhy gz

kPl;G %yk; tpiyfs; kw;Wk; tpspk;Gfis cWjpg;gLj;Jjy;.
tpiyf; nfhs;ifapd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; epWtdj;jpw;F yhgj;ij

mjpfupg;gjhFk;> thbf;ifahsHfspd; ek;gpf;ifia ntd;nwLf;f
];jpuj;jd;ik mtrpak;> NkYk; mJ epWtdj;jpw;F NghJkhd
re;ijiag; gpbf;f KbAk;.
108
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; II rupghHf;fTk; tpiy nfhs;iffs;
Fwpg;G:
1. m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs;
gjpiy vOJq;fs; Fwpg;G
2. M. cq;fs; gjpiy myF Kbtpy;
1. tpiyf; nfhs;ifapd; VNjDk; ,uz;L Nehf;fq;fisf;
$Wq;fs;.
8.8 tpiy Kiwfs;:

tpiy Kiwfs;
1. nryT rhHe;jit
a. nryT gps]; my;yJ KO nryT tpiy
b. tUtha; tpfpjj;jpw;fhd tpiy epHzak; (,yf;F tpiy

epHzak;) kw;Wk;
c. tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzak;
2. Nghl;b rhHe;j
a. tPj tpiy epHzak;
b. tof;fkhd tpiyfs; kw;Wk;
c. rPy; nra;ag;gl;l Vy tpiy
nryT gps]; my;yJ KO nryT tpiy:
,e;j Kiwapy;> tpiy (nghUl;fs;> ciog;G kw;Wk; Nky;epiy)

kw;Wk; ,yhgj;jpw;fhd Kd;dNu jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l rjtPjj;ij
<Lnra;a tpiy epHzapf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. gpd;tUk; Kiwfs; ,e;j
Kiwapd; gpugyj;ij tpsf;Ffpd;wd:
1. epWtdk; vj;jid jahupg;Gfis ifahz;lhYk;> epahakhd

kw;Wk; ek;gj;jFe;j tpiyfis vspjhfTk; NtfkhfTk; fhzf;$ba
xU topKiwia KO nryT tpiy epHzak; toq;FfpwJ.
109
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; 2. KO nrytpd; mbg;gilapyhd tpiyfs; cz;ik kw;Wk;
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
Jy;ypakhdit kw;Wk; gpw topfshy; epWtg;gl;l tpiyfis tpl
jhHkPf mbg;gilapy; kpfTk; ghJfhf;ff;$bajhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
Fwpg;G 3. ];jpuj;jd;ikia tpUk;Gk; epWtdq;fs; epr;rakw;w re;ijapy;

tpiy epHzak; nra;tjw;fhd topfhl;bahf KO nryitAk;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. jfty;fisg; ngWtjw;fhd nryTfs;
mjpfkhfTk;> Nrhjid kw;Wk; gpioapd; nray;Kiw tpiy
caHe;jjhfTk; ,Uf;Fk; re;jHg;gq;fspy;> KbntLf;Fk; nryitf;
Fiwf;f mtHfs; mijg; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;.
4. Neub nryTfis milahsk; fz;L fzf;fpLtJ Kd;dhs;

,Lifiaj; jtpu fbdk;.
5. epiyahd nryT ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F <Lfl;lg;gl Ntz;Lk;>

NkYk; mit FWfpa fhyj;jpy; <Lnra;ag;glhtpl;lhy;> mit ePz;l
fhyj;jpYk; <Lnra;ag;glhJ vd;W epWtdq;fs; fUJfpd;wd.
6. nryT kw;Wk; tpiy epHzak; gpd;tUk; re;jHg;gq;fspy;

kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;:
a. nghJ gad;ghl;L tpiy epHzak;
b. jahupg;G ijay;: mjhtJ tpw;gid tpiy Kd;dNu

jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;NghJ jahupg;G tbtikg;ig jPHkhdpj;jy;.
c. xw;iw thq;Fgtupd; tptuf;Fwpg;Gf;F tbtikf;fg;gl;l tpiy

jahupg;Gfs; - tpiy epHzak; vd;gJ kjpg;gplg;gl;l nryT kw;Wk;
nkhj;j mstPL MFk;> ,y;iynadpy; trjpfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd;
%yk; epWtdk; ngw KbAk;.
d. NkhNdhg;Nrhdp thq;Fjy; - rg;isaHfspd; nryTfisg; gw;wp

thq;FgtHfSf;F mjpfk; njupAk;. tpiy gpbf;ftpy;iy vd;why;
mtHfs; jahupg;Gfis jhq;fNs cUthf;fyhk;.
,e;jpahtpYk;> nryT gps]; Kiw gutyhf gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ
1. rkPg fhykhf ,e;jpahtpy; tpw;gidahsHfspd; re;ijapd;

gutyhdJ cw;gj;jpahsHfSf;F EfHNthUf;fhd nrytpdq;fspd;
mjpfupg;ig toq;Ftij rhj;jpakhf;fpaJ.
2. ,e;jpahtpy; tpiy fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l njhopy;fspy; tpiy

Self-Instructional Material epHzak; nra;tjw;fhd Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf nryTfs; kw;Wk; yhgj;jpd;
110
epahakhd msT Mfpait ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
,e;j Kiwf;F murhq;fj;jpd; kiwKf xg;Gjy; cs;sJ.
tUtha; tpfpjj;jpw;fhd tpiy:

Fwpg;G
xU epWtdk; vjpHnfhs;s Ntz;ba xU Kf;fpakhd rpf;fy;>
tpiyfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSf;F tpiyfis rupnra;tjpy;
xd;whFk;. ,e;j Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf> ngUk;ghYk; gpd;gw;wg;gLk;
gpugykhd nfhs;iffs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. nrytpdq;fis tpl epiyahd rjtPjj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j

tpiyfisj; jpUj;jTk;
2. nkhj;j tpw;gidapd; epiyahd rjtPjkhf ,yhgj;ij

guhkupf;f tpiyfisj; jpUj;jTk;
3. KjyPL nra;ag;gl;l %yjdj;jpd; epiyahd tUthiag;

guhkupf;f tpiyfisj; jpUj;jTk;.
tUtha; tpiy epHzak; vd;gJ KO nryT tpiyapd;

Rj;jpfupf;fg;gl;l khWghlhFk;.
tpiy epHzak; nryT
KO nryT tpiy epHzak; kw;Wk; tUtha; tpiy epHzak;

Mfpatw;wpd; fPo;> tpiyfs; epiyahd kw;Wk; khwf;$ba
nryTfis cs;slf;fpa nkhj;j nryTfis mbg;gilahff;
nfhz;lit. tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzaj;jpd; fPo;> epiyahd
nryTfs; Gwf;fzpf;fg;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; tpspk;G nrytpd;
mbg;gilapy; tpiyfs; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
xU Fwpg;gpl;l jahupg;gpd; ntspaPl;bw;F Neubahff; fhuzkhd

nryTfis kl;LNk epWtdk; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. tpspk;G nryT tpiy
epHzak; %yk;> epWtdk; mjd; tpiyfis epHzapf;f Kw;gLfpwJ>
,jdhy; epiyahd nryTfs; kw;Wk; ,yhgj;jpw;fhd nkhj;j
gq;fspg;ig mjpfupf;fpwJ. cw;gj;jpahsH nghUl;fs; xUtUf;nfhUtH
Neubg; Nghl;bahf ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk> ,e;j Nehf;fk; jdpik
xt;nthU jahupg;ig thq;f epidf;Fk; xU kl;lj;jpy; mjd; tpiy
rupnra;a %yk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
ed;ikfs;:
1. tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzak; %yk;> tpiyfs; xUNghJk;

mjpf epiyahd Nky;epiy mikg;G fhuzkhfNth my;yJ Self-Instructional Material
111
tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; fw;gidahd myF epiyahd nryTfs; Nghl;bahsHfis tpl
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
mjpfkhfNth ,Ug;gjhy; Nghl;baplhJ.
2. jw;Nghija nryT epiyfs; kw;Wk; nryT cwTfspypUe;J
NtWgl;ljhf tpspk;G nryTfs; vjpHfhyj;ij kpfTk;
Fwpg;G
Jy;ypakhf gpujpgypf;fpd;wd.
3. tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzak; xU cw;gj;jpahsUf;F KO
nryT tpiyia tpl kpfTk; Mf;fpNuh\khd tpiyf;
nfhs;ifia cUthf;f mDkjpf;fpwJ.
4. xU nghUspd; tho;f;ifr; Row;rpapy; tpiy epHzak; nra;tjw;F
tpspk;G nryT tpiy epHzak; kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;>
,jw;F FWfpa fhy tpspk;G nryT kw;Wk; Row;rpapd; xt;nthU
Fwpg;gpl;l fl;lj;jpw;Fk; nghUj;jkhd gpupf;ff;$ba epiyahd
nryTj; juT Njitg;gLfpwJ> ePz;l fhy KO nryT juT
my;y.
5.
tuk;Gfs;:
1. rpy fzf;fhsHfs; tpspk;G nryT El;gq;fSld; KOikahf

KOikahf ,y;iy.
2. Nghjpa ,ytr jpwidf; nfhz;bUg;gjw;Fk; xU rpwpa
gq;fspg;ig kl;LNk nra;tjw;Fk; tzpfj;jpw;F XusT nryT
tpiy epHzak; kpfTk; nghUj;jkhdjy;y.
3. tzpf ke;jepiyapd; xU fhyfl;lj;jpy;> tzpfj;ij
guhkupg;gjw;fhf tpspk;G nryT tpiyiag; gad;gLj;Jk;
epWtdq;fs; tpiyfisf; Fiwf;fyhk;> NkYk; ,J kw;w
epWtdq;fs; mtw;wpd; tpiyiaf; Fiwf;f toptFf;Fk;> ,J
njhz;il Nghl;biaf; Fiwf;f toptFf;Fk;.
tpfpj tpiy epHzak;:

,e;j Kiw re;ijf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fpwJ. epWtdk; jdJ
nrhe;j tpiyf; nfhs;ifia njhopy;Jiwapy; nghJthd tpiy
fl;likg;NghL rupnra;fpwJ. ,J njhopy;Jiwapd; $l;L
Qhdj;ijAk; gpujpgypf;ff;$Lk;. tpfpj tpiy epHzak; vd;gJ
rupahd re;ijahy; Ms;khwhf epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyia
Vw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F rkkhdjy;y vd;gij ftdj;jpy; nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. epWtdk; jdJ nrhe;j tpiyia epHzapf;f rpy
rf;jpiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; midj;J tpisTfisAk;
vjpHnfhs;sj; NjHTnra;jhy; tpiy jahupg;ghsuhf ,Uf;ff;$Lk;
112
vd;W Njhd;WfpwJ. vt;thwhapDk;> ghJfhg;ghd Nghf;if vLj;J tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
kw;wtHfspd; nfhs;iff;F ,zq;f ,J tpUk;GfpwJ.
rPy; nra;ag;gl;l Vy tpiy
fl;Lkhd eltbf;iffs; kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l jahupg;Gfis Fwpg;G

mfw;Wtjpy; ,e;j tpiy epHzak; gpugykhdJ. ,q;Nf> tUq;fhy
thq;FgtHfs; rPy; nra;ag;gl;l ftH %yk; jq;fs; tpiyia
Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;LkhW Nfl;fg;gLfpwhHfs;. midj;J rYiffSk; xU
ehisf;F Kd;Ng mwptpf;fg;gl;l Neuj;jpy; midj;J VyjhuHfspd;
Kd;dpiyapYk; jpwf;fg;gLfpd;wd. mjpfgl;rkhf Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;Lk;
thq;FgtUf;F xg;ge;jk; toq;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiw Kw;wpYk;
Nghl;b mbg;gilapyhdJ vd;gjhy;> VyjhuHfspilNa ,zf;f
Mgj;J cs;sJ. mj;jifa re;jHg;gj;jpy;> tpw;gidahsHfs;
,ize;jhy; thq;FNthH mjpf tpiy nrYj;j Ntz;bapUf;Fk;.
khw;whf> thq;FgtHfs; ,ize;jhy; tpw;gidahsHfs; kpff; Fiwe;j
tpiyiag; ngwyhk;.
8.9 RUf;fk;
,e;j myF tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiyf; nfhs;iffspy;

ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ> NkYk; tUtha; kw;Wk; Njitfspd; tpiy
nefpo;rr
; pf;F ,ilapyhd cwT Fwpj;j rpwg;G gFg;gha;T. ,e;j
myF tpiy KiwfSld; tUtha; kw;Wk; tpiyf; nfhs;if gw;wp

Fwpg;G:
1. fh];l; gps]; my;yJ KO nryT tpiy epHzak; vd;why; vd;d?
NgRfpwJ@
8.10 cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;

1. tpspk;G tUtha; (vk;.MH) - ,J xU $Ljy; myF
tpw;gidapd; mjpfupg;G tpisthf nkhj;j tUthAld;
$Ljyhf cs;sJ.
2. KO jahupg;G tupf;Fk; ,yhgq;fis mjpfg;gLj;Jjy;.
3. epWtdj;jpd; ePz;l J}u eyid Nkk;gLj;Jjy;
4. nryT gps]; my;yJ KO nryT tpiy:
,e;j Kiwapy;> tpiy (nghUl;fs;> ciog;G kw;Wk;
Nky;epiy) kw;Wk; ,yhgj;jpw;fhd Kd;dNu jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l
rjtPjj;ij <Lnra;a tpiy epHzapf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Self-Instructional Material
113
tpiy nfhs;iffs;
Fwpg;G
nghUshjhuk;. 22 tJ gjpg;G> re;j; rd;];> GJ jpy;y.
114
myF IX: rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
tpiy epHzak;> Nkf;Nuh .
nghUshjhuk;
epHzak;> Nkf;Nuh . nghUshjhuk;
9.1 mwpKfk;
Fwpg;G
9.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
9.3 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;
9.4 re;ij kw;Wk; re;ij mikg;G
9.5 epiwT Nghl;b
9.6 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy ntspaPL jPHkhdpj;jy;
9.7 FWfpa fhy epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; cWjpahd rkepiy
9.8 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; FWfpa fhy njhopy; rkepiy
9.9. epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy cWjpahd rkepiy
9.10 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy njhopy; rkepiy.
9.11 RUf;fk;
9.1 mwpKfk;
%Nyhgha tpiyapd; xU gFjpahf Nkk;ghl;L fl;lj;jpy; NkyhsHfs;
tpiyfis epHzapf;fpd;wdH. ,J re;ijapy; yhgfukhd tpiyiaj;
jf;fitf;f Kbahj jahupg;Gfs; my;yJ Nritfisj;
njhlq;Ftijj; jtpHf;fpwJ. tpiy epHzak; nra;tjw;fhd ,e;j
mZFKiw epWtdq;fSf;F tpiyfSf;F nryTfis
nghUj;Jtjw;F my;yJ nryTfis jpwk;gl cUthf;f Kbahj
jahupg;Gfs; my;yJ Nritfis mfw;w cjTfpwJ. tpiyf;
nfhs;iffs; kw;Wk; cj;jpfis Kiwahf tFg;gjd; %yk;>
epWtdq;fs; mjpf yhgj;ij mWtil nra;ayhk; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;
re;ijg; gq;Ffis mjpfupf;fyhk; my;yJ ghJfhf;fyhk;. jtpu> xU
jahupg;G my;yJ Nritapd; tpiyia epHzapg;gJ re;ijg;gLj;jy;
kw;Wk; epjp NkyhsHfspd; gpujhd flikahFk;> me;j jahupg;G
my;yJ Nritapd; ntw;wpapy; ngUk;ghYk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f gq;F
tfpf;fpwJ. Self-Instructional Material
115
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
9.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
nghUshjhuk;
epWtdq;fspd; tpiyf; nfhs;if kw;Wk; %Nyhghaj;jpd;
El;gq;fisAk; cj;jpfisAk; khztH fw;Wf;nfhs;fpwhH. re;ij
kw;Wk; re;ij fl;likg;igg; gw;wpAk; mtH xU ey;y ghHitiag;
Fwpg;G
ngWfpwhH> mq;F epWtdk; xU KOikahd epiwT #oypy;
cs;sJ.
9.3 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;:

epiwT Nghl;b vd;gJ xU re;ij epiyik vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ>
mq;F xNu khjpupahd cw;gj;jpapd; tpw;gidahsHfs; mjpf
vz;zpf;ifapy; cs;sdH. xU jdpg;gl;l epWtdk; nkhj;j
cw;gj;jpapy; kpfr; rpwpa gFjpia toq;FfpwJ kw;Wk; re;i j
tpiyapy; nry;thf;F nrYj;Jk; msTf;F rf;jptha;e;jjhf ,y;iy.
xU thq;FgtH re;ij tpiyia ghjpf;Fk; epiyapy; ,y;iy. xU

KOikahd Nghl;b re;ijapy; re;ij tpiy re;ij Njit kw;Wk;
re;ij toq;fy; rf;jpfspd; njhlHG %yk; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
re;ij Njit vd;gJ ntt;NtW thq;FgtHfshy; ntt;NtW
tpiyapy; Nfhug;gLk; mstpd; njhif.
,NjNghy;> re;ij toq;fy; vd;gJ njhopy;Jiwapy; cs;s jdpg;gl;l

epWtdq;fshy; toq;fg;gl;l mstpd; njhif MFk;. xt;nthU
tpw;gidahsUk; thq;FgtUk; epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyia
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwhHfs;. Mifahy;> xU KOikahd Nghl;b
re;ijapy;> yhgj;ij mjpfupf;Fk; epWtdj;jpw;F Kf;fpa rpf;fy;
mjd; ntspaPl;il re;ij tpiyf;F rupnra;J yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak; %d;W ntt;NtW

fhyfl;lq;fspy; Ma;T nra;ag;gLfpwJ:
(a) re;ijf; fhyk;
(b) FWfpa Xl;lk;
(c) ePz;l fhyk;
(d) re;ijf; fhyk;:
re;ijf; fhyj;jpy;> ve;j epWtdKk; mjd; ntspaPl;il mjpfupf;f

Kbahj mstpw;F fhyk; Fiwthf cs;sJ. re;ijapy; cs;s
116
nghUl;fspd; nkhj;j gq;F Fiwthf cs;sJ. re;ijapd; fhyk; xU rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
kzpNeuk;> xU ehs; my;yJ rpy ehl;fs; my;yJ rpy thuq;fs; $l nghUshjhuk;
cw;gj;jpapd; jd;ikiag; nghWj;J ,Uf;fyhk;.
cjhuzkhf> fha;fwpfs;> kPd;> Kl;il Nghd;w mope;JNghff;$ba

nghUl;fspd; tp\aj;jpy;> fhyk; xU ehshf ,Uf;fyhk;. Fwpg;G
mope;JNghff;$ba nghUl;fspd; toq;fy; xU ehspy; fpilf;ff;$ba

msitf; nfhz;L kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;bUg;gjhy;> mit mjpfupf;fNth
my;yJ mLj;j fhyfl;lj;jpw;F jpUk;gg; ngwNth KbahJ vd;gjhy;>
mjd; tpiy KOtijAk; nghUl;gLj;jhky;> KO ehSk; xNu ehspy;
tpw;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
mopahj Mdhy; ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;af;$ba nghUl;fspd; tpepNahf

tisT mjd; ePsk; KOtJk; nrq;Fj;J NeH Nfhl;lhf ,Uf;fhJ.
jw;Nghija re;ijf; fhyj;jpy; tpw;gidahsH ve;jnthU
nghUisAk; tpw;fkhl;lhH kw;Wk; KO gq;FfisAk; jf;f itj;Jf;
nfhs;s tpUk;Gtjhy; tpiy kpff; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy; rpy
nghUl;fis re;ijapypUe;J jpUk;gg; ngw KbAk;.
tpw;gidahsH jdJ jahupg;gpd; ve;jnthU njhifiaAk; toq;f

kWf;Fk; tpiy ',Ug;G tpiy' vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy;>
tpw;gidahsH ,uz;L jPtpu tpiy epiyfis vjpHnfhs;fpwhH@
xd;wpy; mtH KO gq;FfisAk; tpw;fj; jahuhf ,Uf;fpwhH>
kw;nwhd;W vijAk; tpw;f kWf;fpwhH. mtH tpw;gidf;F toq;Fk;
njhif tpiyAld; khWgLk;.
(M) FWfpa fhyj;jpy; tpiy epHzak;- epWtdj;jpd; rkepiy:
jw;NghJs;s jhtuq;fis ePl;bf;f KbahJ> FWfpa fhyj;jpw;Fs;

mjpfupj;j Njitia g+Hj;jp nra;a Gjpa jhtuq;fis mikf;f
KbahJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> jahupg;ghsHfs; jq;fs; epiyahd jpwd;
Miyfis mjpf Ntiy nra;tjd; %yk; Njit mjpfupg;gij
mtw;wpd; ntspaPl;il Xustpw;F rupnra;a Neuk; NghJkhdJ. vdNt>
FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> tpepNahf tisT kPs; MFk;.
xU epWtdj;jpd; rkepiyf;F ,uz;L epge;jidfSk; g+Hj;jp

nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;:
m) tpspk;G nryT tpspk;G tUtha;fF ; rkkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j epge;jid NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy> Vnddpy; mJ
g+Hj;jp nra;ag;glyhk;> Mdhy; epWtdk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;fhJ.
117
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; (M) rkepiyapd; ,uz;lhtJ kw;Wk; mtrpakhd epge;jidf;F
nghUshjhuk; tpspk;G nryT tisT tpspk;G tUtha; tisit fPNo ,Ue;J
Fiwf;f Ntz;Lk;> mjhtJ tpspk;G tUtha; tisTld;
FWf;Fntl;L Neuj;jpy; tpspk;G nryT tisT caUk;.
Fwpg;G
vdNt> xU KOikahd Nghl;b epWtdk; mjd; cw;gj;jpia mjd;
tpspk;G nryT tpspk;G tUtha; my;yJ tpiyf;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;
,lj;jpy; rupnra;fpwJ> kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryT tisT tpspk;G
tUtha; tisit fPNo ,Ue;J Fiwf;fpwJ.
xU epWtdk; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ vd;gJ cz;ikapy; mjpetPd

yhgj;ij <l;LfpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;fhJ. FWfpa fhy rkepiyapy;>
epWtdq;fs; mrhjhuz ,yhgq;fs;> rhjhuz ,yhgq;fis
rk;ghjpf;fyhk; my;yJ ,og;Gfis re;jpf;ff;$Lk;. ruhrup nryT
ruhrup tUthia tplf; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> epWtdk; mjpetPd
yhgj;ijg; ngWfpwJ.
epWtdk; mjd; khwp nryTfis <Lnra;Ak; Gs;spia '%L-fPNo

Gs;sp' vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
tpiy fPNo tpOe;jhy; my;yJ ruhrup nryTfs; mjpfupj;jhy;>

epWtdk; mjd; khwp nryTfis <Lnra;ahJ> mJ %lg;gl;lhy;
ey;yJ.
njhopy;Jiwapd; rkepiy:
xU njhopy; me;j tpiyapy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mjpy; msT

Njit toq;fg;gl;l mstpw;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
xU FWfpa fhy rkepiyapy;> re;ij epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyapy; rpy

epWtdq;fs; mrhjhuz yhgq;fs;> rhjhuz ,yhgq;fs; my;yJ
,og;Gfisr; nra;ayhk;. ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F epWtdq;fs; njhlHe;J
,og;Gfisr; re;jpf;fhJ. jq;fs; Miyia rupnra;a Kbahj
,og;ig cUthf;Fk; epWtdq;fs; %lg;gLk;.
(,) ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F tpiy epHzak;:
ePz;l fhykhf> midj;J fhuzpfSk; khwf;$bait kw;Wk;

epiyahdit my;y. ,jdhy;> ePz;l fhykhf> epWtdq;fs; jq;fs;
epiyahd cgfuzq;fis mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; jq;fs; ntspaPl;il
khw;w KbAk;. mtHfs; gioa jhtuq;fis ngupjhf;fyhk; my;yJ
Gjpa jhtuq;fshy; khw;wyhk; my;yJ Gjpa jhtuq;fisr;
Self-Instructional Material NrHf;fyhk;.
118
NkYk;> ePz;l fhykhf> Gjpa epWtdq;fSk; njhopy;Jiwapy; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
Eioa KbAk;. khwhf> epiyik ,t;thW NfhUfpwJ vd;why;> ePz;l nghUshjhuk;
fhyj;jpw;F> epWtdq;fs; khw;wPL ,y;yhky; mzpa mDkjpg;gjd;
%yk; mtw;wpd; epiyahd cgfuzq;fis Fiwf;f KbAk; kw;Wk;
jw;NghJs;s epWtdk; njhopy;Jiwia tpl;L ntspNawyhk;.
Fwpg;G
ePz;l fhykhf> ,J ePz;l fhy ruhrup kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryT

tisTfs; MFk;> mit ntspaPl;L KbTfis vLg;gjw;F
nghUj;jkhdit. NkYk;> ePz;l fhykhf> ruhrup khwp nryT
ve;jnthU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUj;jKk; ,y;iy. ruhrup nkhj;j nryT
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij jPHkhdpg;gjhFk;> Vnddpy; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F
midj;J nryTfSk; khWgLk; kw;Wk; vJTk; rup nra;ag;gltpy;iy.
FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; cs;s xU epWtdk; me;j

ntspaPl;by; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> ,J tpspk;G nryT tpiy
my;yJ tpspk;G tUtha;fF ; rkk;. ,J ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F rkkhf
nry;YgbahFk;. Mdhy;> xU KOikahd Nghl;b epWtdk;
rkepiyapy; ,Uf;f ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F> tpspk;G nryT tpiyf;F
rkkhf ,Ug;gijj; jtpu> tpiyAk; ruhrup tpiyf;F rkkhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;. tpiy ruhrup nryit tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;>
epWtdq;fs; mjpra ,yhgk; <l;Lk;.
,e;j mjpra ,yhgq;fshy; <Hf;fg;gl;L> Gjpa epWtdq;fs;

njhopy;Jiwapy; Eioe;J ,e;j $Ljy; ,yhgq;fs; gwpf;fg;gLk;.
Gjpa epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; EioAk; NghJ> njhopy;Jiwapd;
toq;fy; my;yJ ntspaPL mjpfupf;Fk;> vdNt ntspaPl;bd; tpiy
Fiwf;fg;gLk;. ruhrup epWtdq;fs; tpiyf;F ke;jkhd tiu Gjpa
epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; te;J nfhz;Nl ,Uf;Fk;> NkYk;
midj;J epWtdq;fSk; rhjhuz ,yhgq;fis kl;LNk ngWfpd;wd.
tpiy ruhrup tpiyf;Ff; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> epWtdq;fs;

e\;lj;ij re;jpf;Fk;. jw;NghJs;s rpy epWtdq;fs;
njhopy;JiwapypUe;J tpyFk;. ,jd; tpisthf> njhopy;Jiwapd;
cw;gj;jp FiwAk; kw;Wk; tpiy ruhrup nryTf;F rkkhf caUk;>
,jdhy; njhopy;Jiwapy; kPjKs;s epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz yhgj;ij
<l;Lfpd;wd. vdNt> xU KOikahd Nghl;b epWtdk; ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F rkepiyapy; ,Uf;f> tpiy tpspk;G kw;Wk; ruhrup
nryTf;F rkkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
nra;jgpd; Nghl;b epWtdj;jpd; ePz;lfhy rkepiyf;fhd

epge;jidfis ,t;thW vOjyhk;: Self-Instructional Material
119
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy = tpspk;G nryT = Fiwe;jgl;r ruhrup nryT.
nghUshjhuk;
vy;yh epWtdq;fSk; xNu khjpupahdit vd;W fUjg;gLtjhy;>
midj;Jk; mjpra ,yhgq;fis <l;Lfpd;wd. vdNt> Gjpa
epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; Eiotjw;F <Hg;G ,Uf;Fk;. ,jd;
Fwpg;G
tpisthf> tpiy ve;j mstpw;F tpiyf;F fl;lhag;gLj;jg;gLk;.

Fwpg;G:
m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs; gjpiy
vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. rupahd fPo; tpiy epHzaj;jpd; %d;W ntt;NtW fhy
mtfhrq;fs; ahit?
9.4 re;ij kw;Wk; re;ij mikg;G:

nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; xU re;ijia thq;FgtHfSf;Fk;
tpw;gtHfSf;Fk; xd;whf tUtjhf tptupf;fpwhHfs;> mjhtJ
thq;FgtHfSk; tpw;gtHfSk; Neub my;yJ kiwKf njhlHGf;F
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfis tpw;f/thq;Ftjw;fhd xU Vw;ghL.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> nkhigYf;fhd re;ij xU nghUshjhuj;jpy;

nkhigy; Nghd;fis tpw;gtHfs; kw;Wk; thq;FgtHfs; midtiuAk;
cs;slf;Fk;. ,J xU Gtpapay; ,Ug;gplj;ijf; Fwpf;f Ntz;ba
mtrpakpy;iy.
re;ijapd; rpy mk;rq;fis gl;baypLNthk;>
 nghUshjhuj;jpy;> re;ij vd;w nrhy; xU nghUspd; re;ijia

my;yJ xU nghUspd; njhFg;igf; Fwpf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf
fhgpf;fhd re;ij> muprpf;fhd re;ij> btpapd; re;ij Nghd;wit.
 xU re;ij xU cly; my;yJ Gtpapay; ,Ug;gplj;jpw;F
fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy. ,J xU nghJthd gue;j gFjpiaAk;>
gpuhe;jpaj;jpd; Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahf rf;jpfisAk;
cs;slf;fpaJ.
 xU re;ijia cUthf;Ftjw;F nghUl;fis thq;FgtHfs;
kw;Wk; tpw;gtHfs; xU FO ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j
120
tpw;gidahsHfSf;Fk; thq;FgtHfSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwTfs; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
tzpf cwTfshf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. nghUshjhuk;
 tpw;gidahsHfs; kw;Wk; thq;FgtHfs; ,UtUk; re;ij gw;wpa

mwpit mZf Ntz;Lk;. jahupg;Gfs;> EfHNthH NjHTfs;
kw;Wk; tpUg;gj;NjHTfs;> Ng\d; Nghf;Ffs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Fwpg;G
Njit Fwpj;j tpopg;GzHT ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; .
 ve;j Neuj;jpYk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd re;ijapy;
xNu xU tpiy kl;LNk ,Uf;f KbAk;. rupahd Nghl;b
,Ug;gjpy; kl;LNk ,J rhj;jpakhFk;.
re;ijfspd; tifg;ghL
gutyhf re;ijfspd; ,uz;L tifg;ghLfs; cs;sd - jahupg;G

re;ij kw;Wk; fhuzp re;ij. fhuzp re;ij vd;gJ epyk;> %yjdk;>
ciog;G Nghd;w cw;gj;jp fhuzpfis thq;Ftjw;Fk; tpw;gid
nra;tjw;Fk; re;ijia Fwpf;fpwJ. re;ijfspd; gpw tifg;ghL
gpd;tUkhW:
Gtpapay; ,Ug;gplj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
 cs;SH re;ijfs;: mj;jifa re;ijapy; thq;FgtHfSk;

tpw;gtHfSk; cs;SH gFjp my;yJ gFjpf;F kl;LNk.
mj;jifa nghUl;fspd; Nghf;Ftuj;J tpiy caHe;jjhf
,Ug;gjhy; mtHfs; tof;fkhf md;whl gad;ghl;bd;
mope;JNghFk; nghUl;fis tpw;fpwhHfs;.
 gpuhe;jpa re;ijfs;: ,e;j re;ijfs; xU khtl;lj;ijg; Nghd;w
cs;SH re;ijfis tpl my;yJ rpy rpwpa khepyq;fspd;
nfhj;Jf;fis tpl gue;j mstpy; cs;sd.
 Njrpa re;ij: nghUl;fspd; Njit xU Fwpg;gpl;l ehl;bw;F
kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l NghJ ,J. my;yJ Njrpa vy;iyfSf;F
ntspNa ,JNghd;w nghUl;fspd; tHj;jfj;ij murhq;fk;
mDkjpf;ff;$lhJ.
 rHtNjr re;ij: jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit rHtNjrkhf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ> nghUl;fSk; rHtNjr mstpy; nkhj;j mstpy;
tHj;jfk; nra;ag;gLk;NghJ> mij rHtNjr re;ij vd;W
miof;fpNwhk;.
121
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; fhyj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
nghUshjhuk;
 kpff; FWfpa fhy re;ij: nghUl;fspd; toq;fy; rup
nra;ag;gLk;NghJ ,Jjhd;> vdNt mij cldbahf khw;w
KbahJ. cjhuzkhf g+f;fs;> fha;fwpfSf;fhd re;ij vd;W
Fwpg;G
nrhy;Yq;fs;. goq;fs; Nghd;wit nghUl;fspd; tpiy
Njitiag; nghWj;jJ.
 FWfpa fhy re;ij : re;ij Ke;ijaij tpl rw;W ePskhdJ.
,q;Nf tpepNahfj;ij rw;W rupnra;ayhk;.
 ePz;l fhy re;ij : ,q;Nf cw;gj;jpia mstpLtjd; %yk;
tpepNahfj;ij vspjhf khw;w KbAk;. vdNt ,J re;ijapd;
Njitf;Nfw;g khwyhk;. vdNt re;ij mjd; rkepiy tpiyia
rupahd Neuj;jpy; jPHkhdpf;Fk;.
guptHj;jidapd; ,aw;ifapd; mbg;gilapy;
 ];ghl; re;ij: ];ghl; guptHj;jidfs; epfOk; ,lk; ,Jjhd;>

gzk; cldbahf nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. fld; Kiw ,y;iy
 vjpHfhy re;ij : guptHj;jidfs; fld; guptHj;jidfs;.
vjpHfhyj;jpy; vg;NghjhtJ guprPypg;gjhf xU thf;FWjp
cs;sJ.
xOq;FKiw mbg;gilapy;
 xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l re;ij : mj;jifa re;ijapy;

nghUj;jkhd murhq;f mjpfhupfshy; rpy Nkw;ghHit
cs;sJ. re;ijapy; epahakw;w tHj;jf eilKiwfs; ,y;iy
vd;gij cWjp nra;tNj ,J. ,j;jifa re;ijfs; xU
jahupg;G my;yJ jahupg;Gfspd; FOitf; Fwpf;fyhk;.
cjhuzkhf> gq;Fr; re;ij kpfTk; xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l re;ij.
 fl;Lg;ghlw;w re;ij : ,J Kw;wpYk; ,ytr re;ij.
Nkw;ghHit my;yJ fl;Lg;ghL vJTk; ,y;iy> re;ij
rf;jpfs; vy;yhtw;iwAk; jPHkhdpf;fpd;wd
re;ij fl;likg;Gfspd; tiffs;
gytpjkhd re;ij fl;likg;Gfs; xU nghUshjhuj;ij

tifg;gLj;Jk;. ,j;jifa re;ij fl;likg;Gfs; xU re;ijapy;
Nghl;bapd; msitf; Fwpf;fpd;wd.
122
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; nghUl;fspd; jd;ik> tpw;gidahsHfspd; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
vz;zpf;if> EfHNthupd; vz;zpf;if> jahupg;G my;yJ Nritapd; nghUshjhuk;
jd;ik> mstpyhd nghUshjhuq;fs; Nghd;w re;ij fl;likg;Gfspd;
gpw jPHkhdq;fs; cs;sd.
Fwpg;G
1] epiwT Nghl;b
xU epiwT Nghl;b re;ij fl;likg;gpy;> mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd

thq;FgtHfSk; tpw;gtHfSk; cs;sdH. re;ijapd; tpw;gidahsHfs;
midtUk; xUtUf;nfhUtH Nghl;bapLk; rpwpa tpw;gidahsHfs;.
re;ijapy; ve;jnthU Fwpg;gplj;jf;f nry;thf;ifAk; nfhz;l ngupa
tpw;gidahsH ahUk; ,y;iy. vdNt> mj;jifa re;ijapy; cs;s
midj;J epWtdq;fSk; tpiy vLg;gtHfs;.
epiwT Nghl;biag; gw;wp tpthjpf;Fk;NghJ rpy mDkhdq;fs;

cs;sd. ,e;j mDkhdq;fs; gpd;tUkhW>
 re;ijapy; cs;s jahupg;Gfs; xNu khjpupahdit> mjhtJ

mit Kw;wpYk; xj;jit
 midj;J epWtdq;fSf;Fk; yhg mjpfupg;G Nehf;fk; kl;LNk
cs;sJ
 re;ijapy; ,Ue;J ,ytr EioT kw;Wk; ntspNaWjy;
cs;sJ> mjhtJ jilfs; vJTk; ,y;iy
 EfHNthH tpUg;gk; vd;w fUj;J ,y;iy
2] VfNghf Nghl;b
VfNghf Nghl;bapy;> thq;FgtHfSk; tpw;gtHfSk; ,d;Dk; mjpf

vz;zpf;ifapy; cs;sdH. Mdhy; mtHfs; midtUk; xNu
khjpupahd nghUl;fis tpw;gid nra;tjpy;iy. jahupg;Gfs;
xj;jit> Mdhy; vy;yh tpw;gidahsHfSk; rw;W NtWgl;l
jahupg;Gfis tpw;fpwhHfs;.
,g;NghJ EfHNthUf;F xU nghUis kw;nwhd;Wf;F Nky;

NjHe;njLg;gjw;fhd tpUg;gk; cs;sJ. tpw;gidahsHfs; rpy re;ij
rf;jpia mDgtpf;ff;$Lk; vd;gjhy; XusT mjpf tpiyiaAk;
t#ypf;f KbAk;. vdNt tpw;gidahsHfs; xU Fwpg;gpl;l mstpw;F
tpiy epHzapg;ghsHfshf khWfpwhHfs;.
cjhuzkhf> jhdpaq;fSf;fhd re;ij xU VfNghf Nghl;bahFk;.

jahupg;Gfs; midj;Jk; xj;jit Mdhy; Rit kw;Wk; Ritfspd;
123
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; mbg;gilapy; rw;W NtWgLfpd;wd. mj;jifa kw;nwhU cjhuzk;
nghUshjhuk; gw;gir.
3] xypNfhNghyp
Fwpg;G xU jd;dyf;FOtpy;> re;ijapy; xU rpy epWtdq;fs; kl;LNk

cs;sd. epWtdq;fspd; vz;zpf;if Fwpj;J ve;j njspTk; ,y;iy
vd;whYk;> 3-5 Mjpf;fk; nrYj;Jk; epWtdq;fs; tpjpKiwahff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt xU jd;dyf;FOtpd; tp\aj;jpy;>
thq;FgtHfs; tpw;gidahsHfis tpl kpf mjpfk;.
,e;j tp\aj;jpy; cs;s epWtdq;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W xj;Jiof;f

kw;nwhUtUld; Nghl;bapLfpd;wd> mit tpiyfis epHzapf;f
jq;fs; re;ij nry;thf;ifg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd> ,jd; tpisthf
mtHfspd; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;fpd;wd. vdNt EfHNthH tpiy
vLg;gtHfshf khWfpwhHfs;. xU jd;dyf;FOtpy;> re;ijapy;
Eiotjw;F gy;NtW jilfs; cs;sd> NkYk; Gjpa epWtdq;fs;
jq;fis epiyepWj;JtJ fbdk;.
4] VfNghfk;
VfNghf tif re;ij fl;likg;gpy;> xNu xU tpw;gidahsH kl;LNk

,Uf;fpwhH> vdNt xU epWtdk; KO re;ijiaAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;.
,J midj;J re;ij rf;jpiaAk; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; mJ tpUk;Gk;
ve;j tpiyiaAk; epHzapf;f KbAk;. EfHNthUf;F khw;W ,y;iy
kw;Wk; tpw;gidahsH epHzapj;j tpiyia nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;.
VfNghfq;fs; kpfTk; tpUk;gj;jfhjit. ,q;Nf EfHNthH jq;fs;

vy;yh rf;jpiaAk; ,oe;J re;ij rf;jpfs; nghUj;jkw;wit.
,Ug;gpDk;> xU J}a;ikahd VfNghfk; cz;ikapy; kpfTk;
mupjhdJ.

Fwpg;G:
1. re;ijapd; tifg;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gplTk;?
124
9.5 epiwT Nghl;b: rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
nghUshjhuk;
ve;jnthU VfNghf cWg;G ,y;yhjpUg;gJ rupahd Nghl;bapd; xU
Kf;fpa mk;rkhFk;. epiwT Nghl;bapd; %d;W Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs;
,it:
Fwpg;G
1.re;ijapy; thq;FgtHfs; kw;Wk; tpw;gtHfspd; vz;zpf;if kpfg;
ngupaJ. ,e;j thq;FgtHfSk; tpw;gtHfSk; jq;fSf;Fs;
Nghl;bapLfpwhHfs;. ngupa vz;zpf;ifapd; fhuzkhf> thq;FgtH
my;yJ tpw;gtH re;ijapy; Njit my;yJ tpepNahfj;ij
ghjpf;ftpy;iy.
2.tpw;fg;gl;l my;yJ thq;fpa nghUl;fs; xNu khjpupahdit. NtW

thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ntt;NtW epWtdq;fshy; cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; ,aw;ifapy; xNu khjpupahdit.
3.epWtdq;fs; re;ijapy; Rje;jpukhf Eioayhk; my;yJ

ntspNawyhk;.
,e;j mj;jpahtrpa mk;rq;fisj; jtpu> rupahd Nghl;bAld; ,d;Dk;

rpy epge;jidfs; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
epiwT Nghl;bapd; $Ljy; mk;rq;fs;
a.thq;FgtHfSf;Fk; tpw;gtHfSf;Fk; ,J gw;wpa rupahd mwpT

cs;sJ:
i.re;ijapy; cs;s nghUl;fspd; gq;Ffspd; msT
ii.re;ijapd; epiyikfs;
iii.tpw;gid my;yJ nfhs;Kjy; guptHj;jidfs; elf;Fk; tpiyfs;.
iv xU ikaj;jpypUe;J kw;nwhU ikaj;jpw;F nghUl;fis efHj;j

cjTk; trjpfs; cs;sd.
v.thq;FgtHfSf;F ntt;NtW tpw;gidahsHfspilNa tpUg;gk;

,y;iy.
vi.NkYk;> thq;FgtHfSf;F tpw;gidf;F toq;fg;gLk; nghUl;fspd;

ntt;NtW gpupTfSf;F ,ilNa tpUg;gk; ,y;iy.
vii.tpw;gidahsHfSf;F ntt;NtW thq;FgtHfSf;F ,ilNa

tpUg;gk; ,y;iy. Self-Instructional Material
125
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; viii. ve;j Neuj;jpYk;> nghUl;fs; xU rPuhd tpiyapy;
nghUshjhuk; thq;fg;gLfpd;wd my;yJ tpw;fg;gLfpd;wd. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> midj;J epWtdq;fSk; re;ij rf;jpfshy;
epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyia nkhj;j Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;jpw;F
Fwpg;G Vw;Wf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
xU re;ij rupahd Nghl;bapd; epiyapy; ,aq;Fk;NghJ>

thq;FgtHfSf;Fk; tpw;gtHfSf;Fk; rupahd mwpT kw;Wk; rupahd
,af;fk; ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt> xU tpw;gidahsH kw;wtHfshy;
t#ypf;fg;gLk; tpiyia tpl caHj;j Kaw;rpj;jhy;> mtH
thbf;ifahsHfis ,of;fpwhH. gq;Fr; re;ij rupahd Nghl;bf;F xU
rpwe;j vLj;Jf;fhl;L.
9.6 tpiy - epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; ntspaPL jPHkhdpj;jy;:

xU njhopy;KidNthupd; my;yJ xU jahupg;ghsupd; elj;ij xU
jdp epWtdk; my;yJ jahupg;ghsH jdJ jdpg;gl;l nrayhy; jdJ
jahupg;gpd; tpiyia ghjpf;f KbahJ vd;W fUjp rupahd
Nghl;bapd; fPo; ,Ug;gij ehq;fs; mwpNthk;.
xU xw;iw epWtdk;> rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;> re;ij tpiyia
nfhLf;fg;gl;lgb vLj;J mjpfgl;r ,yhgq;fisg; ngWtjw;fhf
mjd; ntspaPl;il rupnra;fpwJ.
,g;NghJ Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;jpd; ,e;j ,uz;L

rf;jpfSf;fpilNaahd njhlHG re;ijapy; tpiyia jPHkhdpf;fpwJ.
tpiyia epHzapg;gJ KiwNa xw;iw thq;FgtH kw;Wk;

epWtdj;jpd; Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; my;y> Mdhy; ,J midj;J
thq;FgtHfspd; Nfhupf;ifAk;> xd;whf vLf;fg;gl;l midj;J
epWtdq;fspd; tpepNahfKk; MFk;.
rkepiy tpiy: Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;jpd; njhlHG :
tpiy> rupahd Nghl;bapd; epiyikfspd; fPo; Njit kw;Wk;

tpepNahfj;jpd; njhlHG %yk; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ. kjpg;G my;yJ
tpiyia epHzapg;gjpy; Njit (my;yJ tpspk;G gad;ghL) kw;Wk;
toq;fy; (my;yJ cw;gj;jp nryT) Mfpatw;wpw;F khH\y; rk
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspj;jhH.
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; tpiy xU rkepiy tpiy

vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ> Vnddpy; ,e;j tpiyapy; Njit kw;Wk;
tpepNahf rf;jpfs; rkepiyapy; cs;sd> my;yJ rkepiyapy;
126
cs;sd. ,e;j rkepiy tpiyapy; thq;fg;gl;l kw;Wk; tpw;fg;gl;l rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
msT (my;yJ toq;fg;gl;l my;yJ Nfhug;gl;l njhif) rkepiy nghUshjhuk;
msT vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Nfhug;gl;l kw;Wk; toq;fg;gl;l mstpw;F ,ilapyhd rkj;Jtk; rpy

tpiyf;F nghUe;jtpy;iy vd;why;> thq;FgtHfspd; kw;Wk; Fwpg;G
tpw;gidahsHfspd; Mirfs; NtWgLfpd;wd> my;yJ

thq;FgtHfshy; Nfhug;gLk; njhif tpw;gidahsHfshy;
toq;fg;gLtij tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;> my;yJ
tpw;gidahsHfshy; toq;fg;gLk; njhif njhifia tpl mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk; thq;FgtHfshy; Nfhug;gl;lJ. ,uz;bYk;> Nfhug;gl;l
mstpw;Fk; toq;fg;gl;l mstpw;Fk; ,ilapy; rkj;Jtj;ijf;
nfhz;LtUtjw;fhf tpiy khWk;.
ml;ltiz kw;Wk; tisTfs; ,uz;bd; mbg;gilapy; xU

vLj;Jf;fhl;L KO tp\aj;ijAk; njspTgLj;JfpwJ. fPNo
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ml;ltiz gy;NtW gUj;jpj; Jzp njhlHghd
Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahf ml;ltizfis mspf;fpwJ> NkYk;
tiuglj;jpy;> b.b vd;gJ Nfhupf;if tisT kw;Wk; v];.v];.
ml;ltiz kw;Wk; tiuglj;jpy; xU ghHit Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy;
%yk; tpiy vt;thW epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ vd;gijf; fhz;gpf;Fk;.
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fypd; rkepiy
xU msT Nfhug;gl;lJ toq;fg;gl;l msT tpiy

kPl;lUf;F (khjj;jpw;F (khjj;jpw;F kPjhd
tpiy &. kpy;ypad; kPl;lH) kpy;ypad; kPl;lH) mOj;jk;
25 9 18 tPo;rr
; p
20 10 16 tPo;rr
; p
15 12 12 eLepiy
10 15 7 caUk;
5 20 0 caUk;
tpiy &. kPl;lUf;F 15> 12 kpy;ypad; kPl;lH toq;fg;gLfpwJ kw;Wk;

12 kpy;ypad; kPl;lH Nfhug;gLfpwJ@ Nfhug;gl;l msT toq;fg;gl;l
mstpw;F rkk;. &. vdNt> kPl;lUf;F 15> rkepiy tpiy. tpiy
rkepiyapy; &. 15 my;yJ tpiy &. 15 re;ijapy; ePbf;Fk;>
Vnddpy; ,e;j kl;lj;jpy; mJ cauNth tPo;rr ; pailaNth ,y;iy.
epr;rakhf ,e;j rkepiy tpiyia xNu Neuj;jpy; mila KbahJ.
127
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; ,e;j rkepiy kl;lj;jpy; Nrhjid kw;Wk; gpio my;yJ
nghUshjhuk; Cryhl;lq;fspd; Muk;g fhyk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf> tpiy &. 25 (mjhtJ> rkepiy kl;lj;jpw;F NkNy)>

tpw;gidahsHfshy; toq;fg;gLk; msT (18 kpy;ypad; kPl;lH)
Fwpg;G
Nfhug;gl;l msit tpl (9 kpy;ypad; kPl;lH) mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;>
NkYk; tpiy tPo;rr ; pailAk; Nghf;F ,Uf;Fk;. &. 25> rpy
tpw;gidahsHfs; jhq;fs; tpw;f tpUk;Gk; midj;J msitAk; tpw;f
KbahJ> vdNt> thbf;ifahsHfis <Hg;gjw;fhf tpiyia
Fiwg;ghHfs;.
tpiy tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ> Nfhug;gl;l msT ePl;bf;fg;gLk; kw;Wk;
toq;fg;gl;l msT ml;ltizapy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s topapy; RUq;Fk;>
&. xU kPl;lUf;F 15> rg;is ,Ug;G Njit kw;Wk; midj;J
tpw;gidahsHfSk; tpw;f tpUk;Gk; cw;gj;jpapd; midj;J
msTfSk; thq;FgtHfshy; thq;fg;gLk;.
,NjNghy;> tpiy &. kPl;lUf;F 10> mjhtJ> rkepiy tpiyf;Ff;

fPNo> thq;FgtHfshy; Nfhug;gl;l gUj;jpj; Jzpapd; msT (15
kpy;ypad; kPl;lH) toq;fYf;F toq;fg;gLk; njhifia tpl mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk; (7 kpy;ypad; kPl;lH)@ vdNt> gUj;jp Jzpapd; tpiy
caUk;.
Kjy; &. 10> Nfhug;gl;l msT toq;fg;gl;l msit tpl mjpfkhf

cs;sJ> ,e;j tpiyapy; thq;fj; jahuhf cs;s thq;FgtHfs;
jq;fs; tpUg;gq;fis g+Hj;jp nra;a toq;fg;gLk; msT
NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy vd;gijf; fz;lwpe;Js;sdH> mjhtJ>
tpw;gidahsHfs; thq;FgtHfs; Nfhupa msTf;F ngupa msit
toq;f jahuhf ,y;iy.
rpy EfHNthH> jq;fs; Nfhupf;ifia g+Hj;jp nra;a Kbahky;>

mjpfkhd nghUl;fisg; ngWthHfs; vd;w ek;gpf;ifapy; tpiyia
Vyk; vLf;f J}z;lg;gLthHfs;. jpUg;jpaw;w thq;FgtHfspd; ,e;j
eltbf;if re;ijapy; tpiyia rkepiy epiy tiu
fl;lhag;gLj;Jk;.
9.7 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; FWfpa fhy cWjpahd

rkepiy:
xU epWtdk; mjd; ntspaPli ; l tpupTgLj;jNth my;yJ RUf;fNth
nra;Ak; Nghf;F ,y;yhjNghJ> mjpfgl;r yhgj;ij <l;l my;yJ
Fiwe;jgl;r ,og;Gfisr; re;jpf;f tpUk;Gk; NghJ FWfpa fhyj;jpy;
128
rkepiyapy; cs;sJ. FWfpa fhy vd;gJ cw;gj;jpapd; khWgl;l rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
fhuzpfis khw;Wtjd; %yk; epWtdk; mjd; ntspaPl;il nghUshjhuk;
khw;wf;$ba xU fhyfl;lkhFk;. njhopy;Jiwapy; cs;s
epWtdq;fspd; vz;zpf;if epHzapf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> Vnddpy;
jw;NghJs;s epWtdq;fs; ntspNawNth my;yJ Gjpa epWtdq;fs;
Fwpg;G
mjw;Fs; EioaNth KbahJ.
Cfq;fs;:
,e;j gFg;gha;T gpd;tUk; mDkhdq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ:
1. midj;J epWtdq;fSk; cw;gj;jpapd; xNutpjkhd fhuzpfisg;

gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
2. epWtdq;fs; ntt;NtW nray;jpwd; nfhz;lit.
3. epWtdq;fspd; nryT tisTfs; xUtUf;nfhUtH
NtWgLfpd;wd.
4. midj;J epWtdq;fSk; jq;fs; jahupg;Gfis njhopy;Jiwapd;
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; %yk; epHzapf;fg;gl;l mNj tpiyapy;
tpw;fpd;wd> ,jdhy; xt;nthU epWtdj;jpd; tpiy> P (tpiy) =
AR= MR.
5. epWtdq;fs; ntt;NtW msTfis cw;gj;jp nra;J tpw;gid
nra;fpd;wd.
epWtdj;jpd; FWfpa fhy rkepiyia tpspk;G gFg;gha;T kw;Wk;

nkhj;j nryT- nkhj;j tUtha; gFg;gha;T cjtpAld; tpsf;f
KbAk;.
(1) tpspk;G nryT-tpspk;G tUtha; gFg;gha;T:
FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> xU epWtdk; mjd; tpiy ruhrup khwp nryTf;F

rkkhf ,Ue;jhy; my;yJ ruhrup khwp nryit (V.tp.rp) tpl
mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;. NkYk;> tpiy ruhrup
nkhj;j nryTfis (SAC my;yJ АТС)> mjhtJ P- AR> SACI
tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> epWtdk; mjpetPd (my;yJ mrhjhuz)
,yhgq;fis <l;Lk;.
tpiy ruhrup nkhj;j nryTfSf;F rkkhdhy;> mjhtJ> P = AR=

SAC> epWtdk; ,ay;ghd (my;yJ g+[;[pa) ,yhgq;fis my;yJ
,ilntspfisf; $l rk;ghjpf;Fk;. tpiy V.tp.rpf;F rkkhf
,Ue;jhy;> epWtdk; ,og;ig re;jpf;Fk;. tpiy V.tp.rpf;F rw;W fPNo
129
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpOe;jhy;> epWtdk; %lg;gLk;> Vnddpy; mij cw;gj;jp nra;a
nghUshjhuk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; mjd; V.tp.rpiaahtJ kiwf;f Ntz;Lk;.
vdNt rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> xU epWtdk;

NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l midj;J #o;epiyfspYk; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ.
Fwpg;G
mtw;iw ehk; tiuglkhf tpsf;FfpNwhk;.
mjpetPd yhgk;:
FWfpa fhy ruhrup nryit tpl tpiy mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ

epWtdk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; mjpra yhgj;ij <l;LfpwJ. epWtdk; E1
Gs;spapy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mq;F SMC = MR kw;Wk; SMC
MR I fPNo ,Ue;J ntl;Lfpd;wd. OQ> rkepiy ntspaPL kw;Wk; OP
(= Q 1 E 1 ) vd;gJ rkepiy tpiy. Q 1 S vd;gJ FWfpa fhy
ruhrup nryTfs;.
SE1 (= Q1 E 1 -Q1 S) vd;gJ xU a+dpl;Lf;F fpilf;Fk; yhgk;. bv];

(rkepiy ntspaPL) (xU a+dpl; yhgj;jpw;F) = bv];,1gp gFjp
vd;gJ mjpetPd yhgk;.
rhjhuz yhgk;:
glk; 2 (gp) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sgb FWfpa fhy ruhrup nryTfSf;F

tpiy rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ epWtdk; rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;lf;$Lk;.
epWtdk; E2 Gs;spapy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mq;F SMC = MR
kw;Wk; SMC MR I fPNo ,Ue;J ntl;Lfpd;wd. OQ2 vd;gJ rkepiy
ntspaPL kw;Wk; OP (= Q2 E) vd;gJ rkepiy tpiy. epWtdk;
rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;LfpwJ> Vnddpy; tpiy = AR= MR = SMC =
SAC mjd; Fiwe;jgl;r Gs;sp E2 .
Fiwe;jgl;r ,og;G:
glk; 2 (rp) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sgb> epWtdk; FWfpa fhy ruhrup

nryTfis tpl Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ epWtdk; rkepiyapy;
,Uf;ff;$Lk;> Mdhy; ,og;ig re;jpf;f NeupLk;. epWtdk; E3
Gs;spapy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mq;F SMC = MR kw;Wk; SMC MR
I fPNo ,Ue;J ntl;Lfpd;wd. OQ3 vd;gJ rkepiy ntspaPL kw;Wk;
OP (= Q3 E 3 ) vd;gJ rkepiy tpiy.
130
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
ruhrup nryTfs; Q3 B tpiy Q3 E3 I tpl mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy;> E3

B vd;gJ xU a+dpl;Lf;F Vw;gLk; ,og;G (Q 3 B-Q3 E3 ). nkhj;j
,og;G PE 3 x E 3 B = PE 3 BA MFk;. epWtdk; mjd; ruhrup khwp
nryT kw;Wk; mjd; epiyahd nrytpy; rpytw;iw cs;slf;Fk;
tiu OQ3 ntspaPl;il njhlHe;J cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
mjpfgl;r ,og;G:
tpiy mj;jp vd;why;. 2 V.tp.rp epiyf;F tpOk;> epWtdk; mjd;

ruhrup khwp nryit glk; 2 (b) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjd;
,og;Gfs; mjpfgl;rk; vd;gjhy; nray;gLtjh my;yJ %Ltjh
vd;gJ myl;rpakhf ,Uf;fpwJ.
OQ4 ntspaPl;ilj; njhlHe;J cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Fk;> FWfpa

fhyj;jpy; %Ltij tpl PE4 GF ,og;Gfisr; re;jpg;gjw;Fk; ,J
mj;jifa epWtdj;jpw;F gzk; nrYj;Jk; . OQ4 gzpepWj;jk;
ntspaPL MFk;> Vnddpy; tpiy OP f;Ff; fPNo tpOe;jhy;> epWtdk;
cw;gj;jpia epWj;jptpLk;. E4 > vdNt> gzpepWj;jk; nra;Ak; Gs;sp.
fl;lj;ij %L:
glk; 2.(,) xU epWtdj;ij mjd; AVC $l OQ0 ntspaPl;by;

kiwf;f Kbahjijf; fhl;LfpwJ> Vnddpy; tpiy OP V.tp.rp
tisTf;Ff; fPNo cs;sJ. mJ %lg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
131
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; ,jdhy; FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> rhjhuz ,yhgk;> mjpetPd yhgk; kw;Wk;
nghUshjhuk; ,og;Gfisr; re;jpf;Fk; epWtdq;fs; cs;sd.
Fwpg;G
(2) nkhj;j nryT-nkhj;j

tUtha; gFg;gha;T:
epWtdj;jpd; FWfpa fhy rkepiyiaAk; mtH nkhj;j nryT

kw;Wk; nkhj;j tUtha; tisTfspd; cjtpAld; fhl;l KbAk;. TR
kw;Wk; TC ,ilNaahd NeHkiwahd NtWghL kpfg; ngupajhf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ epWtdk; mjd; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f KbAk;.
9.8 njhopy;Jiwapd; FWfpa fhy rkepiy:

xU njhopy; mjd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jp rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ FWfpa
fhyj;jpy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mjd; ntspaPl;il tpupTgLj;jNth
my;yJ RUf;fNth ve;jg; Nghf;Fk; ,y;iy. midj;J epWtdq;fSk;
rkepiyapy; ,Ue;jhy;> njhopy;JiwAk; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ.
FWfpa fhyj;jpy; njhopy;Jiwapd; KO rkepiyf;F> midj;J
epWtdq;fSk; rhjhuz ,yhgq;fis kl;LNk ngw Ntz;Lk;.
,jw;fhd epge;jid SMC = MR = AR= SAC. Mdhy;

njhopy;Jiwapd; KO rkepiyAk; Kw;wpYk; jw;nrayhdJ> Vnddpy;
FWfpa fhyj;jpy; rpy epWtdq;fs; mtH mrhjhuz yhgj;ijAk;
rpy ,og;Gf;fisAk; rk;ghjpf;ff;$Lk;. mg;gbapUe;Jk;> njhopy; mjd;
FWfpa fhy rkepiyapy; cs;sJ> mjd; msT Nfhug;gl;lJk;>
toq;fg;gl;l msTfSk; re;ijia mopf;Fk; tpiyapy; rkkhf
,Uf;Fk;.
9.9 rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; epWtdj;jpd; ePz;lfhy rkepiy

:
ePz;l fhykhdJ> epWtdk; jdJ Miy kw;Wk; nray;ghLfspd;
msit khw;wf;$ba xU fhyfl;lkhFk;. ,jdhy; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F
Self-Instructional Material midj;J nryTfSk; khWgLk; kw;Wk; epiyahd nryTfs; ,y;iy.
132
epWtdk; mjd; rkepiy ntspaPl;il khw;w tpUk;ghjNghJ> rupahd rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy rkepiyapy; cs;sJ. nghUshjhuk;
,J rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;LfpwJ. rpy epWtdq;fs; mjpetPd

,yhgq;fis <l;bdhy;> Gjpa epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; Eioe;J>
mjpra ,yhgq;fs; Nghl;baplg;gLk;. rpy epWtdq;fs; e\;lj;ij Fwpg;G
re;jpj;jhy;> rpy epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz ,yhgk; <l;Lk; tiu rpy

epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwia tpl;L ntspNaWk;.
,jdhy; epWtdq;fs; njhopYf;Fs; EioaNth my;yJ

ntspNawNth ve;jg; Nghf;Fk; ,y;iy> Vnddpy; xt;nthU
epWtdKk; rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;l Ntz;Lk;. "ePz;l fhykhf>
epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; Miyia rupnra;jNghJ rkepiyapy; cs;sd>
,jdhy; mtw;wpd; ePz;lfhy Vrp tistpd; Fiwe;jgl;r Gs;spapy;
cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk;> ,J tiuaWf;fg;gl;l (,e;j fl;lj;jpy;)
tiuaWf;fg;gl;l Njit (VMH)
tisTf;F cWjpahdJ. re;ij tpiy ,jdhy; mtHfs; rhjhuz

,yhgk; <l;LthHfs;.
Cfq;fs;:
,e;j gFg;gha;T gpd;tUk; mDkhdq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ:
1. epWtdq;fs; njhopYf;Fs; EioaNth my;yJ ntspNawNth

,ytrk;.
2. midj;J epWtdq;fSk; rk nray;jpwd; nfhz;lit.
3. midj;J fhuzpfSk; xNu khjpupahdit. mit epiyahd

kw;Wk; rPuhd tpiyapy; ngwg;glyhk;.
4. epWtdq;fspd; nryT tisTfs; rPuhdit.
5. epWtdq;fspd; jhtuq;fs; rkkhdit> njhopy;El;gj;ij

toq;fpAs;sd.
133
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; 6. midj;J epWtdq;fSf;Fk; tpiy kw;Wk; ntspaPL Fwpj;j
nghUshjhuk; rupahd mwpT cs;sJ.
,e;j mDkhdq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;> njhopy;Jiwapd; xt;nthU

epWtdKk; gpd;tUk; ,uz;L epge;jidfis g+Hj;jp nra;Ak; NghJ
Fwpg;G
ePz;lfhy rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
(1) rkepiyapy;> mjd; FWfpa fhy tpspk;G nryT (v];.vk;.rp)

mjd; ePz;lfhy tpspk;G nryT (vy;.vk;.rp) kw;Wk; mjd; FWfpa
fhy ruhrup nryT (v];.V.rp) kw;Wk; mjd; ePz;lfhy ruhrup nryT
(vy;.I.rp) kw;Wk; ,uz;LNk MR = AR= P f;F rkkhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
,t;thW Kjy; rkepiy epiy:
SMC = LMC = MR = AR= P = SAC = LAC mjd; Fiwe;jgl;r

Gs;spapy;> kw;Wk; . fPNo ,Ue;J vk;.MH tisT. midj;J
tisTfSk; ,e;j fl;lj;jpy; E I re;jpf;fpd;wd kw;Wk; epWtdk; OQ
cfe;j ntspaPl;il cUthf;fp OP tpiyapy; tpw;fpwJ.
njhopy;Jiwapd; midj;J epWtdq;fSf;Fk; rkkhd nryTfis

ehq;fs; fUJtjhy;> midj;J epWtdq;fSk; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F
rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. OP tpiyapy; xU epWtdk; njhopy;Jiwia
tpl;L ntspNawNth my;yJ EioaNth Nghtjpy;iy kw;Wk;
midj;J epWtdq;fSk; rhjhuz ,yhgj;ij <l;Lk;.
9.10 epiwT Nghl;bapd; fPo; njhopy;Jiwapd; ePz;lfhy

rkepiy :
midj;J epWtdq;fSk; rhjhuz ,yhgq;fis <l;Lk;NghJ ePz;l
fhykhf njhopy; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ. epWtdq;fs;
njhopy;Jiwia tpl;L ntspNawNth my;yJ Gjpa epWtdq;fs;
mjw;Fs; EioaNth ve;j Cf;fKk; ,y;iy.
vy;yh fhuzpfSk; xNu khjpupahdit kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpiyfs;

Self-Instructional Material kw;Wk; xNu njhopy;El;gj;ijf; nfhz;L> xt;nthU epWtdKk;
134
njhopw;JiwAk; KO rkepiyapy; cs;sd> mq;F vy;vk;rp = vk; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;
Mh;= AR(P) = LAC mjd; Fiwe;jgl;rj;jpy; cs;sJ. nghUshjhuk;
ePz;l ehs; rk njhopy; ypg;upa ,e;j tpiy OP ,y;> epWtdq;fs;

ntspaPl;bd; OQ kl;lj;jpy; FO (B) ,y; A Gs;spapy; rkepiyapy; Fwpg;G
cs;sd> mq;F LMC = SMC = MR = P (= AR) = SAC = LAC mjd;

Fiwe;jgl;rj;jpy;.
,e;j kl;lj;jpy;> epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;Lfpd;wd> NkYk;

njhopy;Jiwapy; EioaNth my;yJ ntspNawNth ve;j Cf;fKk;
,y;iy. njhopy; ePz;lfhy rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ>
njhopy;Jiwapy; cs;s xt;nthU epWtdKk; ePz;lfhy rkepiyapy;
,Uf;Fk; vd;gij ,J gpd;tUkhW $WfpwJ. njhopy; kw;Wk;
epWtdq;fs; ,uz;Lk; ePz;lfhy rkepiyapy; ,Ue;jhy;> mit
FWfpa fhy rkepiyapYk; cs;sd.
9.11 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF tpiy epHzak; Fwpj;j fzprkhd jfty;fis
toq;fpAs;sJld;> re;ij kw;Wk; re;ij fl;likg;gpd; njspthd
Nghl;bia rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; fhl;bAs;sJ. ,J rupahd
jPHkhdj;jpd; fPo; epWtdk; kw;Wk; njhopy; ,uz;bd; FWfpa fhy
kw;Wk; ePz;lfhy rkepiyapYk; tpiy ntspaPl;L jPHkhdj;jpd;
cwitf; fhl;LfpwJ.

1. (m) re;ijf; fhyk;
(M) FWfpa Xl;lk;
(,) ePz;l fhyk;
2. jahupg;G re;ij kw;Wk; fhuzp re;ij

135
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; myF X: nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
Fwpg;G fPo; tpiy epHzak;
10.1 mwpKfk;
10.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
10.3. NkhNdhNghyp
10.4 VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; tpiy ghFghL
10.5 ,Ujug;G VfNghfk;
10.6 VfNghf Nghl;b
10.7 xypNfhNghyp
10.8 $l;L xypNfhNghyp kw;Wk; tpiy jiyik
10.9 ,UKid
10.10 njhopy; gFg;gha;T
10.11 RUf;fk;
10.1 mwpKfk;
,e;j re;ijfspy; tpiy epHzak; rupahd Nghl;b kw;Wk;
VfNghfj;jpw;F ,ilapy; tUfpwJ. %d;W jiyg;Gfs;
fUjg;gLfpd;wd:
- rpy epWtdq;fSld; re;ijfspy; xNu khjpupahd nghUl;fspd;

tpiy.
- ,e;j re;ijfspy; jahupg;G NtWghL.
- EioT kw;Wk; ntspNaWjy; Mfpait mg+uzkhf Nghl;b
re;ijfspy; ePz;lfhy tpisTfis vt;thW ghjpf;fpd;wd
10.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:
,e;j myF %yk; xUth; NkhNdhNghyp> VfNghf Nghl;b>
xypfhNghyp> ,UKid> njhopy; gFg;gha;T Nghd;wtw;iw
tpthpq;fis mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
136
10.3 NkhNdhNghyp (rh;thjPd; my;yJ Kw;Whpik) nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
epiwTg; Nghl;bf;F Neh; vjphpilahd epiyNa Kw;Whpik vdyhk;
Fwpg;G
mq;fhbapy; Nghl;baw;w epiyNa Kw;Whpik vdg;gLfpwJ. xUtuhNyh
xU FOtpduhNyh cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l nghUSf;F Nghl;baw;w
epiyAk;> mg;nghUSf;F gjpypl;Lg; nghUs; ,y;yhj epiyAk;
nfhz;l mq;fhbia Kw;Whpik mq;fhb vd;w ,yf;fzk; $wyhk;.
,t;tifiah mq;fhbapy; nghUs; cw;gj;jpahsd; jd; Nehf;fj;jpw;F
tpiyiaNah mspg;igNah fl;Lg;gLj;jp Kw;Whpik ,yhgj;ij
milayhk;.
Fwpg;G:
xg;gpLf
1. NkhNdhNghyp vd;why; vd;d?
10.4 VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; tpiy ghFghL:

VfNghfk; me;j re;ij tbtkhf tiuaWf;fg;glyhk;> ,jpy; xU
xw;iw jahupg;G xU nghUspd; KO tpepNahfj;ijAk;
fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ> ,J neUf;fkhd khw;wPLfs; ,y;iy.
vdNt> xU VfNghfj;ij cUthf;f ,uz;L mj;jpahtrpa

epge;jidfs; cs;sd:
(m) xU jahupg;ghsH my;yJ tpw;gidahsH ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mtH

xU jdpeguhfNth my;yJ $l;lhsHfspd; epWtdkhfNth my;yJ
$l;L $l;L epWtdkhfNth ,Uf;fyhk;. Nghl;bia mfw;w ,e;j
epge;jid mtrpak;@
(M) ifahsg;gl;l nghUl;fSf;F neUf;fkhf Nghl;bapLk; khw;wPLfs;

,Uf;ff;$lhJ. mjhtJ> ,Nj Nghd;w jahupg;Gfis cw;gj;jp
nra;Ak; NtW ve;j epWtdNkh my;yJ epWtdq;fNsh
,Uf;ff;$lhJ> ,y;iynadpy; Nghl;b ,Uf;Fk;.
,e;j ,uz;L epge;jidfSk; VfNghfthjp jdJ nghUl;fspd;

tpiyia epHzapf;f KbAk; vd;gij cWjpnra;fpd;wd> mjhtJ>
mtH xU RahjPdkhd tpiy-ntspaPl;Lf; nfhs;ifia gpd;gw;w
KbAk;. tpiyia ghjpf;Fk; rf;jp VfNghfj;jpd; rhuhk;rkhFk;.
137
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; VfNghf epiyikfspd; fPo;> Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; rf;jpfSf;F
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; ,ilapy; njhlHG ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,J VfNghfj;jpd; fl;Lg;ghl;by;
Fwpg;G cs;sJ. xU VfNghfthjp vd;gJ mtuJ jahupg;gpd; xNu
jahupg;ghsH> ,J neUf;fkhf Nghl;bapLk; khw;wPLfs; ,y;iy.
NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> VfNghfj;jpd; jahupg;Gf;Fk;

neUq;fpa Nghl;bahsupd; jahupg;Gf;Fk; ,ilapyhd Nfhupf;ifapd;
FWf;F nefpo;rr ; p kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;> mjhtJ> xU
Nghl;bahsupd; jahupg;G VfNghf cw;gj;jpapd; ,lj;ij vLf;f
KbahJ. VfNghf cupikahsH xU nghUspd; xNu jahupg;ghsH>
mtH jdJ tpepNahfj;ij khw;Wtjd; %yk; tpiyia vspjpy;
ghjpf;f KbAk;.
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;> mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd jahupg;ghsHfs;

,Ug;gjhy;> xt;nthU jahupg;ghsupd; toq;fYk; nkhj;j
tpepNahfj;jpy; xU rpwpa gFjpia kl;LNk nfhz;Ls;sJ> vdNt>
rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;> ve;j tpw;gidahsUk; jdJ nrhe;j
tpepNahfj;ij khw;Wtjd; %yk; tpiyia ghjpf;f KbahJ.
kWGwk;> VfNghfthjp tpiyia ghjpf;f KbAk;. cz;ikapy;> mtH
tpiyia epHzapf;fpwhH.
VfNghfj;jpw;Fk; Nghl;bf;Fk; kw;nwhU tpj;jpahrk; cs;sJ. rupahd

Nghl;b ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> xU jdpg;gl;l jahupg;ghsupd; jahupg;Gf;fhd
Njit MSk; tpiyapy; Kw;wpYk; kPs;jd;ik nfhz;lJ. mtH ve;j
njhifiaAk; eilKiwapy; cs;s tpiyapy; tpw;f KbAk;.
,j;jifa Nfhupf;if vf;];-mr;Rf;F ,izahd fpilkl;l NeH
Nfhl;lhy; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ. NkYk;> tpspk;G tUtha; (vk;MH) =
tpiy> mjhtJ ruhrup tUtha; (VMH).
,e;j ,uz;L tisTfSk; vk;.MH kw;Wk; V.MH. VfNghfj;jpy; ,J

mt;thW ,y;iy@ VfNghf jahupg;Gf;fhd Njit Kw;wpYk; kPs;
,y;iy (eilKiwapy; khw;wPLfs; ,y;iy)@ vdNt Njit tpiy
my;yJ tisT AR tyJGwkhf tpOfpwJ kw;Wk; vk;.MH tisT
vg;NghJk; mjw;Ff; fPNo ,Uf;Fk;.
tpepNahfj;jpd; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,Ug;gjhy;> VfNghf cupikahsH (m)

tpiyia epHzapj;J> me;j tpiyapy; Nfhug;gl;l msit toq;f
Kd;tUthH@ my;yJ (M) mtH tpepNahfj;ij rupnra;a KbAk;>
gpd;dH mtH epHzapj;j toq;fy; njhlHghf Njitf;Nfw;g tpiyia
jPHkhdpf;fl;Lk;. Mdhy; mtH tpiy ,uz;ilAk; epHzapf;f
Self-Instructional Material KbahJ> NkYk; me;j tpiyapy; Kd;Ng jPHkhdpf;fg;gl;l msit
138
thq;Fk;gb kf;fis fl;lhag;gLj;jTk; KbahJ. mtH ,e;j ,uz;L nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
tp\aq;fspy; xd;iw kl;LNk nra;a KbAk;> mjhtJ> tpiyia fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
epHzapf;fTk; my;yJ tpepNahfj;ij rupnra;aTk;. Fwpg;G
tpspk;G tUtha; kw;Wk; tpspk;G nryit rkg;gLj;Jjy;:
VfNghf cupikahsupd; Nehf;fk;> mtuJ nkhj;j gz yhgj;ij

mjpfupg;gjhFk;. mtH jdJ ,yhgq;fs; mjpfgl;rkhf ,Uf;Fk;
tpiy-ntspaPl;L kl;lj;jpy; rkepiyapy; ,Ug;ghH. $Ljy; myFfs;
nryit tpl tUthapy; $Ljy; NrHf;Fk; tiu mtH cw;gj;jp
nra;thH. me;j Neuj;jpy; mtH epWj;JthH> mijAk; jhz;b $Ljy;
cw;gj;jp myFfs; tUthia tpl nryit mjpfk; NrHf;fpd;wd.
NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> VfNghf cupikahsH me;j

mstpyhd ntspaPl;by; rkepiy epiyapy; ,Ug;ghH> mjpy; XusT
tUtha; tpspk;G nryTf;F rkk;. tpspk;G tUtha; tpspk;G nryit
kPWk; tiu mtH ntspaPli ; l tpupthf;FthH. Vndd;why; XusT
tUtha; tpspk;G nryit kPWk; tiu ,yhgq;fs; mjpfupf;Fk;.
tpspk;G tUtha; tpspk;G nryTf;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;jpy;>
,yhgq;fs; mjpfupf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j fl;lj;jpw;F mg;ghy; cw;gj;jp
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lhy;> ,yhgq;fs; Fiwaj; njhlq;Fk;.
tpiy ntspaPL rkepiy
cz;ikahd nkhj;j ,yhgq;fspd; msT-mit nfhLf;fg;gl;l

nryT-tUtha; #o;epiyapy; mjpfgl;rkhf ,Ue;jhYk;-,e;j rkepiy
epiyapy; FVfNghfj;jhy; rk;ghjpf;fg;gLk;? ,ij gpd;tUk; topapy;
fhzyhk;. ntspaPL OM ,y;> MP 'vd;gJ ruhrup tUtha;> ML
vd;gJ ruhrup nryT. vdNt P'L vd;gJ xU a+dpl;Lf;F yhgk;.
,g;NghJ nkhj;j yhgk; = xU a+dpl;Lf;F ,yhgk; x nkhj;j

ntspaPL tpw;fg;gl;lJ
= P'L X OM
= P|L X TL.
= P'LTP.
,t;thW> rkepiy epiyapy; VfNghf cupikahsH rk;ghjpj;j

nkhj;j yhgk; P'LTP nrt;tfj;jpw;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
VfNghf tpiy mtrpakpy;iy mjpf tpiy: Self-Instructional Material

139
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; VfNghf tpiy mjpf tpiy my;y. ,J rpy Neuq;fspy; 'Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; fPo; mtH tpiyia tplf; Fiwthf ,Uf;fyhk;> Vndd;why;
Fwpg;G tpsk;guj;jpd; nryTfis VfNghf cupikahsH fhg;ghw;WthH. jtpu>
mtH tof;fkhd nghUshjhuq;fspypUe;J ngWfpwhH> ,jd;
tpisthf ngupa mstpyhd cw;gj;jp.
VfNghfthjp vg;NghJk; kpf caHe;j tpiyia t#ypf;f Ntz;Lk;

vd;gJk; mtrpakpy;iy. mtH nghJf; fUj;J> murhq;fj;jpd;
jiyaPL kw;Wk; mtH cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; nghUl;fSf;F khw;whfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLthH vd;W mQ;RfpwhH. ,jdhy; VfNghf tpiy mjpf
tpiy my;y. Mdhy; nghJthf VfNghfthjp jdJ VfNghf
epiyia Ruz;Ltjw;Fk; mjpf tpiy t#ypg;gjw;Fk; cjt
KbahJ.
10.5 ,Ujug;G VfNghfk;:

xU VfNghfthjp xU rPuhd tpiyia t#ypf;fpwhH vd;W fUj
KbahJ. khwhf> tof;fkhd eilKiwahdJ> ntt;NtW
eguplkpUe;J> nghUl;fspd; ntt;NtW gad;ghLfSf;fhf kw;Wk;
ntt;NtW re;ijg; gFjpfspy; ntt;NtW tpiyfis t#ypg;gjhFk;.
,e;j topapy;> VfNghfthjp jdJ yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f KbAk;.
,j;jifa ghFghL njhopy;Jiwapy; epyTk; rpy epge;jidfshy;

rhj;jpakhdJ:
(m) thq;FgtHfs; xUtUf;nfhUtH njhlHG nfhs;shj gue;j

gFjpapy; rpjwpf;fplf;fpd;wdH>
(M) rl;l jilfs;>
(,) kw;wtHfsplkpUe;J t#ypf;fg;gLk; tpiyfs; Fwpj;j mwpahik>
(<) jdpg;gl;l Nritfs;> v.fh. kUj;JtHfs;. kUj;JtH

ViofsplkpUe;J gzf;fhuHfsplkpUe;J mjpf fl;lzk; t#ypf;f
KbAk;.
xg;gpLk;NghJ Nghl;b kw;Wk; VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;:
xU RUf;fkhd topapy;> Nghl;b tpiy-ntspaPl;L rkepiy kw;Wk;

VfNghf tpiy-ntspaPl;L rkepiyia ehk; xg;gplyhk;. ,uz;bYk;
MR = MC@ Mdhy; Kf;fpakhd NtWghLfs; cs;sd.
cjhuzkhf:
140
(i) ntspaPl;bd; xt;nthU kl;lj;jpYk; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; (i) MR nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
= AR(mjhtJ tpiy). mjhtJ> vk;.MH kw;Wk; V.MH Mfpa ,uz;L
Fwpg;G
tisTfSk; fpilkl;l NeH Nfhl;by; ,izfpd;wd. VfNghfj;jpd;
fPo;> vk;.MH midj;J epiyfspYk; ARI tpl (ruhrup tUtha;>
mjhtJ tpiy) Fiwthf cs;sJ.
(ii) rupahd Nghl;bapy;> MC = MR = AR(mjhtJ tpiy)@ Mdhy;

VfNghfj;jpd; fPo;> t#ypf;fg;gLk; tpiy tpspk;G tpiyf;F Nky;. MR
kw;Wk; MC ,uz;Lk; ARI tpl Fiwthf cs;sd (mjhtJ tpiy).
(iii) rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;> xU epWtdk; ruhrup nrytpd; (Vrp)

kpff; Fiwe;j fl;lj;jpy; rkepiyia milfpwJ@ Mdhy;
rkepiyapd; fl;lj;jpy; VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; (mjhtJ MR = MC > AC
,d;Dk; Fiwe;J tUfpwJ> Fiwe;jgl;rj;ij vl;ltpy;iy.
(iv) rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;> xU epWtdk; MC tisT rkepiy

ntspaPl;by; my;yJ mjw;F mUfpy; caUk;NghJ kl;LNk
rkepiyia milfpwJ> Mdhy; VfNghfj;jpd; fPo;> MC caHfpwjh>
tPo;rr
; pailfpwjh my;yJ khwhky; ,Uf;fpwjh vd;gJ rkepiyapd;
rhj;jpakhFk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> MC tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ VfNghf
rkepiy rhj;jpakpy;iy> Mdhy; MCia tpl MR kpfTk;
nrq;Fj;jhf tPo;rr
; pailfpwJ.
(v) xU epWtdk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy;jhd; rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo;

mjpetPd yhgj;ij <l;l KbAk;> Mdhy; mit Nghl;bapLk; NghJ
ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F my;y. Mdhy; #g;gHehHky; ,yhgq;fs; ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F $l VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; ePbf;fyhk;.
(vi) xU VfNghfthjp ntspaPl;ilf; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;> ,jdhy;

tpiyia caHj;j KbAk;. vdNt VfNghf tpiy nghJthf rupahd
Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiyia tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
10.6 VfNghfk; Nghl;b:

,J xU re;ij epiyikiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mjpy; xU jahupg;gpd;
xw;iw jahupg;ghsH (VfNghfthjp) me;j cw;gj;jpapd; xw;iw
thq;Fgtiu (VfNghfthjp) vjpHnfhs;fpwhH.
mjd; mDkhdq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:

141
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; 1. neUq;fpa khw;wPLfs; ,y;yhj xU gz;lk; cs;sJ.
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
2. VfNghf cupikahsH mjd; xNu jahupg;ghsH my;yJ
tpw;gidahsH.
3. VfNghf cupikahsH mjd; xNu thq;FgtH.
VfNghf Nghl;bapd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;:
cz;ikahd cyfpy;> rupahd Nghl;b my;yJ VfNghfj;ij ehk;

fhzKbahJ. ,e;j jPtpu epiyfs; mupjhdit. cz;ikapy;>
VfNghf Nghl;b cs;sJ> ,J mg+uz Nghl;b vLf;Fk; gy;NtW
tbtq;fspy; xd;whFk;. nghJthf> xU nghUis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
epWtdq;fspd; vz;zpf;ifAk; kpfg; ngupajhf ,y;iy (rupahd
Nghl;biag; Nghy) my;yJ mJ fpl;lj;jl;l xd;wy;y (VfNghfj;ijg;
Nghy). Vuhskhd epWtdq;fs; cs;sd - Mdhy; mJ kpfg;
ngupait my;y.
NkYk;> ,e;j epWtdq;fshy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; 'xNu

khjpupahdit' my;y> Mdhy; nfhQ;rk; 'NtWgLj;jg;gl;lit'.
ijay; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; tp\aj;ij vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. rpq;fH>
c\h> fk;yh> \hd;> uPl;lh Nghd;w gy;NtW gpuhz;Lfspd;
,ae;jpuj;ij cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Vuhskhd epWtdq;fs; cs;sd.
,it midj;Jk; ijay; ,ae;jpuq;fs;> Mdhy; mit me;je;j
Nygps;fshy; xUtUf;nfhUtH NtWgLfpd;wd. ,NjNghy;> gy;
gpuhz;Lfs;> eP&w;W Ngdhf;fs;> ikfs;> Nu]H fj;jpfs;> Kfk;
fpuPk;fs;> Kfk; nghbfs; Nghd;wtw;iw gy;NtW gpuhz;Lfspd;
fz;Lgpbg;G.
,d;iwa re;ijapd; ,e;j ,uz;L Fzhjpraq;fs; fhuzkhf> rupahd

Nghl;bapd; epiyikfNsh VfNghf epiyikfNsh g+Hj;jp
nra;ag;gltpy;iy. Mdhy; ,d;Dk; ,e;j NtWgl;l jahupg;Gfspd;
jahupg;ghsHfspilNa fLikahd Nghl;b epyTfpwJ. xt;nthd;Wk;
kw;wtHfs; gpd;gw;Wk; tpiy-ntspaPl;L nfhs;iffs; Fwpj;J xU fz;
itj;jpUf;fpd;wd. ,e;j epiyik 'VfNghf Nghl;b' my;yJ 'mg+uz
Nghl;b' vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,J 'VfNghfk;'> Vndd;why; xt;nthU gpuhz;Lk; NtWgl;l jahupg;G

kw;Wk; xU epWtdj;jhy; jahupf;fg;gLfpwJ@ kw;w gpuhz;Lfs; kpfTk;
xj;jit kw;Wk; jahupg;ghsHfspilNa fLikahd Nghl;b cs;sJ
vd;w nghUspy; 'Nghl;b' cs;sJ@ jdpg;gl;l nray;fshy; tpiyia
Self-Instructional Material ghjpf;f KbAk; vd;w nghUspy; ,J 'mg+uzkhdJ'. VfNghf
142
Nghl;bapd; fPo; re;ijapd; xU Kf;fpa mk;rk; tpsk;guk; my;yJ nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
caH mOj;j tpw;gidj;jpwd;. fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
,J jahupg;ghsHfspilNa fLikahd Nghl;bia tpistpf;fpwJ>
,jdhy; VfNghf Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak; VfNghfj;ij tpl
rupahd Nghl;biag; NghyNt ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Nghl;b mg+uzkhdJ
vd;gjhy;> xU tpiy re;ij KOtJk; Ml;rp nra;ahJ. kWGwk;>
re;ij gpupTfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> xt;nthd;wpYk; NtWgl;l
jahupg;G tpjpfs; cr;rkhf cs;sd. xt;nthU gpuptpYk; jahupg;ghsH
jdJ nrhe;j thbf;ifahsHfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpwhH.
cz;ikahd my;yJ fw;gidahd mjd; Nkd;ikapd; fhuzkhf

EfHNthUf;F gFj;jwptw;w tpUg;gk; cs;sJ. vdNt> xt;nthU
gpuptpYk; epiyikfs; XusT VfNghfj;ijg; Nghd;wit> mjw;Nfw;g
tpiy epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ.
VfNghf Nghl;bapd; fPo;> ntt;NtW epWtdq;fs; ntt;NtW tifahd

jahupg;Gfis cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wd> vdNt> mtw;Wf;fhd ntt;NtW
tpiyfs; me;je;j Njit kw;Wk; nryT epiyikfisg; nghWj;J
re;ijapy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;. xt;nthU epWtdKk; mjd; nrhe;j
cw;gj;jpapd; tpiy kw;Wk; ntspaPl;il mikf;Fk;.
VfNghf Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;:
,g;NghJ VfNghf Nghl;b epWtdk; ve;j tpiy-ntspaPl;L kl;lj;jpy;

rkepiy epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; vd;w Nfs;tp vOfpwJ. xt;nthU
tpw;gidahsUk;> xU VfNghfthjpahf ,Ue;jhYk;> my;yJ
KOikahd my;yJ mg+uzkhf Nghl;b #o;epiyfspy; gzpGupAk;
xUtuhf ,Ue;jhYk;> jdJ yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f tpUk;GfpwhH
vd;gij ,q;Nf ehk; epidtpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
$Ljy; cw;gj;jpapy; ,Ue;J ngw Ntz;ba $Ljy; urPJfs;

cw;gj;jpr; nray;ghl;by; Vw;gLk; $Ljy; nryit kPWk; tiu
tpw;gidahsH njhlHe;J jahupg;ghH. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> tpspk;G tUtha; tpspk;G nryTf;F rkkhf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ yhgk; mjpfupf;Fk;. tpspk;G tUtha; tpspk;G nryit
tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; tiu> tpw;gidahsH jdJ ntspaPl;il
tpupthf;FtJ yhgfukhdjhff; fhzg;gLthH> kw;Wk; XusT tUtha;
tpspk;G nryit tplf; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> ntspg;gilahf mtuJ
ntspaPl;il XusT tUtha; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; ,lj;jpw;F Fiwg;gJ
mtUf;F rhjfkhFk; tpspk;G nryTf;F. vdNt> FWfpa fhyj;jpy;>
epWtdk; mjd; ,yhgq;fis mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
143
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; tpspk;G tUtha; = tpspk;G nryT
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> xU VfNghf uPjpahf Nghl;bapLk; epWtdk;
mrhjhuz ,yhgq;fis czuyhk; my;yJ ,og;Gfis
vjpHnfhs;sf;$Lk;. Mdhy;> ePz;l fhykhf> ,j;jifa mjpetPd
,yhgq;fs; kiwe;JtpLk;. Vndd;why;> EioT ,ytrk; vd;W ehq;fs;
fUJfpNwhk;> jw;NghJs;s epWtdq;fs; mjpetPd yhgk; <l;bdhy;
Gjpa epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; Eiofpd;wd.
Gjpa epWtdq;fs; Eioe;J cw;gj;jpiaj; njhlq;Fk;NghJ>

epWtdq;fs; vjpHnfhs;Sk; Njit tisT my;yJ ruhrup tUtha;
tisT tPo;rr; pailAk; (,lJGwkhf khWjy;)> vdNt> mjpetPd
,yhgq;fs; Nghl;baplg;gLk;> NkYk; epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz
,yhgq;fis kl;LNk ngWfpd;wd.
,NjNghy;> FWfpa fhyj;jpy; epWtdq;fs; ,og;ig re;jpf;f

Neupl;lhy;> ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F rpy epWtdq;fs; njhopy;Jiwia tpl;L
ntspNaWk;> ,jdhy; kPjKs;s epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz yhgj;ij <l;l
KbAk;. VfNghf Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;lfhy rkepiyiag; gw;wp
ftdpf;f Ntz;ba kw;nwhU tp\ak; vd;dntd;why;> ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F ruhrup tUtha; tisT mjpf kPs; ,Uf;Fk;> Vnddpy;
ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd khw;wPLfs; fpilf;Fk;.
vdNt> ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F> epWtdq;fs; rhjhuz ,yhgq;fis
kl;LNk rk;ghjpf;Fk;NghJ rkepiy kPl;likf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,g;NghJ>
,yhgq;fs; rhjhuzkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ kl;LNk.
ruhrup tUtha;=ruhrup nryT.
Mifahy;> mg+uz Nghl;bapd; fPo; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F rkepiy

vg;NghJ ,Uf;Fk;
ruhrup tUtha; = ruhrup nryT.
10.7 xypNfhNghyp:
xU jd;dyf;FOtpy;> VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; xU xNu
tpw;gidahsUf;Fk;> VfNghf Kbtpd; fPo; gy
tpw;gidahsHfSf;Fk; vjpuhf tpw;gidahsHfspd; vz;zpf;if
rpwpaJ.
xypNfhNghypapd; Kjd;ik gz;Gfs;
Self-Instructional Material xypNfhNghypapd; Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:

144
(i) xd;Wf;nfhd;W rhHe;jpUj;jy;: nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd tpw;gidahsHfs; fhuzkhf> xU Fwpg;G
epWtdj;jpd; tpiy-ntspaPl;L KbTfs; kw;w epWtdq;fshy;
ftdpf;fg;gl;L mtw;wpd; KbTfisAk; ghjpf;fpd;wd.
(ii) epr;rakw;w Njit tisT:
xU epWtdj;jpd; tpiy ntspaPl;L Kbtpd; tpisthf gpw

epWtdq;fspd; vjpHtpid my;yJ elj;ijia ve;j epWtdKk;
fzpf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy;> epr;rakw;w jd;ik cs;sJ> NkYk;
ve;jnthU epWtdKk; xU tpiyapy; tpw;ff;$ba nghUl;fspd; msT
Fwpj;J cWjpahf ,Uf;f KbahJ. ,jdhy; Nfhupf;if tisT
epr;rakw;wJ.
(iii) caH mOj;j tpw;gidj;jpwd;:
,e;jj; Jiwapy; Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd epWtdq;fs; kl;LNk

,Ug;gjhy;> jd;dyf;FOtpy; cs;s xU epWtdk; mjd; tpw;gid
nryTfis mjpfupg;gjw;Fk; tpsk;guj;jpy; <LgLtjw;Fk; xU Nghf;F
cs;sJ> ,jdhy; mJ Kbe;jtiu re;ijia ifg;gw;wf;$Lk;.
Nghl;bahsHfshy; vjpH gpur;rhuk; cs;sJ.
(iv) xl;Lk; tpiyfs;:
Nghl;bahsHfspd; ghjfkhd vjpHtpidfisj; jtpHg;gjw;fhf>

epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; jahupg;Gfspd; tpiyia khw;Wtijj; jtpHf;Fk;
Nghf;F cs;sJ. vdNt xypNfhNghyp];bf; re;ijapy; xg;gPlL
; tpiy
];jpuj;jd;ik tpjpfs;.
xypNfhNghypapd; fPo; tpiy vt;thW jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ:
xU epWtdj;jpd; tpiy-ntspaPl;L KbTfs; kw;w epWtdq;fspd;

KbTfis ghjpf;Fk; vd;gjhy;> mtw;wpd; vjpHtpid Fwpj;J ahUk;
cWjpahf ,Uf;f KbahJ. NkNy Rl;bf;fhl;lg;gl;lgb> Nfhupf;if
tisT epr;rakw;wJ kw;Wk; xw;iw tpiy-ntspaPl;L KbT vJTk;
rhj;jpakpy;iy.
tpiy nghwpKiwapd; nray;ghLfs;:
ntt;NtW re;ij tbtq;fspd; fPo; tpiy vt;thW

epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ vd;gij ehq;fs; fz;Nlhk;. nghUshjhu
mikg;gpy; tpiy nghwpKiwapd; gq;if ehk; ,g;NghJ RUf;fkhff; Self-Instructional Material
145
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; Fwpg;gplyhk;. nghUshjhu mikg;gpy; tpiy kpf Kf;fpakhd
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; nray;ghl;il nra;fpwJ. cz;ikapy;> ,J nghUshjhu mikg;gpd;
Fwpg;G nray;ghl;il kpfTk; nkd;ikahf;Fk; tpiy. Nghl;b
Kjyhspj;Jtj;jpd; fPo;> nghUshjhu rf;jpfis topelj;Jk; ika
mjpfhuk; ,y;iy. tpiy kl;LNk ,af;Fk; rf;jp.
tpiy nray;gLk; gpd;tUk; nray;ghLfis ehq;fs; Fwpg;gplyhk;:
(i) tpiy EfHT fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ:
tpiy caHe;jhy;. EfHNthH EfHT Fiwf;f ,J xU

rkpf;iQahFk;. gpd;dH nghUl;fs; kpfTk; mtru gad;ghLfSf;F
kl;LNk itf;fg;gLk;.
(ii) tpiy cw;gj;jpia topelj;JfpwJ:
tpiy Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ jahupg;ghsHfis vr;rupf;fpwJ@ mJ

mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ cw;gj;jpiaj; J}z;LfpwJ.
(iii) ,J jw;NghJs;s tpepNahfj;ij Njitf;F Vw;g rupnra;fpwJ:
xU nghUs; FWfpa tpepNahfj;jpy; ,Ue;jhy;> tpiy caHe;J

Njitia Fiwf;Fk;> ,jdhy; Njit toq;fYf;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
gq;Ffs; Ftpe;jpUe;jhy;> tpiy tPo;rr
; pailAk;> ,J tpepNahfj;jpd;
epiyf;F tu Ntz;Lk;. toq;fy; mopf;fg;gLfpwJ.
(iv) fhuzpfspd; tpiyfs; mtw;wpy; mjpf Cjpak; ngWk;

Nrdy;fisf; Fwpf;fpd;wd:
,jdhy; mtHfs; kpfTk; ,yhgfukhd Ntiytha;g;igf;

fhz;fpwhHfs;. MfNt> tpiy vd;gJ xU Kjyhspj;Jt
nghUshjhuj;jpd; midj;J nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSf;Fk; xU
rf;jptha;e;j fl;Lg;ghl;lhsH.
Fwpg;G:
1. xypNfhNghyp gw;wp xU rpW Fwpg;ig vOJq;fs;
146
10.8 $l;L xypNfhNghyp kw;Wk; tpiy jiyik: nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
rpy #o;epiyfspy;> xypNfhNghypapd; fPo; cs;s epWtdq;fs; Fwpg;G
$l;lzpapy; <Lgltpy;iy. re;ijapy; Vuhskhd xypNfhNghyp];bf;
epWtdq;fs; cs;sd> Mdhy; mtw;wpy; xd;W Nkyhjpf;f mikg;G>
,J tpiy jiytH vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
njhopy;Jiwapy; xNu xU Nkyhjpf;f mikg;G ,Uf;Fk;NghJ tpiy

jiyik eilngWfpwJ> ,J tpiyia epHzapf;fpwJ> kw;wtHfs;
mijg; gpd;gw;WfpwhHfs;.
rpy Neuq;fspy;> mtw;wpy; xd;Wf;F jiyikg; ghj;jpuj;ij toq;f

epWtdq;fspilNa xU xg;ge;jk; cUthf;fg;glyhk;. mikg;gpd;
ngupa msT> ngupa mstpyhd nghUshjhuq;fs; kw;Wk; Nkk;gl;l
njhopy;El;gk; Nghd;w gy;NtW fhuzq;fshy; Mjpf;f mikg;G tpiy
jiytuhf fUjg;gLfpwJ. xg;ge;jj;jpd;gb> Kd;dzp mikg;G
epHzapj;j tpiyia kw;w epWtdq;fs; gpd;gw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;gjpy;
Kiwahd fl;Lg;ghL ,y;iy. ,Ug;gpDk;> rpy Neuq;fspy; xg;ge;jk;
KiwahdJ.
tpiy jiyik tpiyia cWjpg;gLj;jTk; tpiy xOf;fj;ij

guhkupf;fTk; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,J gaDs;s epge;jidfis mila
cjTfpwJ> ,J gpd;tUk; epge;jidfspd; fPo; nray;gLfpwJ:
i. mikg;Gfspd; vz;zpf;if rpwpajhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ
ii. njhopYf;F EiotJ jilnra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ
iii. jahupg;Gfs; xNu khjpupahdit
iv. Njit nefpo;rr

; p my;yJ Fiwe;j kPs;
v. epWtdq;fSf;F ,Nj Nghd;w nryT tisTfs; cs;sd
tpiy jiyik tiffs;:
tpiy jiyik tpiyfis cWjpg;gLj;jTk; tpiy xOf;fj;ij

guhkupf;fTk; cjTfpwJ. tpiy jiyikj;Jtj;jpy; %d;W Kf;fpa
tiffs; cs;sd> mit fhyg;Nghf;fpy; njhopy;fspy; cs;sd.
,e;j %d;W tifahd tpiy jiyik gpd;tUkhW

tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ:
I. Mjpf;f tpiy jiyik:
147
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; xU tif jiyikj;Jtj;ij Fwpf;fpwJ> ,jpy; xNu mikg;G
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; kl;LNk KOj; njhopiyAk; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;JfpwJ. Mjpf;f tpiy
Fwpg;G jiyikapd; fPo;> njhopy;Jiwapy; cs;s gpw epWtdq;fs;
tpiyfis ghjpf;f KbahJ . Mjpf;f mikg;G mjd; VfNghf
rf;jpia mjd; yhgj;ij mjpfupf;f gad;gLj;JfpwJ kw;Wk; gpw
epWtdq;fs; mtw;wpd; ntspaPl;il epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyAld;
rupnra;a Ntz;Lk;.
kw;w mikg;Gfspd; eyd;fs; Nkyhjpf;f mikg;ghy;

Gwf;fzpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt> Nkyhjpf;f tpiy jiyik rpy
Neuq;fspy; gFjp VfNghfk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Kd;dzp
mikg;gpd; tpiy jiyik nghJthf njhopy;Jiwapy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
II. ghNuhnkl;upf; tpiy jiyik:
,J xU jiyikiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ> mjpy; xU mikg;G tpiyfspd;

khw;wj;ij Kjypy; mwptpf;fpwJ kw;Wk; gpw epWtdq;fs; mij
Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; vd;W fUJfpwJ. mikg;G kw;wtHfSf;F Mjpf;fk;
nrYj;Jtjpy;iy kw;Wk; njhopy;Jiwapy; jiytuhf ,Uf;f
Njitapy;iy. ,j;jifa tif mikg;G fhw;wOj;jkhdp vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j ghNuhnkl;upf; mikg;G khWk; re;ij epiyikf;F xU

vjpHtpidiaj; njhlq;FfpwJ> kw;w epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; eydpy;
Kbitf; fz;lhy; mijg; gpd;gw;wyhk;. khwhf> Kd;dzp mikg;G
Njit kw;Wk; nryT epiyikfis Kd;dwptpf;Fk; NghJ
Jy;ypakhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;> ,jdhy; gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l tpiy kw;w
epWtdq;fshy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
ghNuhnkl;upf; tpiy jiyik gpd;tUk; fhuzq;fshy; eilngWfpwJ:
xU. nghUj;jkhd toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njit epiyikfis

kjpg;gpLtjw;fhd epWtdq;fspd; jpwd; kw;Wk; tpUg;gkpd;ik. rupahd
fzpg;Gfisr; nra;tjw;fhd ep&gpf;fg;gl;l jpwidf; nfhz;l
ghNuhnkl;upf; mikg;ghy; nra;ag;gl;l tpiy khw;wq;fisg; gpd;gw;w
,J epWtdq;fis ghjpf;fpwJ.
mikg;GfspilNa Nghl;b xU jiytiu cUthf;ff;$Lk;> ,J kw;w

mikg;Gfshy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;glhJ. vdNt> ngUk;ghyhd
epWtdq;fs; ghNuhnkl;upf; tpiy jiyikia tpUk;Gfpd;wd.
148
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
III. Mf;fpukpg;G tpiy jiyik: Fwpg;G
,J xU jiyikia Fwpf;fpwJ> mjpy; xU mikg;G mjd;

jiyikia gpd;gw;WkhW mikg;Gfis mr;RWj;Jtjd; %yk; mjd;
Nkyhjpf;fj;ij epiyepWj;JfpwJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;>
xU Nkyhjpf;f mikg;G Mf;fpukpg;G tpiyf; nfhs;iffisg;
gpd;gw;Wtjd; %yk; jiyikia epWTfpwJ kw;Wk;
gpw/epWtdq;fshy; epHzapf;fg;gl;l tpiyfisg; gpd;gw;Wk;gb
fl;lhag;gLj;JfpwJ.
tpiy jiyikapd; fPo; tpiy-ntspaPL jPHkhdpj;jy;:
njhopy;Jiwapy; xNu xU Nkyhjpf;f mikg;G ,Uf;Fk;NghJ tpiy

jiyik eilngWfpwJ> ,J tpiyia epHzapf;fpwJ> kw;wtHfs;
mijg; gpd;gw;WfpwhHfs;. tpiy nghUshjhuj;jpy; tpiy kw;Wk;
ntspaPl;il jPHkhdpf;f ntt;NtW nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; ntt;NtW
khjpupfis cUthf;fpAs;sdH.
,q;Nf> tpiy jiyikapy; tpiy kw;Wk; ntspaPl;il

epHzapg;gjw;fhd xU vspa khjpupiag; gw;wp tpthjpg;Nghk;> ,J
gpd;tUk; glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ:
A kw;Wk; B Mfpa ,uz;L epWtdq;fs; xNu khjpupahd

jahupg;Gfis cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wd vd;W itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;> mq;F
mikg;G A I tpl cw;gj;jp nryT Fiwthf cs;sJ. Mifahy;>
xNu khjpupahd jahupg;Gfs; fhuzkhf EfHNthH ,e;j ,uz;L
epWtdq;fspilNa myl;rpakhf cs;sdH. ,U epWtdq;fSk; xNu
Nfhupf;if tisit vjpHnfhs;Sk; vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ> ,J
rk re;ij gq;if NkYk; Fwpf;fpwJ.
149
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; Nkw;fz;l Gs;sptptuj;jpy;> b.b vd;gJ ,U epWtdq;fspd; Nfhupf;if
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; tisT kw;Wk; vk;.MH vd;gJ mtHfspd; FW tUtha; MFk;.
Fwpg;G
MCa kw;Wk; MCb Mfpait KiwNa A kw;Wk; B mikg;gpd;
tpspk;G nryT tisTfs;. Kd;dH $wpaJ Nghy;> mikg;G A ,d;
cw;gj;jp nryT B I tpl Fiwthf cs;sJ> ,jdhy;> MCa
MCb f;Ff; fPNo tiuag;gLfpwJ.
mikg;G A Ig; nghWj;jtiuapy;> vk;.MH.rp.V.it vk;.MH ntl;Lk;

xU fl;lj;jpy; V mikg;gpd; ,yhgq;fs; mjpfupf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j
fl;lj;jpy;> mikg;G A ,d; ntspaPL tpiy epiy OP cld; OQ
Mf ,Uf;Fk;. kWGwk;> vk;.MH.gpia ntspaPL OQ1 kw;Wk; tpiy
OP1 cld; vk;.MH ntl;Lk; xU fl;lj;jpy; B mikg;gpd; ,yhgq;fs;
mjpfupf;fg;gLk;.
mt;thwhd epiyapy;> mikg;G A cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ B ,d; tpiy

mjpfkhf cs;sJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> jahupg;Gfs; xNu khjpupahdit
vd;gjhy; ,U epWtdq;fSk; xNu tpiyia t#ypf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,e;j tof;fpy;> mikg;G A vd;gJ tpiyj; jiytUk;> mikg;G B
Ig; gpd;gw;WgtUk; MFk;.
vdNt> mikg;G A epWtdj;jpw;F tpiyia MizapLk;. ,U

epWtdq;fSk; xNu ntspaPL> OQ kw;Wk; tpiy OP Ig; gpd;gw;Wk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> mikg;G B My; <l;lg;gl;l ,yhgq;fs; A I tplf; FiwT>
Vnddpy; ,J OP tpiyapy; cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;> ,J mjd;
yhgj;ij mjpfupf;Fk; tpiyahd OP1 I tpl Fiwthf cs;sJ.
$Ljyhf> gp mikg;G mjpf cw;gj;jp nryTfisAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ>
,J OP1 tpiyapy; Fiwe;j ,yhgj;jpw;F toptFf;fpwJ.
tpiy jiyikj;Jtj;jpd; FiwghLfs;:
i. gpd;njhlHgtHfspd; vjpHtpidfis kjpg;gpLtJ tpiy

jiytUf;F fbdkhf;FfpwJ
ii. js;Sgbfs; tbtpy; Nghl;b epWtdq;fshy; Fiwe;j

tpiyia t#ypj;jy;> gzj;ij jpUk;gg; ngWtjw;fhd
cj;juthjq;fs;> ,ytr NritfSf;Fg; gpwF> kw;Wk; vspjhd
jtiz trjp Nghd;w KiwNfLfSf;F toptFf;fpwJ.
150
iii. Nghl;b mikg;Gfshy; t#ypf;fg;gLk; tpiyfs; tpiyj; nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
jiytH epHzapj;j tpiyia tpl xg;gPl;lstpy; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
iv. Mf;fpukpg;G Cf;Ftpg;G cj;jpfs; tbtpy; Nghl;b
mikg;Gfshy; tpiy my;yhj Nghl;bf;F toptFf;fpwJ.
v. tpiy caHT fhuzkhf Gjpa epWtdq;fis

njhopy;Jiwapy; Eioa ghjpf;fpwJ. ,e;j Gjpa epWtdq;fs;
njhopy;Jiwapd; jiytiug; gpd;gw;wf;$lhJ.
vi. tpiy jiytHfs; kw;Wk; tpiy gpd;gw;WgtHfspd; tpiyapy;

NtWghLfs; ,Ue;jhy; rpf;fy;fis Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. xU Ntis>
tpiyj; jiytupd; cw;gj;jp nryT Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> mtd; /
mts; Fiwe;j tpiyia epHzapg;ghHfs;. tpiy jiytiu tpl
mtuJ / mts; cw;gj;jp nryT mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; ,J tpiy
gpd;gw;WgtUf;F ,og;ig Vw;gLj;Jk;.
10.9 ,UKid:
xU ^Nghyp vd;gJ xU tifahd xypNfhNghyp MFk;> mq;F xU
re;ijapy; Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd epWtdq;fs; Mjpf;fk;
nrYj;Jfpd;wd. xU ,ul;ilaH tp\aj;jpy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l re;ij
my;yJ njhopy; ,uz;L epWtdq;fshy; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;JfpwJ.
kpfTk; mupjhd re;jHg;gq;fspy;> KO re;ijapYk; mit ,uz;L

epWtdq;fs; kl;LNk vd;W ,jd; nghUs; eilKiwapy;> tof;fkhf
,U ,UKid epWtdq;fSk; ngUk; nry;thf;iff; nfhz;Ls;sd
vd;gijAk;> mtw;wpd; nray;fSk;> xUtUf;nfhUtH mtw;wpd;
cwTk;> rf;jptha;e;j Kiwapy; tbtikf;fpd;wd njhopy;.
bNahNghyp];bf; re;ijfs; mg+uzkhf Nghl;bj;jd;ik tha;e;jit>
vdNt re;ijapy; Eioa Kaw;rpg;gtHfSf;F EioTj; jilfs;
nghJthf Fwpg;gplj;jf;fit> Mdhy; tof;fkhf ,d;Dk; ,uz;L>
rpwpa tzpfq;fs; ,uz;L Nkyhjpf;f epWtdq;fSld; njhlHe;J
cs;sd.
bNahNghypapd; rpy vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs;:
 ];khHl;Nghd;fs;: Mg;gps; kw;Wk; Mz;lu; ha;L

 kpd;dZ nfhLg;gdTfs;: kh];lHfhHL kw;Wk; tprh
 tpkhd cw;gj;jp: Nghapq; kw;Wk; VHg];
ed;ikfs;:
151
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;  kpff; Fiwthd Fwpg;gplj;jf;f Nghl;bahsHfSld;> epWtdq;fs;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
fzprkhf mjpf yhgj;ij <l;l KbAk;.
Fwpg;G
 re;ij EfHNthUf;F vspikahdJ
 epjp Mjhuq;fs; mjpf Nghl;bj;jd;ikAld; ,Ug;gjw;fhf
Gjpatw;iw cUthf;f Kaw;rpg;gij tpl> ,Uf;Fk; jahupg;Gfs;
kw;Wk; Nritfspd; juk; kw;Wk; nray;ghl;ilr;
nrk;ikg;gLj;Jtij Nehf;fp itf;fg;glyhk;.
FiwghLfs;:
 rpW tzpfq;fs; njhopy;Jiwapy; Eioe;J re;ijg; gq;ifg;

ngWtJ kpfTk; fbdk;> vdNt mit Nghl;bj;jd;ikahtjw;F
Kd;Ng mit ngUk;ghYk; rupe;JtpLk;
 Fiwthd Nghl;b vd;gJ tzpfq;fSf;F Gjpa jahupg;Gfis
cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhd Fiwe;j ce;JjyhFk;> ,J GJik
kw;Wk; re;ijapd; mjpHT Mfpatw;iwf; fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$Lk;
 tiuaWf;fg;gl;l EfHNthH NjHT consu ,uz;L ngupa
epWtdq;fspd; jahupg;Gfspy; EfHNthH mjpUg;jp mile;jhy;>
mtHfSf;F khw;W topfs; vJTk; ,Uf;fhJ
 Nghl;b tpiyfis Fiwf;fhjNghJ tpiyfs; ngUk;ghYk;
EfHNthUf;F mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;
 ^Nghypapd; #o;epiyfspy; tpiy epHzak; kw;Wk; $l;L kpfTk;
nghJthdjhfp> EfHNthH rpy khw;WfSld; mjpf fl;lzk;
nrYj;j Ntz;ba fl;lhaj;jpy; cs;sdH.
,UKid tiffs;:
^Nghypfspd; ,uz;L Kf;fpa gpupTfs; NfhHdl; ^Nghyp kw;Wk;

ngHl;uhz;l; ^Nghyp.
NfhHdl; ^Nghyp
xU njhopw;Jiwapy; ,U epWtdq;fspilNa nghUl;fs;/Nritfspd;

msT fl;likg;Gfs; Nghl;bia cUthf;fpaJ vd;W NfhHdl; ^Nghyp
khjpup $WfpwJ. ,e;j ,uz;L epWtdq;fSk; re;ijia
xUtUf;nfhUtH gpupf;f xj;Jiog;Gld; KbT nra;fpd;wd.
epWtdq;fs; ngWk; tpiy kjpg;Gfs; Kf;fpakhf nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; msTfshy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;W mJ
thjpLfpwJ. xU epWtdk; mjd; cw;gj;jp epiyfis khw;wpdhy;>
152
kw;w epWtdk; re;ijapd; 50/50 gpstpd; rkepiyia guhkupf;f nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
mtHfisAk; khw;w Ntz;Lk;. fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
ngHl;uhz;l; ^Nghyp
^Nghypapd; ,e;j khjpup NfhHdl; khjpupia tpkHrpf;fpwJ> ,J

cw;gj;jp msT my;y> ,J ,uz;L epWtdq;fSf;fpilNaahd
Nghl;bia Kjd;ikahf tbtikf;fpwJ> khwhf tpiy. ,J xU
ey;y my;yJ Nritiaj; NjHe;njLf;Fk; EfHNthH rkkhd ,uz;L
NjHTfSld; toq;fg;gLk;NghJ Fiwe;j tpiyiaj; njhlHe;J
NjHe;njLf;Fk; vd;w cz;ikia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ@ ,J
epWtdq;fis tpiy NghHfspy; <Lgl kpfTk; ftHr;rpfukhd
tpUg;gkhf khw;Wk;.

Fwpg;G:
xg;gpLf
1. bNahNghyp gw;wp xU rpW Fwpg;ig vOJq;fs;
10.10 njhopy; gFg;gha;T:

njhopy; gFg;gha;T vd;gJ xU njhopy;Jiwapd; Nghl;b ,af;ftpay;
Gupe;Jnfhs;s tzpfq;fs; kw;Wk; Ma;thsHfshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
re;ij kjpg;gPl;L fUtpahFk;. xU njhopw;Jiwapy; vd;d elf;fpwJ
vd;gijg; Gupe;Jnfhs;s ,J mtHfSf;F cjTfpwJ> mjhtJ>
Njit-toq;fy; Gs;sptptuq;fs;> njhopy;JiwapDs; Nghl;bapd;
msT> gpw tsHe;J tUk; njhopy;fSld; njhopy;Jiwapd; Nghl;b
epiy> njhopy;El;g khw;wq;fis fzf;fpy; vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;
njhopy;Jiwapd; vjpHfhy tha;g;Gfs;> njhopy;Jiwapy; fld;
mikg;G> kw;Wk; njhopy;Jiwapy; ntspg;Gw fhuzpfspd; nry;thf;F.
njhopy;Jiwapy; gq;Nfw;ghsHfSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ mjd; epiyiag;

Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ xU Kiw. ,J mtHfSf;F tUk; tha;g;Gfs; kw;Wk;
mr;RWj;jy;fs; ,uz;ilAk; milahsk; fhz cjTfpwJ kw;Wk;
njhopy;Jiwapd; jw;Nghija kw;Wk; vjpHfhy #o;epiy Fwpj;j
tYthd Nahridia mtHfSf;F toq;FfpwJ.
njhopy; gFg;gha;T tiffs;

153
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; njhopy; gFg;gha;T nra;a nghJthf gad;gLj;jg;gLk; kw;Wk;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ; Kf;fpakhd %d;W Kiwfs; cs;sd. %d;W Kiwfs;:
Fwpg;G
· Nghl;b gilfs; khjpup (NghHl;lupd; 5 gilfs;)
· gue;j fhuzpfs; gFg;gha;T (PEST gFg;gha;T)
· SWOT gFg;gha;T
# 1 Nghl;b gilfs; khjpup (NghHl;lupd; 5 gilfs;)
njhopw;Jiw gFg;gha;tpw;fhf ,Jtiu cUthf;fg;gl;l kpfTk;

gpugykhd khly;fspy; xd;W> gpugykhf NghHl;lupd; 5 gilfs; vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ> ikf;Nfy; NghHl;lH jdJ 1980 Gj;jfj;jpy;
“Nghl;b cj;jp: njhopy;fs; kw;Wk; Nghl;bahsHfis gFg;gha;T
nra;tjw;fhd El;gq;fs;" vd;w Gj;jfj;jpy; mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhH.
NghHl;lupd; $w;Wg;gb> Ie;J rf;jpfspd; gFg;gha;T njhopy;Jiwapd;

Jy;ypakhd Njhw;wj;ij mspf;fpwJ kw;Wk; gFg;gha;it
vspjhf;FfpwJ.
1. njhopy; Nghl;bapd; jPtpuk;
njhopy;Jiwapy; gq;Nfw;ghsHfspd; vz;zpf;if kw;Wk; me;je;j

re;ijg; gq;Ffs; Mfpait njhopy;Jiwapd; Nghl;bj;jd;ikapd;
Neub gpujpepjpj;JtkhFk;. caH epiyahd nrhj;Jf;fs;> murhq;f
fl;Lg;ghLfs;> njhopyhsH rq;fq;fs; Nghd;w mjpf ntspNaWk;
nryTfSk; Nghl;bahsHfis rz;ilapLtij rw;W
fbdkhf;Ffpd;wd.
2. rhj;jpakhd EioNthupd; mr;RWj;jy;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;Jiwapd; re;ijapy; Gjpa epWtdq;fs;

Eioaf;$ba vspikia ,J Fwpf;fpwJ. xU njhopw;Jiwapy;
EiotJ vspjhdJ vd;why;> epWtdq;fs; Gjpa Nghl;bahsHfspd;
epiyahd Mgj;ij vjpHnfhs;fpd;wd. EioT fbdkhf ,Ue;jhy;>
ve;j epWtdk; rpwpa Nghl;b ed;ikfisg; ngw;whYk; ePz;l
fhyj;jpw;F gyd;fisg; ngWfpwJ . NkYk;> fbdkhd EioT
#o;epiyfspy;> epWtdq;fs; njhlHe;J Nghl;bahsHfis
vjpHnfhs;fpd;wd.
3. rg;isaHfspd; Nguk; NgRk; rf;jp

154
,J rg;isaHfspd; Nguk; NgRk; rf;jpiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ . njhopy; nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd rg;isaHfis ek;gpdhy;> mtHfs; fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
fzprkhd msT Nguk; NgRk; rf;jpia mDgtpf;fpwhHfs;. ,J rpW Fwpg;G
tzpfq;fis ghjpf;fyhk;> Vnddpy; ,J ,Wjp cw;gj;jpapd; juk;

kw;Wk; tpiyia Neubahf ghjpf;fpwJ.
4. thq;FgtHfspd; Nguk; NgRk; rf;jp
Nguk; NgRk; rf;jp thbf;ifahsHfsplk; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ KOikahd

vjpHkhwhdJ epfo;fpwJ. EfHNthH / thq;FgtHfs; re;ij rf;jpia
mDgtpj;jhy;> mtHfs; Fiwe;j tpiyfs;> rpwe;j juk; my;yJ
$Ljy; Nritfs; kw;Wk; js;Sgbfs; Fwpj;J Ngr;RthHj;ij elj;Jk;
epiyapy; cs;sdH. mjpf Nghl;bahsHfisf; nfhz;l xU Jiwapy;
,Jjhd; epiy> Mdhy; xU thq;FgtH njhopy;Jiwapd;
tpw;gidapy; ngUk; gq;iff; nfhz;Ls;shH.
5. khw;W nghUl;fs; / Nritfspd; mr;RWj;jy;
,NjNghd;w khw;W cw;gj;jpia jahupg;gjpy; njhopy; vg;NghJk;

kw;nwhU njhopYld; Nghl;bapLfpwJ. vdNt> xU njhopw;Jiwapy;
cs;s midj;J epWtdq;fSk; gpw njhopy;fspy; ,Ue;J
rhj;jpakhd Nghl;bahsHfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mjpf tpiyfis
t#ypf;f Kbahjjhy; ,J mtHfspd; ,yhgj;ij Fiwf;fpwJ.
khw;wPLfs; ,uz;L tbtq;fis vLf;fyhk; - xNu nray;ghL / juk;
nfhz;l jahupg;Gfs; Mdhy; Fiwe;j tpiy my;yJ xNu tpiyapd;
jahupg;Gfs; Mdhy; rpwe;j juk; my;yJ mjpf gad;ghl;il toq;Fk;.
# 2 gue;j fhuzpfs; gFg;gha;T (PEST gFg;gha;T)
gue;j fhuzpfs; gFg;gha;T> nghJthf PEST gFg;gha;T vd;Wk;

miof;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J murpay;> nghUshjhu> r%f kw;Wk;
njhopy;El;gj;ij Fwpf;fpwJ. PEST gFg;gha;T vd;gJ ntspg;Gw
#oiy gFg;gha;T nra;tjw;fhd xU gaDs;s fl;likg;ghFk;.
1. murpay;
xU njhopw;Jiwia ghjpf;Fk; murpay; fhuzpfs; tup> Rw;Wr;#oy;

fl;Lg;ghL> fl;lzq;fs;> tHj;jf nfhs;iffs;> njhopyhsH rl;lq;fs;>
tzpfj;ij vspjhf;FtJ kw;Wk; xl;Lnkhj;j murpay; ];jpuj;jd;ik
Nghd;w tp\aq;fSld; njhlHGila Fwpg;gpl;l nfhs;iffs; kw;Wk;
xOq;FKiwfis cs;slf;fpaJ.
155
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; 2. nghUshjhuk;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; nghUshjhu rf;jpfspy; gztPf;fk;> khw;W
tpfpjq;fs; (v/g;vf;];)> tl;b tpfpjq;fs;> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jpapd; tsHr;rp tpfpjq;fs;> %yjd re;ijfspy; epiyikfs;
(%yjdj;ij mZFk; jpwd;) Nghd;wit mlq;Fk;.
3. r%fk;
xU njhopw;Jiwapd; r%f jhf;fk; kf;fspilNa cs;s

Nghf;Ffisf; Fwpf;fpwJ kw;Wk; kf;fs;njhif tsHr;rp>
Gs;sptptuq;fs; (taJ> ghypdk; Nghd;wit) kw;Wk; cly;eyk;>
Ng\d; kw;Wk; r%f ,af;fq;fs; Nghd;w elj;ijapd; Nghf;Ffs;
Mfpatw;iw cs;slf;fpaJ.
4. njhopy;El;gk;
PEST gFg;gha;tpd; njhopy;El;g mk;rk;> tzpfq;fs; nray;gLk;

topia khw;Wk; Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; kf;fs;
jq;fs; tho;f;ifia tho itf;Fk; topfs; (mjhtJ ,izaj;jpd;
tUif) Nghd;w fhuzpfis cs;slf;fpaJ.
# 3 SWOT gFg;gha;T
SWOT gFg;gha;T vd;gJ gyq;fs;> gytPdq;fs;> tha;g;Gfs; kw;Wk;

mr;RWj;jy;fisf; Fwpf;fpwJ. gy;NtW njhopy; gFg;gha;T
Kiwfisr; RUf;fkhfTk;> Nfs;tpf;Fupa tzpfj;jpw;fhd mtw;wpd;
jhf;fq;fis jPHkhdpf;fTk; ,J xU rpwe;j topahFk;.
1. mfk;:
Vw;fdNt cs;s kw;Wk; jw;Nghija epiyf;F gq;fspj;j cs;

fhuzpfs; kw;Wk; njhlHe;J ,Uf;fyhk; .
2. ntspg;Gwk;
njhlHr;rpahd epfo;Tfshd ntspg;Gw fhuzpfs; mit epfOk;

rhj;jpaf;$Wfs; kw;Wk; epWtdj;jpy; mtw;wpd; jhf;fj;jpd;
mbg;gilapy; mtw;wpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij kjpg;gpLfpd;wd. NkYk;>
tha;g;igg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;s / mr;RWj;jiyj; jtpHf;Fk;
Nehf;fKk; jpwDk; epHthfj;jpw;F cs;sjh vd;gijf; ftdpAq;fs;.
156
njhopy; gFg;gha;tpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
re;ij kjpg;gPL> re;ij kjpg;gPl;bd; xU tbtkhf> Kf;fpakhdJ>
Fwpg;G
Vnddpy; ,J xU tzpfj;jpw;F re;ij epiyikfisg; Gupe;Jnfhs;s
cjTfpwJ. ,J Njit kw;Wk; tpepNahfj;ij Kd;dwptpf;f
mtHfSf;F cjTfpwJ> ,jd; tpisthf> tzpfj;jpypUe;J epjp
tUtha; fpilf;Fk;. ,J njhopy;Jiwapd; Nghl;bj;jd;ikiaAk;>
njhopy;Jiwapy; Eiotjw;Fk; ntspNaWtjw;Fk; njhlHGila
nryTfisAk; Fwpf;fpwJ. xU rpW tzpfj;ijj; jpl;lkpLk;NghJ ,J
kpfTk; Kf;fpakhdJ. xU njhopy; jw;NghJ ve;j epiyapy; cs;sJ
vd;gij milahsk; fhz gFg;gha;T cjTfpwJ@ mJ ,d;Dk;
tsHe;J nfhz;bUf;fpwjh kw;Wk; ed;ikfis mWtil nra;a
tha;g;G cs;sjh> my;yJ mJ mjd; nrwpT epiyia
mile;Jtpl;ljh.
njhopw;Jiwiag; gw;wpa kpf tpupthd Ma;tpd; %yk;>

njhopy;KidNthH njhopy;Jiwapd; nray;ghLfspy; xU
Nfhl;iliag; ngw KbAk; kw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;glhj tha;g;Gfisf;
fz;lwpayhk;. njhopy; gFg;gha;T kpfTk; mfepiy Kiw kw;Wk;
vg;NghJk; ntw;wpf;F cj;juthjk; mspf;fhJ vd;gijAk;
Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ mtrpak;. jutpd; jtwhd tpsf;fk;
njhopy;KidNthiu jtwhd ghijf;F my;yJ jtwhd KbTfis
vLf;f toptFf;fpwJ. vdNt> xUtupd; Nehf;fj;ijg; Gupe;Jnfhz;L
mjw;Nfw;g juTfisr; Nrfupg;gJ Kf;fpak;.

Fwpg;G:
vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. njhopy; gFg;gha;T - tif ahit ?
10.11 RUf;fk;:
,e;j myF Ke;ija Nghl;bapd; rupahd Nghl;biag; gpd;njhlHfpwJ>
mg+uz Nghl;biag; gbf;fpwJ. VfNghfk;> xypNfhNghyp kw;Wk;
,ul;ilaH gw;wpAk; ,J tpthjpf;fpwJ. ,J njhopy; gFg;gha;T
Fwpj;Jk; tpthjpf;fpwJ.
157
nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; 10.12 cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;fs;
fPo; tpiy epHzak ;
Fwpg;G
1. xUtuhNyh xU FOtpduhNyh cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l nghUSf;F
Nghl;baw;w epiyAk;> mg;nghUSf;F gjpypl;Lg; nghUs; ,y;yhj
epiyAk; nfhz;l mq;fhbia Kw;Whpik mq;fhb vd;w ,yf;fzk;
$wyhk;. mg+uz Nghl;bapd; ,uz;L tbtq;fs; cs;sd:
2. xU jd;dyf;FOtpy;> VfNghfj;jpd; fPo; xNu tpw;gidahsUf;Fk;>

VfNghf Kbtpd; fPo; gy tpw;gidahsHfSf;Fk; vjpuhf
tpw;gidahsHfspd; vz;zpf;if rpwpaJ.
3. xU ,UKid vd;gJ xU tifahd xypNfhNghyp MFk;> mq;F

xU re;ijapy; Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd epWtdq;fs; Mjpf;fk;
nrYj;Jfpd;wd. xU ,ul;ilaH tp\aj;jpy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l re;ij
my;yJ njhopy; ,uz;L epWtdq;fshy; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;JfpwJ.
4. njhopy; gFg;gha;T tiffs;:
· Nghl;b gilfs; khjpup (NghHl;lupd; 5 gilfs;)
· gue;j fhuzpfs; gFg;gha;T (PEST gFg;gha;T)
· SWOT gFg;gha;T




158
myF XI: Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
11.1 mwpKfk;
11.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
11.3 Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; mjd; rpy eltbf;iffs;
11.4 mbg;gil fUj;Jf;fs;
11.5 ngupa nghUshjhu tpfpjq;fs;
11.6 FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
11.7 Njrpa tUkhd tpyf;fpfs;
11.8 RUf;fk;
11.1 mwpKfk;
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; vd;gJ re;ij Kiwia ngupa mstpy; Ma;T
nra;tJ. Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; re;ij mikg;gpy; cs;s midj;J
re;ijfspd; xl;Lnkhj;j nray;jpwidf; fUJfpwJ kw;Wk;
nghUshjhuj;jpd; ngupa Jizj; Jiwfshy; nra;ag;gLk; NjHTfs;
Fwpj;J mf;fiw nfhz;Ls;sJ-tPl;Lj; Jiw> ,jpy; midj;J
EfHNthH@ midj;J epWtdq;fisAk; cs;slf;fpa tzpfj; Jiw@
kw;Wk; midj;J muR epWtdq;fisAk; cs;slf;fpa muRj; Jiw.
11.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuj;jpd; fUj;Jfisg; gw;wp khztH xU ngupa
topapy; ed;F Gupe;Jnfhs;thH. jtpu> khztH FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
kw;Wk; Njrpa tUkhd tpyf;fpfs; Fwpj;J rpy mwpitg; ngWthH.
11.3 Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; mjd; rpy

eltbf;iffs;
ghuk;gupakhf> Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuj;jpy; nghUshjhu nray;jpwdpd;
Kf;fpa eltbf;iffs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. nghUshjhu tsHr;rp - cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L

cw;gj;jpapy; tsHr;rp.
2. gztPf;fk; - v.fh. ,yf;F rpgpI gztPf;fk; 2%
3. Ntiyapd;ik - KO Ntiytha;g;G ,yf;F Self-Instructional Material
159
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
4. elg;Gf; fzf;F - jpUg;jpfukhd elg;Gf; fzf;F> v.fh.
Fwpg;G
Fiwe;j gw;whf;Fiw.
nghUshjhu nray;jpwdpd; gpw eltbf;iffs; gpd;tUkhW:
· muR fld; / Njrpa fld;

· cz;ikahd nrytopg;G tUkhdq;fs;
· tUkhd rkj;Jtkpd;ik
· njhopyhsH cw;gj;jpj;jpwd;
· KjyPlL
; epiyfs;
· gupkhw;w tPjk;
· ey;tho;tpd; eltbf;iffs; - xl;Lnkhj;j tho;f;ifj; juj;ij
mstpLk; Ma;Tfs;. v.fh. ONS ey;tho;T FwpaPL.
· kdpj Nkk;ghl;Lf; FwpaPL (vr;.b.I) - nghUshjhu tsHr;rpapd;

xU eltbf;if. ,J xU $l;L FwpaPlhFk;> ,jpy; jdpegH nkhj;j
cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; fy;tp> Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Rw;Wr;#oy;
fhuzpfs; Nghd;w fhuzpfSk; mlq;Fk;.
11.4 mbg;gil fUj;Jf;fs;:

nghUshjhu tsHr;rp:
nghUshjhu tsHr;rp nghJthf kpf Kf;fpakhd nghUshjhu

Gs;sptptukhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ kw;Wk; rHtNjr xg;gPLfSf;F
mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
NeHkiwahd nghUshjhu tsHr;rp ,Ue;jhy;> Njrpa tUkhdk;

caHfpwJ> ,J caHe;j tho;f;ifj; juj;ij nray;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
nghUshjhu tsHr;rp nghJthf Ntiyapd;ik> murhq;f fld; kw;Wk;
cz;ikahd nrytopg;G tUkhdk; Nghd;w gpw Nehf;fq;fSf;F
cjTfpwJ.
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd; gad;
· ,J nghUshjhu eltbf;iffspd; epiyf;F xU Njhuhakhd

topfhl;bia mspf;fpwJ. nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; tPo;rr
; p
ke;jepiyiaAk;> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; tsHr;rpiaAk;
Fwpf;fpwJ.
· mjd; midj;J jtWfSf;Fk;> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp

nghUshjhu Row;rpf;F xU gaDs;s topfhl;bia mspf;fpwJ kw;Wk;
160
gztpay; nfhs;if kw;Wk; epjpf; nfhs;iff;fhd gaDs;s Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
Fwpfhl;bahFk;.
· nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpAk; mstplf;$baJ - ,J

Gwepiy. fzf;nfLg;Gfis cs;slf;fpa ey;tho;T eltbf;iffs;
kpfTk; mfepiy.
cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd; tuk;Gfs;
· nghUshjhu tsHr;rp vd;gJ tho;f;ifj; juj;ij mjpfupf;f

Ntz;ba mtrpakpy;iy. 2010 kw;Wk; 2017 f;F ,ilapy;>
,q;fpyhe;J NeHkiwahd nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiaf; nfhz;bUe;jJ>
Mdhy; ruhrup cz;ikahd nrytopg;G tUkhdq;fs; Njf;f
epiyapy; ,Ue;jd. ,J fhuzkhf ,Ue;jJ
· nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; xU gq;fhf Cjpaq;fs;

tPo;rr
; pailfpd;wd.
· jdpegH nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpia Fwpf;Fk;

kf;fs;njhif tsHr;rp nkJthd tpfpjj;jpy; tsHe;jJ.
· mstpl fbdk;. nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd;

Gs;sptptuq;fs; ngUk;ghYk; jpUj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 2008 Mk; Mz;by;
,q;fpyhe;J nghUshjhuk; ke;jepiyf;Fr; nrd;wNghJ> nkhj;j
cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd; Gs;sptptuq;fs; nghUshjhuk; ke;jepiyapy;
,Ug;gijf; Fwpf;f gy khjq;fs; MdJ.
· cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp tho;f;if

nryTfis Gwf;fzpf;fpwJ. fle;j ,uz;L jrhg;jq;fshf
,q;fpyhe;J nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ> Mdhy; caUk;
tho;f;ifr; nryT gyiu (Fwpg;ghf ,isQHfs;) Ke;ija
jiyKiwfis tpl tho;tJ kpfTk; fbdk; vd;W nghUs;.
· nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahdJ mjd; tuk;Gfis kf;fs;

mwpe;jpUf;Fk; tiu gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk;:
gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk; gw;wpa Ma;T Nkf;Nuh

nghUshjhuj;jpd; kw;nwhU Kf;fpa mk;rkhFk;. gztPf;fk; vd;w
nrhy; ehL KOtJk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpiyfs;
mjpfupg;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. gzthl;lk; vd;w nrhy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; tpiy Fiwtijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs;
tpiyf; FwpaPLfisg; gbg;gjd; %yk; gztPf;fj;ijAk; Self-Instructional Material
161
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
gzthl;lj;ijAk; mstpLfpwhHfs;. tpiyf; FwpaPL vd;gJ xU tif
Fwpg;G
jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd tpiyapd; vilAs;s ruhrup.
xU nghUshjhuk; kpf tpiuthf tsUk;NghJ gztPf;fk; Vw;gLfpwJ.

gzthl;lk;> kWGwk;> xU nghUshjhuk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpapy;
tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ Vw;gLfpwJ. gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;l
Nghf;Ffisg; gbg;gjd; %yk;> nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; jFe;j
eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;tjd; %yk; gztPff ; tpfpjq;fisf;
fl;Lg;gLj;j cjtyhk;. mjpfg;gbahd gztPf;fk; vjpHkiwahd
tpisTfSf;F toptFf;Fk; kw;Wk; njhlHr;rpahd gzthl;lk;
Fiwe;j nghUshjhu cw;gj;jpia Vw;gLj;Jk;.
murhq;fq;fs; nghJthf gztPf;f ,yf;F 2% MFk;. gztPf;fk; 2%

f;F Nky; fzprkhf caHe;jhy;> ,J nghUshjhu rpf;fy;fspd;
mwpFwpahFk;. 2000 kw;Wk; 2012 gztPff
; k; nryT-ce;Jjy;
fhuzpfshy; (caUk; vz;nza; tpiyfs;> ,wf;Fkjp tpiyfs;
caHT) fhuzkhf ,Ue;jJ@ ,J cz;ikahd Cjpaq;fspy; rupit
Vw;gLj;jpaJ. 1980 fspd; gpw;gFjpapYk; 90 fspd; gztPf;fKk;
nghUshjhuk; mjpf ntg;gkile;J tUtjw;fhd mwpFwpahFk;>
NkYk; gztPf;fj;ijf; Fiwf;f tl;b tpfpjq;fis mjpfupf;f
murhq;fk; Njitg;gl;lJ - Mdhy; ,J mLj;jLj;j ke;jepiyia
Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
mjpf gztPf;fk; nghUshjhuj;jpd; kPJ mjpfupj;j epr;rakw;w jd;ik>

Fiwe;j KjyPL Nghd;w nryTfis Rkj;j KidfpwJ kw;Wk; ,J
ePz;lfhy nghUshjhu tsHr;rpf;F jPq;F tpistpf;Fk;.
gztPf;fj;jpd; tuk;Gfs; mstPL
· Fiwe;j gztPf;fk; nghUshjhu nray;jpwdpd; xU mk;rk;

kl;LNk. ke;jkhd Njit kw;Wk; cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jpapy; tPo;rr
; p fhuzkhf xU nghUshjhuk; Fiwe;j
gztPf;fj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;ff;$Lk;.
· nryT-ce;Jjy; gztPf;fk; (v.fh. kjpg;gpog;G fhuzkhf) xU-

tpisT kw;Wk; jw;fhypfkhdJ.
Ntiyapd;ik
Ntiyapd;ik vd;gJ nray;jpwdpd; Kf;fpa eltbf;ifahFk;.

nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; Ntiyapd;ik
tpfpjj;ij Ntiyfs; ,y;yhj jdpegHfspd; rjtPjj;ij
fzf;fpLtjd; %yk; mstpLfpwhHfs;. Ntiyapd;ik tiffspy;
162
cd;djkhd Ntiyapd;ik> cuha;T Ntiyapd;ik kw;Wk; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
fl;likg;G Ntiyapd;ik Mfpait mlq;Fk;. Fiwe;j
Ntiyapd;ik tpfpjk; nghUshjhuk; rpwg;ghf nray;gl;L Gjpa
Ntiytha;g;Gfis cUthf;Ftjw;fhd mwpFwpahFk;. KO
Ntiytha;g;G xU ngupa nghUshjhu nghUshjhu Nehf;fkhFk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> Ntiyapd;ik Gs;sptptuj;jpw;F $l tuk;Gfs;
,Uf;fyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> Ntiyapd;ik tPo;rr ; p jw;fhypf Ntiy>
gFjpNeu Ntiy> Ntiytha;g;gpd;ik kw;Wk; njhopyhsH re;ijia
tpl;L ntspNaWk; kf;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; caHit kiwf;ff;$Lk;.
fpshrpf;fy; Ntiyapd;ik vd;gJ KjyhspfSf;F mjpf

njhopyhsHfis Ntiyf;F mkHj;Jtijf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;s
Cjpaq;fs; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ. nghUj;jkhd gzpahsiuj;
NjLtjw;F vLf;Fk; Neuk; kpf mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ cuha;T
Ntiyapd;ik Vw;gLfpwJ. xU njhopyhspapd; jpwikf;Fk; xU
Ntiyf;Fj; Njitahd cz;ikahd jpwikf;Fk; ,ilapy;
nghUe;jhj jd;ik ,Uf;Fk;NghJ fl;likg;G Ntiyapd;ik
Vw;gLfpwJ. Ntiyapd;ikapd; kw;nwhU Kf;fpakhd tif Row;rpapd;
Ntiyapd;ik vd;gJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; tsHr;rp Njf;fkilAk;
NghJ Vw;gLfpwJ.
ey;tho;T:
,J nghUshjhu ey;tho;T kw;Wk; tho;f;if jpUg;jpapd; mstPL

MFk;. ,J cly;eyk;> cwTfs;> fy;tp kw;Wk; jpwd;fs;> ehk; vd;d
nra;fpNwhk;> vq;F tho;fpNwhk;> ekJ epjp kw;Wk; #oiyg; ghHf;fpwJ.
,J NeHkiwahd juit cs;slf;fpaJ> Mdhy; Ma;Tfs; kw;Wk;
Nfs;tpj;jhs;fisAk; cs;slf;fpaJ - ,J xU Gjpa KiwiaAk;
gad;gLj;JfpwJ kw;Wk; nghUshjhu juTfspd; mbg;gilapy;
Nrhjidf;FupaJ.
cz;ikahd Cjpaq;fs;:
tof;fkhf> cz;ikahd Cjpaq;fs; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpAld;

njhlHGgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd - NeHkiwahd nghUshjhu tsHr;rp
nghJthf NeHkiwahd cz;ikahd Cjpa tsHr;rpf;F
toptFf;fpwJ.
tUkhdk; kw;Wk; ntspaPL
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuj;jpd; kpf Kf;fpakhd fUj;Jfspy; xd;W

tUkhdk; kw;Wk; ntspaPL MFk;. Njrpa cw;gj;jp vd;gJ xU
Fwpg;gpl;l fhyfl;lj;jpy; xU ehl;by; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; midj;J
163
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; nkhj;jj; njhifahFk;. cw;gj;jp
Fwpg;G
myFfs; my;yJ epWtdq;fs; jhq;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
midj;ijAk; tpw;Fk;NghJ> mit rkkhd tUkhdj;ij <l;Lfpd;wd.
vdNt> midj;J nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpw;gidapypUe;J
nkhj;j tUkhdj;ij fzf;fpLtjd; %yk; ntspaPl;il mstpl
KbAk;.
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; njhlHghf> nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; nghJthf

nkhj;j tUkhdk; my;yJ nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahy; Njrpa
tUkhdk; my;yJ cw;gj;jpia mstpLfpwhHfs;. nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jpia mstpLtjd; %yk;> nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; re;ij
khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; khw;wq;fis Gupe;J nfhs;s KbAk;. ehl;bd;
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpia Nkk;gLj;j vd;d eltbf;iffs;
vLf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gij mtHfshy; milahsk; fhz KbAk;.
njhopy;El;g Kd;Ndw;wq;fs;> %yjd mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; mjpetPd
cgfuzq;fis ifafg;gLj;Jjy;> cw;gj;jp myFfs; kw;Wk;
epWtdq;fs; Njrpa cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; tUkhdj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> ke;jepiy kw;Wk; gpw re;ij fhuzpfshy; tUkhdk;
kw;Wk; ntspaPL ghjpf;fg;glyhk;.

vOJq;fs;
1. gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk; vg;NghJ epfo;fpwJ?
11.5 ngupa nghUshjhu tpfpjq;fs;:
fldpypUe;J nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; tpfpjk; xU ehl;bd;

,iwahz;ik flid Mz;bd; nkhj;j nghUshjhu cw;gj;jpAld;
xg;gpLfpwJ . mjd; ntspaPL nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahy;
mstplg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j tpfpjk; KjyPl;lhsHfs;> jiytHfs; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu

ty;YeHfSf;F xU gaDs;s fUtpahFk;. xU ehl;bd; flid
milg;gjw;fhd jpwid mstpl ,J mtHfis mDkjpf;fpwJ.
mjpf tpfpjk; vd;why; xU ehL jdJ flid milf;f NghJkhd
msT cw;gj;jp nra;atpy;iy. Fiwe;j tpfpjk; vd;why; gzk;
nrYj;Jtjw;F Vuhskhd nghUshjhu ntspaPL cs;sJ.
164
xU ehL xU FLk;gkhf ,Ue;jhy;> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp mjd; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
tUkhdj;ijg; Nghd;wJ. ePq;fs; mjpf gzk; rk;ghjpj;jhy; tq;fpfs;
cq;fSf;F xU ngupa flidf; nfhLf;Fk;. mNjNghy;> xU ehl;bd;
flid mjpfkhf cw;gj;jp nra;jhy; KjyPll ; hsHfs; kfpo;rr
; pahf
,Ug;ghHfs;. KjyPl;lhsHfs; jpUg;gpr; nrYj;Jtijg; gw;wp
ftiyg;glj; njhlq;fpaTld;> ,ay;Gepiyapd; mjpf Mgj;Jf;F
mjpf tl;b tPj tUthiaf; NfhUthHfs;. ,J ehl;bd; fld;
nryit mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,J tpiutpy; fld; neUf;fbahf khWk; .
fldpypUe;J nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; tpfpjk; 77% Ij;

jhz;bdhy;> ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F cyf tq;fp Ma;T nra;fpwJ. ,J
nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiaf; Fiwf;fpwJ . ,e;j epiyf;F Nky; cs;s
xt;nthU rjtPj flDk; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpapy; ehl;bw;F 1.7%
nrythfpwJ.
tsHe;J tUk; re;ijfSf;F ,J ,d;Dk; NkhrkhdJ. mq;F> 64%

f;F Nky; cs;s xt;nthU $Ljy; rjtPj flDk; xt;nthU Mz;Lk;
tsHr;rpia 2% Fiwf;Fk;.
fld; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp tpfpjk; murhq;fg; gj;jpuq;fs;

KjyPll ; hsHfSf;F ehLfSf;Fk; ,ilNa fld; epiyfis
xg;gplf;$ba mDkjpf;fpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> n[Hkdpapd; 2017 fld;
7 2.7 bupy;ypad; MFk;> ,J fpNuf;fj;jpd; flidf; Fiwf;fpwJ> ,J
514 gpy;ypad; lhyH.Mdhy; n[Hkdpapd; 2017 nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jp 8 3.8 bupy;ypad; MFk;> ,J fpNuf;fj;jpd; 1 281
gpy;ypaid tpl mjpfk;. fld; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp fpuP];
me;j 182% MFk; NghJ n[Hkdpf;fhd tpfpjk; vd;gJ trjpahf
72% MFk;.
2017 Mk; Mz;by; ehl;bd; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; 68.70

rjtPjj;jpw;F rkkhd murhq;ff; flid ,e;jpah gjpT nra;Js;sJ.
,e;jpahtpy; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; murhq;fj;jpd; fld; 1991
Kjy; 2017 tiu ruhrupahf 73.24 rjtPjkhf ,Ue;jJ> ,J 2003 y;
84.20 rjtPjkhf ,Ue;jJ> ,J 66 rjtPjkhf ,Ue;jJ 1996.
tHj;jf nghUshjhuk; cyfshtpa Nkf;Nuh khjpupfs; kw;Wk;

Ma;thsHfspd; vjpHghHg;Gfspd;gb> ,e;j fhyhz;bd; Kbtpy;
,e;jpahtpy; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; muR fld; 69.00
rjtPjkhf ,Uf;Fk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ. ePz;l fhykhf>
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpa muR fld; 2020 Mk;
Mz;by; 68.00 rjtpfpjk; ,Uf;Fk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ> vq;fs;
Rw;Wr;#oy; mstPLfspd; gb. Self-Instructional Material
165
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; · fld; vd;gJ xU ehl;bd; murhq;ff; fldpd; xl;Lnkhj;j
Fwpg;G
njhif
· nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l Mz;by;

cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; nkhj;j kjpg;G
fld; Kjy; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd; tpfpjj;jpd; vLj;Jf;fhl;L
2020 Mk;
gpy;ypad;fspy; muR fld; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp
ehL V $ 20 $ 10
ehL gp $ 5 $ 7
ehL rp $ 125 $ 180
ehL v $ 7 $ 3
Mz;bw;fhd Njrpa fld; kw;Wk; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpAld;

ehd;F fw;gidahd ehLfisf; ftdpAq;fs;:
NkNy toq;fg;gl;l #j;jpuj;Jld; Xt;nthU ehl;bw;Fk; fldpypUe;J

nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpiaf; fzf;fpl KbAk;. Xt;nthU
ehl;bw;Fk; tpfpjk; gpd;tUkhW:
 ehL V: $ 20 / $ 10 = 200.00%
 ehL gp: $ 5 / $ 7 = 71.43%
 ehL rp: $ 125 / $ 180 = 69.44%
 ehL b: $ 7 / $ 3 = 233.33%
fld;-f;F-nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapd; tpfpjj;ijf;

fzf;fpLtjpypUe;J> ehL A kw;Wk; ehL D Mfpait kpf caHe;j
tpfpjq;fisf; fhz;gpg;gijf; fhzyhk;. mjpf tpfpjk;> xU ehL
mjd; flid jpUg;gpr; nrYj;Jk; tha;g;G FiwT. ,J> ehL
,ay;Gepiyf;F tuf;$Lk; kw;Wk; cs;ehl;L kw;Wk; rHtNjr
re;ijfspy; epjp gPjpia Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;.
11.6 FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; vd;gJ nghUshjhu juT Neuj; njhliu
ntspg;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; jfty;fis xg;gpLtjw;Fk; / Kuz;gLtjw;Fk;
xU gaDs;s topahFk;. FwpaPl;L vz; vd;gJ mbg;gil kjpg;Gld;
xg;gpLk;NghJ tpiy my;yJ msit gpujpgypf;Fk; xU vz;zpf;if.
mbg;gil kjpg;G vg;NghJk; 100 ,d; FwpaPl;L vz;izf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. FwpaPl;L vz; gpd;dH mbg;gil kjpg;Gf;F 100 klq;F
166
tpfpjkhf ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. FwpaPl;L vz;fSf;F myFfs; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
,y;iy v.fh. £> a+Nuhf;fs; my;yJ $
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; mk;rq;fs;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. FwpaPl;L vz;fs; xU rpwg;G tif ruhrup. KOikahd
khw;wj;ij mstpLtJ rhj;jpakpy;yhj njhlHGila njhlH
khw;wq;fis mstpl FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; El;gk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ kw;Wk; njhlH gy;NtW tifahd
nghUl;fspy; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
2. FwpaPl;L vz;fs; Neubahf mstpl Kbahj mj;jifa

fhuzpfspd; tpisTfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis Ma;T
nra;tjhFk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> nghJthd tpiy epiy vd;gJ
xU fw;gidahd fUj;J kw;Wk; Neub mstPl;L jpwd;
nfhz;ljy;y. Mdhy;> FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; El;gj;jpd; %yk;>
ntt;NtW nghUl;fspd; tpiy kl;lj;jpy; xg;gPl;L khw;wq;fis
mstpLtjd; %yk; nghJthd tpiyfspd; xg;gPlL
;
khw;wq;fisg; gw;wpa xU Nahrid ,Uf;f KbAk;.
3. FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; El;gk; xU khwp my;yJ njhlHGila

khwpfs; FOtpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis mstpLfpwJ.
cjhuzkhf> xU khwp NfhJikapd; tpiyahfTk;> khwpfs;
FO rHf;fiuapd; tpiy> ghypd; tpiy kw;Wk; muprpapd;
tpiyahfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
4. xU Fwpg;gpl;l Njjpapy; xU epfo;tpd; epiyfis mjd;

Ke;ija NjjpAld; xg;gpLtjw;F FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; El;gk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ (v.fh.> 1980 ,y; tpiy epiy 1960 ,y;
xg;gpLk;NghJ mbg;gil Mz;lhf vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gl;lJ)
my;yJ xNu Njjpapy; ntt;NtW ,lq;fspy; xU epfo;tpd;
msTfs; (v.fh.> 1980 y; ,e;jpahtpy; tpiy epiy 1980 ,y;
kw;w ehLfSld; xg;gpLifapy;).
tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; fl;Lkhdj;jpy; gbfs; my;yJ rpf;fy;fs;:
tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; fl;Lkhdk; gpd;tUk; gbfs; my;yJ
rpf;fy;fis cs;slf;fpaJ:
1. mbg;gil Mz;L NjHT:
mbg;gil Mz;L vd;gJ me;j Mz;lhf tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J
kw;w Mz;Lfspy; tpiy khw;wq;fs; xg;gplg;gl;L rjtPjq;fshf
ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. mbg;gil Mz;L xU rhjhuz Mz;lhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Self-Instructional Material
167
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ,J NghHfs;> gQ;rq;fs;>
Fwpg;G
nts;sk;> murpay; cWjpaw;w jd;ik Nghd;w mrhjhuz
epiyikfspypUe;J tpLgl Ntz;Lk;.
mbg;gil Mz;L ,uz;L topfspy; NjHe;njLf;fg;glyhk;-
(m) mbg;gil Mz;L epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk; epiyahd mbg;gil
Kiw %yk;@ kw;Wk;
(M) mbg;gil Mz;L khwpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; rq;fpyp mbg;gil
Kiwapd; %yk;> v.fh.> 1980 f;F mbg;gil Mz;L 1979 MfTk;>
1979 f;F 1978 MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;> kw;Wk; gy.
2. nghUl;fspd; NjHT:
midj;J nghUl;fisAk; NrHf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy;> FwpaPl;L
vz;zpd; Nehf;fk; kw;Wk; tifia fUj;jpy; nfhz;L gpujpepjp
nghUl;fs; kl;LNk NjHe;njLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
cUg;gbfisj; NjHe;njLg;gjpy;> gpd;tUk; tp\aq;fis kdjpy;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;:
(m) nghUl;fs; kf;fspd; Rit> gof;fk; kw;Wk; gof;ftof;fq;fspd;
gpujpepjpahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(M) cUg;gbfs; milahsk; fhzg;gl Ntz;Lk;>
(,) ,uz;L ntt;NtW fhyfl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; ,lq;fspy; nghUl;fs;
juj;jpy; epiyahdjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(<) gy;NtW nghUl;fspd; nghUshjhu kw;Wk; r%f Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
fUj;jpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;
(,) cUg;gbfs; vz;zpf;ifapy; kpfTk; ngupajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(v/g;) nghJthd gad;ghl;by; cs;s kw;Wk; epiyahd xU
nghUspd; midj;J tiffSk; vOj;J NrHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
3. tpiyfspd; Nrfupg;G:
nghUl;fisj; NjHe;njLj;j gpwF> mLj;j rpf;fy; mtw;wpd;
tpiyfis Nrfupg;gJ njhlHghdJ:
(m) tpiyfs; Nrfupf;fg;gl Ntz;ba ,lk;@
(M) nkhj;j tpiyfs; my;yJ rpy;yiw tpiyfisj;
NjHe;njLg;gjh@
(,) tpiyapy; tupfisr; NrHf;fyhkh ,y;iyah vd;gJ Nghd;wit.
tpiyfis Nrfupf;Fk; NghJ> gpd;tUk; Gs;spfs; ftdpf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;:
(m) xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUs; mjpf mstpy; tHj;jfk; nra;ag;gLk;
,lq;fspypUe;J tpiyfs; Nrfupf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
(M) tpiyfs; Fwpj;j ntspaplg;gl;l jfty;fSk; gad;gLj;jg;gl
Ntz;Lk;>
168
(,) tpiy Nkw;Nfhs;fis toq;Fk; jdpegHfisAk; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
epWtdq;fisAk; NjHe;njLg;gjpy;> mtHfs; gf;fr;rhHgw;wtHfs;
my;y vd;gjpy; ftdkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(<) nkhj;j my;yJ rpy;yiw tpiyfisj; NjHe;njLg;gJ
jahupf;fg;gl Ntz;ba FwpaPl;L vz;zpd; tifiag; nghWj;jJ.
nkhj;j tpiyfs; nghJthd tpiyf; FwpaPl;il epHkhzpg;gjpy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; rpy;yiw tpiyfs; tho;f;ifr; nryT
FwpaPl;L vz;iz epHkhzpg;gjpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
(,) gy;NtW ,lq;fspypUe;J Nrfupf;fg;gl;l tpiyfs; ruhrupahf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4. ruhrup NjHT:
FwpaPl;L vz;fs;> xU rpwg;G ruhrup vd;gjhy;> ehd;fhtJ rpf;fy;
nghUj;jkhd ruhrupiaj; NjHe;njLg;gJ. Nfhl;ghl;lstpy;> ,e;j
Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf tbtpay; ruhrup rpwe;jJ. Mdhy;> eilKiwapy;>
vz;fzpj ruhrup gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ> Vnddpy; mijg; gpd;gw;WtJ
vspJ.
5. vil NjHT:
nghJthf> FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; fl;Lkhdj;jpy; NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;s
midj;J nghUl;fSk; rk Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jit my;y. vdNt>
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; gpujpepjpahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lkhdhy;> nghUl;fspd;
xg;gPlL
; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpw;F Vw;g rupahd vilfs; xJf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> njhopyhsHfSf;fhd tho;f;ifr; nryTf;
FwpaPl;ilj; jahupg;gij tpl MrpupaHfSf;fhd tho;f;ifr; nryTf;
FwpaPl;ilj; jahupf;Fk; NghJ Gj;jfq;fspd; tpiyfs; mjpf
viliaf; nfhLf;Fk;. vilfs; gf;fr;rhHgw;wjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
kw;Wk; gFj;jwpTld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; jd;dpr;irahf
NjHe;njLf;fg;glf;$lhJ.
6. FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Nehf;fk;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; fl;Lkhdj;jpy; kpf Kf;fpakhd fUj;jhFk;
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Fwpf;Nfhs;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l FwpaPl;L vz; ve;j
Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf jahupf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gjd; ntspr;rj;jpy; kw;w
vy;yh rpf;fy;fSk; gbfSk; ghHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ntt;NtW FwpaPl;L
vz;fs; Fwpg;gpl;l Nehf;fq;fSld; jahupf;fg;gLtjhy;> xw;iw
FwpaPl;L vz; 'midj;J Nehf;fk;' FwpaPl;L vz; my;y> FwpaPl;L
vz;zpd; fl;Lkhdj;jpw;F Kd; mjd; Nehf;fk; Fwpj;J njspthf
,Ug;gJ Kf;fpak;.
7. Kiw NjHT:
169
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
FwpaPl;L vz;fis epHkhzpf;f nghUj;jkhd Kiwiaj;
Fwpg;G
NjHe;njLg;gJ ,Wjp fl;lkhFk;.
FwpaPl;L vz;fisf; fzf;fpLtjw;F ,uz;L Kiwfs; cs;sd:
(m) vspa FwpaPl;L vz; kw;Wk;
(M) vilAs;s FwpaPl;L vz;.
vspa FwpaPl;L vz;iz kPz;Lk; cUthf;fyhk; - (i) vspa nkhj;j
Kiw> my;yJ (ii) tpiy cwtpdupd; Kiwapd; vspa ruhrup.
,NjNghy;> vilAs;s FwpaPl;L vz;iz (i) vilAs;s jpul;ly;
Kiw my;yJ (ii) tpiy cwtpdupd; Kiwapd; vilAs;s ruhrup
%yk; fl;likf;f KbAk;. Kiwapd; NjHT juT fpilg;gJ>
Njitahd Jy;ypaj;jpd; msT kw;Wk; Ma;tpd; Nehf;fk;
Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;jJ.
1. vspa xUq;fpizg;G Kiw:
,e;j Kiwapy;> FwpaPl;L vz; mbg;gil Mz;bw;fhd cz;ikahd
tpiyfspd; $l;Lj;njhifahy; tFf;fg;gl;Ls;s FwpaPl;L vz;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl Ntz;ba Mz;bd; tpiyfspd; njhiff;F rkk;.
,e;j Kiw %yk; FwpaPl;L vz;izf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;fhd #j;jpuk;
gpd;tUkhW:
2. tpiy cwtpdHfspd; vspa ruhrup:
,e;j Kiwapy;> FwpaPl;L vz; nghUl;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahy;
tFf;fg;gl;l tpiy cwtpdHfspd; njhiff;F rkk; kw;Wk; gpd;tUk;
#j;jpuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ:
3. vilAs;s nkhj;j Kiw:
,e;j Kiwapy;> nghUl;fspd; xg;gPlL ; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpw;F Vw;g
ntt;NtW vilfs; xJf;fg;gLfpd;wd. gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vilfs;
msT vilfs;. msT vilfspd; mbg;gilapy; FwpaPl;L vz;fis
kjpg;gpLtjw;F gy #j;jpuq;fs; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
4. cwtpdHfspd; vilAs;s ruhrup:
,e;j Kiwapy;> nghUl;fspd; xg;gPlL ; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpw;F Vw;g
ntt;NtW vilfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; tiffs;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; ntt;NtW tiffspy; cs;sd.
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Kf;fpakhd tiffs; fPNo tpthjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
1. nkhj;j tpiy FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
nkhj;j tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; rpy Kf;fpakhd nghUl;fspd;
nkhj;j tpiyfspd; mbg;gilapy; fl;likf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
nghUl;fspy; Kf;fpakhf %yg;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; miu Kbf;fg;gl;l
nghUl;fs; mlq;Fk;. nkhj;j re;ijapy; thq;fg;gl;L tpw;fg;gLk; kpf
Kf;fpakhd kw;Wk; kpf tpiy czHjpwd; kw;Wk; miu Kbf;fg;gl;l
170
nghUl;fs; kl;LNk NjHe;njLf;fg;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; xg;gPlL
; Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpw;F Vw;g vilfs; xJf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
nkhj;j tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; nghJthf gzj;jpd; kjpg;gpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis mstplg; gad;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j FwpaPl;L
vz;fspd; Kf;fpa rpf;fy; vd;dntd;why;> mit %yg;nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; miu Kbf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fspd; nkhj;j tpiyfis kl;LNk
cs;slf;Ffpd;wd> NkYk; nghJthf rhjhuz kdpjHfshy;
Efug;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; rpy;yiw tpiyia
ftdj;jpy; nfhs;shJ. vdNt> nkhj;j tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
gzj;jpd; kjpg;gpy; cz;ikahd kw;Wk; Jy;ypakhd khw;wq;fis
gpujpgypf;fhJ.
2. rpy;yiw tpiy FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;fs; ,Wjp EfHT nghUl;fspd; rpy;yiw
tpiyfspd; mbg;gilapy; gzj;jpd; kjpg;gpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
mstpl jahuhf cs;sd. ,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;zpd; Kf;fpa rpukk;
vd;dntd;why;> xNu nghUl;fSf;fhd rpy;yiw tpiy kw;Wk;
njhlHr;rpahd fhyq;fSf;F fpilf;ftpy;iy. nkhj;j tpiyfSld;
xg;gpLk;NghJ rpy;yiw tpiyfs; ngupa kw;Wk; mbf;fb Vw;w
,wf;fq;fisf; Fwpf;fpd;wd.
3. tho;f;if nryT FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;fs; nghJthd kf;fshy; Efug;gLk; Kf;fpakhd
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfisf; Fwpf;Fk; tifapy; fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
,e;j nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; vz;zpf;if kpfg; ngupaJ
vd;gjhy;> kf;fspd; EfHT Kiwia cUthf;Fk; gpujpepjp nghUl;fs;
kl;LNk NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;fs; nghJ kf;fspd;
tho;f;if nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis mstpl
4. njhopyhsh; tHf;f tho;f;if nryT FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
njhopyhs tHf;fj;jpd; tho;f;ifr; nryT FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
njhopyhsHfspd; tho;f;ifr; nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
mstpLtij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;fs;
nghJthf njhopyhs tHf;fj;jhy; Efug;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; mbg;gilapy; kl;LNk Efug;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j
nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs; kw;Wk; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; njhopyhsHfSf;F
kpfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jit> Vnddpy; ,e;j FwpaPLfspd;gb
mtHfspd; Cjpaq;fs; rupnra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
5. Cjpa ml;ltiz vz;fs;:
,e;j FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Nehf;fk; gz Cjpaj;jpy; mt;tg;NghJ
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis mstpLtJ. ,e;j FwpaPlL ; vz;fs;> njhopyhs
tHf;fj;jpd; tho;f;ifr; nryT FwpaPl;L vz;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ>
171
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
njhopyhsHfspd; cz;ikahd Cjpaj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;
Fwpg;G
Fwpj;j jfty;fis toq;Ffpd;wd.
6. njhopy;Jiw FwpaPl;L vz;fs;:
njhopy;Jiw cw;gj;jpapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis mstpLk;
Nehf;fj;Jld; njhopy;Jiw FwpaPl;L vz;fs; fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;j
FwpaPl;L vz;fis jahupg;gjpy; gy;NtW njhopy;fspd; cw;gj;jp juT
NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:

ntt;NtW Jiwfspy; midj;J tifahd msT khw;wq;fisAk;
mstpl FwpaPlL; vz;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; gy;NtW ed;ikfs; fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
1. nghJ Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
nghJthf> FwpaPl;L vz;fs; gy topfspy; kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf
,Uf;Fk;:
(m) mit xU khwp my;yJ khwpfs; FOtpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
mstpLfpd;wd.
(M) ntt;NtW ,lq;fs; my;yJ ntt;NtW fhyfl;lq;fSld;
xg;gpl;Lg; ghHg;gjw;F mit gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;>
(,) rpf;fyhd cz;ikfis vspjhf;Ftjw;F mit cjtpahf
,Uf;Fk;.
(<) vjpHfhyj;ijg; gw;wp Kd;dwptpg;gjpy; mit cjtpahf ,Uf;Fk;>
(,) fy;tp kw;Wk; eilKiw Muha;r;rpapy; mit kpfTk;
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
2. gzj;jpd; kjpg;ig mstpLjy;:
mt;tg;NghJ gzj;jpd; kjpg;G my;yJ tpiy kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fis mstpl FwpaPl;L vz;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. tpiy
kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; nghJthf ehl;bd; cw;gj;jp kw;Wk;
Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; r%fj;jpd; gy;NtW gpupTfisAk; ghjpf;fpd;wd.
tpiyf; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; vjpHfhy gztPf;f Nghf;Ffisg; gw;wpAk;
Kd;dwptpf;fpd;wd> ,e;j topapy;> nghUj;jkhd gztPf;f vjpHg;G
eltbf;iffis vLf;f murhq;fj;jpw;F cjTfpd;wd.
3. tho;f;if nrytpy; khw;wq;fs;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; ehl;by; tho;f;ifr; nrytpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. kf;fspd; tho;f;ifr; nryT caHfpwjh my;yJ
tPo;rr
; pailfpwjh vd;gij mit Rl;bf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. ,e;j jftypd;
mbg;gilapy;> Cjpak; ngWgtHfis gztPf;fj;jpd;
f\;lq;fspypUe;J fhg;ghw;w njhopyhsHfspd; Cjpaj;ij mjw;Nfw;g
rupnra;a KbAk;.
172
4. cw;gj;jpapy; khw;wq;fs;: Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
nghUshjhuj;jpd; gy;NtW Jiwfspy; cw;gj;jp Nghf;Ffs; Fwpj;j
jfty;fis toq;f FwpaPl;L vz;fSk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
ntt;NtW njhopy;fspd; cz;ikahd epiyia kjpg;gpLtjw;F
mit cjTfpd;wd> mjhtJ> xU Fwpg;gpl;l njhopypy; cw;gj;jp
mjpfupj;J tUfpwjh my;yJ Fiwe;J tUfpwjh my;yJ
epiyahdjh vd;gij.
5. tHj;jfj;jpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; cjtpAld; tHj;jfj;jpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;> tHj;jf
epiyikfs; kw;Wk; tHj;jf Nghf;Ffs; gw;wpa mwpitg; ngwyhk;.
,wf;Fkjp kw;Wk; Vw;Wkjp FwpaPLfs; ehl;bd; ntspehl;L tHj;jfk;
mjpfupj;J tUfpwjh my;yJ Fiwfpwjh vd;gijAk;> tHj;jf
rkepiy rhjfkhdjh my;yJ rhjfkw;wjh vd;gijAk; fhl;LfpwJ.
6. nghUshjhuf; nfhs;if cUthf;fk;:
nghUshjhuf; nfhs;iffis tFg;gjpYk; kjpg;gPL nra;tjpYk;
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; murhq;fj;jpw;F kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
FwpaPl;L vz;fs; nghUshjhu epiyikfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
mstpLfpd;wd> NkYk; ,e;j jftYld;> jpl;lkpLgtHfSf;F
nghUj;jkhd nghUshjhuf; nfhs;iffis tFf;f cjTfpd;wd.
NkYk;> Fwpg;gpl;l nghUshjhuf; nfhs;if ey;yjh my;yJ nfl;ljh
vd;gJ FwpaPl;L vz;fshy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
7. midj;J JiwfspYk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;:
fpl;lj;jl;l vy;yh JiwfspYk; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; gaDs;sjhf
,Uf;Fk;. mit nghUshjhuj; Jiwapy; rpwg;G tha;e;jit.
nghUshjhu Jiwapy; FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; rpy Fwpg;gpl;l
gad;ghLfs;:
(m) Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fSf;fhd re;ijfis gFg;gha;T nra;tjpy;
mit gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
(M) gq;Fr; re;ijapy;> FwpaPl;L vz;fs; gq;F tpiyfspd;
Nghf;Ffs; Fwpj;j juit toq;f KbAk;>
(,) FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; cjtpAld;> uapy;Nt nghUl;fspd;
Nghf;Ftuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Fwpj;j jfty;fisg; ngwyhk;.
(<) FwpaPl;L vz;fs; %yk; itg;Gfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Fwpj;j
jfty;fis tq;fpahsHfs; ngwyhk;.
FwpaPl;L vz;fspd; tuk;Gfs;:
FwpaPl;L vz; El;gj;jpy; rpy tuk;Gfs; cs;sd> mit mjd; gaid
ntFthff; Fiwj;Js;sd:
1. mtw;wpd; fzf;fPl;by; gy;NtW eilKiw rpf;fy;fs;
,Ug;gjhy;> FwpaPl;L vz;fs; xUNghJk; xU rjtPjk;
rupahdit my;y.
173
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
2. midj;J Nehf;fk; FwpaPl;L vz;fs; ,y;iy. xU
Fwpg;G
Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf jahupf;fg;gl;l FwpaPl;L vz;fis kw;nwhU
Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf gad;gLj;j KbahJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> eLj;ju
tUkhdf; FOtpd; gzj;jpd; kjpg;gpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
mstpl njhopw;rhiy njhopyhsHfspd; tho;f;ifr; nryT
FwpaPl;L vz;fisg; gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
3. rHtNjr xg;gPLfis nra;a FwpaPl;L vz;fis ek;gj;jFe;j
Kiwapy; gad;gLj;j KbahJ. ntt;NtW ehLfspy; ntt;NtW
Fzq;fisf; nfhz;l ntt;NtW cUg;gbfs; cs;sd kw;Wk;
FwpaPl;L vz;fis cUthf;Ftjpy; ntt;NtW mbg;gil
Mz;Lfisg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
4. FwpaPl;L vz;fs; ruhrup khw;wj;ij kl;LNk mstpLfpd;wd
kw;Wk; gue;j Nghf;Ffis kl;LNk Fwpf;fpd;wd. mit
Jy;ypakhd jfty;fis toq;Ftjpy;iy.
5. FwpaPl;L vz;fisj; jahupf;Fk; NghJ> nghUl;fspd; juk;
fUjg;gLtjpy;iy. FwpaPl;by; xU nghJthd caHT xU
nghUspd; juj;jpy; Vw;gl;l Kd;Ndw;wj;jpd; fhuzkhf
,Uf;fyhk;> Mdhy; mjd; tpiy caHthy; my;y.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. FwpaPl;L vz;fs gw;wp ePq;fs; vd;d nrhy;fpwPHfs;
11.7 Njrpa tUkhd tpyf;fpfs;:

Njrpa tUkhdk; my;yJ nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; (nkhj;j
cs;ehl;L jahupg;G) mlq;fpa midj;J nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; tpiyfspd; ruhrup msit mstpLk; tpiyf;
FwpaPl;ilf; Fwpf;Fk; nghJthd top.
nkhj;j Njrpa jahupg;G b/g;Nsl;lH vd;gJ xU nghUshjhu nkl;upf;
MFk; > ,J elg;G Mz;bd; nkhj;j Njrpa cw;gj;jpapy;
gztPf;fj;jpd; tpisTfis xU mbg;gilf; fhyj;jpw;F
xg;gpLk;NghJ mjd; cw;gj;jpia xU epiyf;F khw;Wtjd; %yk;
fzf;fpLfpwJ . [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH nghJthf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L jahupg;G ([p.b.gp) b/g;Nsl;lUld;
Fog;gkilaf;$Lk; . [pbgp b/g;Nsl;lH [pvd;gp b/g;Nsl;lupd; mNj
rkd;ghl;ilg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ> Mdhy; [pvd;gpia tpl ngausT
kw;Wk; cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy;.
nkhj;j Njrpa jahupg;G ([p.vd;.gp) b/g;Nsl;liug; Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ
174
nkhj;j Njrpa jahupg;G b/g;Nsl;lH vd;gJ gztPf;fj;jpw;fhd Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Fwpg;G
rupnra;jy; MFk;> ,J cz;ikahd [pvd;gpia cw;gj;jp nra;a
ngaustpyhd [pvd;gpf;F nra;ag;gLfpwJ. [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH
EfHNthH tpiyf; FwpaPlL ; f;F (rpgpI) xU khw;wPl;il toq;FfpwJ >
NkYk; tHj;jf Xl;lq;fspy; rpy khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; xg;gPll ; stpy;
jpwe;j re;ij ehl;bYs;s kf;fspd; eydpy; Vw;gLk; ghjpg;Gfis
gFg;gha;T nra;a mjDld; ,ize;J gad;gLj;jyhk; . rpgpI xU
$il nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ>
mNj Neuj;jpy; [pvd;gp b/g;Nsl;lH xU nghUshjhuj;jhy; cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLk; ,Wjp nghUl;fs; midj;ijAk; xUq;fpizf;fpwJ. ,J
[p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;liu gztPf;fj;jpd; tpisTfis ,d;Dk;
Jy;ypakhfg; gpbf;f mDkjpf;fpwJ> Vnddpy; ,J xU rpwpa
Jizf;FOTf;F kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy.
nkhj;j Njrpa jahupg;G ([p.vd;.gp) b/g;Nsl;liuf; fzf;fpLfpwJ
[p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH gpd;tUk; #j;jpuj;Jld; fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ:
[p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH = (ngausT [p.vd;.gp / upay; [p.vd;.gp) x 100
,jd; tpisthf xU rjtPjkhf ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ> nghJthf
%d;W jrk ,lq;fSld;. [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;liuf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd
Kjy; gb gFg;gha;Tf;fhd mbg;gilf; fhyj;ij jPHkhdpg;gjhFk;.
Nfhl;ghl;by;> mbg;gil fhyk; kw;Wk; jw;Nghija fhyq;fSf;fhd
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; kw;Wk; ntspehl;L tUtha;
juTfSld; ePq;fs; gzpahw;wyhk; kw;Wk; b/g;Nsl;lH fzf;fPl;bw;F
Njitahd Gs;sptptuq;fis gpupj;njLf;fyhk;. ,Ug;gpDk;>
ngaustpyhd [p.vd;.gp kw;Wk; cz;ikahd [p.vd;.gp
Gs;sptptuq;fs;> fhyg;Nghf;fpy; gl;bayplg;gl;l b/g;Nsl;lH Mfpait
nghJthf kj;jpa tq;fpfs; my;yJ gpw nghUshjhu epWtdq;fspd;
ntspaPLfs; %yk; mZfg;glyhk; . Aidnll; ];Nll;]py;>
nghUshjhu gFg;gha;T gzpafk;> nrapd;l; Y}ap]; ngluy; uprHt;
tq;fp kw;Wk; gpwH ,e;jj; juitAk; mNjNghd;w Gs;sptptuq;fis
fz;fhzpf;Fk; gpw Fwpfhl;bfisAk; toq;Ffpd;wd> mit
mbg;gilapy; xNu tp\aj;ij mstpLfpd;wd> Mdhy; ntt;NtW
#j;jpuq;fs; %yk;. vdNt cz;ikapy; [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;liuf;
fzf;fpLtJ nghJthf Njitaw;wJ. [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; juit vt;thW tpsf;FtJ vd;gJ kpf Kf;fpakhd
gzp.
[p.vd;.gp Gs;sptptuq;fis tpsf;Fjy;

[p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH> Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sgb> gztPf;f rupnra;jy; kl;LNk.
mjpf [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH> fhyj;jpw;fhd gztPf;f tpfpjk;
mjpfkhFk;. cz;ikahd [p.vd;.gp vd;gJ ehl;bd; cz;ikahd Self-Instructional Material
175
Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk;
Njrpa tUkhdk; mstplg;gLfpwJ. tUtha; tPL jpUk;Gk; tiu
Fwpg;G
cyfpy; cw;gj;jp vq;Fs;sJ vd;gijg; nghUl;gLj;jhJ.
cz;ikahd [p.vd;.gp kw;Wk; cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jpapy; cs;s NtWghLfisg; nghWj;jtiu> cz;ikahd
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahdJ mnkupf;f nghUshjhu
MNuhf;fpaj;jpd; tpUg;gkhd eltbf;ifahFk;. cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpf;F
$Ljyhf mnkupf;fh jdJ ntspehl;L KjyPLfspd; mbg;gilapy;
vt;thW nray;gLfpwJ vd;gij upay; [pvd;gp fhl;LfpwJ.

vOJq;fs;
1. [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;liuf; fzf;fpLtjw;fhd #j;jpuk; vd;d?
11.8 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; mjd; eltbf;iffs; kPJ
xsp tPRfpwJ. ,J mbg;gilf; fUj;Jfspd; tpsf;fj;Jld;
njhlq;FfpwJ> gpd;dH njhlHe;J nghUshjhu nghUshjhu
tpfpjq;fs;> FwpaPl;L vz;fs; kw;Wk; Njrpa tUkhd tpyf;fpfs;
Fwpj;J tpupthf tpsf;FfpwJ.
1. xU nghUshjhuk; kpf tpiuthf tsUk;NghJ gztPf;fk;
Vw;gLfpwJ. gzthl;lk;> kWGwk;> xU nghUshjhuk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
fhyg;gFjpapy; tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ Vw;gLfpwJ.
2. FwpaPl;L vz; vd;gJ mbg;gil kjpg;Gld; xg;gpLk;NghJ tpiy
my;yJ msit gpujpgypf;Fk; xU vz;zpf;if.
3. [p.vd;.gp b/g;Nsl;lH = (ngausT [p.vd;.gp / upay; [p.vd;.gp) x
100
176
myF XII: EfHT nray;ghL KjyPl;L nray;ghL EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
nray;ghL
;
12.1 mwpKfk; Fwpg;G
12.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
12.3 EfHT nray;ghL
12.3.1 KjyPlL; nray;ghL
12.4 %yjdk; kw;Wk; tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; XusT nray;jpwd;
12.5 ngUf;fp
12.6 KLf;fp
12.7 RUf;fk;
12.1 mwpKfk;:
nghUshjhuj;jpy;> EfHT vd;gJ tPLfshy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfisg; gad;gLj;JtjhFk;. tPLfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfis thq;FtJ EfHT nryT vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J EfHTf;F NtWgLfpwJ> Vndd;why;
Ml;Nlhnkhigy;fs; Nghd;w ePbj;j nghUl;fs; mit thq;Fk;
fhyfl;lj;jpy; Kf;fpakhf nrytpdq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd> Mdhy;
mit EfHT Nritfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd> cjhuzkhf xU
Ml;Nlhnkhigy; mit khw;wg;gLk; my;yJ mfw;wg;gLk; tiu
Nghf;Ftuj;J Nritfis toq;FfpwJ.
12.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
%yjdk; kw;Wk; tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; XusT nray;jpwd; gw;wpa

KOikahd gFg;gha;T %yk; khztH EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPlL ;
nray;ghl;bd; fUj;Jf;fs; Fwpj;J xU Nahridiag; ngw KbAk;.
12.3 EfHT nray;ghL
EfHT nray;ghL my;yJ nfapd;rpad; EfHT nray;ghL xU

nghUshjhu #j;jpuk;. ,J nkhj;j EfHTf;Fk; nkhj;j Njrpa
tUkhdj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd nray;ghl;L cwitf; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,ij
gpupl;b\; nghUshjhu epGzH [hd; NkdhHl; nfa;d;];
mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhH. nkhj;j EfHT nrytpdq;fisf; fz;fhzpf;fTk;
fzpf;fTk; ,e;j nray;ghL gad;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;W mtH
thjpl;lhH.
177
EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
; cd;djkhd EfHT nray;ghL EfHNthH nryT Kw;wpYk; tUkhdk;
nray;ghL
kw;Wk; tUkhd khw;wq;fshy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ vd;W $WfpwJ.
Fwpg;G
cz;ik vdpy;> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp (nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jp) fhyg;Nghf;fpy; tsUk;NghJ nkhj;j Nrkpg;G tpfpjhrhukhf
mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;.
EfHT nray;ghL gpd;tUkhW fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ:
C = a + MD.
vq;Nf: C = EfHNthH nryT@ a= jd;dhl;rp EfHT@ M = EfHTf;F

XusT Kidg;G@ D = cz;ikahd nrytopg;G tUkhdk;.
EfHT nray;ghL epiyahd kw;Wk; epiyahdjhf fUjg;gLfpwJ@

midj;J nrytpdq;fSk; Njrpa tUkhdj;jpd; msitf; nfhz;L
nrayw;w Kiwapy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. EfHT nray;ghL kw;Wk;
RahjPd KjyPL Njrpa tUkhdk; rkepiyia mila ePz;l
fhykhf khwhky; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. rkepiyapy;> tzpf
vjpHghHg;GfSk; EfHNthH vjpHghHg;GfSk; nghUe;Jfpd;wd. xU
rhj;jpakhd rpf;fy; vd;dntd;why;> EfHT nray;ghL tUkhdk;
kw;Wk; nry;tj;jpd; tpepNahfj;jpy; khw;wq;fis ifahs KbahJ.
nfapd;rpad; EfHT nray;ghl;bd; Kf;fpa jPHkhdpg;gtH tUkhdk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> nfapd;rpad; KOikahd tUkhdf; fUJNfhis

khw;wpaikf;Fk; Fiwe;jJ %d;W Nfhl;ghLfs; cs;sd.
Kjyhtjhf> EfHT cwtpdH tUkhdj;ijg; nghWj;jJ vd;W
N[k;]; v];. ba+rd;ngHup $WfpwhH.
,jd; nghUs; EfHTr; nryT ngUk;ghYk; mz;il FLk;gq;fs;

rk;ghjpf;Fk; tUkhdq;fshy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> EfHT jPHkhdpf;Fk; xg;gPlL; tUkhdk; ,J.
ba+rd;ngupapd; fUJNfhs; 'cwtpdH tUkhd fUJNfhs;' vd;W

miof;fg;gLfpwJ. mtH jdJ MHg;ghl;lj;jpy; ePz;l fhykhf MPC
= APC> nfa;d;]pd; FWfpa fhy EfHT nray;ghL fUJNfhSf;F
khwhf - MPC <APC vd;W $WfpwhH.
kpy;ld; g;uPl;Nkd; EfHT epue;ju tUkhdj;ijg; nghWj;jJ vd;W

thjpLfpwhH. vjpHghuhj> ,ilepiy tUkhdq;fs; epue;ju EfHTf;F
ve;j tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ. epue;ju EfHT vg;NghJk; epue;ju
Self-Instructional Material tUkhdj;Jld; njhlHGilaJ. epue;ju tUkhdj;ijg; gw;wpa
178
/gpiul;Nkdpd; fUJNfhs; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F> vk;.gp.rp Igprpf;F EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;> mjhtJ vk;.gp.rp = Vgprp.
Fwpg;G
EfHT KbTfis vLf;Fk;NghJ> jdpegHfs; jq;fs; tho;ehspy;

rk;ghjpf;f Ntz;ba nkhj;j tUkhdj;ijg; ghHf;fpwhHfs;.
nkhbfpypahdp> Mz;Nlh]pd; 'tho;f;if Row;rp fUJNfhs;' ePz;l
fhykhf MPC = APC vd;Wk; $WfpwJ.
,e;j Nfhl;ghLfs; midj;Jk; xNu Kbitf; nfhz;Ls;sd:

tUkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ APC FiwfpwJ.
EfHT nray;ghl;bd; jPHkhdpg;gtHfs;:
,Ug;gpDk;> tUkhdj;ijj; jtpu> nkhj;j EfHT jPHkhdpf;Fk;

"Gwepiy" kw;Wk; "mfepiy" my;yJ "cstpay;" fhuzpfspd; fPo;
fPd;]; kw;w fhuzpfSf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; nfhLj;jhH.
Fwpf;Nfhs; fhuzpfs; "nghUshjhu fhuzpfs;" vd;Wk;

miof;fg;gLfpd;wd> mit FWfpa fhyj;jpy; khw;wj;jpw;F
cl;gl;lit. Fwpf;Nfhs; my;yJ nghUshjhu fhuzpfSk;
mstplf;$bait.
mfepiy fhuzpfs; cstpay; kw;Wk; vdNt> kjpg;gPl;bw;F

cl;gl;lit my;y. $Ljyhf> fl;likg;G fhuzpfs; nkhj;j EfHT
nryTfisAk; ghjpf;fpd;wd. ,Wjpahf> nkhj;j EfHTf;fhd
kw;nwhU jPHkhdfuhf epjpf; nfhs;if khWghl;bw;F nfa;d;]; ftdk;
nrYj;jpdhH.
EfHT-tUkhd cwitf; fhz;gpf;Fk; NghJ> EfHTr; nrytpdq;fis

NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l midj;J jPHkhdpg;ghsHfSk; khwhky; ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk; vd;W fUJfpNwhk;. tUkhdk; khWk;NghJ> EfHT khWfpwJ.
,J EfHT nray;ghl;by; ,af;fk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,NjNghy;> xUtH tUkhd khw;wj;ijj; njhlHe;J khw;wq;fisr;

Nrkpf;Fk; NghJ Nrkpg;G nray;ghl;by; ,af;fj;ijg; ngWfpwhH>
khwpyp Nrkpg;gjw;fhd kw;w vy;yh jPHkhdq;fisAk; itj;jpUf;fpwhH.
Mdhy;> mfepiy> Gwepiy my;yJ gpw jPHkhdq;fspy; xd;W
khwpdhy;> EfHT nray;ghL kw;Wk; Nrkpg;G nray;ghL khWk;.
epiyahd nkhj;j tUkhdj;ij mDkhdpj;J> nry;tj;jpd; msT
mjpfupg;gJ EfHT mjpfupg;Gf;F toptFf;Fk; - ,jd; %yk; EfHT
nray;ghl;il Nky;Nehf;fp khw;Wk; kw;Wk; Nrkpg;G nray;ghl;il
fPo;Nehf;fp khw;Wk;. Self-Instructional Material
179
; 1. Fwpf;Nfhs; fhuzpfs;:
nray;ghL
Fwpg;G EfHT nray;ghl;il ghjpf;Fk; Fwpf;Nfhs; my;yJ nghUshjhu

fhuzpfs; ,q;Nf fUjg;gLfpd;wd:
(i) tl;b tpfpjk;:
fpshrpf; ty;YeHfs; EfHT my;yJ Nrkpg;G tl;b tpfpjj;ijg;

nghWj;jJ vd;W fUjpdH. tl;b tPjj;jpd; mjpfupg;G Nrkpg;ig
Cf;Ftpg;gjhfTk;> ,jdhy; EfHT Cf;fkspg;gjhfTk; mtHfs;
ek;gpdH.
tl;b tpfpjj;jpy; mjpfupg;G vd;gJ gj;jpuq;fspd; gz kjpg;gpy; rupT

vd;W nghUs;. ,e;j gj;jpu EfHT gw;WfpwhHfs; Cf;fk; KidfpwJ
itj;jpUg;gtHfs;. epiyahd tl;b jhq;Fk; nrhj;Jfspd; gz kjpg;G
mjd; tl;b tpfpjk; caUk;NghJ FiwfpwJ. ,J ,e;j
nrhj;Jf;fspd; cupikahsHfis Viofshf Mf;FfpwJ> NkYk;
EfHTf;F Cf;fkspf;Fk;. my;yJ mjpf tl;b tpfpjj;jpy;>
gj;jpuj;jpw;fhd tpUg;gk; caUk;. ,J kf;fis Fiwthf
cl;nfhs;s J}z;LfpwJ.
vg;gbapUe;jhYk;> tl;b tpfpjk; EfHT KbTfis ghjpf;Fk; xU

Fwpg;gplj;jf;f fhuzpahf fUjg;glhJ> Vnddpy; mDgt rhd;Wfs;
tl;b tPjj;jpw;Fk; EfHTf;Fk; ,ilapyhd gytPdkhd njhlHigf;
Fwpf;fpd;wd.
(ii) tpw;gid Kaw;rp:
EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; cw;gj;jpahsHfspd; tpsk;guk; kw;Wk; gy;NtW

tpw;gid Kaw;rpfs; EfHT Njitia mjpfupg;gjw;fhd xU topahf
fUjg;gLfpd;wd. tpw;gid Kaw;rpapd; msT mjpfupg;gJ my;yJ
FiwtJ EfHNthH nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfkhfNth my;yJ
FiwthfNth Vw;glf;$Lk;. ,Ug;gpDk;/nkhj;j tUkhdj;ijg;
nghWj;jtiu> tpw;gid Kaw;rpapd; mjpfupg;G EfHTg;
nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupg;gjw;F toptFf;fhJ. NkYk;>
gaDs;s tpw;gid Kaw;rpapd; mstpw;F RahjPdkhd eltbf;if
,y;iy. vdNt> tpsk;gu nrytpdk; mjpfupj;jijj; njhlHe;J Njit
mjpfupg;gJ kjpg;gpLtJ fbdk;.
180
(iii) nry;tj;jpd; msT: EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
EfHNthupd; nkhj;j nry;t epiy EfHTf;fhd Kf;fpakhd Fwpg;G
jPHkhdfukhf fUjg;gLfpwJ. gq;Ffs;> gj;jpuq;fs;> tPl;Lr; nrhj;J

Nghd;w nry;tk; EfHT KbTfis ghjpf;fpwJ. ,e;j nrhj;Jfspd;
cupikahsHfSf;F ,e;j nrhj;JfSf;F NghJkhd tpUg;gk; ,y;iy.
mjdhy;jhd; mtHfs; Vw;fdNt ,e;j nrhj;Jf;fspd;

cupikahsHfshf ,Ug;gjhy; Nrkpg;gjw;fhd mtHfspd; tpUg;gk;
Fiwthf cs;sJ. nrhj;Jf;fis nrhe;jkhff; nfhz;ltHfs;
vjpHfhyj;jpy; nrhj;Jf;fisg; ngWtjw;fhf mjpfkhdtw;iwr;
Nrkpf;fTk; ,g;NghJ FiwthfTk; gad;gLj;j tpUk;GfpwhHfs;. NtW
thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> nrhj;J cupikahsHfSf;F EfHT
mjpf tpUg;gk; cs;sJ> mNj Neuj;jpy; Nrkpf;f tpUk;GtJ
nrhj;Jf;fis nrhe;jkpy;yhj kf;fSf;F kpfg;ngupaJ. fpshrpf;fy;
nghUshjhu ty;YdH V.rp.gpNfhtpd; ngaUf;Fg; gpwF ,J gpNfh
tpisT vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
gpNfh tpisT xU kdpjid vt;tsT Nrkpf;fpwNjh> mt;tsT

mjpfkhf Nrkpg;gjw;fhd mtdJ tpUg;gj;jpd; typikAk; FiwT
vd;W $WfpwJ. ,uz;L Mz;fSf;F xNu khjpupahd Rit kw;Wk;
tUkhdk; ,Ue;jhy;> Mdhy; xUtH Vw;fdNt ngUk; nry;tj;ijg;
ngw;wpUe;jhy;> jw;Nghija Nrkpg;ig mjpfupg;gjw;fhd mtuJ
Cf;fj;njhif ,d;Dk; ngupa nrhj;Jf;fis mDgtpf;fhj kw;wtiu
tpl Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. gpNfhtpd; $w;Wg;gb> EfHTf;fhd Kidg;G
cz;ikahd kjpg;igg; nghWj;jJ> Mdhy; gz kjpg;G> gz ,Ug;G
my;yJ jput nrhj;Jf;fs; Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;jJ.
gz ,Ug;G my;yJ nry;tj;jpd; ngausT kjpg;G nghJ tpiy

kl;lj;jpd; tPo;rr
; p my;yJ caHTld; caHfpwJ my;yJ
tPo;rr
; pailfpwJ. ,e;j cz;ikahd gz epYitfs;
nghUshjhuj;jpd; epfu epjpr; nrhj;Jfshff; fUjg;gl;lhy;> tpiy
kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; nghUshjhuj;jpd; epfu nry;tj;jpd;
epiyapy; khw;wj;ijf; nfhz;L tUk;. cjhuzkhf> tpiy epiy
Fiwe;Jtpl;lhy;> cz;ikahd gz epYitfs; caUk;> epfu
nry;tk; caUk; kw;Wk; EfHT nryT caUk;. ,J gpNfh tpisT
my;yJ cz;ikahd rkepiy tpistpd; rhuk;.
(iv) EfHNthH fld; tpjpKiwfs;:
ePbj;j EfHNthH nghUl;fis thq;Ftjw;fhd thlif-nfhs;Kjy;
Kiw ,e;j ehl;fspy; gpugykhfptpl;lJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,j;jifa
181
; nryT fld; tpjpKiwfs; kw;Wk; epge;jidfisg; nghWj;jJ.
nray;ghL
EfHNthH fld; epahakhd mbg;gilapy; fpilj;jhy;> xUtpj
Fwpg;G
nrytpdk; cUthFk;. vt;thwhapDk;> jtiz thq;Ftjw;fhd tl;b
tpfpjk; Njitahd fPo;-nfhLg;gdTfspd; msit tpl xg;gPll
; stpy;
Fiwe;j Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jJ> epYitj; njhifia jpUg;gpr;
nrYj;j Ntz;ba fhyj;jpd; ePsk;.
(v) xj;jpitf;fg;gl;l fl;lzk;:
rpy Neuq;fspy;> Fwpg;ghf NghHf;fhyj;jpy;> nrytpdq;fisf;

fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjhy; EfHNthH nryT FiwfpwJ. ,j;jifa
fl;Lg;ghLfs; ePf;fg;gl;lTld;> EfHNthH Nfhupf;ifapd; gpd;dilT
ntspg;ghL mjpfupf;Fk;> ,J nryT mjpfupg;gpw;F toptFf;Fk;.
2. cstpay; fhuzpfs;:
FWfpa fhyj;jpy; khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; cstpay; my;yJ mfepiy

fhuzpfs; EfHT nray;ghl;bd; tbtj;ij jPHkhdpf;fpd;wd.
mbg;gil kjpg;Gfs;> mZFKiwfs;> kdepiyfs; Nghd;wtw;iwf;

nfhz;l cstpay; my;yJ mfepiy fhuzpfSf;F fPd;];
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jJ. ,it nghUshjhu fhuzpfisg; Nghy
mstplf;$bait my;yJ Fwpg;gpl;lit my;y. nfa;d;]pd;
$w;Wg;gb> EfHTf;F gpd;dhy; cs;s Nehf;fq;fs; ,d;gk;> FWfpa
ghHit> jhuhs kdg;ghd;ik> jtwhd fzf;fPL> fspahl;lk; kw;Wk;
Njhw;wkspj;jy;. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j $Wfs; FWfpa fhyj;jpy;
fzprkhf khwhJ. ,JNghd;w NghjpYk;> ,e;j mfepiy kw;Wk;
fyhr;rhu fhuzpfs; tbtj;ijAk; nray;ghl;bd; msitAk; khw;Wk;
jpwd; nfhz;lit.
,e;j mfepiy fhuzpfspy;> EfHNthupd; vjpHghHg;GfSk;

mZFKiwfSk; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. gFj;jwpT elj;ij
tUkhdk; my;yJ tpiy kl;lj;jpy; vjpHghHg;ig Vw;gLj;Jk;
EfHNthH vjpHfhyj;jpy; ,JNghd;w khw;wj;ij vjpHghHf;fhjij tpl
mjpfkhf cl;nfhs;syhk; vd;W $WfpwJ. kPz;Lk;> xNu khjpupahd
tUkhdk; nfhz;l xNu egHfspilNa (mNj taJ)> rpy egHfs;
rpf;fdj;ij Nehf;fpa mtHfspd; mZFKiwfspy; cs;s
NtWghLfshy; kw;wtHfis tpl mjpfkhf gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;
vd;gijf; fhzyhk;.
NkYk;> xU epiy-FwpaPl;L rKjhaj;jpy;> jdpegH thOk; r%fj;jpd;

Self-Instructional Material EfHT Kiwahy; EfHT nryT ngupJk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
182
"N[hd;rpi]j; njhlu"> jdpegHfs; jq;fs; mz;il kw;Wk; EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
gzpahsHfspd; EfHT Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;WfpwhHfs;> ,jdhy;
Fwpg;G
mtHfspd; epiy ghjpf;fg;glhJ.
3. fl;likg;G fhuzpfs;:
tUkhd tpepNahfk;> kf;fs;njhif fhuzpfs; Nghd;w fl;likg;G

fhuzpfs; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F xl;Lnkhj;j EfHT nrytpdq;fspy; rpy
jhf;fq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd.
Kjy; Kf;fpakhd fl;likg;G fhuzp tUkhd tpepNahfk; MFk;.

EfHTf;fhd Fiwe;j Kidg;G (vk;.gp.rp) Fiwe;j tUkhdk; nfhz;l
FLk;gq;fs; kw;Wk; mjpf tUkhdk; nfhz;l FLk;gq;fSf;F
Fiwthf cs;sJ vd;W $wg;gLfpwJ. MfNt> Vio tUkhdk;
nfhz;l FLk;gq;fSf;F Mjuthf tUkhdj;ij kWgfpHT nra;jhy;>
,e;j kf;fspd; vk;.gp.rp mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy; nkhj;j EfHT caUk;.
,uz;lhtjhf> xNu khjpupahd tUkhdq;fSld; EfHT

nrytpdq;fspy; cs;s NtWghLfSf;F kf;fs;njhif fhuzpfs;
fhuzkhfpd;wd. kf;fs;njhif fhuzpfspy; FLk;gj;jpd; msT>
FLk;g tho;f;ifr; Row;rpapy; epiy> trpf;Fk; ,lk;> njhopy;> ,dk;
Nghd;wit mlq;Fk;. ngupa FLk;gq;fs; my;yJ mjpfkhd
Foe;ijfs; kw;Wk; tajhd egHfisf; nfhz;l FLk;gq;fs; rpwpa
FLk;gq;fis tpl mjpfkhf cl;nfhs;fpd;wd vd;gJ cz;ikjhd;.
,Ug;gpDk;> FWfpa fhy gFg;gha;tpy;> ,e;j Gs;sptptu fhuzpfis
Gwf;fzpf;f KbAk;.
epjp nfhs;if:
murhq;fj;jpd; tup nryT jpl;lq;fs; EfHT nrytpdq;fis

ghjpf;Fk;. gzf;fhuHfsplk; mjpf tup nrYj;Jk;gb Nfl;lhy;> ,e;j
tUtha;fs; Vio kf;fSf;F khdpakhf toq;fg;gl;lhy;> nkhj;j
EfHT caUk;. mjpf tupfs; nrytopg;G tUkhdj;ij Fiwg;gjd;
%yk; EfHT Fiwf;fpd;wd.
,g;NghJ> nts;s epthuzk;> KjpNahH Xa;t+jpak;> khdpa tpiyapy;

czT jhdpaq;fis tpepNahfpj;jy; Nghd;w khdpaq;fs;
toq;fg;gl;lhy; epr;rakhf ,e;j khdpaq;fisg; ngWgtupd; EfHTr;
nryT caUk;. ,tHfs;jhd; vk;.gp.rp mjpfk;. ,t;thW> tup-nryT
jpl;lk; tUkhd kWgfpHT %yk; EfHT nray;ghl;il khw;WfpwJ.
183
nray;ghL
; 12.3.1 KjyPl;L nray;ghL:
Fwpg;G Kf;fpaj;Jtk;:
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; tUkhdk;> ntspaPL kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G

Mfpait gaDs;s Njitiag; nghWj;jJ> ,J EfHT nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; KjyPlL
; nghUl;fspd; (Y = C + I) nrytpdq;fisg;
nghWj;jJ.
xU rkepiy tUkhdj;ij (Y = C + I) guhkupf;f> EfHT nryTfs;

kw;Wk; KjyPl;L nryTfs; nkhj;j tUkhdj;jpw;F (Y) rkkhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;@ Mdhy; nfa;d;]; toq;fpa cstpay; cstpay;
rl;lj;jpd;gb> tUkhdk; mjpfupg;gjhy; EfHT mjpfupf;fpwJ> Mdhy;
tUkhdj;jpy; mjpfupg;gij tpl FiwthfTk; mjpfupf;Fk;. ,jd;
nghUs; tUkhd mjpfupg;gpd; xU gFjp nrytplg;glhky;
Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
tUkhdk; kw;Wk; EfHT mjpfupg;Gf;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntspiaf;

Fiwf;f Nrkpg;G KjyPL nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. KjyPlL
;
nrytpdq;fspd; mjpfupg;G %yk; ,e;j ,ilntsp
nrhUfg;glhtpl;lhy;> ,jd; tpisthf nghUl;fspd; gq;Ffspy;
(ruf;Ffs;) vjpHghuhj mjpfupg;G ,Uf;Fk;> ,J kdr;NrhHT kw;Wk;
ntF[d Ntiyapd;ikf;F toptFf;Fk;.
jw;NghJs;s gq;Ffs;> gq;Ffs; kw;Wk; gj;jpuq;fis thq;FtJ ,jpy;

,y;iy> mit xUtuplkpUe;J ,d;ndhUtUf;F gzk; gupkhw;wk;
kl;LNk. mj;jifa KjyPL ntWkNd epjp KjyPL kw;Wk;
nghUshjhuj;jpy; Ntiytha;g;gpd; msit ghjpf;fhJ. xU KjyPL
cz;ikahd KjyPL vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J kdpj kw;Wk;
tsq;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupg;gjw;F toptFf;Fk;> ,jd; tpisthf
mtHfspd; Ntiytha;g;G mjpfupf;Fk;. KjyPL xU Xl;l khwp kw;Wk;
mjd; vjpH gq;F %yjdk; vdg;gLk; gq;F khwp.
KjyPlL
; tiffs;:
KjyPL jdpahH KjyPL my;yJ nghJ KjyPlhf ,Uf;fyhk;@ mJ

J}z;lg;glyhk; my;yJ jd;dhl;rp ngwyhk;. J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL
vd;gJ tUkhdj;jpy; khw;wj;Jld; khWk; KjyPL> mjdhy;jhd; ,J
tUkhdk;> kPs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. xU ,ytr epWtd
Kjyhspj;Jt nghUshjhuj;jpy;> KjyPLfs; ,yhg Nehf;fj;jhy;
J}z;lg;gLfpd;wd. ,j;jifa KjyPL tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fSf;F kpfTk; gjpyspf;ff;$baJ> mjhtJ tUkhdk;
184
mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL mjpfupf;fpwJ. vdNt> EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPlL
; tistpd; tbtk; Nky;Nehf;fp rha;thf
Fwpg;G
cs;sJ> ,J tUkhd caHtpd; tpisthf KjyPl;bd; caHit
Fwpf;fpwJ.
`pf;]pd; $w;Wg;gb> KjyPL ,uz;L tiffshFk;> NkNy

tptupf;fg;gl;Ls;sgb J}z;lg;gl;L jd;dhl;rp - ,J ntspaPl;by;
cs;s khWghLfspypUe;J RahjPdkhf cs;sJ. jd;dhl;rp KjyPli ; l
tpsf;fp> `pf;]; Fwpg;gpLfpwhH: "nghJ KjyPL> fz;Lgpbg;GfSf;F
Neub gjpypy; epfOk; KjyPL kw;Wk; ePz;l fhy KjyPlb ; y;
ngUk;gFjp jdf;Fj;jhNd nrYj;jg;gLk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ>
,it midj;Jk; jd;dhl;rp KjyPLfshf fUjg;glyhk;."
jd;dhl;rp KjyPL tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSf;F czHjpwd;

,y;iy. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ,J tUkhd
khw;wq;fspypUe;J RahjPdkhf cs;sJ kw;Wk; ,yhg Nehf;fj;jhy;
kl;LNk topelj;jg;gLtjpy;iy my;yJ J}z;lg;gLtjpy;iy.
jd;dhl;rp KjyPLfs; Kjd;ikahf murhq;fj;jhy; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd>
mit ,yhgj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; my;y.
jd;dhl;rp KjyPLfs; xU Nghupd; my;yJ jpl;lkplg;gl;l

nghUshjhuj;jpd; xU jdpj;Jtkhd mk;rkhFk;> vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf>
,e;jpahtpd; ghJfhg;ig tYg;gLj;j MAjq;fs; kw;Wk;
cgfuzq;fSf;fhd nryTfs; jd;dhl;rp KjyPL vd;W
miof;fg;glyhk;> Vnddpy; ,J tUkhdk; my;yJ ,yhg msitg;
nghUl;gLj;jhky; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
ngupa cw;gj;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;a J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL rpwg;ghf

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. jd;dhl;rp KjyPl;bd; tisT ,lkpUe;J
tykhfTk;> fpilkl;l tUkhd mr;Rf;F ,izahfTk; ,aq;Fk; xU
NeH Nfhl;lhy; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
nkhj;j KjyPL kw;Wk; epfu KjyPL:
vt;thwhapDk;> KjyPl;il khw;WtJ vd;gJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpy;>

%yjdj;jpd; gq;if guhkupf;f nrytplg;gl;lijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
jw;NghJs;s cw;gj;jpj; jpwdpy; Nja;khdk;> cilfs; kw;Wk; fz;zPH
kw;Wk; tof;fw;w jd;ikia <Lnra;a ,e;j tif nrytpdq;fs;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. epfu KjyPL> khw;W KjyPli ; l tpl nkhj;j
KjyPlb; d; mjpfkhFk;. epfu KjyPL vd;w nrhy; rpy Neuq;fspy;
%yjd cUthf;fj;jpw;Fk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
185
; FwpaPlhf:
nray;ghL
Fwpg;G Ig = In + Ir
Ig vd;gJ nkhj;j KjyPL> epfu KjyPL kw;Wk; Ir ,y; khw;W KjyPL

%yjd EfHT vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J ,d; khWghLfs;
MFk;> ,J Y> O kw;Wk; E Mfpatw;wpy; FWfpa fhyj;jpYk; ePz;l
fhyj;jpYk; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fis Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. xU fhyfl;lj;jpy;
Ig> Ir vd;why;> d; NeHkiw kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd; gq;F In f;F rkkhf
mjpfupj;J tUtjhy; ,jd; %yk; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; jpwd;
mjpfupf;Fk;. Ir> Ig vd;why;> ,d; vjpHkiwahdJ kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd;
gq;F cw;gj;jp jpwd; kPJ rhjfkw;w tpisTfis Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;.
vt;thwhapDk;> Ig = Ir vd;why;> In = O kw;Wk; nghUshjhuk;
tof;fw;Wg;Nghjy; kw;Wk; Nja;khdk; Mfpatw;wpd; fhuzkhf
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; jpwid ,of;fr; nra;fpwJ.
cw;gj;jpahsH kw;Wk; ePbj;j EfHNthH nghUl;fs; cs;spl;l %yjd

gq;Ff;F epfu $Ljyhf epfu KjyPli ; l tiuaWg;gJ kpfTk;
nghUj;jkhdjhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,q;Nf %yjdk; vd;why; tzpf myFfs;
itj;jpUf;Fk; Miy kw;Wk; cgfuzq;fspd; ifapUg;gpy; Ftpjy;.
vdNt> nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiag; nghWj;jtiu> mjhtJ
nghUshjhuk; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; tsu Ntz;Lkhdhy; mjd; %yjdg;
gq;Fk; tsu Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ njspT.
KjyPli
; l epHzapg;gtHfs;:
jdpahH KjyPL (J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL) %yjdj;jpd; XusT

nray;jpwd; kw;Wk; tl;b tPjj;ijg; nghWj;jJ. %yjdj;jpd; XusT
nray;jpwd;> vjpHfhy vjpHghHg;Gfisg; nghWj;jJ> ,J td;Kiwapy;
Vw;w ,wf;fkhf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt> jdpahH KjyPL kpfTk;
Nfg;uprpNah]; MfpwJ kw;Wk; kpfTk; Fiwthf cs;sJ>
cz;ikapy;> mJ kpf mjpfkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
tUq;fhy njhopy;KidNthH %yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwid tl;b

tpfpjj;Jld; xg;gpl;Lf;nfhz;Nl ,Uf;fpwhHfs;> NkYk; Ke;ijaij
tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ kl;LNk KjyPL nra;a KbT
nra;fpwhHfs;. tl;b tpfpjk; vk;.,.rpia tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;
KjyPL ,Uf;fhJ. jdpahH KjyPll ; hsHfSf;F mjpf KjyPL nra;a
midj;J tifahd Cf;fq;fSk; toq;fg;gl;l NghjpYk;> kdr;NrhHT
fhyj;jpy; KjyPLfs; Fiwe;j kl;lj;jpw;F tPo;rr ; pailtjw;fhd
fhuzpahf ,J mikfpwJ.
186
nghJ KjyPl;bd; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f gq;F> jd;dhl;rp KjyPL vd;Wk; EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
miof;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J nghUshjhuj;ij NkYk; Fiwe;j tUkhd
Fwpg;G
kl;lq;fSf;F tPo;j;JtjpypUe;J fhg;ghw;w murhq;fj;jpw;F
Vw;glf;$Lk;> ,J Kd;dzpapy; tUfpwJ. tof;fpd; jd;ikapy;> nghJ
KjyPL ,yhg Nehf;fj;jpypUe;J RahjPdkhf cs;sJ. KjyPl;L
ngUf;fpf;F tUkhdk;> ntspaPL kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G Mfpatw;wpy;
rhjfkhd jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jtjw;F xU epiyahd KjyPL
mtrpak; vd;gjhy;> kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ> mjpf KjyPl;il topelj;j
yhgj;ijj; jtpu NtW Nehf;fq;fs; mtrpak; - ,J nghJ
KjyPll ; hy; kl;LNk epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ. NkYk;> nghJ KjyPl;bd;
msit kl;Lk; fl;Lg;gLj;j KbahJ> Mdhy; KjyPlL ; ngUf;fp
kw;wgb rhj;jpakhdij tpl mjpf rf;jpAld; nray;gl itf;Fk;
msTf;F tpupthf;f jpwd; nfhz;lJ.
NkYk;> nrytpd Xl;lj;jpy; ,Ue;J ntspNaWtij murhq;fj;jhy;

jLf;f KbAk;> mNj Nghy; Neuj;ij epHzapf;Fk; jpwDk; cs;sJ>
,jdhy; ngUf;fp mjd; KO kw;Wk; ,ytr tpisahl;ilf;
nfhz;bUf;fl;Lk;. nghJ KjyPL nry;tkhf ,Uf;ff;$lhJ vd;gjw;F
ve;j fhuzKk; ,y;iy- Ntiytha;g;ig cUthf;Fjy; kw;Wk;
jdpahH EfHT kPjhd ngUf;fj;jpd; ed;ik tpisTfspd; tpisthf
mjd; ghjfkhd %d;whk; epiy tpisTfis (VNjDk; ,Ue;jhy;)
<Lnra;a KbahJ. vdNt> KjyPli
; lj; J}z;Lk; gy;NtW
eltbf;iffis gFg;gha;T nra;tJ mtrpakhfpwJ.

Fwpg;G: m. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,lj;jpy; cq;fs;
gjpiy vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. EfHT nray;ghL vd;why; vd;d?
12.4 %yjdk; kw;Wk; tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; XusT nray;jpwd;:
%yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwd;> ve;j Neuj;jpYk;>

njhopy;KidNthupd; vjpHghHg;Gfspd; epiyiag; nghWj;jJ. ,J
fz;Lgpbg;G kw;Wk; GJik kw;Wk; caUk; tpiyfspd; vjpHghHg;ghy;
caHj;jg;gLfpwJ.
187
; %yjd nghUl;fspd; tpisr;riyf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd ve;jnthU
nray;ghL
nghJthd mr;RWj;jyhy; ,J Fiwf;fg;gLfpwJ> mNj Neuj;jpy;
Fwpg;G
mtw;wpd; tpepNahf tpiy mjpfupf;fg;gl tha;g;Gs;sJ.
cyfpd; mbg;gil epr;rakw;w jd;ikahy;> mJ vg;NghJk; td;Kiw

Vw;w ,wf;fq;fSf;F cl;gl;lJ> ehq;fs; tho;fpNwhk;. vjpHfhyj;jpy;
%yjdj;jpd; kjpg;G my;yJ tpisr;riy rupahf mwpe;J
nfhs;tjw;fhd topfs; vq;fsplk; ,y;iy. MfNt> epfo;fhyj;ij
vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd topfhl;bahf vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpNwhk;. jw;NghJs;s
fUj;J> r%f jPHg;G kw;Wk; ngUk;ghd;ikapdupd; elj;ij Mfpait
tUq;fhyj;jpd; rupahd Fwpfhl;bahf ehq;fs; Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpNwhk;.
vdNt> %yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwd; gw;wpa nfa;d;]pd; Nfhl;ghL

tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; %Nyhgha gq;if mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.
tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfs; Ntiytha;g;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;by; xU Kf;fpa

gq;iff; nfhz;Ls;sd> Vndd;why; ve;jnthU %yjd nrhj;J
my;yJ KjyPl;bd; tUq;fhy tpisr;riyg; nghWj;jtiu tzpfHfs;
xUNghJk; cWjpahf ,Uf;f KbahJ. %yjdj;jpd; XusT
nray;jpwdpd; ,uz;L epHzapg;ghsHfspy; (tpepNahf tpiy kw;Wk;
tUq;fhy kf#y;)> ,J tUq;fhy kf#y; MFk;> ,J mjdpd; kpf
Kf;fpakhd gz;G cWjpaw;w jd;ikia mspf;fpwJ.
tUq;fhy kf#y; jsj;jpd; vjpHghHg;Gfs; XusTf;F ,Uf;Fk;

epfo;Tfs; (mit mjpfkhfNth my;yJ FiwthfNth
fz;lwpag;glyhk;) kw;Wk; XusT vjpHfhy cz;ikfs;
(ek;gpf;ifAld; vjpHghHf;f KbahJ) vd;W nfa;d;]; $wpdhH.
,J mbg;gilapy; epr;rakw;w epfo;Tfspd; fhuzkhf tUq;fhy

tpisr;ry; Kf;fpakhf %yjdj;jpd; tpspk;G nray;jpwd; kpfTk;
epiyaw;wJ vd;gij rhHe;Js;sJ. vdNt> Kjyhspj;Jtj;jpd; fPo;
nghUshjhu elj;ijapd; cWjpaw;w jd;ikapd; ngUk;gFjp %yjd
nrhj;Jf;fspypUe;J tUq;fhy tpisr;rypd; epiyaw;w jd;ikf;F
tptupf;fg;gLfpwJ.
KjyPlL ; KbTfs; kf#y; vjpHghHg;Gfshy; epHtfpf;fg;gLfpd;wd>

cz;ikahd tpisr;ryhy; my;y. ePbj;j %yjd nrhj;Jf;fis
thq;Ftjw;F ve;jnthU cz;ikahd tUkhdKk;
njhopy;KidNthUf;F jpUk;gp tuj; njhlq;Ftjw;F Kd;G ngUk;
cldb nryTfs; Njit. vdNt> %yjd nrhj;Jf;fs;
epfo;fhyj;jpw;Fk; epr;rakw;w vjpHfhyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd xU
,izg;ghFk;. vdNt> tzpf vjpHghHg;Gfspd; cz;ikahd jd;ik
188
kw;Wk; vk;.,.rp kPjhd mtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fis gFg;gha;T nra;tJ EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
mtrpak;.
Fwpg;G
,e;j vjpHghHg;Gfs; Kf;fpakhf ,uz;L tiffshFk;:
1. FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs;>

2. ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfs;.
FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs;:
FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs; jw;NghJs;s Miyapd; cw;gj;jpapy;

,Ue;J fpilf;Fk; tUkhdj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lit. ,e;j
vjpHghHg;Gfs; jw;NghJs;s cz;ikfSld; njhlHGilait.
,j;jifa #o;epiyfspy; Miy epiyahd msT vd;W
fUjg;gLfpwJ> mjpypUe;J ntspaPL kl;LNk khWgLk;.
FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfisg; nghWj;jtiuapy;> jw;Nghija

ntspaPl;ilg; ghjpf;Fk; ngUk;ghyhd epge;jidfs; ehSf;F ehs;
my;yJ thuk; my;yJ khjk; tiu xNu khjpupahf ,Ug;gjhy; mjpf
msT njhlHr;rp cs;sJ.
FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs;> mtw;wpd; ,ay;ghy;> czug;gl;l Kbtpd;

ntspr;rj;jpy; Nrhjpf;fg;glyhk;> NkYk; vjpHfhyk; njhlHghd
vjpHghHg;Gfis mwpa topfhl;bahf khWk;. FWfpa fhy
vjpHghHg;Gfs; epiyahdit vd;gjhy;> KjyPl;by; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fis
mtHfshy; tpsf;f Kbatpy;iy.
ePz;l fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs;:
vjpHfhy epfo;Tfspd; mbg;gilapy; njhopy;KidNthupd;

vjpHghHg;GfNs ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;GfshFk;> NkYk; jhtuj;jpd;
mstpd; khWghLfspypUe;Njh my;yJ Kw;wpYk; Gjpa Miy
epWtg;gl;ljpypUe;Njh tpw;gid tUthiag; gw;wpaJ.
ePz;l fhy vjpHghHg;Gfspy;> jhtuj;jpd; msT kw;Wk; mjpypUe;J

cw;gj;jpapd; msT khWgLk;. ,uz;L tifahd vjpHghHg;GfSf;F
,ilapyhd NtWghL vd;dntd;why;> FWfpa fhyj;jpy;> jhtuj;jpd;
msit khw;WtJ kpfTk; fbdk;> mNjrkak; ePz;l fhykhf
jhtuj;jpd; msT khw;wg;gLtJ kl;Lky;yhky; Gjpa
,ae;jpuq;fisAk; epWt KbAk;.
ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfis mwpAk;NghJ> Miyapd; rhj;jpakhd

tho;f;if> guhkupg;G kw;Wk; Nja;khdf; fl;lzq;fs;> njhopy;El;gj;jpy;
189
; vjpHfhy khw;wk;> gaDs;s Njitapd; epiy> Gjpa Nghl;bapd;
nray;ghL
jd;ik> Nghupd; rhj;jpak;> tupr;Rikapy; khw;wq;fs; Nghd;w rpf;fyhd
Fwpg;G
,aw;ifapd; gy rpukq;fs; > Vw;Wkjp re;ijapd; msT> njhopyhsH
re;ijapd; epiyikfs;> vjpHfhy Mz;Lfspd; murpay; #o;epiy
Nghd;wit tsUk;.
vt;thwhapDk;> ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfis ghjpf;Fk; rpy fhuzpfs;

epr;rakw;w vjpHfhyj;ij rhHe;J ,y;iy> Vnddpy; KjyPL
nra;tjw;fhd KbTfs; Xustpw;F ,Uf;Fk; %yjd nrhj;Jf;fspd;
gq;F njhlHghd cz;ikfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lit.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> xU Gjpa rHf;fiu njhopw;rhiyia
cUthf;Ftjw;fhd xU KbT> jw;NghJs;s rHf;fiu cw;gj;jpapd;
msitg; nghWj;jJ> ,J vspjpy; fz;lwpaf;$ba xU cz;ik>
Mdhy; njhiyJ}u vjpHfhyj;jpy; ehk; jpl;lkpl Kaw;rpf;fpNwhk;
kw;Wk; ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfis cUthf;f Kaw;rpf;fpNwhk;>
midj;Jk; NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l fhuzpfs; mj;jifa Kd;dwptpg;ig
fbdkhf;Ffpd;wd.
gq;F guptHj;jidfs; kw;Wk; tUq;fhy kf#y;:
KjyPlb ; y; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fis Vw;gLj;Jk; ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfspd;

epr;rakw;w> epiyaw;w kw;Wk; Mgj;jhd jd;ik etPd Kjyhspj;Jt
nghUshjhuq;fspy; gq;Fr; re;ij re;ijapd; nray;ghLfspy;
gpujpgypf;fpwJ.
tUq;fhy kf#y; rhjfkhf ghHf;fg;gLk;NghJ> gq;F tpiyfs;

caUk;@ ,it rhjfkw;wjhf ghHf;Fk;NghJ> gq;F tpiyfs;
tPo;rr
; pailAk;. vt;thwhapDk;> gj;jpuq;fis thq;FtJ my;yJ
tpw;gid nra;tJ cz;ikahd KjyPl;ilf; Fwpf;fhJ> Mdhy; xU
epjp guptHj;jid kl;LNk vd;gijf; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;. xU
kdpjd; KjyPL nra;Ak; NghJ (thq;Fk; NghJ) ,d;ndhU kdpjd;
KjyPL nra;fpwhd; (tpw;fpwhd;).
,t;thW> tpw;gid nfhs;Kjy; kw;Wk; KjyPL KjyPL KjyPlb; w;F

rkk;. vdNt> nkhj;j r%f KjyPL> mj;Jld; nkhj;j epjp KjyPL
Mfpait gq;F guptHj;jid guptHj;jidfspd; tpisthf
ghjpf;fg;glhky; cs;sd. cz;ikahd njhopw;Jiwia cz;ikapy;
cUthf;FtJ vd;dntd;why;> Gjpa njhopw;rhiyfs; kw;Wk; gpw
tifahd %yjd nrhj;Jf;fis cUthf;f $Ljy; Mz;fs; kw;Wk;
nghUl;fspd; Ntiytha;g;G.
190
gq;Fr; re;ijfspy; guptHj;jidfs; Kjd;ikahf epjp EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
guptHj;jidfs; kw;Wk; gioa gq;Ffspd; tpw;gid kw;Wk;
Fwpg;G
nfhs;Kjy; Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGilait vd;whYk;> mit Gjpa
gq;Ffs;> gq;Ffs; kw;Wk; gj;jpuq;fspd; tpiyfis ghjpg;gjd; %yk;
cz;ikahd KjyPl;il ghjpf;fpd;wd.
Gjpa gj;jpuq;fis mjpf tpiyapy; kpjf;Fk; jpwd; Gjpa

jpl;lq;fspy; ngupa mstpy; KjyPL nra;tij Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
jw;NghJs;s gq;FfSf;fhd caH Nkw;Nfhs;fs; tl;b tPjj;Jld;
njhlHGila ,e;j tif epWtdq;fSf;fhd vk;.,.rp mjpfkhf
,Ug;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ> vdNt> KjyPlb
; w;fhd J}z;Ljy; tYthdJ.
xNu tif Gjpa %yjd nrhj;Jf;fis cUthf;FtJ yhgfukhf
,Uf;Fk;.
kWGwk;> gq;Fr; re;ijapy; gioa gq;Ffspd; tpiyfs; Fiwthf

,Uf;Fk;NghJ> Gjpatw;iw cUthf;Ftij tpl> jw;NghJs;s
nrhj;Jf;fspy; cupikNfhuiy thq;FtJ mjpf yhgk; jUk;@ ,e;j
#o;epiyfspy;> %yjdj;jpd; vk;.,.rp jw;Nghija tl;b tpfpjj;ij
tpl Fiwthf ,Uf;ff;$Lk;> vdNt> KjyPL nra;a J}z;Ljy;
,Uf;fhJ. cz;ikahd guptHj;jid gq;Fr; re;ijfspy;
gj;jpuq;fspd; tpiyfspd; Nkw;Nfhs;fshy; epHtfpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j gq;F guptHj;jid re;ijfs;> jw;Nghija kw;Wk;

vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd ,izg;Gfshf khWfpd;wd> Vndd;why; ,e;j
re;ijfspy; jhd; jw;NghJs;s KjyPLfs; jpdrup my;yJ
kzpNeuj;jpw;F $l kjpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd. vjpHfhy epfo;Tfs;
njhlHghd jw;Nghija vjpHghHg;Gfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fNs
kjpg;Gfspy; khw;wq;fSf;fhd Kf;fpa fhuzq;fs;. vjpHfhyj;jpy;
epfof;$ba ve;jnthU epfo;Tk; gj;jpuq;fspd; jw;Nghija tpiyapy;
fzf;fpy; vLj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ (js;Sgb).
Cfk; kw;Wk; epWtdk;:
gq;Fr; re;ijapy; fzprkhd msT Cfq;fs; cs;sd> ,J

%yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwdpd; cWjpaw;w jd;ikia
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. re;ijapd; cstpaiy vjpHghHf;Fk; Kaw;rpapy;
Cfk; cs;sJ. vz;lHgpiu]; mtHfspd; tho;ehspy; nrhj;Jf;fspd;
tpisr;riy vjpHghHf;Fk; Kaw;rpapy; cs;sJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> gq;Fr; re;ij re;ijapy; gj;jpuq;fspd; tpiyfspy;
Vw;gLk; Vw;w ,wf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp xU Cf tzpfH 'tpiuthf
gzf;fhuH' ngWk; Nghf;iff; nfhz;Ls;shH. Self-Instructional Material
191
; Mifahy;> mtH Kjd;ikahf cz;ikahd KjyPlb ; y; MHtk;
nray;ghL
fhl;ltpy;iy> Mdhy; xNu ,utpy; gzf;fhuH Mtjw;F Vf epjp
Fwpg;G
guptHj;jidfspd; tpisthf tpiyfspd; NtWghl;by;@ mNjrkak;
xU epWtdk; Gjpa %yjd nrhj;Jf;fspy; cz;ikahd KjyPl;by;
MHtk; fhl;Ltjd; %yk; Mz;fs; kw;Wk; nghUl;fSf;F mjpf
Ntiytha;g;ig mspf;fpwJ. Mifahy;> %yjd nrhj;Jf;fspd;
tUthia mtHfspd; tho;ehspy; ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F Kd;dwptpg;gjpy;
mtH MHtkhf cs;shH. gq;Fr; re;ijapy; gj;jpuq;fspd;
Nkw;Nfhs;fis epHtfpf;Fk; ePz;lfhy vjpHghHg;Gfs; epWtdj;ij tpl
Cfj;jpd; tpisthFk; vd;W nfa;d;]; czHe;jhH.
,jdhy;> epWtdj;ij tpl Cfq;fs; gq;Fr; re;ij tpiyapy;

khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. fhuzk;> kf;fSf;F nghJthf
vjpHfhy epfo;Tfs; gw;wp njupahJ kw;Wk; mtHfspd; jdpg;gl;l
jPHg;Gfspy; ek;gpf;if ,y;iy> mtHfs; kw;wtHfspd; jPHg;ig
ek;gpapUf;fpwhHfs;> mtHfs; epidf;fpwhHfs;> rpwe;j jfty;. njhopy;
ty;YeHfshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; njhopy;El;g cstpay;> epWtd
kw;Wk; tzpf mwpT ,y;yhj mnkr;#H KjyPll ; hsHfSf;F ,J
Fwpg;ghf cz;ik.
mtHfspd; Kf;fpa mf;fiw 'tof;fkhd jPHg;ig' (mjhtJ>

vjpHfhyj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; kjpg;gPLfspd; jdpj;Jtkhd rupahd
jd;ikia Vw;Wf;nfhs;tJ) rhHe;jJ. mjdhy;jhd;> kpfTk;
jpwikahd kw;Wk; mDgtk; tha;e;j Kd;dwptpg;ghsH $l re;ij
cstpaiy Kd;dwptpf;f Kaw;rpf;fpwhH> re;ijapy; Fiwe;j
vz;zpf;ifapyhd jpwikahd gq;Nfw;ghsHfspd; gFj;jwptw;w
eltbf;iffis gFj;jwpT nra;a Kaw;rpf;fpwhH. vdNt> Cfq;fs;
gq;Fr; re;ijapy; epWtdj;ij Mjpf;fk; nrYj;Jfpd;wd.
mNjrkak;> gq;Fr; re;ijapd; nray;ghLfs; nghUshjhu

thdpiyapd; khw;wq;fisf; Fwpf;Fk; xU fhw;wOj;jkhdpahf
nray;gLfpd;wd vd;gij kWf;f KbahJ> ,JNghd;w eltbf;iffs;
jw;NghJs;s gq;F> gq;F kw;Wk; ghJfhg;gpd; rupahd kjpg;gPl;il
toq;fj; jtwptpLfpd;wd. kjpg;gPl;L nray;Kiw kpfTk;
FiwghLilaJ> Vnddpy; Vuhskhd cstpay;> r%f> murpay;
kw;Wk; epWtd fhuzpfs; mjd; jPHkhdj;ij ghjpf;fpd;wd. NtW
thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ,e;j fhuzpfs; Kw;wpYk; nghUshjhu
fhuzpfis tpl Njitaw;w Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg; ngWfpd;wd.
cz;ikahd epWtdj;ij tpl tpiuthd yhgj;ij <l;Ltjpy; mjpf

mf;fiw nfhz;l njhopy;Kiw tpahghupfis nfa;d;]; tpkHrpj;jhH.
192
gq;Fr; re;ijapy; nray;ghLfs; kpfTk; cz;ikahdit (Cfj; EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
jd;ikiaf; fhl;bYk;) ,Ue;jhy;> gj;jpuq;fspd; rupahd kjpg;Gfs;
Fwpg;G
gpujpgypf;fg;gLk;> NkYk; mit KjyPl;lhsHfis tpUk;Gk; xU ey;y
topfhl;bahf nray;glf;$Lk; vd;W mtH czHe;jhH. Mdhy;
cz;ikahd eilKiwapy;> gq;Fr; re;ij Nkw;Nfhs;fs; gy
CdKw;NwhHfshy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd kw;Wk; jdpahH KjyPl;bw;fhd
xU fhuzj;ij NkYk; nra;aj; jtwptpLfpd;wd.

vOJq;fs;

xg;gpLf
1. FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfspy; xU rpW Fwpg;ig vOJq;fs;?
12.5 ngUf;fp
ngUf;fpf; Nfhl;ghl;il Kjypy; vg;.V.fhd; Ntiytha;g;gpd;
mbg;gilapy; cUthf;fpdhh;. N[.vk;.fPd;]; ,jid tUkhdk; my;yJ
KjyPlL ; g; ngUf;fpahf khw;wp mikj;jhh;. Njrpa tUkhdj;jpd;
khw;wj;jpw;Fk; KjyPl;by; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpw;Fk; cs;s tPjj;ij
ngUf;fp vd;W tiuaWf;fyhk;. ∆I vd;gJ KjyPlb
; y; mjpfhpg;igAk;
kw;Wk; ∆Y vd;gJ tUkhdj;jpy; mjpfhpg;igAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. vdNt
ngUf;fp K =∆Y/∆I vd cs;sJ.
KjyPL khw;wj;jpdhy; tUkhdk; khWtjhy; ngUf;fpia KjyPl;L

ngUf;fp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ngUf;f tpisT vd;gJ
tUkhdj;jpd; khw;wkhf mJ Vw;gLj;jpa nrytpd Xl;lj;jpy; epue;ju
khw;wkhf tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ngUf;fpapd; vLNfhs;fs;
fPd;]pd; ngUf;fpapd; Nfhl;ghL rpy vLf;Nfhs;fspd; mbg;gilapy;

nray;gLfpwJ. mit:
1) jd;dpr;irahd KjyPlb
; y; khw;wk; cz;L.
2) J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL ,y;iy.
3) ,Wjpepiy EfHT ehl;lk; epiyahf ,Uf;Fk;. Self-Instructional Material

193
; 4) EfHT elg;G tUkhdj;ijr; rhHe;Nj mikAk;.
nray;ghL
Fwpg;G 5) ngUf;fpapd; nray;ghl;by; fhy ,ilntsp ,y;iy.
6) cWjpj; NjitNfw;g EfHT nghUs;fs; fpilf;Fk;.
7) ehL %ba nghUshjhukhFk;> me;epa ehl;bd; nray;ghLfs;

jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jhJ.
8) tpiyapy; khw;wk; ,y;iy.
9) KO epiy Ntiytha;g;G epiyf;F fPo; nghUshjhuk;

nray;gLfpwJ.
mwpKfk; nra;a Kf;fpakhd nrhw;fs;
1. MRL - frpTfspd; XusT tPjk;
2. MPS - Nrkpf;f XusT Kidg;G
3. MRT - tuptpjpg;G tpfpjk;
4. MPM - ,wf;Fkjp nra;tjw;fhd XusT Kd;fzpg;G
5. MPC - EfHTf;fhd XusT Kd;fzpg;G - EfHTf;fhd XusT

Kidg;G (MPC) vd;gJ tUkhdj;jpd; mjpfupg;G fhuzkhf EfHNthH
nrytpdq;fspd; mjpfupg;G MFk;. ,ij ∆C / ∆Y vd
ntspg;gLj;jyhk;> ,J tUkhd khw;wj;ij tpl EfHT khw;wkhFk;.
vspa nghUshjhuj;jpw;fhd ngUf;fp tpisitf; fzf;fpLfpwJ
k = 1 / MPS
= 1 / (1-MPC)
rpf;fyhd nghUshjhuj;jpw;fhd ngUf;fp tpisitf; fzf;fpLfpwJ
k = 1 / MRL
= 1 / (MPS + MRT + MPM)
= 1 / (1-MPC)
cjhuzj;jpw;F:
194
murhq;fk; nrytpdq;fis $100>000 mjpfupj;jhy;> Njrpa tUkhdk; EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
my;yJ cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp> $100>000
Fwpg;G
mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,e;j gzk; xU Gjpa jdptopg;ghijia
cUthf;Ftij Nehf;fp nry;fpwJ vd;W ehq;fs; fUJfpNwhk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> $100>000 vd;gJ murhq;fk; nrYj;Jk; kf;fSf;F

tUkhdk; kl;LNk. vq;fs; vLj;Jf;fhl;by;> rhiyia epHkhzpf;f
murhq;fk; xU epWtdj;ij epakpf;fpwJ vd;W ehq;fs; fUJfpNwhk;.
epWtdk;> njhopyhsHfSf;F Cjpak; mspf;fpwJ. ,e;j
njhopyhsHfs; gpd;dH gzj;ij nrytpLfpwhHfs;.
EfHTf;fhd tpspk;G Kd;fzpg;G (MPC) 0.8 Mf ,Ue;jhy;> ,jd;

nghUs; EfHNthH 80% tUkhdj;ij nrytpLfpwhH. vdNt 0.2 (20%)
Nrkpf;f tpspk;G Kd;fzpg;G (MPS) Nrkpf;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J ngUf;fp
(K) = 5 (K = 1 / (1-0.8 Kjy;)
vdNt> nghUshjhuj;jpy; NrHf;fg;gl;l> $100>000 ,d; xl;Lnkhj;j

tpisT> $500>000 MFk;. ,NjNghy;> xU mjpetPd
nghUshjhuj;jpw;F> “Nf" If; fzf;fpLtjw;F tpspk;G tuptpjpg;G
tpfpjk; (MRT)> ,wf;Fkjpf;fhd tpspk;G Kd;fzpg;G (MPM) kw;Wk;
Nrkpf;f tpspk;G Kd;fzpg;G (MPS) Mfpatw;Wf;fhd kjpg;Gfis ehk;
nrUfyhk;.

vOJq;fs;

xg;gpLf
1. ngUf;fp tpisT vd;why; vd;d?
12.6 KLf;fp:
ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp Nghl;bahsHfs; my;y: mit ,izahd
fUj;Jf;fs;. tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; (kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G)
kPjhd KjyPlb
; y; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fspd; tpisit ngUf;fp
fhz;gpf;Fk; mNj Ntisapy;> jdpahH KjyPlb ; y; EfHT khw;wj;jpd;
tpisit KLf;fp fhl;LfpwJ. Self-Instructional Material
195
; EfHT nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupj;jhy;> rhjdq;fSf;fhd
nray;ghL
Njit mjpfupf;Fk; vd;W KLf;fk; Nfhl;ghL $WfpwJ> ,e;j
Fwpg;G
nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ,ae;jpuq;fs; $Wfpd;wd. Mdhy;
,ae;jpuq;fSf;fhd Njit jahupg;Gf;fhd Njitia mjpfupg;gij
tpl Ntfkhf mjpfupf;Fk;.
Mifahy;> KLf;fp> KjyPlb ; d; msit EfHT khw;w tpfpjj;jpd;

nray;ghlhf Mf;FfpwJ> Mdhy; EfHT msitf;
nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> EfHT
nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; Njit ePz;lfhy khw;wq;fspd; tpisthf
KjyPlL; nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis KLf;fp
mstpLfpwJ.
KLf;fpf;F mbg;gilahd Nahrid EfHT nghUl;fSf;fhd

Njitf;Fk; mtw;iw cUthf;Fk; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; Njitf;Fk;
,ilapyhd nray;ghl;L cwthFk;. KLf;fk; Fzfk; vd;gJ
J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPLfSf;F ,ilapyhd EfHT nrytpdq;fspy;
nfhLf;fg;gl;l epfu khw;wj;jpw;fhd tpfpjkhFk;.
v = ∆ I/∆ C
FwpaPl;L uPjpahf v vd;gJ KLf;fk; Fzfj;ij Fwpf;fpwJ@ KjyPlL

;
nrytpdq;fspd; epfu khw;wq;fis ∆ I Fwpf;fpNwd;@ kw;Wk; ∆C
EfHT nrytpdq;fspd; epfu khw;wj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. $Ljy; nryT
EfHTg; nghUl;fspy; 10 Nfhb &gha; $Ljy; KjyPl;bw;F
toptFf;fpwJ. KjyPl;L nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; 20 Nfhb> gpd;dH
KLf;fp 2. Mf;rpyNul;lupd; cz;ikahd kjpg;G mijtpl xd;W
my;yJ Fiwthf ,Uf;fyhk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> cz;ikahd cyfpy;> EfHTg; nghUl;fSf;fhd

mjpfupj;j nryTfs; vg;NghJk; %yjdg; nghUl;fSf;fhd
nrytpdq;fis mjpfupf;f toptFf;Fk;. vdNt KLf;fk; Fzfk;
nghJthf g+[;[paj;ij tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. xU a+dpl;
ntspaPl;bw;F ey;y %yjd cgfuzq;fs; Njitg;gl;lhy;> KLf;fk;
Fzfk; xw;Wikia tpl kpf mjpfk;.
tpjptpyf;fhd re;jHg;gq;fspy;> KLf;fp g+[;[pakhfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;.

rpy Neuq;fspy; mJ mjpfupj;j EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; cw;gj;jp
(mtw;wpd; Njit mjpfupj;jjd; tpisthf) ,e;j nghUl;fis
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; %yjd cgfuzq;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;f
Self-Instructional Material toptFf;fhJ.
196
$Ljy; KjyPlL
; epjp fpilf;ftpy;iy. J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPL kw;Wk; EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
KLf;fk; tpisTfs; ,y;yhj epiyapy;> EfHTf;fhd mjpfupj;j
Fwpg;G
Njit rkd; nra;ag;gl;lJ kw;Wk; EfHT khw;wq;fspd; tpisthf
J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPl;bd; tpisTfis (KjyPlL ; nghUl;fs;
njhopy;fspy;) mstpLk; KLf;fp> ,it midj;jpYk; Ntiy nra;aj;
njupatpy;iy Mz;Lfs;.
KLf;fk; nfhs;ifapd; cz;ik mbg;gilahdJ EfHT nghUl;fs;

njhopy;fspy; cs;sij tpl KjyPl;L nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy;
cw;gj;jpapy; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs; kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G mjpfk; vd;w
mwpT. KLf;fp nghUshjhuj;jpd; njhopy;Jiw Jiwf;F mjpf
nghUe;jf;$ba jd;ikiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ@ NkYk;> EfHT nghUl;fs;
njhopy;fspy; cs;sij tpl %yjd nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy;
Ntiytha;g;gpy; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs; Vd; mjpfkhf ntspg;gLfpd;wd
vd;w rpf;fiy gFg;gha;T nra;a ,J Kay;fpwJ.
%yjdg; nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;jhj nghUshjhuj;jpy; KLf;fk;

tpisTfs; ,Uf;fhJ. Mdhy; me;j epiyik kpfTk; mupjhdJ.
cw;gj;jp Kiwfs; vt;tsT %yjdkhf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;why;>
mjpfkhdJ KLf;fpapd; kjpg;ghf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
KLf;fk; nfhs;if mbg;gilapy; epfu KjyPL njhlHghd xU

fUj;J. vdNt> KLf;fpia epfu KjyPl;NlhL ,izf;Fk; xU
ntspg;ghl;il ehk; ngw Ntz;Lk;. nkhj;j KjyPlb
; y; ,uz;L $Wfs;
cs;sd vd;gij ehq;fs; mwpNthk;: epfu KjyPL kw;Wk; Nja;khdk;
fhuzkhf %yjdj;ij khw;WtJ. ehk; vOjyhk;
nkhj;j KjyPL = Igt = V (Yt-Yt-1) + R.
mjhtJ> fhyfl;lj;jpy; nkhj;j KjyPl;bd; msT Ke;ija

fhyfl;lj;jpy; tUkhd khw;wj;jpd; KLf;fk; tpisTfspd; kjpg;G
kw;Wk; %yjdj;ij khw;Wtjw;fhd Njitiag; nghWj;jJ.
Inet = V (Yt-Yt - 1)
MfNt> fhyfl;lj;jpy; epfu KjyPL vd;gJ epfu KjyPL vd;gJ

tUkhd khw;w tpfpjk; kw;Wk; KLf;fp (V) Mfpatw;iw kl;LNk
rhHe;Js;sJ.
ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp NtWghLfs;:
197
; KLf;fp vd;w fUj;jpd; njspthd GupjYf;F> ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp
nray;ghL
Mfpatw;iw NtWgLj;JtJ gaDs;sJ. tUkhdk; kw;Wk;
Fwpg;G
Ntiytha;g;G kPjhd KjyPlb ; d; khw;wj;jpd; tpisit ngUf;fp
fhl;LfpwJ> mNjrkak; KLf;fp KjyPlb ; y; EfHT khw;wj;jpd;
tpisTfisf; fhl;LfpwJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;>
ngUf;fp tp\aj;jpy;> EfHT KjyPl;ilg; nghWj;jJ> mNjrkak;
KLf;fp KjyPL EfHT rhHe;jJ.
NkYk;> ngUf;fp EfHTf;fhd jd;ikiag; nghWj;jJ kw;Wk; KLf;fp

,ae;jpuq;fspd; MAisg; nghWj;jJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy;
$Wtjhdhy;> Ke;ijaJ cstpay; fhuzpfisr; rhHe;jJ>
gpe;ijaJ njhopy;El;g fhuzpfisr; rhHe;jJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> KLf;fp
$l mjd; Njhw;wj;jpy; cstpay; uPjpahdJ> Vnddpy; ,J
J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPlN; lhL ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> Mdhy; mJ
nray;ghl;L tpkhdj;jpy; kpfTk; njhopy;El;gkhfpwJ. KLf;fp
KjyPlb ; y; EfHT khw;wq;fspd; vjpHtpid (tpisT) fhl;LfpwJ
kw;Wk; ngUf;fp mjpfupj;j KjyPlb
; w;F EfHT vjpHtpid fhl;LfpwJ.
NkYk;> ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fpf;F ,ilapyhd NtWghl;bd; kw;nwhU

kpf Kf;fpakhd Gs;sp mit gpd;Ndhf;fp nray;gLtjhFk;. ngUf;fp
mjd; mjpfupg;igg; NghyNt tUkhdj;ijf; Fiwg;gjpy; fLikahf
nray;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; KLf;fp nray;gLtJ %yjdj;ij
khw;Wtjw;fhd tPjj;jpw;F fPo;Nehf;fpa jpirapy;
jilnra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ> Vnddpy; tzpfHfs; mzpe;jpUf;Fk;
%yjdj;ij khw;whj mstpw;F mjpf KjyPL nra;ayhk;.
KLf;fp Ntiy:
KLf;fk; Nfhl;ghl;bd; nray;ghl;il gFg;gha;T nra;tJ

Rthu];akhdJ.
KLf;fp Kjd;ikahf ,uz;L fhuzpfisg; nghWj;jJ:
(i) %yjd-ntspaPl;L tpfpjk;> kw;Wk;
(ii) %yjd cgfuzq;fspd; MAs;.
Kjyhk; fhyfl;lj;jpy; EfHNthH nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit 10%

mjpfupj;Js;sJ vd;W itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;@ EfHT khw;wk; mj;jifa
100 nghUl;fshf ,Uf;Fk;> NkYk; ,e;j nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp
nra;a vq;fSf;F 110 ,ae;jpuq;fs; Njitg;gLk; (epiyahd %yjd
Self-Instructional Material ntspaPl;L tpfpjj;jpy; 1: 10). Mf> vq;fSf;F nkhj;jk; 20
198
,ae;jpuq;fs; Njit> 10 ,ae;jpuq;fs; %yjd gq;Ff;F $LjyhfTk;> EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
khw;Wtjw;F 10 ,ae;jpuq;fs;.
Fwpg;G
,t;thW> EfHNthH nghUl;fSf;fhd Njitapy; 10% mjpfupg;G

KjyPlL
; nghUl;fspd; (,ae;jpuq;fs;) Njit 100% cau
toptFf;fpwJ. ,ijj;jhd; KLf;fk; nra;tjw;fhd nfhs;if
fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. EfHT xU rpwpa mjpfupg;G KjyPlb ; y; gd;klq;F
mjpfupg;Gf;F toptFf;Fk; vd;W KLf;fp fhl;LfpwJ (J}z;lg;gl;l
KjyPL vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ).
,e;j Kd;nkhopit ehk; gpd;tUkhW $wyhk;:
EfHT nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit Fiwe;J tUtjd; tpisthf

KjyPlb; y; Vw;gl;l rupT Nja;khd tpfpjj;ij jhz;lf;$lhJ.
Nja;khd vz;zpf;ifia tpl mjpfkhd KjyPlb ; y; rupitj;
J}z;Lk; EfHT tPo;rr
; p ntWkNd mjpfg;gbahd nrayw;w jpwDf;F
toptFf;fpwJ.
vdNt> 'KLf;fp' vd;W miof;fg;gLtJ ngUf;fj;ij tpl kpfTk;

rpf;fyhd fUtpahFk;> Vnddpy; ,J EfHT tpfpjj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;ijg; nghWj;jJ> ,J FWfpa fhyj;jpy; ve;jnthU
tpfpjj;jpYk; mjpf Nfg;uprpNah]; KjyPli; lg; nghWj;jJ. vdNt>
KjyPli
; l Mjupf;Fk; mbg;gil epiyikfs; (njhopy;El;g kw;Wk;
fl;likg;G) ,Uf;Fk; tiu> KLf;fk; nfhs;if KjyPl;bw;fhd EfHT
mbg;gilapyhd J}z;Ljypd; Fwpfhl;bahf nray;gLfpwJ.
KLf;fpapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; kw;Wk; tuk;Gfs;:
KLf;fk; Nfhl;ghl;bd; mwpKfk; tUkhdj;ij cUthf;Fk;

nray;Kiwia ,d;Dk; njspthf Gupe;J nfhs;s cjTfpwJ.
ngUf;fy; eltbf;ifahy; kl;LNk xU Fwpg;gpl;l mstpyhd
tUkhdj;ij (my;yJ Ntiytha;g;G) mila KbAk; vd;gjpy;
re;Njfkpy;iy. Mdhy; KLf;fp %yk; tUkhd guty; nray;Kiw
Jupjg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. KLf;fp kw;Wk; ngUf;fp ifNfhHf;Fk;NghJ>
tUkhdj;jpy; mjpf td;Kiw Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs; Nky; kw;Wk; fPo;
jpirfspy; epfo;fpd;wd.
Kjyhtjhf> ,e;j ngUf;fp-KLf;fp njhlHG tzpfr; Row;rpapd; kpf

Kf;fpakhd mk;rq;fspy; xd;iw ntspr;rk; Nghl ekf;F cjTfpwJ.
,e;j mk;rk; vd;dntd;why;> EfHT-nghUl;fs; njhopy;fis tpl
KjyPlL; nghUl;fs; njhopy;fs; kpfTk; td;Kiwapy; khWgLfpd;wd.
EfHT-nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; rpwpa Njit khw;wq;fs; KjyPl;L- Self-Instructional Material
199
; nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; fzprkhf tpupthf;fg;gl;l khw;wq;fSf;F
nray;ghL
toptFf;fpwJ vd;gijf; fhl;l ,J vq;fSf;F cjtpaJ.
Fwpg;G
,uz;lhtjhf> ngUf;fp-KLf;fp njhlHG tzpfr; Row;rpfisg; gw;wpa

ekJ Gupjiy Mokhf mjpfupj;Js;sJ. tzpf Row;rpapd; NguhrpupaH
`pf;]pd; Nfhl;ghL Kjd;ikahf KLf;fk; nfhs;ifapd;
mbg;gilapy; mike;Js;sJ.
NkYk;> NguhrpupaH MH.v/g;. `Nuhl; jdJ epiyahd tsHr;rp

Nfhl;ghl;il KLf;fk; nfhs;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; mbg;gilahff;
nfhz;Ls;shH. nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiag; gw;wpa `Nuhl;bd;
gFg;gha;T tzpfr; Row;rpia xU khWk; nghUshjhu epfo;thf mtH
gFg;gha;T nra;jjpypUe;J tsHe;jJ.
mjd; ngupa jj;JthHj;j Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ,Ue;jNghjpYk;> KLf;fk;

nfhs;ifiag; gad;gLj;jp kpfTk; vspikahd khjpupfisg;
gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd Kaw;rpfs; jtwhd KbTfisj; juf;$Lk;
vd;gij mjd; jFjpfs; Rl;bf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. %yjdg; nghUl;fSf;F
EfHNthupd; epiyahd tpfpjj;jpd; Cfq;fs;> epiyahd khw;Wj;
Njit> mjpfg;gbahd jpwd; ,y;yhjJ> epue;ju Njit Mfpait
ajhHj;jthjj;jpy; ,y;iy. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;>
midj;J ,ae;jpuq;fSk; gad;ghl;by; ,Uf;Fk; tiu kl;LNk
KLf;fk; Nfhl;ghL nry;YgbahFk; (mjpf jpwd; ,y;iy)> $Ljy;
Neuk; tpyf;fg;gLfpwJ> cw;gj;jp fhuzpfSf;F ,ilapyhd njhlHG
khw;wg;gltpy;iy (khwhj njhopy;El;gk;)> NghJkhd %yg;nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; ciog;G Mfpait cs;sd kw;Wk; njhopy; KidNthH
Njitahd epjp topKiwfis fl;lisaplTk;.
nghJthf ,J mt;thW ,y;iy vd;gjhy;> ehk; gbj;Js;sgb

KLf;fp gw;wpa vspa fUj;Jf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ,y;iy. KLf;fp
mstpl gy Kaw;rpfs; rpwpa gyidj; je;jd. njhopy;KidNthupd;
elj;ij gy fhuzpfspd; %yk; tpsf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;> Fwpg;ghf
vjpHfhy vjpHghHg;Gfs; Fwpg;ghf Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. NkYk;
ajhHj;jkhd mDkhdq;fs; vspikahd mDkhdq;fspd; fPo;
ngwg;gl;l KbTfspypUe;J fzprkhf NtWgl;l KbTfSf;F
toptFf;Fk;.
jPHkhdk;:
KLf;fp Nfhl;ghL tUkhdk; kw;Wk; %yjd nghUl;fspd; gq;F

nefpo;thd tpfpjj;jpy; mjpfupf;Fk; vd;w fUj;ij mbg;gilahff;
nfhz;lJ. njhopy;El;gj;jpd; mbg;gil khw;wq;fs; %yjd-ntspaPl;L
200
tpfpjk; kw;Wk; ,ae;jpuq;fspd; MAs; ,uz;ilAk; khw;Wk; epiy EfHT nray;ghL KjyPlL
;
nray;ghL
,Jty;y. nghUshjhu tsHr;rp> NkYk;> %yjdj;ij rhHe;jJ
Fwpg;G
kl;Lky;y. nkhj;j KjyPlb
; y; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis tpsf;f KLf;fp
NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy.
rpwg;G #o;epiyfspy; kw;Wk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; kl;LNk

ntspaPl;bw;Fk; %yjd nghUl;fspd; gq;Ff;Fk; ,ilNa tpfpjhrhu
cwT cs;sJ. ngUf;fp tpl gad;ghl;by; KLf;fk; nfhs;if
Fiwthf nghJthdJ@ mNjrkak; Kd;Ndhf;fp kw;Wk; gpd;jq;fpa
jpirfspy; ,aq;FfpwJ> KLf;fp Nky;Nehf;fpa jpirapy; kl;LNk
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk; (fPo;Nehf;fpa jpirapy; ,J khw;W KjyPL
toq;fg;glhj mstpw;F kl;LNk nray;gLfpwJ).
vdNt> xU 'J}a;ikahd' KLf;fp khjpupf;F Fiwe;jgl;rk; %d;W

mbg;gil epge;jidfs; nray;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ njspthfpwJ:
(i) jw;NghJs;s jpwd; KOikahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ>
(ii) KLf;fp cUthf;fpa Nfhupf;ifia g+Hj;jp nra;a mDkjpf;f epjp

NghJkhdJ>
(iii) ntspaPl;by; khw;wk; jw;fhypfkhdJ my;y vd;W fUjg;gLfpwJ.
,j;jifa Njitfs; ntspg;gilahf nfhs;ifapd; nghJthd

jd;ikiaf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.

vOJq;fs;
1. KLf;fk; nfhs;if vd;d $WfpwJ?
12.7 RUf;fk;;:
,e;j myF EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPlL ; nray;ghL Fwpj;j cz;ikfis
ngupjhf;FfpwJ. ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp Mfpatw;Wld; %yjdk;
kw;Wk; tzpf vjpHghHg;gpd; XusT nray;jpwd; nghUj;jkhd
vLj;Jf;fhl;LfSld; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
201
nray;ghL
; 12.8 cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;f gjpy;fs;
Fwpg;G 1. ,J nkhj;j EfHTf;Fk; nkhj;j Njrpa tUkhdj;jpw;Fk;
,ilapyhd nray;ghl;L cwitf; Fwpf;fpwJ .
2. FWfpa fhy vjpHghHg;Gfs; jw;NghJs;s Miyapd;

cw;gj;jpapy; ,Ue;J fpilf;Fk; tUkhdj;ij mbg;gilahff;
nfhz;lit. ,e;j vjpHghHg;Gfs; jw;NghJs;s cz;ikfSld;
njhlHGilait. ,j;jifa #o;epiyfspy; Miy epiyahd msT
vd;W fUjg;gLfpwJ> mjpypUe;J ntspaPL kl;LNk khWgLk;.
3. ngUf;f tpisT vd;gJ tUkhdj;jpd; khw;wkhf mJ

Vw;gLj;jpa nrytpd Xl;lj;jpy; epue;ju khw;wkhf
tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. NtW thHj;ijfspy; $Wtjhdhy;> ngUf;f
tpisT vd;gJ ve;jnthU Gjpa Crp %yk; vOk; ,Wjp
tUkhdj;jpd; mjpfupg;igf; Fwpf;fpwJ
4. EfHT nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupj;jhy;>

cgfuzq;fSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;Fk; vd;W KLf;fk; Nfhl;ghL
$WfpwJ




202
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cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
Fwpg;G
myF XIII: cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
13.1 mwpKfk;
13.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
13.3 cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
13.4 nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik
13.6 gztpay; nfhs;if
13.7 epjpf; nfhs;if
13.8 ,aw;gpay; nfhs;if my;yJ Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;
13.9 RUf;fk;
13.1 mwpKfk;:
Kjyhspj;Jt nghUshjhuj;ij ghjpf;Fk; fhy tHj;jf Row;rpfis
jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;j my;yJ mfw;Wtjw;fhd Kf;fpa jPHTfspy;
xd;W nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;. ,J ntWkNd xU
nghUshjhuj;jpd; xU jdpj; JiwAld; kl;Lky;y> mjd; midj;J
cz;ikfisAk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpwJ. nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikia
cWjpg;gLj;j> gy nghUshjhu eltbf;iffs; tFf;fg;gl;L
nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
13.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:
jw;NghJ> nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy; jpl;lk; nghJthf %d;W
Nehf;fq;fis miltij Nehf;fp ,af;fg;gLfpwJ:
(i) Row;rp Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; my;yJ epHtfpj;jy;@
(ii) KO Ntiytha;g;G kl;lj;jpy; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpia

Cf;Ftpj;jy; kw;Wk; epiyepWj;Jjy;@ kw;Wk;
(iii) tpiy cWjpg;gLj;jy; %yk; gzj;jpd; kjpg;igg; NgZjy;.
203
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; 13.3 cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;:
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; ,yf;F vd;gJ ,ul;il Nehf;fq;fshf
Fwpg;G
ePbj;j KO Ntiytha;g;G; kw;Wk; tpiy epiyj;jd;ik vd MFk;;.
nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jypd; Nehf;fq;fis mila gpd;tUk;

fUtpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd> Fwpg;ghf tHj;jf Row;rpfspd;
fl;Lg;ghL> xg;gPlL
; tpiy epiyj;jd;ik kw;Wk; nghUshjhu
tsHr;rpia miljy;:
(1) gztpay; nfhs;if
(2) epjpf; nfhs;if@ kw;Wk;
(3) Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;.
1. gztpay; nfhs;if:
Vw;w ,wf;fq;fspd; rpf;fiyj; jPHg;gjw;fhd kpfTk; nghJthf

gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l nfhs;if gztpay; nfhs;if. ehzaf; nfhs;if
tq;fp kw;Wk; fld;> epWtdq;fs; kw;Wk; tPLfSf;fhd fld;fspd;
fpilf;Fk; jd;ik> tl;b tpfpjq;fs;> nghJf; fld; kw;Wk; mjd;
Nkyhz;ik kw;Wk; gz Nkyhz;ik Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGilaJ.
vt;thwhapDk;> tHj;jf Row;rpfs; njhlHghf gztpay; nfhs;ifapd;

mbg;gil rpf;fy; nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikia miltjw;F fld;
msitf; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJk; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJk; MFk;. xU
kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ> fld; tpupthf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; gztPf;f
Vw;wk; NghJ> mjd; Xl;lk; rupghHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
ehza Nkyhz;ik vd;gJ tzpf tq;fp mikg;gpd; nray;ghlhFk;>

,jd; %yk; mjd; tpisTfs; Kjd;ikahf xl;Lnkhj;j
nghUshjhuj;ijAk; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. ehza Nkyhz;ik tq;fpfspd;
gz ,Ug;G msit Neubahf ghjpf;fpwJ> nghUshjhuj;jpy; gzk;
kw;Wk; fld; toq;fiy xOq;FgLj;JfpwJ> ,jd; %yk; tl;b
tpfpjq;fspd; fl;likg;igAk; fld; fpilg;gijAk; ghjpf;fpwJ.
,e;j ,uz;L fhuzpfSk; xl;Lnkhj;j Njit (EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPL)

kw;Wk; nghUshjhuj;jpy; nrytpdq;fspd; Xl;lj;jpd; $Wfis
ghjpf;fpd;wd. tq;fpf; fldpd; tpupthf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk; nrytpd
Xl;lj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ (gzj;ijg; nghWj;jtiu) kw;Wk; tq;fpf;
fldpy; RUf;fk; mijf; Fiwf;fpwJ vd;gJ ntspg;gilahdJ.
,e;j MAjq;fspd; jhf;fq;fis ,g;NghJ RUf;fkhf tpthjpg;Nghk;.
Self-Instructional Material tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if:

204
gy;NtW fhuzq;fshy;> tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if xg;gPll
; stpy; fld; cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
fl;Lg;ghl;bd; gadw;w MAjkhFk;. vt;thwhapDk;> Kuz;ghlhd Fwpg;G
ehzaf; nfhs;ifapd; ghHitapy;> tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if nghJthf
jw;Nghija nghUshjhug; gha;r;ry; kw;Wk; tq;fpf; fld; nghJthd
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikf;F gq;fspg;G nra;tJ Fwpj;J ehza
mjpfhuj;jpd; jPHg;gpd; rhd;whf tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjhtJ> tq;fp tPjj;jpd; caHT tq;fp mikg;gpy; gzg;Gof;fk;

gztPf;f jpwidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ vd;gij kj;jpa tq;fp fUJtijf;
Fwpf;fpwJ. gzk; kw;Wk; fld; Xl;lk; nghUshjhuj;jpd; cz;ikahd
cw;gj;jpj; jpwid tpl mjpfkhf cs;sJ vd;gijAk;> vdNt>
md;ghd gzf; nfhs;ifapd; %yk; gz tpepNahfj;ij
tpupthf;Ftjpy; xU fl;Lg;ghL tpUk;gj;jf;fJ vd;gijAk; ,J
Fwpf;fpwJ.
kWGwk;> tq;fp tpfpjj;jpy; Fiwg;G vd;gJ nghJthf gztpay;

nfhs;ifapd; jpirapy; kypthd kw;Wk; tpupthd gzf; nfhs;ifia
Nehf;fp efHe;jjw;fhd rhd;whf tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ. tq;fp tpfpjj;jpy;
Fiwg;G vd;gJ vy;yhtw;iwAk; tpl vspjhd gzf; nfhs;ifapd;
milahskhf kpfTk; Kf;fpakhdJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> tq;fp tpfpjk;
fl;Lg;ghl;L fUtpahf kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
tpupthf;fj;jpy; tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;jpwd;:
v];Nlapd; $w;Wg;gb> tpupthf;fj;jpy; gaDs;s js;Sgb

nfhs;ifapd; topapy; gpd;tUk; rpf;fy;fs; nghJthf vOfpd;wd:
1. mjpf nropg;gpd; NghJ> tzpfHfshy; fld; ngWtjw;fhd Njit

tl;b-jtpHf;f Kbahjjhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
2. tq;fp tPjj;jpd; caHT kw;Wk; mjd; tpisthf re;ij tl;b

tpfpjq;fs; caHT Mfpait gzr; re;ijapy; epjp
,ilj;jufHfsplkpUe;J fld; ngwf;$ba epjpia <Hf;ff;$Lk; kw;Wk;
tpUk;gj;jfhj tpisTfis vjpHnfhs;s cjtf;$Lk;.
3. gzj;jpd; msT tq;fp Kiwahy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;whYk;>

mjd; Gof;fj;jpd; Ntfk; Neubahf tq;fpfspd; nry;thf;fpd; fPo;
,y;iy. vt;tsT fld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gij tq;fp nfhs;if
jPHkhdpf;ff;$Lk;> Mdhy; mJ vt;tsT> vt;tsT Ntfkhf
gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij jPHkhdpf;Fk; tHj;jfkhFk;. vdNt>
,af;fj;jpd; Ntfk; fld; mstpw;F Kuzhf ,Ue;jhy;> tq;fp
nfhs;if gadw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
205
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; 4. tq;fpf; nfhs;ifiag; gad;gLj;Jtjpy; rupahd Neuj;jpd; rpukKk;
cs;sJ. rupahd Neuj;jpy; kw;Wk; rupahd fhyhz;by; gpNuf;Ffs;
Fwpg;G gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. mit kpf tpiutpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;>
mit cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpfis KOikahfg; gad;gLj;jhky;
tpupthf;fj;ij KbTf;Ff; nfhz;Ltu Ntz;Lk;. kpfTk; jhkjkhfg;
gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ> Xbg;Nghd gz tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; gztPf;fk;
Mfpait Kw;wpYk; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,y;iy.
jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs;:
jpwe;j re;ij eltbf;iffspd; El;gk; kj;jpa tq;fpahy;

gj;jpuq;fis thq;FtJ kw;Wk; tpw;gJ Fwpf;fpwJ. xU tpw;gid
eltbf;if tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;G kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; fld;
rf;jpiaf; Fiwf;fpwJ.
,Ug;gpDk;> murhq;f gj;jpu re;ijia guhkupf;f Ntz;bajd;

fhuzkhf> tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;G epiyia ghjpf;Fk; nghUl;L>
vg;NghJ> ve;j msTfspy; murhq;f gj;jpuq;fis tpw;f kj;jpa tq;fp
Kw;wpYk; ,ytrk;. ,t;thW> xU ngupa nghJf; fld; epYitapy;
,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gj;jpur; re;ijia tpupthf;Ftjd; %yk;> gztpay;
nfhs;if kw;Wk; nghJf; fldpd; Nkyhz;ik Mfpait
gpupf;fKbahj tifapy; gpd;dpg; gpize;Js;sd.
,Ug;G tpfpjq;fs;:
tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;Gf;fs; kw;Wk; nray;ghLfis ghjpf;Fk;

kw;nwhU kpfr; rpwe;j top ehza mjpfhupfs; jq;fs; trk; cs;sJ>
NkYk; me;j MAjk; gz ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wkhFk;.
Kd;gjpT nra;ag;gl;l Njjpapy; ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fspy; khw;wq;fs;
eilKiwf;F tUk;.
mtw;wpd; cldb tpisT tq;fp mikg;gpy; gzg;Gof;f epiyia

khw;WtjhFk;. gz ,Ug;G tpfpjk; caHj;jg;gLk;NghJ> tzpf
tq;fpfs; jq;fspd; jw;Nghija gz ,Ug;G itg;Gfis <Lfl;l
NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy vd;gijf; fz;lwpe;J > gzr; re;ijapy; jput
nrhj;Jf;fis mg;Gwg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; epjp jpul;l Ntz;Lk;. ,Ug;G
tpfpjk; Fiwf;fg;gLk;NghJ jiyfPo; ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt> ,Ug;G
tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Neubahf gz msT kw;Wk;
tq;fpfspd; fld; jpwid ghjpf;Fk;.
tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if> jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs; kw;Wk; ,Ug;G

tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Mfpait gzk; toq;fypy;>
206
,Ug;Gf;fs; %yk; tq;fp ,Ug;Gf;fspd; tpiy> msT kw;Wk; cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
fpilf;Fk; jd;ik Mfpatw;wpy; jq;fs; nry;thf;if nrYj;Jfpd;wd. Fwpg;G
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfs;:
fld; fl;Lg;ghLfs; my;yJ jukhd fld; fl;Lg;ghL fld; re;ijapd;

Fwpg;gpl;l gpupTfSf;Fs; kw;Wk; ntspNa fld; Xl;lj;ij jpir
jpUg;g gad;gLfpwJ. NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfs; fld; thq;Fk;
Nehf;fj;ij ghjpf;Fk; Nehf;fj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mit Fwpg;gpl;l
Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf fld; ePl;bg;ig fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd mbg;gil
vd;dntd;why;> xU nghJthd fld; fl;Lg;ghL nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ikia guhkupg;gjw;F Kuzhf ,Uf;Fk; Neuj;jpy; rpy
Jiwfspy; fld; mjpfkhf fUjg;glyhk;.
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; ,yf;if mila ,e;j gy;NtW fld;

fl;Lg;ghLfs; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W nrhy;yhky;
NghfpwJ.
gzf; fl;Lg;ghl;bd; nray;jpwd;:
nghUshjhuj;ij xU kdr;NrhHtile;j epiyapypUe;J ntspNa

nfhz;L tu cjTtij tpl> Vw;wk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; gztpay;
nfhs;if kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. ve;jnthU Vw;wk;
Kbtiltjw;F gz Nkyhz;ik vg;NghJNk gz tpepNahfj;ij
NghJkhd msT xg;ge;jk; nra;a KbAk; vd;gJ ePz;l fhykhf
mq;ff
P upf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> Mdhy; ,J xU RUf;fj;ij KbTf;Ff;
nfhz;LtUtjw;fhd jpwidf; nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy.
Vndd;why;> gz epHthfj;jpd; eltbf;iffs; tUkhd-nryT ];l;uk

P py;
kpfTk; gaDs;s fhd;l;uh-Row;rp MAjkhf Neubahf Eioatpy;iy>
Vnddpy; mtw;wpd; Kjy; jhf;fk; epjp epWtdq;fspd; nrhj;J
fl;likg;gpy; cs;sJ> NkYk; nrhj;Jf;fspd; fl;likg;ig khw;Wk;
,e;j nray;ghl;by;> tPjk; tl;b> fld; msT kw;Wk; tUkhd nryT
Xl;lk; Mfpait khw;wg;glyhk;.
RUf;fj;jpd; NghJ mjpfupg;G Vw;gLtij tpl tpupthf;fj;jpd; NghJ

tUkhd Xl;lj;ijj; jLg;gjpy; ,it midj;Jk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
mstpy; nray;gLfpd;wd. ,Ug;gpDk;> gztpay; nfhs;ifapd;
kpfg;ngupa ed;ik mjd; nefpo;Tj;jd;ik. nfhLf;fg;gl;l msT
kw;Wk; jukhd rhd;Wfspd; jPHg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ik kw;Wk; tsHr;rpAld; xj;Jg;Nghfpd;w gz
207
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; tpepNahfj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;w tpfpjk; Fwpj;J ehza Nkyhz;ik
KbTfis vLf;fpwJ.
Fwpg;G
Mdhy;> gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; ,e;j Gs;sp mjd; nray;jpwid
ep&gpf;Fkh ,y;iyah vd;gJ mjd; rupahd Neuj;ijg; nghWj;jJ.
tq;fp tPjj;ij ifahSjy; kw;Wk; kj;jpa tq;fpapd; jpwe;j re;ij
guptHj;jidfs; tpiuthfTk; njhlHr;rpahfTk; gad;gLj;jpdhy;>
Vw;wk; tsHr;rpailtijj; jLg;gjpy;> mjd; tpisthf>
kdr;NrhHTf;Fs;shfpwJ.
nkhj;jj;jpy;> gztpay; nfhs;if cWjpg;gLj;jy; jpl;lj;jpd;

mtrpakhd gFjpahFk;> Mdhy; tpUk;gpa ,yf;if mila mJ
kl;Lk; NghjhJ. gztpay; nfhs;if> nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;
fUtpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> gy topfspy;> epjpf; nfhs;ifapd;
epug;gpahf nray;gLfpwJ.
,J tYthdJ> epjpf; nfhs;if gytPdkhf cs;sJ. ,J

nefpo;thdJ kw;Wk; Neuk; kw;Wk; Njitfspd; mOj;jq;fspd;
mstpw;F Vw;wthW tpiuthd khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;. ,Ug;gpDk;>
,J epjpf; nfhs;ifAld; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. jtwhd
ehzaf; nfhs;if epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;jpwid fLikahf
Mgj;jpy; Mo;j;jf;$Lk;. vdNt> gztpay; nfhs;if kw;Wk; epjpf;
nfhs;if> xt;nthd;Wk; kw;nwhd;iw tYg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; $Ljyhf
toq;Fjy; Mfpait nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy; jpl;lj;ij
tFg;gjpy; ,d;wpaikahj $WfshFk;.
2. epjpf; nfhs;if:
,d;W> cWjpg;gLj;Jk; El;gq;fspy; Kjd;ikahdJ epjpf; nfhs;if.

vt;thwhapDk;> nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; xU fUtpahf epjpf;
nfhs;if> 1930 fspd; kdr;NrhHT Mz;LfspypUe;Nj nfapd;rpad;
nghUshjhuq;fspd; nry;thf;fpd; fPo; mjd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijg;
ngw;Ws;sJ.
epjpf; nfhs;if vd;w nrhy; murhq;fj;jpd; tup kw;Wk; nryTf;

nfhs;iffis Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,t;thW> epjpf; nfhs;if murhq;f
nryTfs; kw;Wk; tup urPJfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
nray;gLfpwJ. ,J ,uz;L jdpj;jdp Mdhy; njhlHGila
KbTfis cs;slf;fpaJ: nghJ nryTfs; kw;Wk; tupfspd; epiy
kw;Wk; fl;likg;G. nghJ nrytpdj;jpd; msT> tuptpjpg;gpd;
J}z;Ljy; kw;Wk; tpisTfs; kw;Wk; nryT kw;Wk; tUtha;f;F
,ilapyhd cwT Mfpait ,ytr epWtd nghUshjhuj;jpy;
Self-Instructional Material Fwpg;gplj;jf;f jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
208
gutyhfg; ghHj;jhy;> murhq;fj;jpd; tuptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;if jdpahH cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
nrytpdq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; jpl;lj;Jld; njhlHGilaJ. nryTf; Fwpg;G
nfhs;if> kWGwk;> Gjpa nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd
murhq;f nrytpdq;fs; nkhj;j Njit kw;Wk; kiwKf tUkhdj;ij
Neubahfr; NrHf;Fk; Nrdy;fisf; ifahSfpd;wd> ,J ,uz;lhk;
epiy nrytpdj;jpd; %yk; ngUf;f tpistpd; fhuzkhf
eilngWfpwJ.
tuptpjpg;G> kWGwk;> nrytopg;G tUkhdj;ijAk; r%fj;jpy; Vw;gLk;

Nrkpg;igAk; Fiwg;gjd; %yk; jdpahH nrytpdq;fspd; msit
(EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPL ,uz;bYk;) Fiwf;f nray;gLfpwJ. vdNt>
gl;n[l; epfo;tpd; fPo;> nghJ nrytpdk; kw;Wk; tUtha; Mfpait
gy;NtW topfspy; xd;wpizf;fg;gl;L xl;Lnkhj;j Njitf;F
Njitahd J}z;Ljy; my;yJ gzthl;l tpisit milayhk;.
MfNt> epjpf; nfhs;ifahdJ tup tpfpjq;fspy; msT kw;Wk;

jukhd mk;r khw;wq;fs;> tuptpjpg;gpd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; mjd;
epfo;Tfs; nghUshjhuj;jpy; msT kw;Wk; jpir my;yJ jdpahH
nrytpdq;fis ghjpf;fpwJ. ,NjNghy;> murhq;fj;jpd;
nrytpdq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd; xJf;fL P fspd;
fl;likg;Gk; Neuk;> EfHT kw;Wk; r%fj;jpd; xl;Lnkhj;j Njit
Mfpatw;wpy; msT kw;Wk; kWtpepNahf tpisTfis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
cz;ikapy;> midj;J murhq;f nrytpdq;fSk; xl;Lnkhj;j

Njitia mjpfupg;gjw;fhd xU J}z;LjyhFk; (njhFjp kw;Wk;
$Wfs; ,uz;Lk;) kw;Wk; gztPf;f rhHGilaJ> ,J jdpahH
nghUshjhuj;jpw;fhd epjpfis ntspapLfpwJ> gpd;dH mit
tHj;jfk; kw;Wk; tzpfj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
,NjNghy;> murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy; Fiwg;G gzthl;l rhHGfisf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; ,J xl;Lnkhj;j Njitia Fiwf;fpwJ (mjd;
msT kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;Fk; njhlHGila $Wfs;).
,t;thW> nghJr; nryTfs; kw;Wk; nghJ tUtha;fspd; fyit
ehl;bd; nghUshjhu fl;likg;ig tbtikf;f cjTtJ
kl;Lky;yhky; nghUshjhuj;jpy; rpy tpisTfisAk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
mjpfgl;r nray;jpwDf;fhf> epjpf; nfhs;if ePz;l fhy kw;Wk;

FWfpa fhy mbg;gilapy; jpl;lkplg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ePz;lfhy epjpf;
nfhs;if murhq;f tUkhdk; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fspd; ePz;lfhy
Nghf;FfSld; njhlHGilaJ. epjp eltbf;iffspd; ,j;jifa ePz;l
J}u jpl;lj;jpd; fl;likg;gpw;Fs;> FWfpa fhy nghUshjhu Vw;w
,wf;fq;fis kpjg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf gl;n[l;il Row;rp Kiwapy;
khWgLk;.
209
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; tup tUtha; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fSf;fpilNaahd cwtpy; tpUk;gpa
nefpo;Tj;jd;ikiaj; jpl;lkpLtjw;F mbg;gilapy; ,uz;L nrl;
Fwpg;G El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;: (1) cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ik
my;yJ jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jpfs; kw;Wk; (2) tpUg;gg;gb
eltbf;if.
fl;likf;fg;gl;l-nefpo;Tj;jd;ik:
epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;ghL vg;NghJk; Neuk; kw;Wk; Kd;dwptpg;gpd;

rpf;fiy vjpHnfhs;fpwJ. xU epjpf; nfhs;if epHthfp vg;NghJk;
Nfs;tpia vjpHnfhs;s Ntz;Lk;: vg;NghJ vd;d nra;tJ? Mdhy;
gjpy; nrhy;tJ kpfTk; fbdkhd kw;Wk; rpf;fyhd Nfs;tp. vdNt>
epjp eltbf;iffspd; Kd;fzpg;G kw;Wk; Neuj;jpd; epr;rakw;w
jd;ikfspypUe;J vOk; rpukq;fisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf> xU jhdpaq;fp
epiyg;gLj;jp jpl;lk; ngUk;ghYk; gupe;Jiuf;fg;gLfpwJ.
xU gl;n[l; nfhs;ifapy; nrytpdk; kw;Wk; tUtha; cwtpd; xU

Fwpg;gpl;l fl;likg;gpy;> Njrpa tUkhdk;> Ntiytha;g;G
Nghd;wtw;wpy; ,af;fq;fspy; jhdhfNt rupahd jhf;fq;fis
toq;Fk; fhuzpfs; cs;sd vd;gij jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jp jpl;lk;
Fwpf;fpwJ. ,Jjhd; cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ik vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J xU nrayw;w gl;n[l; nfhs;ifia
Fwpf;fpwJ.
cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ikapd; rhuhk;rk; vd;dntd;why;> (i)

nfhLf;fg;gl;l tup tpfpjq;fspd; tup tpisr;ry; Njrpa
tUkhdj;Jld; Neubahf khWgLk;> kw;Wk; (ii) Njrpa
nrytpdq;fspd; efHTfSld; NeHkhwhf khWgLk; rpy murhq;f
nrytpdq;fs; cs;sd.
,t;thW> Njrpa tUkhdk; caUk;NghJ> jw;NghJs;s tup kw;Wk;

nrytpdq;fspd; fl;likg;ghdJ nrytpdq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
nghJ tUthia jhdhfNt mjpfupf;Fk;> NkYk; Njrpa tUkhdk;
tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ tUthAld; njhlHGila nryTfis
mjpfupf;Fk;. ,e;j khw;wq;fs; Fiwe;jJ XusthtJ gztPf;fk;
my;yJ kdr;NrhHit Fiwf;f my;yJ <Lnra;a Kidfpd;wd .
vdNt> xU Kw;Nghf;fhd tup mikg;G rpwe;j jhdpaq;fp
epiyg;gLj;jpahfj; njupfpwJ.
mNjNghy;> Ntiyapd;ik ,og;gPl;Lj; jpl;lq;fs;> murhq;f

khdpaq;fs; my;yJ tpiy-MjuT jpl;lq;fs; Nghd;w rpy tifahd
murhq;f nryTj; jpl;lq;fSk; Njrpa tUkhdj;jpy; ,af;fq;fSld;
210
NeHkhwhf khWgLtjd; %yk; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
<Lnra;fpd;wd. Fwpg;G
,Ug;gpDk;> jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jpfs; nghUshjhu Vw;w

,wf;fq;fSf;F xU gPjp my;y> Vnddpy; mit Njrpa tUkhdj;jpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSf;F xU gFjp <Lnra;jyhf kl;LNk
nray;gLfpd;wd> Mdhy; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpd; jpiria
khw;wpaikf;f xU rf;jpia toq;Ffpd;wd.
mit xl;Lnkhj;j tUkhdj;jpd; tPo;rr

; papd; tPjj;ij Fiwf;fpd;wd>
Mdhy; tUkhdj;ij mjd; Ke;ija epiyf;F kPl;nlLg;gjw;fhd
ve;j Vw;ghLk; ,y;iy. vdNt> mit epjp eltbf;iffspd; kpfTk;
gaDs;s rhjdkhf mq;ff P upf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy; xNu rhjdk;
my;y. mNjrkak;> #o;epiyfs; miof;Fk; vd;gjhy; tpNtfkhd
nfhs;iffSf;F tha;g;G ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
tpUg;gg;gb eltbf;if:
ngUk;ghYk;> Fiwe;jgl;r jhkjj;Jld;> murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy;

Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSld; eilKiwf;Ff; nfhz;LtUtjw;fhd
eltbf;iffisf; nfhz;l tpNtff; nfhs;iffspd; fUtp fUtp
%yk; epjp eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;tJ Kw;wpYk; mtrpakhfpwJ.
,J nghJg;gzpj; jpl;lq;fspd; vYk;Gf;$l;ilg; gad;gLj;JtNjhL>
mtw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd epHthf tpNtfj;ijAk;> mtw;iw
eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd epjpfisAk; toq;FfpwJ.
,J xU gl;n[l; ifahSjYf;F nefpo;thd tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk;

nrytpdq;fis cs;slf;fpa xU nraypy; gl;n[l; nfhs;iff;F
miog;G tpLfpwJ. tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fspy; tpUg;gg;gb
khw;wq;fSf;F %d;W topfs; ,Uf;fyhk;: epiyahd tup
tpfpjq;fSld; nryTfis khw;WtJ@ tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk;
epiyahd nrytpdq;fis khw;Wjy;@ kw;Wk; tup tpfpjq;fis
khw;WtJ kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fis khw;WtJ Mfpatw;wpd;
fyitahFk;.
nghJthf> kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ Kjy; Kiw ,uz;lhtJ Kiwia

tpl caHe;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;. mjhtJ> khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; tupfspd;
msitf; nfhz;L nrytpdq;fis mjpfupg;gJ xl;Lnkhj;j
nrytpdq;fisAk; nghUshjhuj;jpy; gaDs;s NjitiaAk;
caHj;Jtjw;F gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,uz;lhtJ
Kiw gztPf;fj;jpd; NghJ Kjy; Kiwia tpl caHe;jjhf
,Uf;Fk;.
211
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; mjhtJ> nfhLf;fg;gl;l nryTj; jpl;lj;jpd; %yk; tup tpfpjq;fis
mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; gztPf;fj;ij jpwk;gl rupghHf;f KbAk;. Mdhy;
Fwpg;G %d;whtJ Kiw gztPff ; j;jpd; NghJ kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf
,Ug;gijAk; kw;w gztPf;fj;ij tpl gzthl;lj;ijAk; fhz;gJ
vspJ.
tupfis mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> nghJr; nrytpdq;fSk; xNu Neuj;jpy;

Fiwf;fg;gLk;NghJ gztPf;fk; kpfTk; jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,NjNghy;> xU ke;jepiyapd; NghJ> mjpfupj;J tUk; nghJr;
nrytpdq;fSld; xNu Neuj;jpy; tupfisf; Fiwj;jhy; jdpahH
nghUshjhuj;jpd; nryT tpfpjk; tpiuthf caHj;jg;gLk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> ngUk;ghyhd tpUg;gkhd nfhs;iffspd; Kf;fpa rpukk;

mtw;wpd; rupahd NeukhFk;. tpNtfk; kw;Wk; nray;gLj;Jtjpy;
jhkjk; rpf;fiy Nkhrkhf;Fk; kw;Wk; rpf;fy;fisj; jPHg;gjpy; epuy;
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
MfNt> murhq;f eltbf;iffspd; epr;rakw;w jd;ik kw;Wk; nrhe;j

eyd;fSf;F rhjfkhf ,Uf;Fk; murpay; mOj;jq;fs; fhuzkhf>
tpNtfKs;s murhq;f eltbf;iffs; ey;yij tpl jPq;F
tpistpf;Fk; vd;W gy nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; mQ;Rfpd;wdH.
mjdhy;jhd;> cs;sikf;fg;gl;l epiyg;gLj;jpfis ek;GtJ>
Kbe;jtiu> gupe;Jiuf;fg;gLfpwJ.
3. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;:
gutyhfg; ghHj;jhy;> Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; murhq;fj;jhy;

tpjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd> mit rpy tifahd KjyPL my;yJ
nghUshjhu eltbf;iffis ntspg;gilahf jilnra;fpd;wd
my;yJ fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. rpy Neuq;fspy;> gztPf;fj;jpw;F vjpuhd
xU eltbf;ifahf tpiyfs; kw;Wk; Cjpaq;fs; kPjhd Neub
murhq;f fl;Lg;ghLfs; gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;L nray;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
,uz;lhk; cyfg; Nghupd;NghJ> nghJthd nkhj;j mjpfg;gbahd

Njitiaj; jLg;gjw;Fk;> cw;gj;jp tsq;fis murhq;fk; tpUk;Gk;
Nrdy;fspy; nrYj;Jtjw;Fk; EfHNthH Nu\d; kw;Wk; nghUl;fs;
xJf;fl P ;NlhL ,ize;J tpiy-Cjpaf; fl;Lg;ghLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. nghJthf mjpfg;gbahd Njitiaj; jLf;f
ehza-epjpf; fl;Lg;ghLfs; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;> Mdhy; Fwpg;gpl;l
gw;whf;Fiw gFjpfSf;F mit gad;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ Neub
fl;Lg;ghLfs; kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; gpd;tUk; ed;ikfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd:

212
1. mit tpiuthfTk; vspjhfTk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;glyhk; my;yJ cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
khw;wg;glyhk;: vdNt ,tw;wpd; tpisTfs; tpiuthf ,Uf;Fk;. Fwpg;G
2. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; ehza kw;Wk; epjpf; fl;Lg;ghLfis tpl

ghugl;rkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
3. ntt;NtW Jiwfspy; mt;tg;NghJ fl;Lg;ghLfspd;

nray;ghLfspd; jPtpuj;jpy; khWghL ,Uf;fyhk;.
vt;thwhapDk;> xU rkhjhd fhy nghUshjhuj;jpy;> xU

cWjpg;gLj;Jk; rhjdkhf Neub nghUshjhuf; fl;Lg;ghLfSf;F
fLikahd jj;Jt kw;Wk; murpay; Ml;Nrgidfs; cs;sd>
gpd;tUk; vz;zpf;ifapy; ,j;jifa fl;Lg;ghLfSf;F Ml;Nrgidfs;
vOg;gg;gl;Ls;sd:
1. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; jdpg;gl;l Kd;Kaw;rp kw;Wk; epWtdj;ij

mlf;Ffpd;wd.
2. mit cw;gj;jpapd; Gjpa El;gq;fs;> Gjpa jahupg;Gfs; Nghd;w

GJikfisj; jLf;fpd;wd.
3. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; rPHFiyf;Fk; tpisTfis Vw;gLj;jf;$ba

Cfq;fis ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;ayhk; my;yJ J}z;lyhk;.
cjhuzkhf> xU nghUs; vf;];> v/F vd;W $WtJ> gw;whf;Fiw
fhuzkhf kjpg;gplg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gl;lhy;> kf;fs;
mjd; ngupa gq;Ffis gJf;fp itf;f Kaw;rp nra;ayhk;> ,J
mjd; gw;whf;Fiwia mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,jdhy;> ngupa mstpyhd
gJf;fy; %yk; nraw;if gw;whf;Fiwia cUthf;f Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ@
4. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; jpwk;gl nray;gl Ntz;Lkhdhy; rpf;fyhd>

NeHikahd kw;Wk; jpwikahd epHthf mikg;G Njit.
5. fl;Lg;ghLfs; mfw;wg;gl;lTld; nkhj;j ,ila+Wfs; kPz;Lk;

Njhd;Wk;.
RUf;fkhf> mtruepiyfs; Nghd;w mrhjhuz #o;epiyfspy; kl;LNk

Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy; mikjp fhy
nghUshjhuj;jpy; my;y.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jypd; Nehf;fq;fis mila
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fUtpfs; ahit?
213
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; 13.4 nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik:
Fwpg;G
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik vd;gJ xU gpuhe;jpaj;jpd; my;yJ ehl;bd;
nghUshjhuk; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp> Ntiyapd;ik my;yJ
gztPf;fk; Nghd;w nghUshjhu nray;jpwdpd; Kf;fpa
eltbf;iffspy; gue;j Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fhl;ltpy;iy. khwhf>
epiyahd nghUshjhuq;fs; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapYk;
NtiyfspYk; kpjkhd tsHr;rpiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wd> mNj Neuj;jpy;
gztPf;fj;ij Fiwe;jgl;rkhf itj;jpUf;fpd;wd. murhq;f
nghUshjhuf; nfhs;iffs; epiyahd nghUshjhu tsHr;rp kw;Wk;
tpiyfSf;fhf ghLgLfpd;wd> mNj Neuj;jpy; nghUshjhu
ty;YeHfs; ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; msit mstpLtjw;F gy
eltbf;iffis ek;gpAs;sdH.
epiyahd nghUshjhuj;jpd; mk;rq;fs;
xU epiyahd nghUshjhuk; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; kw;Wk;

Ntiytha;g;gpy; epiyahd> epHtfpf;ff;$ba tsHr;rpiaf; fhl;LfpwJ.
epHtfpf;ff;$ba tsHr;rp vd;gJ gztPf;f mOj;jq;fisj; J}z;lhj>
mjpf tpiyf;F tpistpf;Fk; kw;Wk; ngUepWtd ,yhgq;fis
vjpHkiwahf ghjpf;Fk; xU epiyahd tpfpjj;jpy; nghUshjhuk;
tsHfpwJ.
Mz;bd; xU fhyhz;by; epiyahd tsHr;rpiaf; fhl;Lk; xU

nghUshjhuk;> mijj; njhlHe;J nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy;
$Hikahd rupT my;yJ mLj;j fhyhz;by; Ntiyapd;ik caHT
Mfpait nghUshjhu cWjpaw;w jd;ikiaf; Fwpf;fpd;wd.
nghUshjhu neUf;fbfs; cyfshtpa nghUshjhu ];jpukpd;ik>
cw;gj;jp> Ntiytha;g;G kw;Wk; nghUshjhu MNuhf;fpaj;jpd; gpw
eltbf;iffis Fiwf;fpd;wd.

vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik vd;why; vd;d?
xU etPd> Njrpa nghUshjhuk; xU mstpNyNa RUf;fkhf kpfTk;

Self-Instructional Material rpf;fyhdJ> Mdhy; gy nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
214
cw;gj;jpia nghUshjhu eltbf;iffspd; RUf;fkhf ek;gpAs;sdH. cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
fhyg;Nghf;fpy; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Fwpg;G
xU mstpyhd epiyj;jd;ikia mspf;fpd;wd. nkhj;j cs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jpahdJ gztPf;fj;jhy; rupnra;ag;gl;l ehza mbg;gilapy;
xU ehl;bd; nghUshjhuj;jpd; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpia mstpLfpwJ.
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; gpw eltbf;iffs; EfHNthH

tpiyfs; kw;Wk; Njrpa Ntiyapd;ik tpfpjk; Mfpait mlq;Fk;.
murhq;f epWtdq;fs; nghUshjhu nray;ghL Fwpj;j khjhe;jpu
kw;Wk; fhyhz;L juTfis Nrfupf;fpd;wd> nfhs;if
tFg;ghsHfSf;Fk; nghUshjhu ty;YeHfSf;Fk; nghUshjhu
epiyikfis fz;fhzpf;fTk; epiyaw;w fhyq;fspy; gjpyspf;fTk;
cjTfpd;wd.
gpw nghUshjhu eltbf;iffs;
rHtNjr ehza epjpaj;jpd; cz;ikj; jhspd; gb> ehza khw;W

tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk; cyf gq;F tpiyfs; nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ikf;F gaDs;s eltbf;iffis toq;Ffpd;wd. gupkhw;w
tPjq;fs; kw;Wk; epjpr; re;ijfspy; epiyaw;w khw;wq;fs; euk;G
KjyPll ; hsHfis tpistpf;fpd;wd> ,J Fiwe;j nghUshjhu
tsHr;rpf;Fk; Fiwe;j tho;f;ifj; juj;jpw;Fk; toptFf;fpwJ.
xU khWk; nghUshjhuj;jpy; rpy cWjpaw;w jd;ik jtpHf;f

KbahjJ vd;W rHtNjr ehza epjpak; xg;Gf;nfhs;fpwJ> Mdhy;
cynfq;fpYk; cs;s murhq;fq;fs; vjpHnfhs;Sk; rthy; caH
cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; kw;Wk; Ntiy tsHr;rpapd; %yk; tho;f;ifj; juj;ij
Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhd nghUshjhuj;jpd; jpwidj; jLf;fhky; cWjpaw;w
jd;ikiaf; Fiwg;gjhFk; vd;W njuptpf;fpwJ.
murhq;f nghUshjhuf; nfhs;if
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; $Hikahd khw;wq;fs;>

Ntiyapd;ik> gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gpw eltbf;iffs; epiyaw;w
epiyikfis Rl;bf;fhl;Lk;NghJ> murhq;fq;fs; ngUk;ghYk; epjp
kw;Wk; gztpay; nfhs;if eltbf;iffSld; gjpyspf;fpd;wd.
`hHtHbd; fpupNfhup khd;fpt; Nghd;w nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; ,e;j
eltbf;iffis cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;if vd;W Fwpg;gpLfpd;wdH.
cjhuzkhf> nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp tPo;rr; pailAk; NghJ>

murhq;fq;fs; nghUshjhuk; J}z;Ltjw;fhf nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;fhd nrytpdq;fis mjpfupf;ff;$Lk;> mNj Neuj;jpy;
kj;jpa tq;fpfs; tzpfq;fSf;Fk; jdpegHfSf;Fk; fld; ngWtij
215
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; vspjhf;f tl;b tpfpjq;fisf; Fiwf;fyhk;. nghUshjhuk; kw;w
jpirapy; cWjpaw;w jd;ikiaf; fhl;bdhy;> gztPf;fj;ijj;
Fwpg;G J}z;Lk; Ntfj;jpy; tpuptile;jhy;> kj;jpa tq;fpfs; ehl;bd; gz
tpepNahfj;ijf; Fiwf;f tl;b tpfpjq;fis mjpfupf;fyhk; kw;Wk;
gztPf;f mOj;jq;fis fl;Lf;Fs; nfhz;L tuf;$Lk;.
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;ifapd; fUtpfs;:
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;ifapd; fUtpfs; gutyhf ,uz;lhf

gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd:
(1) gz eltbf;iffs;.
(2) epjp eltbf;iffs;.
epjp kw;Wk; gz eltbf;iffSf;F ,ilapyhd njhlHG

cWjpg;gLj;jy; fpisapd; nray;jpwid jPHkhdpf;fpwJ:
1. gz eltbf;iffs;:
nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; ngUk;ghYk; xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; gz

tpepNahfj;ij re;ij nghwpKiwahy; fl;Lg;gLj;j KbahJ> mJ
tsq;fis xJf;f KbAk; vd;whYk;. MfNt> tq;fp Kiw
fl;Lg;ghby;yhky; ,Ue;jhy;> gl;n[l; nfhs;ifahy;
cWjpg;gLj;jg;gLtjw;F gztpay; kw;Wk; fld; nfhs;iffs; Kf;fpa
khw;wPl;il toq;Ffpd;wd@ nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikf;F ,zf;fkhd
gz tpepNahfj;ij cUthf;f ,J ,ayhJ.
xOq;FgLj;jg;glhj fld; Kiwapd; tpisthf gz tpepNahfj;jpy;

tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; RUf;fk; Mfpait etPd nghUshjhuq;fspy;
cWjpaw;w jd;ikf;F xU Kf;fpa fhuzkhFk;.
vdNt gz tpepNahfj;ij kj;jpa tq;fp Kiwahy; fl;Lg;gLj;j

Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; tsHr;rp kw;Wk; ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; mbg;gilapy;
nghUshjhuj;jpd; rptg;GfSf;F Vw;wjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
gz ,Ug;G Njitfs;> jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghL> tq;fp tPjk; Nghd;w

rhjdq;fis cs;slf;fpa gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; Kf;fpa fUtp
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;ifapd; ,d;wpaikahj mq;fkhFk;.
eilKiwapy; cs;s #o;epiyiag; nghWj;J> Njitf;Nfw;g
gzj;jpd; tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; RUf;fk; Mfpait ed;F
fl;likf;fg;gl;l gzk; kw;Wk; fld; nfhs;ifapd; %yk;
nray;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
216
2. epjp fUtpfs;: cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
Fwpg;G
epjpf; nfhs;if Njitapd; epiy kw;Wk; fl;likg;gpy; Neub
nry;thf;if nrYj;JfpwJ. gl;n[l; nfhs;ifapy; khw;wq;fs;
Nfhupf;ifapy; khw;wq;fisg; ngWtjw;fhd my;yJ <Lnra;a
NeHkiwahd topKiwahfg; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
nghUshjhuj;jpy; ];jpuj;jd;ikiaf; nfhz;LtUtjw;F Njitahd

jpirapy; nryT kw;Wk; tuptpjpg;Gf;fhd epjpf; fUtpfis
rupnra;ayhk;. <Lnra;Ak; epjpaj;jpd; nfhs;if nghJthf gztPf;fk;
kw;Wk; gzthl;lj;jpd; jPikfis mfw;Wtjw;fhf
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
nghUshjhuk; jd;dpr;irahd Ntiyapd;ikahy; ghjpf;fg;gLifapy;>

tpupthf;f nryTf; nfhs;ifapd; %yk; Njitapd; msit mjpfupf;f
Ntz;Lk;. nghUshjhuk; gztPf;fj;jhy; ghjpf;fg;gLifapy;> Njitapd;
msitf; Fiwf;f Ntz;Lk;> ,J nghJr; nrytpdq;fspd;
RUf;fj;jpd; %yk; milag;gLfpwJ.
mNjNghy; nghUshjhuj;jpy; Njitahd KbTfis mila tupf;

nfhs;if tbtikf;fg;gLk;. gw;whf;Fiw epjpaspg;G kw;Wk; gk;g;
g;iukpq; Mfpatw;wpd; epjpf; fUtp kd mOj;jj;jhy; Vw;gLk;
cWjpaw;w jd;ikia vjpHj;Jg; NghuhlTk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
ehza kw;Wk; epjp eltbf;iffs; xUtUf;nfhUtH JizGupfpd;wd

vd;whYk;> mit rupahd fyitapy; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
mtw;wpd; jhf;fj;jpy; NtWgLfpd;wd.
vdNt gy nfhs;if Nehf;fq;fisg; gpd;njhlu mDkjpf;Fk;

nfhs;ifiag; ngWtjd; mtrpaj;jhy; ehza kw;Wk; epjpf;
nfhs;iffs; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;: gztpay; nfhs;if> epjpf; nfhs;if

kw;Wk; Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;
Kjyhspj;Jt nghUshjhuj;ij ghjpf;Fk; fhy tHj;jf Row;rpfis

jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;j my;yJ mfw;Wtjw;fhd Kf;fpa jPHTfspy;
xd;W nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;. nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;
vd;gJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; xU jdpj; JiwAld; kl;Lky;y> mjd;
midj;J cz;ikfisAk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpwJ. nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ikia cWjpg;gLj;j> gy nghUshjhu eltbf;iffs;
tFf;fg;gl;L nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
217
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; jw;NghJ> nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy; nghJthf %d;W Nehf;fq;fis
miltij Nehf;fp ,af;fg;gLfpwJ:
Fwpg;G
1. Row;rp Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; my;yJ epHtfpj;jy;@
2. KO Ntiytha;g;G kl;lj;jpy; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpia
Cf;Ftpj;jy; kw;Wk; epiyepWj;Jjy;@ kw;Wk;
3. tpiy cWjpg;gLj;jy; %yk; gzj;jpd; kjpg;ig guhkupj;jy;.
vdNt> nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; Fwpf;Nfhs; ePbj;j KO

Ntiytha;g;gpd; ,ul;il Nehf;fq;fshfTk;> tpiy epiyj;jd;ikapd;
msit milaTk; vspjpy; jPHf;f KbAk;.
nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jypd; Nehf;fq;fis mila gpd;tUk;

fUtpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd> Fwpg;ghf tHj;jf Row;rpfspd;
fl;Lg;ghL> xg;gPlL
; tpiy epiyj;jd;ik kw;Wk; nghUshjhu
tsHr;rpia miljy;:
(1) gztpay; nfhs;if
13.6 gztpay; nfhs;if:

1. gztpay; nfhs;if:
Vw;w ,wf;fq;fspd; rpf;fiyj; jPHg;gjw;fhd kpfTk; nghJthf

gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l nfhs;if gztpay; nfhs;if. ehzaf; nfhs;if
tq;fp kw;Wk; fld;> epWtdq;fs; kw;Wk; tPLfSf;fhd fld;fspd;
fpilf;Fk; jd;ik > tl;b tpfpjq;fs;> nghJf; fld; kw;Wk; mjd;
Nkyhz;ik kw;Wk; gz Nkyhz;ik Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGilaJ.
vt;thwhapDk;> tHj;jf Row;rpfs; njhlHghf gztpay; nfhs;ifapd;

mbg;gil rpf;fy; nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikia miltjw;F fld;
msitf; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJk; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJk; MFk;. xU
kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ> fld; tpupthf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; kw;Wk; gztPf;f
Vw;wk; NghJ> mjd; Xl;lk; rupghHf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
ehza Nkyhz;ik vd;gJ tzpf tq;fp mikg;gpd; nray;ghlhFk;>

,jd; %yk; mjd; tpisTfs; Kjd;ikahf xl;Lnkhj;j
nghUshjhuj;ijAk; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. ehza Nkyhz;ik tq;fpfspd;
gz ,Ug;G msit Neubahf ghjpf;fpwJ> nghUshjhuj;jpy; gzk;
kw;Wk; fld; toq;fiy xOq;FgLj;JfpwJ> ,jd; %yk; tl;b
tpfpjq;fspd; fl;likg;igAk; fld; fpilg;gijAk; ghjpf;fpwJ.
218
,e;j ,uz;L fhuzpfSk; xl;Lnkhj;j Njit (EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPL) cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
kw;Wk; nghUshjhuj;jpy; nrytpdq;fspd; Xl;lj;jpd; $Wfis Fwpg;G
ghjpf;fpd;wd. tq;fpf; fldpd; tpupthf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk; nrytpd
Xl;lj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ (gzj;ijg; nghWj;jtiu) kw;Wk; tq;fpf;
fldpy; RUf;fk; mijf; Fiwf;fpwJ vd;gJ ntspg;gilahdJ.
,y; fUtpfspy; kj;jpa tq;fpapd;> tq;fp mikg;gpd; fld;

cUthf;Ffpd;w eltbf;if fl;Lg;gLj;j msT mj;Jld; jukhd
MAjq;fs; cs;sd. mit tq;fp tPjk;> jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs;
kw;Wk; ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fs;. cWg;G tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;Gf;fspy;
nray;gLk; fUtpfSld; ,it xd;Nwhnlhd;W njhlHGilait>
mit fld;fis tpupTgLj;Jtjw;fhd tq;fpfspd; jpwidAk;
tpUg;gj;ijAk; ghjpf;fpd;wd. Fwpg;gpl;l Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf fld;
ePl;bg;igf; fl;Lg;gLj;j NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fld; fl;Lg;ghLfs;
,e;j MAjq;fspd; jhf;fq;fis ,g;NghJ RUf;fkhf tpthjpg;Nghk;.
tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if:
tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if gy;NtW fhuzq;fshy; fld; fl;Lg;ghl;bd;

gadw;w MAjkhFk;. vt;thwhapDk;> fhd;lu; h-Row;rp ehzaf;
nfhs;ifapd; ghHitapy;> tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if nghJthf gzg;
gha;T kw;Wk; tq;fpf; fld; nghJthd nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikf;F
gq;fspg;G nra;tJ Fwpj;J ehza mjpfhuj;jpd; jPHg;gpd; rhd;whf
tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjhtJ> tq;fp tPjj;jpd; caHT tq;fp mikg;gpy; gzg;Gof;fk;

gztPf;f jpwidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ vd;gij kj;jpa tq;fp fUJtijf;
Fwpf;fpwJ. gzk; kw;Wk; fld; Xl;lk; nghUshjhuj;jpd; cz;ikahd
cw;gj;jpj; jpwid tpl mjpfkhf cs;sJ vd;gijAk;> vdNt>
md;ghd gzf; nfhs;ifapd; %yk; gz tpepNahfj;ij
tpupthf;Ftjpy; xU fl;Lg;ghL tpUk;gj;jf;fJ vd;gijAk; ,J
Fwpf;fpwJ.
kWGwk;> tq;fp tpfpjj;jpy; Fiwg;G vd;gJ nghJthf gztpay;

nfhs;ifapd; jpirapy; kypthd kw;Wk; tpupthd gzf; nfhs;ifia
Nehf;fp efHe;jjw;fhd rhd;whf tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ . tq;fp tpfpjj;jpy;
Fiwg;G vd;gJ vy;yhtw;iwAk; tpl vspjhd gzf; nfhs;ifapd;
milahskhf kpfTk; Kf;fpakhdJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> tq;fp tPjk;
fl;Lg;ghl;bd; kpfTk; gaDs;s fUtpahFk;.
tpupthf;fj;jpy; tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;jpwd;:

219
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; v];Nlapd; $w;Wg;gb> tpupthf;fj;jpy; gaDs;s js;Sgb
nfhs;ifapd; topapy; gpd;tUk; rpf;fy;fs; nghJthf vOfpd;wd:
Fwpg;G
1. mjpf nropg;gpd; NghJ> tzpfHfshy; fld; ngWtjw;fhd
Njit tl;b-jtpHf;f Kbahjjhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
2. tq;fp tPjj;jpd; caHT kw;Wk; mjd; tpisthf re;ij tl;b

tpfpjq;fs; caHT Mfpait gzr; re;ijapy; epjp
,ilj;jufHfsplkpUe;J fld; ngwf;$ba epjpia <Hf;ff;$Lk; kw;Wk;
tpUk;gj;jfhj tpisTfis vjpHnfhs;s cjtf;$Lk;.
3. gzj;jpd; msT tq;fp mikg;ghy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;glyhk;

vd;whYk;> mjd; Gof;fj;jpd; Ntfk; Neubahf tq;fpfspd;
nry;thf;fpd; fPo; ,y;iy. vt;tsT fld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gij
tq;fp nfhs;if jPHkhdpf;ff;$Lk;> Mdhy; mJ vt;tsT> vt;tsT
Ntfkhf gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij jPHkhdpf;Fk;
tHj;jfkhFk;. vdNt> ,af;fj;jpd; Ntfk; fld; mstpw;F Kuzhf
,Ue;jhy;> tq;fp nfhs;if gadw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4. tq;fpf; nfhs;ifiag; gad;gLj;Jtjpy; rupahd Neuj;jpd;

rpukKk; cs;sJ. rupahd Neuj;jpy; kw;Wk; rupahd fhyhz;by;
gpNuf;Ffs; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. mit kpf tpiutpy;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> mit cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpfis KOikahfg;
gad;gLj;jhky; tpupthf;fj;ij KbTf;Ff; nfhz;Ltu Ntz;Lk;.
kpfTk; jhkjkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ> Xbg;Nghd gz tpupthf;fk;
kw;Wk; gztPff
; k; Mfpait Kw;wpYk; fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,y;iy.
jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs;:
jpwe;j re;ij eltbf;iffspd; El;gk; kj;jpa tq;fpahy;

gj;jpuq;fis thq;FtJ kw;Wk; tpw;gJ Fwpf;fpwJ. xU tpw;gid
,Ug;gpDk;> murhq;f gj;jpu re;ijia guhkupf;f Ntz;bajd;

fhuzkhf> tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;G epiyia ghjpf;Fk; nghUl;L>
vg;NghJ> ve;j msTfspy; murhq;f gj;jpuq;fis tpw;f kj;jpa tq;fp
Kw;wpYk; ,ytrk;. ,t;thW> xU ngupa nghJf; fld; epYitapy;
,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gj;jpur; re;ijia tpupthf;Ftjd; %yk;> gztpay;
nfhs;if kw;Wk; nghJf; fldpd; Nkyhz;ik Mfpait
gpupf;fKbahj tifapy; gpd;dpg; gpize;Js;sd.
220
,Ug;G tpfpjq;fs;: cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
Fwpg;G
tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;Gf;fs; kw;Wk; nray;ghLfis ghjpf;Fk;
kw;nwhU kpfr; rpwe;j top ehza mjpfhupfs; jq;fs; trk; cs;sJ>
NkYk; me;j MAjk; gz ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wkhFk; .
Kd;gjpT nra;ag;gl;l Njjpapy; ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fspy; khw;wq;fs;
eilKiwf;F tUk;.
mtw;wpd; cldb tpisT tq;fp mikg;gpy; gzg;Gof;f epiyia

khw;WtjhFk;. gz ,Ug;G tpfpjk; caHj;jg;gLk;NghJ> tzpf
tq;fpfs; jq;fspd; jw;Nghija gz ,Ug;G itg;Gfis <Lfl;l
NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy vd;gijf; fz;lwpe;J> gzr; re;ijapy; jput
nrhj;Jf;fis mg;Gwg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; epjp jpul;l Ntz;Lk;. ,Ug;G
tpfpjk; Fiwf;fg;gLk;NghJ jiyfPo; ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt> ,Ug;G
tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Neubahf gz msT kw;Wk;
tq;fpfspd; fld; jpwid ghjpf;Fk;.
tq;fp tPjf; nfhs;if> jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs; kw;Wk; ,Ug;G

tpfpjq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; Mfpait gzk; toq;fypy;>
,Ug;Gf;fs; %yk; tq;fp ,Ug;Gf;fspd; tpiy> msT kw;Wk;
fpilf;Fk; jd;ik Mfpatw;wpy; jq;fs; nry;thf;if nrYj;Jfpd;wd.
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfs;:
fld; fl;Lg;ghLfs; my;yJ jukhd fld; fl;Lg;ghL fld; re;ijapd;

Fwpg;gpl;l gpupTfSf;Fs; kw;Wk; ntspNa fld; Xl;lj;ij jpir
jpUg;g gad;gLfpwJ. NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfs; fld; thq;Fk;
Nehf;fj;ij ghjpf;Fk; Nehf;fj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mit Fwpg;gpl;l
Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf fld; ePl;bg;ig fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fl;Lg;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd mbg;gil
vd;dntd;why;> xU nghJthd fld; fl;Lg;ghL nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ikia guhkupg;gjw;F Kuzhf ,Uf;Fk; Neuj;jpy; rpy
Jiwfspy; fld; mjpfkhf fUjg;glyhk;.
nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; ,yf;if mila ,e;j gy;NtW fld;

fl;Lg;ghLfs; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W nrhy;yhky; NghfpwJ
gzf; fl;Lg;ghl;bd; nray;jpwd;:
nghUshjhuj;ij xU ke;j epiyapy; ,Ue;J ntspNa nfhz;L

tUtjw;F cjTtij tpl> Vw;wk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; gztpay;
nfhs;if kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. ve;jnthU Vw;wk;
Kbtiltjw;F gz Nkyhz;ik vg;NghJNk gz tpepNahfj;ij
NghJkhd msT xg;ge;jk; nra;a KbAk; vd;gJ ePz;l fhykhf Self-Instructional Material
221
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; mq;ff
P upf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ> Mdhy; ,J xU RUf;fj;ij KbTf;Ff;
nfhz;LtUtjw;fhd jpwidf; nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy.
Fwpg;G
Vndd;why;> gz epHthfj;jpd; eltbf;iffs; tUkhd-nryT ];l;uk
P py;
kpfTk; gaDs;s fhd;l;uh-Row;rp MAjkhf Neubahf Eioatpy;iy>
Vnddpy; mtw;wpd; Kjy; jhf;fk; epjp epWtdq;fspd; nrhj;J
fl;likg;gpy; cs;sJ> NkYk; nrhj;Jf;fspd; fl;likg;ig khw;Wk;
,e;j nray;ghl;by;> tPjk; tl;b> fld; msT kw;Wk; tUkhd nryT
Xl;lk; Mfpait khw;wg;glyhk;.
RUf;fj;jpd; NghJ mjpfupg;G Vw;gLtij tpl tpupthf;fj;jpd; NghJ

tUkhd Xl;lj;ijj; jLg;gjpy; ,it midj;Jk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
mstpy; nray;gLfpd;wd. ,Ug;gpDk;> gztpay; nfhs;ifapd;
kpfg;ngupa ed;ik mjd; nefpo;Tj;jd;ik. nfhLf;fg;gl;l msT
kw;Wk; jukhd rhd;Wfspd; jPHg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ik kw;Wk; tsHr;rpAld; xj;Jg;Nghfpd;w gz
tpepNahfj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;w tpfpjk; Fwpj;J ehza Nkyhz;ik
KbTfis vLf;fpwJ.
Mdhy;> gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; ,e;j Gs;sp mjd; nray;jpwid

ep&gpf;Fkh ,y;iyah vd;gJ mjd; rupahd Neuj;ijg; nghWj;jJ.
tq;fp tPjj;ij ifahSjy; kw;Wk; kj;jpa tq;fpapd; jpwe;j re;ij
guptHj;jidfs; tpiuthfTk; njhlHr;rpahfTk; gad;gLj;jpdhy;>
Vw;wk; tsHr;rpailtijj; jLg;gjpy;> mjd; tpisthf>
kdr;NrhHTf;Fs;shfpwJ.
nkhj;jj;jpy;> gztpay; nfhs;if cWjpg;gLj;jy; jpl;lj;jpd;

mtrpakhd gFjpahFk;> Mdhy; tpUk;gpa ,yf;if mila mJ
kl;Lk; NghjhJ. gztpay; nfhs;if> nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy;
fUtpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> gy topfspy;> epjpf; nfhs;ifapd;
epug;gpahf nray;gLfpwJ.
,J tYthdJ> epjpf; nfhs;if gytPdkhf cs;sJ. ,J

nefpo;thdJ kw;Wk; Neuk; kw;Wk; Njitfspd; mOj;jq;fspd;
mstpw;F Vw;wthW tpiuthd khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;. ,Ug;gpDk;>
,J epjpf; nfhs;ifAld; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl cs;sJ. jtwhd
ehzaf; nfhs;if epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;jpwid fLikahf
Mgj;jpy; Mo;j;jf;$Lk;. vdNt> gztpay; nfhs;if kw;Wk; epjpf;
nfhs;if> xt;nthd;Wk; kw;nwhd;iw tYg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; $Ljyhf
toq;Fjy; Mfpait nghUshjhu cWjpg;gLj;jy; jpl;lj;ij
tFg;gjpy; ,d;wpaikahj $WfshFk;.
222
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk; III Fwpg;G

vOJq;fs;
1. jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfs; Fwpj;J rpW Fwpg;G vOjth?
13.7 epjpf; nfhs;if:
epjpf; nfhs;ifapy; murhq;fj;jpd; tup kw;Wk; nryTf; nfhs;iffs;

mlq;Fk;. ,t;thW> epjpf; nfhs;if murhq;f nryTfs; kw;Wk; tup
urPJfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; nray;gLfpwJ. ,J ,uz;L
jdpj;jdp Mdhy; njhlHGila KbTfis cs;slf;fpaJ:
1. nghJ nryTfs; kw;Wk;

2. tup epiy kw;Wk; fl;likg;G.
nghJ nrytpdj;jpd; msT> tuptpjpg;gpd; J}z;Ljy; kw;Wk;

tpisTfs; kw;Wk; nryT kw;Wk; tUtha;f;F ,ilapyhd cwT
Mfpait ,ytr epWtd nghUshjhuj;jpy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f jhf;fj;ij
Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
murhq;fj;jpd; tuptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;if jdpahH nrytpdq;fisf;

fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; jpl;lj;Jld; njhlHGilaJ. nryTf; nfhs;if>
kWGwk;> Gjpa nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd murhq;f
nrytpdq;fs; nkhj;j Njit kw;Wk; kiwKf tUkhdj;ij
Neubahfr; NrHf;Fk; Nrdy;fisf; ifahSfpd;wd> ,J ,uz;lhk;
epiy nrytpdj;jpd; %yk; ngUf;f tpistpd; fhuzkhf
eilngWfpwJ.
tuptpjpg;G> kWGwk;> nrytopg;G tUkhdj;ijAk; r%fj;jpy; Vw;gLk;

Nrkpg;igAk; Fiwg;gjd; %yk; jdpahH nrytpdq;fspd; msit
(EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPL ,uz;bYk;) Fiwf;f nray;gLfpwJ. vdNt>
gl;n[l; epfo;tpd; fPo;> nghJ nrytpdk; kw;Wk; tUtha; Mfpait
gy;NtW topfspy; xd;wpizf;fg;gl;L xl;Lnkhj;j Njitf;F
Njitahd J}z;Ljy; my;yJ gzthl;l tpisit milayhk;.
MfNt> epjpf; nfhs;ifahdJ tup tpfpjq;fspy; msT kw;Wk;

jukhd mk;r khw;wq;fs;> tuptpjpg;gpd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; mjd;
epfo;Tfs; nghUshjhuj;jpy; msT kw;Wk; jpir my;yJ jdpahH
nrytpdq;fis ghjpf;fpwJ. ,NjNghy;> murhq;fj;jpd;
223
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; nrytpdq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd; xJf;fL P fspd;
fl;likg;Gk; Neuk;> EfHT kw;Wk; r%fj;jpd; xl;Lnkhj;j Njit
Fwpg;G Mfpatw;wpy; msT kw;Wk; kWtpepNahf tpisTfis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
cz;ikapy;> midj;J murhq;f nrytpdq;fSk; xl;Lnkhj;j

Njitia mjpfupg;gjw;fhd xU J}z;LjyhFk; (njhFjp kw;Wk;
$Wfs; ,uz;Lk;) kw;Wk; gztPf;f rhHGilaJ> ,J jdpahH
nghUshjhuj;jpw;fhd epjpfis ntspapLfpwJ> gpd;dH mit
tHj;jfk; kw;Wk; tzpfj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
,NjNghy;> murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy; Fiwg;G gzthl;l rhHGfisf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; ,J xl;Lnkhj;j Njitia Fiwf;fpwJ (mjd;
msT kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;Fk; njhlHGila $Wfs;).
,t;thW> nghJr; nryTfs; kw;Wk; nghJ tUtha;fspd; fyit
ehl;bd; nghUshjhu fl;likg;ig tbtikf;f cjTtJ
kl;Lky;yhky; nghUshjhuj;jpy; rpy tpisTfisAk; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
mjpfgl;r nray;jpwDf;fhf> epjpf; nfhs;if ePz;l fhy kw;Wk;

FWfpa fhy mbg;gilapy; jpl;lkplg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ePz;lfhy epjpf;
nfhs;if murhq;f tUkhdk; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fspd; ePz;lfhy
Nghf;FfSld; njhlHGilaJ. epjp eltbf;iffspd; ,j;jifa ePz;l
J}u jpl;lj;jpd; fl;likg;gpw;Fs;> FWfpa fhy nghUshjhu Vw;w
,wf;fq;fis kpjg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf gl;n[l;il Row;rp Kiwapy;
khWgLk;.
tup tUtha; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fSf;fpilNaahd cwtpy; tpUk;gpa

nefpo;Tj;jd;ikiaj; jpl;lkpLtjw;F mbg;gilapy; ,uz;L nrl;
El;gq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;: (1) cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ik
my;yJ jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jpfs; kw;Wk; (2) tpUg;gg;gb
eltbf;if.
fl;likf;fg;gl;l-nefpo;Tj;jd;ik :
epjpf; nfhs;ifapd; nray;ghL Neuk; kw;Wk; Kd;dwptpg;gpd; rpf;fiy

vjpHnfhz;lJ. xU epjpf; nfhs;if epHthfp vg;NghJk; Nfs;tpia
vjpHnfhs;s Ntz;Lk;: vg;NghJ vd;d nra;tJ? Mdhy; gjpy;
nrhy;tJ kpfTk; fbdkhd kw;Wk; rpf;fyhd Nfs;tp. vdNt> epjp
eltbf;iffspd; Kd;fzpg;G kw;Wk; Neuj;jpd; epr;rakw;w
jd;ikfspypUe;J vOk; rpukq;fisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf > xU
jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jp jpl;lk; ngUk;ghYk; gupe;Jiuf;fg;gLfpwJ.
xU gl;n[l; nfhs;ifapy; nrytpdk; kw;Wk; tUtha; cwtpd; xU

Fwpg;gpl;l fl;likg;gpy;> Njrpa tUkhdk;> Ntiytha;g;G
224
Nghd;wtw;wpy; ,af;fq;fspy; jhdhfNt rupahd jhf;fq;fis cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
toq;Fk; fhuzpfs; cs;sd vd;gij jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jp jpl;lk; Fwpg;G
Fwpf;fpwJ. ,Jjhd; cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ik vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J xU nrayw;w gl;n[l; nfhs;ifia
Fwpf;fpwJ.
cs;sikf;fg;gl;l nefpo;Tj;jd;ikapd; rhuhk;rk; vd;dntd;why;> (i)

nfhLf;fg;gl;l tup tpfpjq;fspd; tup tpisr;ry; Njrpa
tUkhdj;Jld; Neubahf khWgLk;> kw;Wk; (ii) Njrpa
nrytpdq;fspd; efHTfSld; NeHkhwhf khWgLk; rpy murhq;f
nrytpdq;fs; cs;sd.
,t;thW> Njrpa tUkhdk; caUk;NghJ> jw;NghJs;s tup kw;Wk;

nrytpdq;fspd; fl;likg;ghdJ nrytpdq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
nghJ tUthia jhdhfNt mjpfupf;Fk;> NkYk; Njrpa tUkhdk;
tPo;rr
; pailAk; NghJ tUthAld; njhlHGila nryTfis
mjpfupf;Fk;. ,e;j khw;wq;fs; Fiwe;jJ XusthtJ gztPf;fk;
my;yJ kdr;NrhHitj; jzpf;f my;yJ <Lnra;a Kidfpd;wd.
vdNt> xU Kw;Nghf;fhd tup mikg;G rpwe;j jhdpaq;fp
epiyg;gLj;jpahfj; njupfpwJ.
mNjNghy;> Ntiyapd;ik ,og;gPl;Lj; jpl;lq;fs;> murhq;f

khdpaq;fs; my;yJ tpiy-MjuT jpl;lq;fs; Nghd;w rpy tifahd
murhq;f nryTj; jpl;lq;fSk; Njrpa tUkhdj;jpy; ,af;fq;fSld;
NeHkhwhf khWgLtjd; %yk; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
<Lnra;fpd;wd.
,Ug;gpDk;> jhdpaq;fp epiyg;gLj;jpfs; nghUshjhu Vw;w

,wf;fq;fSf;F xU gPjp my;y> Vnddpy; mit Njrpa tUkhdj;jpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSf;F xU gFjp <Lnra;jyhf kl;LNk
nray;gLfpd;wd> Mdhy; tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpd; jpiria
khw;wpaikf;f xU rf;jpia toq;Ffpd;wd.
mit xl;Lnkhj;j tUkhdj;jpd; tPo;rr ; papd; tPjj;ij Fiwf;fpd;wd>

Mdhy; tUkhdj;ij mjd; Ke;ija epiyf;F kPl;nlLg;gjw;fhd
ve;j Vw;ghLk; ,y;iy. vdNt> mit epjp eltbf;iffspd; kpfTk;
gaDs;s rhjdkhf mq;ff P upf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy; xNu rhjdk;
my;y. mNjrkak;> #o;epiyfs; miof;Fk; vd;gjhy; tpNtfkhd
nfhs;iffSf;F tha;g;G ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
tpUg;gg;gb eltbf;if:
225
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; ngUk;ghYk;> Fiwe;jgl;r jhkjj;Jld;> murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSld; eilKiwf;Ff; nfhz;LtUtjw;fhd
Fwpg;G eltbf;iffisf; nfhz;l tpNtff; nfhs;iffspd; fUtp fUtp
%yk; epjp eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;tJ Kw;wpYk; mtrpakhfpwJ.
,J nghJg;gzpj; jpl;lq;fspd; vYk;Gf;$l;ilg; gad;gLj;JtNjhL>
mtw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd epHthf tpNtfj;ijAk;> mtw;iw
eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd epjpfisAk; toq;FfpwJ.
,J xU gl;n[l; ifahSjYf;F nefpo;thd tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk;

nrytpdq;fis cs;slf;fpa xU nraypy; gl;n[l; nfhs;iff;F
miog;G tpLfpwJ. tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fspy; tpUg;gg;gb
khw;wq;fSf;F %d;W topfs; ,Uf;fyhk;: epiyahd tup
tpfpjq;fSld; nryTfis khw;WtJ@ tup tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk;
epiyahd nrytpdq;fis khw;Wjy;@ kw;Wk; tup tpfpjq;fis
khw;WtJ kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fis khw;WtJ Mfpatw;wpd;
fyitahFk;.
nghJthf> kdr;NrhHtpd; NghJ Kjy; Kiw ,uz;lhtJ Kiwia

tpl caHe;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;. mjhtJ> khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; tupfspd;
msitf; nfhz;L mjpfupg;gJ xl;Lnkhj;j nrytpdq;fisAk;
nghUshjhuj;jpy; gaDs;s NjitiaAk; caHj;Jtjw;F
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> ,uz;lhtJ Kiw gztPf;fj;jpd;
NghJ Kjy; Kiwia tpl caHe;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
mjhtJ> nfhLf;fg;gl;l nryTj; jpl;lj;jpd; %yk; tup tpfpjq;fis

mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; gztPf;fj;ij jpwk;gl rupghHf;f KbAk;. Mdhy;
%d;whtJ Kiw gztPff ; j;jpd; NghJ kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf
,Ug;gijAk; kw;w gztPf;fj;ij tpl gzthl;lj;ijAk; fhz;gJ
vspJ.
tupfis mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> nghJr; nrytpdq;fSk; xNu Neuj;jpy;

Fiwf;fg;gLk;NghJ gztPf;fk; kpfTk; jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,NjNghy;> xU ke;jepiyapd; NghJ> mjpfupj;J tUk; nghJr;
nrytpdq;fSld; xNu Neuj;jpy; tupfisf; Fiwj;jhy; jdpahH
nghUshjhuj;jpd; nryT tpfpjk; tpiuthf caHj;jg;gLk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> ngUk;ghyhd tpUg;gkhd nfhs;iffspd; Kf;fpa rpukk;

mtw;wpd; rupahd NeukhFk;. tpNtfk; kw;Wk; nray;gLj;Jtjpy;
jhkjk; rpf;fiy Nkhrkhf;Fk; kw;Wk; rpf;fy;fisj; jPHg;gjpy; epuy;
gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
MfNt> murhq;f eltbf;iffspd; epr;rakw;w jd;ik kw;Wk; nrhe;j

Self-Instructional Material eyd;fSf;F rhjfkhf ,Uf;Fk; murpay; mOj;jq;fs; fhuzkhf>
226
tpNtfKs;s murhq;f eltbf;iffs; ey;yij tpl jPq;F cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
tpistpf;Fk; vd;W gy nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; mQ;Rfpd;wdH. Fwpg;G
mjdhy;jhd;> cs;sikf;fg;gl;l epiyg;gLj;jpfis ek;GtJ>
Kbe;jtiu> gupe;Jiuf;fg;gLfpwJ.
13.8 ,aw;gpay; nfhs;if my;yJ Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;:

gutyhfg; ghHj;jhy;> Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; murhq;fj;jhy;
tpjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd> mit rpy tifahd KjyPL my;yJ
nghUshjhu eltbf;iffis ntspg;gilahf jilnra;fpd;wd
my;yJ fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. rpy Neuq;fspy;> gztPf;fj;jpw;F vjpuhd
xU eltbf;ifahf tpiyfs; kw;Wk; Cjpaq;fs; kPjhd Neub
murhq;f fl;Lg;ghLfs; gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;L nray;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
,uz;lhk; cyfg; Nghupd;NghJ> nghJthd nkhj;j mjpfg;gbahd

Njitiaj; jLg;gjw;Fk;> cw;gj;jp tsq;fis murhq;fk; tpUk;Gk;
Nrdy;fspy; nrYj;Jtjw;Fk; EfHNthH Nu\d; kw;Wk; nghUl;fs;
xJf;fl P ;NlhL ,ize;J tpiy-Cjpaf; fl;Lg;ghLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. nghJthf mjpfg;gbahd Njitiaj; jLf;f
ehza-epjpf; fl;Lg;ghLfs; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;> Mdhy; Fwpg;gpl;l
gw;whf;Fiw gFjpfSf;F mit gad;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ Neub
fl;Lg;ghLfs; kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; gpd;tUk; ed;ikfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd:
1. mit tpiuthfTk; vspjhfTk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;glyhk;

my;yJ khw;wg;glyhk;: vdNt ,tw;wpd; tpisTfs; tpiuthf
,Uf;Fk;.
2. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; ehza kw;Wk; epjpf; fl;Lg;ghLfis tpl

ghugl;rkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
3. ntt;NtW Jiwfspy; mt;tg;NghJ fl;Lg;ghLfspd;

nray;ghLfspd; jPtpuj;jpy; khWghL ,Uf;fyhk;.
vt;thwhapDk;> xU rkhjhd fhy nghUshjhuj;jpy;> xU

cWjpg;gLj;Jk; rhjdkhf Neub nghUshjhuf; fl;Lg;ghLfSf;F
fLikahd jj;Jt kw;Wk; murpay; Ml;Nrgidfs; cs;sd>
gpd;tUk; vz;zpf;ifapy; ,j;jifa fl;Lg;ghLfSf;F Ml;Nrgidfs;
vOg;gg;gl;Ls;sd:
1. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; jdpg;gl;l Kd;Kaw;rp kw;Wk; epWtdj;ij

mlf;Ffpd;wd.
227
cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; 2. cw;gj;jpapd; Gjpa El;gq;fs;> Gjpa jahupg;Gfs; Nghd;w
GJikfisj; jLf;f mit Kidfpd;wd.
Fwpg;G
3. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; rPHFiyf;Fk; tpisTfis Vw;gLj;jf;$ba
Cfq;fis ,dg;ngUf;fk; nra;ayhk; my;yJ J}z;lyhk;.
cjhuzkhf> xU nghUs; vf;];> v/F vd;W $WtJ> gw;whf;Fiw
fhuzkhf kjpg;gplg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fg;gl;lhy;> kf;fs;
mjd; ngupa gq;Ffis gJf;fp itf;f Kaw;rp nra;ayhk;> ,J
mjd; gw;whf;Fiwia mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,jdhy;> ngupa mstpyhd
gJf;fy; %yk; nraw;if gw;whf;Fiwia cUthf;f Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ@
4. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; jpwk;gl nray;gl Ntz;Lkhdhy;

rpf;fyhd> NeHikahd kw;Wk; jpwikahd epHthf mikg;G Njit.
5. fl;Lg;ghLfs; mfw;wg;gl;lTld; nkhj;j ,ila+Wfs; kPz;Lk;

Njhd;Wk;.
RUf;fkhf> mtruepiyfs; Nghd;w mrhjhuz #o;epiyfspy; kl;LNk

Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy; mikjp fhy
nghUshjhuj;jpy; my;y

vOJq;fs;
1. Neub fl;Lg;ghL vd;why; vd;d?
.
13.9 RUf;fk;:
,e;j myF cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
typAWj;JfpwJ. nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ikapd; fUtpfs; ehzaf;
nfhs;if> epjpf; nfhs;if kw;Wk; Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; gw;wpa
tptuq;fSld; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd> mit nghUshjhu
];jpuj;jd;ikia epiyepWj;Jtjw;fhd fUtpfis ep&gpf;fpd;wd.

1. (1) gztpay; nfhs;if
2. nghUshjhu ];jpuj;jd;ik vd;gJ xU gpuhe;jpaj;jpd; my;yJ
ehl;bd; nghUshjhuk; nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jp> Ntiyapd;ik
my;yJ gztPf;fk; Nghd;w nghUshjhu nray;jpwdpd; Kf;fpa
eltbf;iffspy; gue;j Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fhl;ltpy;iy.
228
3. jpwe;j re;ij eltbf;iffspd; El;gk; kj;jpa tq;fpahy; cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs;
gj;jpuq;fis thq;FtJ kw;Wk; tpw;gJ Fwpf;fpwJ. xU tpw;gid Fwpg;G
4. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs; murhq;fj;jhy; tpjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd> mit rpy
tifahd KjyPL my;yJ nghUshjhu eltbf;iffis
ntspg;gilahf jilnra;fpd;wd my;yJ fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.



229
tzpf Row;rp
myF XIV: tzpf Row;rp
Fwpg;G 14.1 mwpKfk;
14.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;
14.3 tzpf Row;rpfspd; nghUs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfs;
14.4 tzpf Row;rpfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;
14.5 tzpf Row;rpfs; kw;Wk; tzpf KbTfs;
14.6.1 gztPf;fk; nghUs;
14.6.2 gztPf;fk; tiffs;
14.6.3 gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; eltbf;iffs;
14.7 gzthl;lk;
14.7.1 gzthl;lk; nghUs;
14.7.2 gzthl;lk; tiffs;
14.7.3 gzthl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;
14.8 RUf;fk;
14.1: mwpKfk;
tHj;jf Row;rp nghUshjhuj;jpy; Ntiy nkhj;j mstpy; Kf;fpa
njhlHGfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. xU tzpfr; Row;rp vd;gJ xU
tzpf my;yJ njhopYf;Fs; epfOk; gy;NtW Nghf;Ffisf;
Fwpf;fpwJ> mjhtJ tsHr;rp my;yJ RUf;fk;. ngUk;ghYk; xU
Fwpg;gpl;l Row;rpiaf; Fwpf;Fk; tifapy; epWtdk; epw;Fk;
,lj;jpdhy; Nkyhz;ik KbTfs; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. nghUshjhu
tsHr;rp kw;Wk; nropg;G fhyq;fspy; > Ntiytha;g;G mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk;> Vnddpy; tzpfq;fSf;F Njitia g+Hj;jp nra;tjw;Fk;
jq;fs; epWtdq;fis tpupTgLj;Jtjw;Fk; mjpfkhd njhopyhsHfs;
Njitg;gLfpwhHfs;.
230
tzpf Row;rp
14.2 Fwpf;Nfhs;fs;:
tzpf Row;rpfspd; njhopy;El;g fUj;Jf;fis khztH mwpe;J
Fwpg;G
nfhs;s KbAk;. tzpf nray;Kiw my;yJ tsHr;rpapd; fl;lq;fspy;
jd;id vg;gb caHj;jpf; nfhs;tJ vd;gij mtH mwpe;J nfhs;s
KbAk;. tzpfr; Row;rpapy; gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lj;ij ed;F
fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffis vt;thW Nkw;nfhs;tJ
vd;gijAk; mtH ,e;j myF %yk; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpwhH.
14.3 tzpf Row;rp nghUs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfs;:

tzpfr; Row;rp xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd;
cw;gj;jp cw;gj;jpapd; caHT kw;Wk; tPo;rr
; pia tptupf;fpwJ. tzpf
Row;rpfs; nghJthf cz;ikahd nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy;
(nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy;) caHT kw;Wk; tPo;rr ; piag;
gad;gLj;jp mstplg;gLfpd;wd my;yJ gztPf;fj;jpw;F
rupnra;ag;gl;l nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahFk;.
tzpfr; Row;rp re;ijr; Row;rpfSld; Fog;gkilaf;$lhJ> mit

gue;j gq;Fr; re;ij FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jp mstplg;gLfpd;wd.
tzpf Row;rp fld; Row;rpapy; ,Ue;J NtWgl;lJ > ,J tPl;L kw;Wk;
murhq;f fld;fspd; caHT kw;Wk; tPo;rr
; piaf; Fwpf;fpwJ .
tzpf Row;rp nghUshjhu Row;rp my;yJ tHj;jf Row;rp vd;Wk;

miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
tzpf Row;rpfspd; ehd;F ntt;NtW fl;lq;fs; - tpupthf;fk;>

cr;repiy> kdr;NrhHT kw;Wk; kPl;G. ,e;j fl;lq;fs; midj;Jk;
mtw;wpd; jdpj;Jtkhd Fzhjpraq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ>
vy;yh fl;lq;fSf;Fk; nghJthd rpy mk;rq;fs; cs;sd. tzpf
Row;rpfspd; ,e;j mk;rq;fisg; ghHg;Nghk;.
1] mt;tg;NghJ epfo;fpwJ
ehk; ghHj;jgb> ,e;j fl;lq;fs; mt;tg;NghJ epfo;fpd;wd. ,Ug;gpDk;

mit Fwpg;gpl;l Neuq;fSf;F Vw;glhJ> mtw;wpd; fhyq;fs;
njhopy;fs; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu epiyikfSf;F Vw;g khWgLk;.
mtw;wpd; fhyk; ,uz;L Kjy; gj;J my;yJ gd;dpuz;L
Mz;LfSf;F ,ilapy; NtWglyhk;. fl;lq;fspd; jPtpuk; $l
tpj;jpahrkhf ,Uf;Fk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> epWtdk; kpfg;ngupa
tsHr;rpiaf; fhzyhk;> mijj; njhlHe;J Mokw;w FWfpa fhy
kdr;NrhHT fl;lk; ,Uf;Fk;.
231
tzpf Row;rp 2] mit xj;jpirthdit
tzpf Row;rpfspd; kw;nwhU mk;rk; mit xj;jpirthdit. tzpf

Fwpg;G
Row;rpfs; xU epWtdk; my;yJ xU njhopYf;F kl;Lky;y. mit
Rje;jpu nghUshjhuj;jpy; Njhd;wpait kw;Wk; ,aw;ifapy; gutyhf
,Uf;fpd;wd.
xU njhopw;Jiwapy; xU ,ila+W kw;w vy;yh njhopy;fSf;Fk;

tpiuthf guTfpwJ kw;Wk; ,Wjpahf xl;Lnkhj;j
nghUshjhuj;ijAk; ghjpf;fpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> v/F Jiwapy;
ke;jepiy KO nghUshjhuj;jpYk; ke;jepiy Vw;gLk; tiu xU
rq;fpyp vjpHtpid mikf;Fk;.
3] midj;J JiwfSk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd
nghUshjhuj;jpd; midj;J Kf;fpa JiwfSk; tzpfr; Row;rpapd;

ghjfkhd tpisTfis vjpHnfhs;Sk;. %yjd nghUl;fs; njhopy;>
EfHNthH nghUl;fs; njhopy; Nghd;w rpy njhopy;fs; tpfpjhrhukhf
ghjpf;fg;glyhk;.
vdNt KjyPL kw;Wk; %yjd nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; ePbj;j EfHNthH

nghUl;fspd; EfHT Mfpait Row;rpapd; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fspd;
mjpfgl;r ghjpg;ig vjpHnfhs;fpd;wd. ePbj;j nghUl;fs; nghJthf
,j;jifa gpur;rpidfis vjpHnfhs;tjpy;iy.
4] rpf;fyhd epfo;T
tzpf Row;rpfs; kpfTk; rpf;fyhd kw;Wk; khWk; epfo;T.

mtHfSf;F ve;j xw;WikAk; ,y;iy. tzpf Row;rpfSf;Fk; ve;j
fhuzq;fSk; ,y;iy. vdNt ,e;j tzpf Row;rpfis fzpg;gJ
my;yJ jahupg;gJ fpl;lj;jl;l rhj;jpakw;wJ.
5] midj;J JiwfisAk; ghjpf;Fk;
tHj;jf Row;rpfs; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; ntspaPl;bw;F

kl;Lky;y. ,J Ntiytha;g;G> tl;b tpfpjk;> tpiy epiyfs;>
KjyPlL; nray;ghL Nghd;w midj;J khwpfs; kPJk; xU jhf;fj;ij
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
6] Nfuf;lupy; ,d;lHNe\dy;
tHj;jf Row;rpfs; njhw;WNehahFk;. mtHfs; jq;fis xU ehL

Self-Instructional Material my;yJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpw;F kl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy;iy. mtHfs; xU
232
tzpf Row;rp
ehl;by; njhlq;fpaJk; mit tHj;jf cwTfs; kw;Wk; rHtNjr
tHj;jf eilKiwfs; %yk; kw;w ehLfSf;Fk;
nghUshjhuq;fSf;Fk; guTfpd;wd. Fwpg;G
14.4 tzpf Row;rpfspd; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd

eltbf;iffs;:
tzpf Row;rpfspd; kpf Kf;fpakhd Nfhl;ghLfs; rpy gpd;tUkhW:
1. J}a ehzaf; Nfhl;ghL
2. ehza mjpf KjyPl;Lf; Nfhl;ghL
3. \_k;gPl;lupd; fz;Lgpbg;G Nfhl;ghL
4. nfa;d;]; Nfhl;ghL
5. rhKnty;rdpd; ngUf;fp KLf;fp ,iltpid khjpup
6. `pf;]; Nfhl;ghL.
1. J}a ehzaf; Nfhl;ghL:
ghuk;gupa tzpf Row;rp Nfhl;ghl;lhsHfs; tzpf Row;rpfis

gFg;gha;T nra;a xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; ehza kw;Wk; fld;
Kiwia ftdj;jpy; nfhs;fpwhHfs;. tzpfr; Row;rp vd;gJ gz
kw;Wk; fld; re;ij epiyfspy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fspd; tpisthFk;
vd;W gztpay; Nfhl;ghL $WfpwJ. ,e;j Nfhl;ghl;bd; Kf;fpa
Mjuthsuhd `ht;Nu> tzpf Row;rpfs; gztPf;fk; kw;Wk;
gzthl;lj;jpd; njhlHr;rpahd fl;lq;fs; vd;W thjpl;lhH. mtiug;
nghWj;jtiu> gzj;jpd; Xl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf
nghUshjhuj;jpy; khw;wq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> gz tpepNahfj;jpy; mjpfupg;G ,Uf;Fk;NghJ>

tpiyfs;> ,yhgq;fs; kw;Wk; nkhj;j cw;gj;jpapy; mjpfupg;G
,Uf;Fk;. ,J xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; tsHr;rpapy; tpisfpwJ.
kWGwk;> gz tpepNahfj;jpy; tPo;rr
; p Vw;gLtjhy; tpiyfs;> yhgk;
kw;Wk; nkhj;j cw;gj;jp FiwAk;> ,J nghUshjhuj;jpd; tPo;rr
; pf;F
toptFf;Fk;.
,J jtpu> gzg;Gof;fj;ij ghjpf;Fk; Kf;fpa fhuzp fld;

nghwpKiwahFk; vd;Wk; `hl;up thjpl;lhH. nghUshjhuj;jpy;> fld;
toq;Ftjd; %yk; gzg;Gof;fj;ij mjpfupg;gjpy; tq;fp mikg;G
Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.
233
tzpf Row;rp tq;fp fld; msT mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ xU nghUshjhuk; tsHr;rpiaf;
fhl;LfpwJ. tq;fpf; fld; msT mjpfupf;Fk; tiu ,e;j tsHr;rpapd;
Fwpg;G mjpfupg;G njhlHfpwJ. jdpegHfs; my;yJ epWtdq;fSf;F tq;fpfs;
fld; trjpfis toq;Ffpd;wd> Vnddpy; tq;fpfs; vspjhd
tpjpKiwfSf;F fld; toq;FtJ yhgfukhdJ.
tq;fpfsplkpUe;J vspjhf epjp fpilg;gJ epWtdq;fSf;F gy;NtW

tzpf eltbf;iffisr; nra;a cjTfpwJ. ,J gy;NtW KjyPlL ;
tha;g;Gfis mjpfupf;f toptFf;fpwJ> ,J %yjdj;ij
Mog;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; tpupthf;Ftjw;Fk; toptFf;fpwJ. ,J jtpu>
vspjhd nrhw;fspy; tq;fpfshy; toq;fg;gLk; fld; epWtdq;fs;
jq;fs; cw;gj;jpia tpupthf;f cjTfpwJ.
xU epWtdk; mjd; cw;gj;jpia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> mjd;

jahupg;Gfspd; tpepNahfKk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l tuk;gpw;F mjpfupf;fpwJ.
mjd; gpwF> re;ijapy; nghUl;fspd; Njit mjpfupf;Fk; tpfpjk;
tpepNahf mjpfupg;G tpfpjj;ij tpl mjpfkhf cs;sJ. ,jd;
tpisthf> nghUl;fspd; tpiyfs; mjpfupf;fpd;wd. vdNt> fld;
tpupthf;fk; nghUshjhuj;ij tpupthf;f cjTfpwJ. khwhf> tq;fp
re;ijapypUe;J flidj; jpUk;gg; ngwj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ my;yJ
fld; toq;Ftij epWj;Jk;NghJ nghUshjhu epiy jiyfPohf
khWk;.
gpd;tUk; fhuzq;fshy; tq;fpapd; gz ,Ug;Gf;fs; fOtg;gl;Ltpl;ld

vd;gNj ,jw;Ff; fhuzk;:
m. fld;fspd; mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; tq;fpfs; toq;Fk; Kd;$l;bNa
M. itg;Gfspd; tuj;J Fiwg;G
,. rpwe;j KjyPl;L tha;g;GfSf;fhf itg;Gj; jpUk;gg; ngWjy;
tq;fpfs; fld; toq;Ftij epWj;Jk;NghJ> mJ tzpfHfspd;

KjyPli; lf; Fiwf;fpwJ. ,J EfHNthH kw;Wk; %yjd nghUl;fs;>
tpiyfs; kw;Wk; EfHTf;fhd Njit Fiwtjw;F toptFf;fpwJ. ,J
ke;jepiyapd; mwpFwpfisf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
J}a ehzaf; Nfhl;ghL tpkHrpf;fg;gLk; rpy Gs;spfs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. tzpfr; Row;rpia gztpay; epfo;T vd;W fUJtjpy;iy.

gztpay; fhuzpfisj; jtpu> Gjpa KjyPlL ; Nfhupf;iffs;>
nryT mikg;G kw;Wk; tzpfHfspd; vjpHghHg;Gfs; Nghd;w gy
234
tzpf Row;rp
ehzakw;w fhuzpfSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffspy;
khw;wq;fis cUthf;ff;$Lk;.
2. tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; ke;jepiy fl;lq;fis kl;LNk tptupf;fpwJ Fwpg;G
kw;Wk; tzpf Row;rpfspd; ,ilepiy fl;lq;fis tpsf;fj;
jtwptpl;lJ.
3. tzpfHfs; tl;b tpfpjq;fSf;F mjpf czHjpwd; cilatHfs;
vd;W fUJfpd;wdH> khwhf mtHfs; vjpHfhy tha;g;Gfs;
Fwpj;J mjpf mf;fiw nfhz;Ls;sdH.
2. ehza mjpf KjyPl;Lf; Nfhl;ghL:
ehza mjpf KjyPlL

; f; Nfhl;ghL Kf;fpakhf cz;ikahd kw;Wk;
tpUk;gpa KjyPLfSf;F ,ilapyhd Vw;wj;jho;tpy; ftdk;
nrYj;JfpwJ. ,e;j Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb> cz;ikahd KjyPL tpUk;gpa
KjyPli ; l tpl kpf mjpfk;. ,e;j Nfhl;ghl;il `af; toq;fpdhH.
mtiug; nghWj;jtiu> nghUshjhuj;ij rkepiyapy;

nfhz;LtUtjw;F xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; KjyPL kw;Wk; EfHT
Kiwfs; xUtUf;nfhUtH nghUe;j Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j rkepiyia
cWjpg;gLj;j> jd;dhHt Nrkpg;G xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; cz;ikahd
KjyPlb
; w;F rkkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy;> nghJthf> nkhj;j KjyPL xt;nthU

njhopw;JiwAk; xU mstpw;F jahupg;Gfis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
tifapy; njhopy;fspilNa tpepNahfpf;fg;gLfpwJ> ,jdhy; mjd;
Njit kw;Wk; toq;fy; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,J KO kl;lj;jpYk;
xt;nthU kl;lj;jpYk; xt;nthU jahupg;Gf;Fk; KjyPL rkk; vd;gij
,J Fwpf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; RUf;fk;
,Uf;fhJ kw;Wk; nghUshjhuk; vg;NghJk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
,e;j Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb> gzk; toq;fy; kw;Wk; KjyPlL ; Nrkpg;G

cwTfs; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fhl;Lk;NghJjhd; nghUshjhu
epiyikfspy; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLk;. KjyPl;L tha;g;Gfs; mjpfupf;Fk;
NghJ jd;dhHt Nrkpg;G epiyahdjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ KjyPl;L
Nrkpg;G cwTfs; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
Fiwe;j tl;b tpfpjq;fs;> %yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwd; kw;Wk;

tzpfHfspd; vjpHghHg;Gfspd; mjpfupg;G Nghd;w gy fhuzq;fshy;
KjyPlL; tha;g;Gfs; mjpfupf;fpd;wd. ,J jtpu> tq;fpfs; Fiwe;j
fl;lzj;jpy; fld; toq;Ftjd; %yk; KjyPLfSf;F njhopy;fis
Mjupf;fj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ> mJ KjyPlb; y; mjpfupg;Gf;F
toptFf;fpwJ.
235
tzpf Row;rp ,J Kf;fpakhf %yjd ey;y njhopy;fspy; mjpf KjyPL nra;Ak;
epiyf;F toptFf;Fk;. mj;jifa re;jHg;gj;jpy;> KjyPL kw;Wk;
Fwpg;G Nrkpg;G mjpfupf;Fk;> Mdhy; EfHNthH nghUl;fs; njhopy;fspy; ve;j
khw;wKk; ,y;yhjjhy; EfHT ghjpf;fg;glhky; cs;sJ.
,jd; tpisthf> KjyPlL ; tha;g;Gfspd; mjpfupg;Gld; yhgk;

mjpfupf;fpwJ> ,jd; tpisthf gy;NtW jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;fhd Njit mjpfupf;Fk;. jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;fhd Njit jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd;
tpepNahfj;ij kPWfpwJ.
,J nghUshjhuj;jpy; gztPf;fj;jpw;F toptFf;fpwJ> ,J

jdpegHfspd; thq;Fk; rf;jpiaf; Fiwf;fpwJ. vdNt> jdpegHfspd;
thq;Fk; jpwd; Fiwe;J tUtjhy;> jahupg;GfSf;fhd cz;ikahd
Njit KjyPL mjpfupf;Fk; mNj tpfpjj;jpy; mjpfupf;fhJ.
cz;ikahd KjyPL cz;ikahd EfHT nrytpy; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
KjyPL kw;Wk; EfHNthH Njitf;F ,ilapyhd rkepiy njhe;juT

nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> jw;Nghija KjyPlL
; tPjj;ij
guhkupg;gJ fbdk;. EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; Njit jdpegHfspd;
tUkhdj;ijg; nghWj;jJ.
tUkhd kl;lj;jpy; mjpfupg;G EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; mjpfupg;Gf;F

toptFf;Fk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; mjpfupg;G %yjd
nghUl;fspd; mjpfupg;ig tpl mjpfk;. vdNt> kf;fs; %yjdg;
nghUl;fis tpl EfHNthH nghUl;fspy; KjyPL nra;thHfs;. ,jd;
tpisthf> tq;fpf; flDf;fhd NjitAk; mjpfupf;fpwJ.
,Ug;gpDk;> EfHNthH kw;Wk; %yjd nghUl;fs; Jiwapy; ,Ue;J

epjp Njitg;gLtjhy; tq;fpahsHfs; fld; nfhLf;f jahuhf ,y;iy.
,J nghUshjhuj;jpy; ke;jepiyf;F toptFf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf>
Ntiytha;g;G> KjyPL> Nrkpg;G> EfHT kw;Wk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; tpiyfs; Nghd;w nghUshjhu eltbf;iffs; Fiwaj;
njhlq;Ffpd;wd.
ehza mjpf KjyPl;Lf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; rpy tuk;Gfs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. re;ij tl;b tpfpjk; ,aw;if re;ij tl;b tpfpjj;ij tpl

Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> tq;fp fld; %yjd nghUl;fs;
njhopYf;F gha;fpwJ vd;W fUJfpwJ. KO Ntiytha;g;gpd;
#o;epiyapy; kl;LNk ,J nghUe;Jk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> tzpf
Self-Instructional Material Row;rpfs; xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; xU gFjpahFk;> NkYk;
236
tzpf Row;rp
tsq;fis Kiwaw;w Kiwapy; gad;gLj;Jtjd; fPo; ,J
epfoyhk;.
2. tl;b tPjj;ij KjyPl;il ghjpf;Fk; kpf Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf Fwpg;G
fUJfpwJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> %yjd nghUl;fspd; tpiy kw;Wk;
tzpfHfspd; vjpHghHg;G Nghd;w gy fhuzpfs; cs;sd> mit
KjyPli
; l ghjpf;Fk;.
3. EfHNthH nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; KjyPlb
; w;F ,ilapyhd rkepiyapy;
ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ> ,J mjpfk; Njitapy;iy.
3. \_k;gPll
; upd; fz;Lgpbg;G Nfhl;ghL:
tzpf Row;rpfspd; gpw Nfhl;ghLfs; KjyPL kw;Wk; gz

tpupthf;fj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fpd;wd. GJik gw;wpa
\_k;gPl;lupd; Nfhl;ghL> KjyPL kw;Wk; tzpf Vw;w ,wf;fq;fspy;
tpiuthd khw;wq;fSf;F tzpf fz;Lgpbg;GfNs fhuzk; vd;W
$Wfpd;wd.
\_k;gPl;lH $Wifapy;> “tzpf Row;rpfs; fpl;lj;jl;l njhopy;Jiw

kw;Wk; tzpf mikg;gpy; GJikfspd; tpisthFk;. GJikfs;
vd;gJ cw;gj;jpapd; fhuzpfspd; fyitapd; khw;wq;fshFk;> mit
vz;zw;w gbfs; my;yJ tpspk;gpy; cs;s khWghLfshy;
ghjpf;fg;glhJ. [GJik] Kjd;ikahf cw;gj;jp kw;Wk;
Nghf;Ftuj;J Kiwfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;> my;yJ njhopy;Jiw
mikg;gpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;> my;yJ xU Gjpa fl;Liuiaj;
jahupg;gJ> my;yJ xU Gjpa re;ijiaj; jpwg;gJ my;yJ Gjpa
nghUs; %yq;fs; Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. "
\_k;gPl;lupd; $w;Wg;gb> fz;Lgpbg;G vd;gJ xU Gjpa cw;gj;jp El;gk;

my;yJ Gjpa ,ae;jpuq;fs; my;yJ nryitf; Fiwg;gjw;Fk;
yhgj;ij mjpfupg;gjw;Fk; xU Gjpa fUj;ij Fwpf;fpwJ. $Ljyhf>
tzpf Row;rpfs; Vw;gLtjw;F GJikfNs fhuzk; vd;W mtH
Kd;itj;jhH. Kjy; Njhuhakhf;fy; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ
Njhuhakhf;fy; Mfpa ,uz;L epiyfisf; nfhz;l xU khjpupiaAk;
mtH tbtikj;jhH.
khjpupapd; ,uz;L epiyfs; gpd;tUkhW tpthjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd:
(m) Kjy; Njhuhakhf;fy;:
,J Muk;gj;jpy; xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; GJikahd Nahridfspd;

tpisitf; ifahs;fpwJ. Kjy; NjhuhakhdJ nghUshjhuk;
rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; GJikapd; njhlf;f epiy. tpspk;G nryT Self-Instructional Material
237
tzpf Row;rp (vk;.rp) tpspk;G tUtha; (vk;.MH) kw;Wk; ruhrup nryT (Vrp)
tpiyf;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ ,J Fwpf;fpwJ. $Ljyhf> ,e;j
Fwpg;G fl;lj;jpy;> jd;dpr;irahd Ntiyapd;ik ,y;iy.
rkepiyapy;> epWtdq;fSf;F KjyPL nra;a nrayw;w epjp my;yJ

cgup epjp ,y;iy. mj;jifa re;jHg;gj;jpy;> GJikahsHfSf;fhd
epjpfspd; xNu Mjhukhf tq;fpfs; cs;sd. fz;Lgpbg;ghsHfs;
tq;fpfsplkpUe;J tpUk;gpa epjpiag; ngWk;NghJ> ,e;j cs;sPLfis
GJik Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf kl;LNk fpilf;fr; nra;tjw;fhf mjpf
tpiyf;F cw;gj;jpf;fhd cs;sPLfis thq;FfpwhHfs;.
cs;sPLfspd; tpiyfs; mjpfupg;gjhy; tpiyfs; caUk;.

fhyg;Nghf;fpy;> Nghl;bahsHfs; GJikfis efnyLf;fj;
njhlq;FfpwhHfs; kw;Wk; tq;fpapy; ,Ue;J epjpiag; ngWfpwhHfs;.
,jd; tpisthf> epWtdq;fspd; ntspaPL kw;Wk; yhgk; mjpfupf;fj;
njhlq;FfpwJ.
,Ug;gpDk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpw;Fg; gpwF> ntspaPl;L tpiyfs;

Fiwe;J tUtjhy; yhgk; FiwfpwJ. mNjrkak;> fldhspfs;
jq;fs; fld;fis tq;fpapy; jpUg;gpr; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,J
gzj;jpd; Xl;lk; Fiwtjw;F toptFf;fpwJ> ,J ,Wjpahf
ke;jepiyia tpistpf;fpwJ.
(M) ,uz;lhtJ Njhuhakhf;fy;:
,J Kjy; Njhuhaj;jpd; mLj;jLj;j tpisTfisf; ifahs;fpwJ.

,J vjpHfhy nghUshjhu epiyikfspd; Cfj;Jld; njhlHGilaJ.
Kjy; Njhuhaj;jpy;> vjpHfhyj;jpy;> Fwpg;ghf %yjd nghUl;fs;
njhopy;fspy; tpupthf;f fl;lk; ghjpf;fg;glhJ vd;W
KjyPll; hsHfshy; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j ek;gpf;ifapd; mbg;gilapy;>
KjyPll; hsHfs; tq;fpfsplkpUe;J mjpf msT gzj;ij
vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwhHfs;.
$Ljyhf> ,e;j fl;lj;jpy;> thbf;ifahsHfs; vjpHfhyj;jpy; ePbj;j

nghUl;fspd; mjpfupg;ig czHfpwhHfs;> vdNt> jw;NghJ fld;
thq;Ftjd; %yk; nghUl;fis thq;fj; njhlq;Fq;fs;. tpiyfs;
tPo;rr
; pailaj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ> fldhspfs; Nkhrkhd #o;epiyapy;
,Uf;fpwhHfs;> Vnddpy; mtHfshy; flidj; jpUg;gpr; nrYj;jTk;>
mtHfspd; mbg;gilj; Njitfisg; g+Hj;jp nra;aTk; Kbatpy;iy.
,J nghUshjhuj;jpy; kdr;NrhHTf;F toptFf;fpwJ.
238
tzpf Row;rp
4. nfa;d;]; Nfhl;ghL:
nfa;d;]; Nfhl;ghL 1930 fspy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ> ,J KO

Fwpg;G
cyfKk; ngUk; kdr;NrhHitf; fle;J te;j fhyk;. ,e;j Nfhl;ghL
fpshrpf;fy; nghUshjhu ty;YeHfSf;F nfa;d;]pd; gjpy;.
fpshrpf;fy; nghUshjhu ty;YdHfspd; $w;Wg;gb> xU
nghUshjhuj;jpy; mjpf Ntiyapd;ik epiy ,Ue;jhy;> Njit
kw;Wk; toq;fy; Nghd;w nghUshjhu rf;jpfs; KO
Ntiytha;g;igAk; kPz;Lk; nfhz;LtUk; tifapy; nray;gLk;.
tzpf Row;rpfspd; jdJ Nfhl;ghl;by;> tUkhdk;> Ntiytha;g;G

kw;Wk; ntspaPL Nghd;w gy;NtW nghUshjhu fhuzpfis jPHkhdpf;f
nkhj;j Njit cjTfpwJ vd;W nfa;d;]; thjpl;lhH. nkhj;j Njit
EfHNthH kw;Wk; %yjd nghUl;fspd; Njitia Fwpf;fpwJ.
mt;thwhd epiyapy;> jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd nkhj;j

KjyPL kw;Wk; nryT mjpfk;> cw;gj;jpapd; msT mjpfupf;Fk;.
cw;gj;jpapd; msT mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> mJ Ntiy tha;g;Gfs;
kw;Wk; tUkhd msit mjpfupf;Fk;. ,Ug;gpDk;> nkhj;j Njit
Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> cw;gj;jpapd; msTk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
,jd; tpisthf> tUkhdk;> ntspaPL kw;Wk; KjyPL Mfpait

Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. Mifahy;> tUkhdk; kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L
kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; nkhj;j Njitapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fshy; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. KjyPlL ; Nfhupf;ifapd;
khw;wq;fshy; nkhj;j Njit NkYk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ> ,J tl;b
tPjk; kw;Wk; vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; ,yhg tpfpjj;ijg; nghWj;jJ.
nfa;d;]; vjpHghHj;j ,yhg tpfpjj;ij %yjdj;jpd; XusT

nray;jpwd; vd;W Fwpg;gpl;lhH. vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; ,yhg tpfpjk; vd;gJ
%yjdj;jhy; vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; tUtha;fF ; k; me;j %yjdj;ijg;
gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd nrytpw;Fk; cs;s tpj;jpahrkhFk;.
tof;fpy;> vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; ,yhg tpfpjk; jw;Nghija tl;b

tpfpjj;ij tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> KjyPl;lhsHfs; mjpf KjyPL
nra;thHfs;. kWGwk;> %yjdj;jpd; tpspk;G nray;jpwd; %yjd
nghUl;fspypUe;J vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; tUtha; kw;Wk; %yjd
nghUl;fis khw;Wtjpy; <LgLk; nryT Mfpatw;why;
jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
vjpHfhyj;jpy; tpiyfs; caUk; vd;W fUjp> jahupg;G> cw;gj;jp

El;gk;> KjyPlL; tpUg;gk; Nghd;w nghUshjhu fhuzpfspy; Gjpa Self-Instructional Material
239
tzpf Row;rp fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; my;yJ GJikfs; fhuzkhf %yjdj;jpd; XusT
nray;jpwd; mjpfupf;fpwJ. kWGwk;> tpiyfs; Fiwjy;> nryTfs;
Fwpg;G mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwapd; jpwikapd;ik Nghd;w
gy;NtW fhuzq;fshy; ,J FiwfpwJ .
nfa;d;]; Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb> tzpfr; Row;rpapd; tpupthf;f fl;lj;jpy;>

KjyPll; hsHfs; nghUshjhu epiyikfisg; gw;wp rhjfkhf
cs;sdH> ,jdhy;> KjyPlb ; y; ,Ue;J tUtha; tpfpjj;ij mtHfs;
mjpfkhf kjpg;gpLfpwhHfs;. KO Ntiytha;g;G epiyia milahj
tiu tUtha; tpfpjk; mjpfupf;fpwJ.
nghUshjhuk; KO Ntiytha;g;ig miltjw;fhd ghijapy;

nry;Yk;NghJ> ,e;j fl;lk; Vw;wk; fl;lk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Vw;wk; fl;lj;jpy;> KjyPll
; hsHfSf;F %yjdj;jpd; XusT
nray;jpwd; tPo;rr ; piaf; fz;lwpa Kbatpy;iy kw;Wk; tl;b
tpfpjj;ijf; $l fUj;jpy; nfhs;s KbahJ. ,jd; tpisthf>
KjyPLfspd; tpiy kw;Wk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; cw;gj;jp
mjpfupg;G fhuzkhf KjyPLfspd; yhgk; miof;fj; njhlq;FfpwJ.
,e;j epiyik nghUshjhuj;jpy; RUf;fk; my;yJ ke;jepiyia
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
Vndd;why;> %yjdj;jpd; tpspk;G nray;jpwdpy; FiwT tpfpjk;

jw;Nghija tl;b tpfpjj;ij tpl mjpfkhf cs;sJ. $Ljyhf>
,e;j #o;epiyapy;> KjyPlL ; tha;g;Gfs; RUq;Ffpd;wd. epjp
,y;yhjjhy; tq;fpfshy; fld; toq;fTk; KbahJ.
jw;Nghija tl;b tpfpjk; mjpfkhf cs;sJ> ,J KjyPli ; l tpl

Nrkpf;f kf;fis Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> EfHNthH kw;Wk;
%yjd nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit FiwfpwJ. NkYk;> tUkhdk;
kw;Wk; Ntiytha;g;G epiy Fiwe;J nghUshjhuk; kdr;NrhHtpd;
fl;lj;ij milfpwJ.
tzpf Row;rpfisg; Gupe;Jnfhs;s nfa;d;]; %d;W tifahd

Kd;fzpg;Gfis Kd;nkhope;jhH. ,it Nrkpg;gjw;fhd Kidg;G>
EfHTf;fhd Kidg;G kw;Wk; %yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwdpd;
Kd;fzpg;G. KjyPlb; d; khw;wq;fshy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; tUkhd
kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fisf; Fwpf;Fk; ngUf;fy; vd;w
fUj;ijAk; mtH cUthf;fpAs;shH.
%yjdj;jpd; XusT nray;jpwd; mjpfupg;gjd; fhuzkhf tzpf

Row;rpapd; tpupthf;fk; Vw;gLfpwJ vd;Wk; nfa;d;]; thjpl;lhH. ,J
KjyPll ; hsHfis (jdpegHfs; kw;Wk; epWtdq;fs; cl;gl) KjyPL
240
tzpf Row;rp
nra;a Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ. epWtdq;fs; mtw;wpd; %yjdg; nghUl;fis
khw;wp cw;gj;jpiaj; njhlq;Ffpd;wd.
Fwpg;G
,jd; tpisthf> jdpegHfspd; tUkhdk; mjpfupf;fpwJ> ,J EfHT
tpfpjj;ij NkYk; mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,J epWtdq;fspd; ,yhgj;ij
mjpfupf;fpwJ> ,J ,Wjpahf xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; nkhj;j
tUkhdk; kw;Wk; KjyPlL; kl;lj;jpy; mjpfupg;Gf;F toptFf;fpwJ.
,J xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; kPl;G fl;lj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
5. rhKnty;rdpd; ngUf;fp KLf;fp ,iltpid khjpup:
nfapdPrDf;F gpe;ija fhyj;jpd; nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; tzpf

Row;rpfis tpsf;f ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp fUj;Jfspd;
mtrpaj;ij typAWj;jpdH. ,e;j ,uz;L fUj;JfSf;Fk;
,ilapyhd njhlHGfis Fwpf;Fk; Kjy; khjpup rhKnty;rdpd;
ngUf;fp KLf;fp njhlHG.
jdJ khjpupapy;> tUkhdj;ij cUthf;Ftjw;Fk;> EfHT kw;Wk;

KjyPlb ; d; Njit mjpfupg;gjw;Fk; ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp
xUtUf;nfhUtH njhlHG nfhs;Sk; tpjj;ij rhKnty;rd;
tptupj;jhH. nghUshjhu Vw;w ,wf;fq;fis cUthf;f ,e;j ,uz;L
fhuzpfSk; vt;thW fhuzkhfpd;wd vd;gijAk; mtH tptupf;fpwhH.
rhKNty;rd; jdJ khjpupia tpsf;f ,uz;L fUj;Jf;fisg;

gad;gLj;jpdhH> mjhtJ jd;dhl;rp kw;Wk; ngwg;gl;l KjyPL.
jd;dhl;rp KjyPL vd;gJ Gjpa jahupg;G> cw;gj;jp El;gk; kw;Wk;
re;ij Nghd;w ntspg;Gw fhuzpfshy; KjyPl;ilf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
kWGwk;> ngwg;gl;l KjyPL vd;gJ EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; Njit

mjpfupg;gjd; fhuzkhf cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; %yjd nghUl;fspd;
KjyPlb; d; mjpfupg;igf; Fwpf;fpwJ. xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; jd;dhl;rp
KjyPL epfOk;NghJ> tUkhd msTk; mjpfupf;fpwJ.
,J ngUf;fpapd; gq;iff; fzf;fpy; nfhz;L te;jJ. tUkhd epiy

EfHTf;fhd XusT Kd;fzpg;ig jPHkhdpf;f cjTfpwJ. tUkhd
epiy mjpfupj;jhy;> EfHNthH nghUl;fSf;fhd NjitAk;
mjpfupf;Fk;.
EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; toq;fy; EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; Njitia

g+Hj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;. cw;gj;jp El;gk; xU ngupa mstpyhd
jahupg;Gfs; kw;Wk; Nritfis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; jpwd; nfhz;ljhf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ ,J rhj;jpakhFk;. Nkk;gl;l cw;gj;jp El;gq;fis
241
tzpf Row;rp cUthf;Ftjw;Fk; EfHNthH Njitia g+Hj;jp nra;tjw;fhf
cw;gj;jpia mjpfupg;gjw;Fk; ,J mjpf KjyPL nra;a
Fwpg;G epWtdq;fis Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
vdNt> EfHT KjyPlb ; d; Njitia ghjpf;fpwJ. ,J ngwg;gl;l

KjyPL vd Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. ,J KLf;fk; nray;Kiwapd;
njhlf;fj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ> ,jd; tpisthf tUkhd epiy NkYk;
mjpfupf;Fk;.
tUkhd kl;lj;jpy; mjpfupg;G EfHNthH nghUl;fspd; Njitia

mjpfupf;Fk;. ,e;j Kiwapy;> ngUf;fp kw;Wk; KLf;fp
xUtUf;nfhUtH njhlHGnfhz;L tUkhdk; vjpHghHj;jij tpl kpf
mjpf tpfpjj;jpy; tsu itf;fpwJ.
jd;dhl;rp KjyPL ngwg;gl;l KjyPlb; y; tpise;j ngUf;f tpisTf;F

toptFf;fpwJ. ,J KjyPlb ; d; KLf;fk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ngwg;gl;l KjyPL KLf;fp nray;ghl;Lf;F tUk;. ,J ngUf;fp-
KLf;fk; njhlHG vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
6. `pf;]; Nfhl;ghL:
,e;j Nfhl;ghL tzpf Row;rpfis `Nuhl;-Nlhkupd; tsHr;rpf;

Nfhl;ghl;Lld; njhlHGgLj;jpAs;sJ. `pf;]; fUj;Jg;gb> tzpf
Row;rpfs; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpAld; xNu Neuj;jpy; eilngWfpd;wd@
vdNt> tsHr;rpf; Nfhl;ghl;Lld; ,ize;J tzpf Row;rpfs;
tpsf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
jdJ Nfhl;ghl;by;> tzpf Row;rpfis tpsf;f gpd;tUk;

fUj;Jfisg; gad;gLj;jpdhH:
xU. Nrkpg;G-KjyPlL
; cwT kw;Wk; nfa;d;]; toq;fpa ngUf;fp
fUj;Jf;fs;
M. fpshHf; toq;fpa KLf;fk; fUj;J
,. rhKnty;rd; toq;fpa ngUf;fp-KLf;fk; njhlHG fUj;Jf;fs;
<. `Nuhl;-Nlhkupd; tsHr;rp khjpup
tzpf Row;rp fUj;ij tptupg;gjw;fhd rpy mDkhdq;fisAk;

`pf;]; cUthf;fpAs;shH.
`pf;]; Nfhl;ghl;bd; Kf;fpakhd mDkhdq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:

242
tzpf Row;rp
(m) czug;gl;l tsHr;rp tpfpjk; (Gr) kw;Wk; ,aw;if tsHr;rp
tpfpjk; (Gn) rkkhf ,Uf;Fk; xU khjpup nghUshjhuj;jpy; xU
rkepiy tsHr;rp tpfpjj;ij fUJfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> jd;dhl;rp Fwpg;G
KjyPlb ; d; mjpfupg;G epiyahdJ kw;Wk; jd;dhHt Nrkpg;gpd;
mjpfupg;Gf;F rkk;. jd;dhl;rp KjyPlL
; tPjk; kw;Wk; jd;dhHt
Nrkpg;G Mfpatw;wpd; cjtpAld; rkepiy tsHr;rp tpfpjj;ijg;
ngwyhk;.
(M) rhKNty;rd; toq;fpa EfHT nray;ghl;ilf; fUJfpwJ> ,J

Ct = α Yt-1. tUkhdk; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fSf;fpilapyhd
,ilntsp kw;Wk; nkhj;j Njrpa jahupg;G ([p.vd;.gp) kw;Wk; Cjpak;
my;yhj tUkhdk; Mfpatw;Wf;F ,ilNaahd ,ilntsp
fhuzkhf EfHT Neuk; jhkjkhFk; . tUkhdj;jpw;Fk;
nrytpdj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp tUkhdk; nrytpdq;fis
tpl Kd;dhy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ cUthfpwJ. $yp my;yhj
tUkhdj;jpy; Vw;gLk; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fhl;bYk; [p.vd;.gp-apd;
Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs; mbf;fb epfOk;NghJ [p.vd;.gp kw;Wk; Cjpak;
my;yhj tUkhdj;jpw;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp cUthfpwJ. Nrkpg;G
nray;ghL fle;j Mz;L tUkhdj;jpd; nray;ghlhf khWfpwJ.
tUkhdj;jpw;Fk; KjyPlL
; Nrkpg;Gf;Fk; ,ilapyhd Neuk; jhkjkhf
,Ug;gjhy;> ngUf;fp nray;Kiw tzpf Row;rpfspy; Fiwe;JtUk;
jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
(,) jd;dhl;rp KjyPL vd;gJ jw;NghJ ntspaPl;bd; nray;ghlhFk;

vd;W fUJfpwJ. $Ljyhf> %yjd nghUl;fis khw;Wtjw;F
jd;dhl;rp KjyPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> J}z;lg;gl;l
KjyPL ntspaPl;by; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fspd; nray;ghlhff;
fUjg;gLfpwJ. ntspaPl;by; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; J}z;lg;gl;l KjyPli; l
cUthf;FfpwJ> ,J KLf;fk; nray;Kiwapd; njhlf;fj;ijf;
Fwpf;fpwJ. KLf;fk; nray;Kiw tUkhdk; kw;Wk; EfHT kPjhd
ngUf;f tpisTld; njhlHGgLj;JfpwJ.
(<) tzpfr; Row;rpfspd; Nky;Nehf;fp kw;Wk; fPo;Nehf;fp Xl;lj;ij

tpsf;Ftjw;F cr;rtuk;G kw;Wk; fPo; vd;w nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;JfpwJ. Njitahd tsq;fspd; gw;whf;Fiwapd; tpisthf
Nky;Nehf;fp Xl;lj;jpd; cr;rtuk;G cs;sJ. kWGwk;> fPo;Nehf;fpa
Xl;lj;jpd; mbg;gFjp RUf;fj;jpw;F Neub tuk;igf;
nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy. ,Ug;gpDk;> xU kiwKf tuk;G vd;gJ
kdr;NrhHT kPjhd KLf;fpd; tpisT MFk;.
243
tzpf Row;rp
Fwpg;G vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. tzpf Row;rp vd;why; vd;d?
14.5 tzpf Row;rpfs; kw;Wk; tzpf KbTfs;;:

tzpf Row;rpfs; my;yJ cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffis
fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;:
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;j gy;NtW

eltbf;iffs; mt;tg;NghJ gupe;Jiuf;fg;gl;L eilKiwapy;
itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mit xU Vw;wk; kw;Wk; kdr;NrhHtpd; Nkhrkhd
tpisTfisj; jtpHg;gjw;fhf nghUshjhu eltbf;iffis
cWjpg;gLj;Jtij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,e;j Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf
gpd;tUk; %d;W eltbf;iffs; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
1. gztpay; nfhs;if:
tzpf Vw;w ,wf;fq;fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd xU Kiwahf

ehzaf; nfhs;if xU ehl;bd; kj;jpa tq;fpahy; ,af;fg;gLfpwJ.
fldpd; msitAk; juj;ijAk; fl;Lg;gLj;j kj;jpa tq;fp gy
Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;WfpwJ. xU Vw;wk; NghJ gzk; toq;fy;
tpupthf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j> mJ mjd; tq;fp tPjj;ij
caHj;JfpwJ> jpwe;j re;ijapy; gj;jpuq;fis tpw;fpwJ> ,Ug;G
tpfpjj;ij caHj;JfpwJ> kw;Wk; tpspk;G Njitfis caHj;JtJ
kw;Wk; EfHNthH flid xOq;FgLj;Jjy; Nghd;w gy
NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l fld; fl;Lg;ghl;L eltbf;iffis gpd;gw;WfpwJ.
ke;jepiy my;yJ kdr;NrhHitf; fl;Lg;gLj;j> kj;jpa tq;fpahdJ

tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;Gf;fis mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; vspjhd
my;yJ kypthd ehzaf; nfhs;ifiag; gpd;gw;WfpwJ. ,J tq;fp
tPjj;ijAk; tq;fpfspd; tl;b tPjj;ijAk; Fiwf;fpwJ. ,J jpwe;j
re;ijapy; gj;jpuq;fis thq;FfpwJ. ,J fld;fSf;fhd tpspk;G
Njitfis Fiwf;fpwJ kw;Wk; EfHNthH> tzpfHfs;> tHj;jfHfs;
Nghd;wtw;Wf;F mjpf fld; nfhLf;f tq;fpfis Cf;Ftpf;fpwJ.
2. epjpf; nfhs;if:
murhq;fj;jpd; mjpfg;gbahd nryTfs;> jdpg;gl;l EfHT nryTfs;

Self-Instructional Material kw;Wk; jdpahH kw;Wk; nghJ KjyPLfis xU Vw;wk; NghJ
244
tzpf Row;rp
fl;Lg;gLj;j epjp eltbf;iffs; kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
ke;jepiyapd; NghJ murhq;f nrytpdq;fs;> jdpg;gl;l EfHT
nryTfs; kw;Wk; jdpahH kw;Wk; nghJ KjyPLfis mjpfupf;fTk; Fwpg;G
mit cjTfpd;wd.
3. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfs;:
Neub fl;Lg;ghLfspd; Nehf;fk; tpiy ];jpuj;jd;ikapd;

Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf tsq;fis Kiwahf xJf;Ftij cWjp
nra;tjhFk;. mit nghUshjhuj;jpd; %Nyhgha Gs;spfis
ghjpf;Fk;. mit Fwpg;gpl;l EfHNthH kw;Wk; jahupg;ghsHfis
ghjpf;fpd;wd. mit Nu\d; cupkk;> tpiy kw;Wk; Cjpaf;
fl;Lg;ghLfs;> Vw;Wkjp flikfs;> gupkhw;wf; fl;Lg;ghLfs;>
xJf;fL P fs;> VfNghf fl;Lg;ghL Nghd;w tbtq;fspy; cs;sd.
gztPf;f mOj;jq;fspypUe;J vOk; ,ila+Wfs; kw;Wk;

gw;whf;Fiwia rkhspf;f mit kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
mtHfspd; ntw;wp jpwikahd kw;Wk; NeHikahd epHthfj;jpd;
,Ug;igg; nghWj;jJ. ,y;iynadpy;> mit fWg;G re;ijg;gLj;jy;>
Coy;> ePz;l tupirfs;> Cfq;fs; Nghd;wtw;Wf;F ,l;Lr;
nry;fpd;wd. MfNt> NghH> gapH Njhy;tpfs; kw;Wk; caH gztPf;fk;
Nghd;w mtruepiyfspy; kl;LNk mit ehlg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
tzpfr; Row;rpfis tbtikf;Fk; fhuzpfs; gpd;tUkhW: ,d;W>

nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs;> fhHg;gNul; epHthfpfs; kw;Wk; tzpf
cupikahsHfs; tzpfr; #oy;fspd; epwj;ij tbtikg;gjpy; gy
fhuzpfis Fwpg;ghf Fwpg;gpLfpd;wdH.
KjyPlL
; nrytpdq;fspd; Vw;w ,wf;fk;
KjyPlL; nrytpdq;fspy; cs;s khWghLfs; tzpfr; Row;rpfspy;

Kf;fpakhd fhuzpfspy; xd;whFk;. KjyPl;L nrytpdk; nkhj;j
my;yJ nkhj;j Njitapd; kpfTk; nfhe;jspg;ghd $Wfshff;
fUjg;gLfpwJ (,J xl;Lnkhj;j Njitapd; kpfg;ngupa mq;fkhd
EfHTr; nryit tpl Mz;LNjhWk; NtWgLfpwJ). Aidnll;
];Nll;]py; tzpf Row;rpfis tpsf;Ftjpy; ,J xU Kf;fpa
fhuzpahFk;. KjyPl;by; Vw;gLk; FiwTfs; vjpH tpisitf;
nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. cjhuzkhf> 1929 Mk; Mz;bd; gq;Fr; re;ij
tPo;rr
; papd; gpd;dH KjyPlL
; nrytpdq;fspd; rupthy; ngUk; ke;jepiy
Vw;gl;lJ. ,NjNghy;> 1950 fspd; gpw;gFjpapy; nropg;G xU %yjd
nghUl;fspd; Vw;wk; fhuzkhf ,Ue;jJ.
245
tzpf Row;rp KjyPlL
; nrytpdq;fspy; ngUk;ghYk; fhzf;$ba epiyaw;w
jd;ikf;F gy fhuzq;fs; cs;sd. tpw;gidapd; Nky;Nehf;fpa
Fwpg;G Nghf;FfSf;F gjpyspf;Fk; tifapy; KjyPL KLf;fptpLk; Ntfk;
xU nghJthd fhuzk;.
nghUshjhu ty;YeHfshy; KLf;fk; nfhs;if vd;W miof;fg;gLk;

,e;j ,izg;G gpd;tUkhW RUf;fkhf tpsf;fg;glyhk;. xU epWtdk;
KO jpwdpy; ,aq;FfpwJ vd;W itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;. mjd;
nghUl;fspd; tpw;gid mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> NkYk; KjyPl;bd; %yk;
jhtu jpwid mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; cw;gj;jpia mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,jd; tpisthf> tpw;gidapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; KjyPlL

;
nrytpdq;fspy; ngupjhf;fg;gl;l rjtPj khw;wq;fis tpistpf;fpd;wd.
,J nghUshjhu tpupthf;fj;jpd; Ntfj;ij Jupjg;gLj;JfpwJ> ,J
nghUshjhuj;jpy; mjpf tUkhdj;ij <l;LfpwJ> ,J tpw;gidia
NkYk; mjpfupf;f toptFf;fpwJ. ,t;thW> tpupthf;fk; njhlq;fpaJk;>
KjyPlL
; nrytpdq;fspd; Ntfk; Jupjg;gLj;JfpwJ.
KjyPlL; nrytpdq;fspd; gjpy; tpw;gid mjpfupf;Fk; tpfpjj;Jld;

njhlHGilaJ. nghJthf> tpw;gidapd; mjpfupg;G tpuptile;jhy;>
KjyPlL; r; nryT caHT> kw;Wk; tpw;gidapd; mjpfupg;G cr;rk;
mile;J nkJthfj; njhlq;fpdhy;> KjyPl;Lr; nryT FiwfpwJ.
,jdhy;> KjyPlL ; nrytpdq;fspd; Ntfk; tpw;gid tpfpjj;jpy;
Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fshy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ce;jk;
gy nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs; EfHNthH nrytpdq;fspy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l

"jiytiug; gpd;gw;Wq;fs;" kdepiyia Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;LfpwhHfs;.
EfHNthH ek;gpf;if mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; #o;epiyfspYk;> kf;fs;
mjpf ,ytr nryT gof;fq;fis filg;gpbf;Fk;NghJk;> kw;w
thbf;ifahsHfs; jq;fs; nrytpdq;fisAk; mjpfupf;f mjpf
tha;g;Gs;sJ vd;W fUjg;gLfpwJ. khwhf> nrytpdq;fspd; rupTfSk;
gpd;gw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfs;
njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; tzpf Row;rpfspy; fLikahd

jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;. cz;ikapy;> jfty; njhlHG> Nghf;Ftuj;J>
cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; gpw nray;ghl;L gFjpfspy; njhopy;El;g
Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; xU njhopy; my;yJ nghUshjhuk; KOtJk;
Self-Instructional Material rpw;wiy tpisit Vw;gLj;Jk;. njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; xU Gjpa
246
tzpf Row;rp
jahupg;gpd; cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; gad;ghL my;yJ xU Gjpa
nray;Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp Vw;fdNt ,Uf;Fk; jahupg;gpd; cw;gj;jp
Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGilajhf ,Uf;fyhk;. cjhuzkhf> tPbNah Fwpg;G
,Nk[pq; kw;Wk; jdpegH fzpdpj; njhopy;fs; rkPgj;jpa Mz;Lfspy;
kfj;jhd njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;GfSf;F cl;gl;Ls;sd> Fwpg;ghf
gpe;ija njhopy; vz;zw;w epWtdq;fspd; tzpf eltbf;iffspy;
ntspg;gilahd jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jpAs;sJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> njhopy;El;g
fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; kw;Wk; mjd; tpisthf KjyPl;by; mjpfupg;G
Mfpait xOq;fw;w ,ilntspapy; eilngWfpd;wd. Vw;w
,wf;fkhd KjyPLfs;> njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd; Ntfj;jpy;
cs;s khWghLfs; fhuzkhf> nghUshjhuj;jpy; tzpf Vw;w
,wf;fq;fSf;F toptFf;Fk;.
njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd; Ntfk; khWgLtjw;F gy fhuzq;fs;

cs;sd. Kf;fpa fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; xt;nthU ehSk; Vw;glhJ.
mNjNghy; mit epiyahd tpfpjj;jpy; eilngWtjpy;iy. Kf;fpa
fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd; Neuj;ijAk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l Mz;by; GJikfspd;
vz;zpf;ifiaAk; tha;g;G fhuzpfs; ngupJk; ghjpf;fpd;wd.
njhopy;El;g fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd; khWghLfis rPuw;wjhf nghUshjhu
ty;YeHfs; fUJfpd;wdH (Kiwahd Kiw ,y;yhky;). vdNt> Gjpa
jahupg;Gfs; my;yJ nray;Kiwfspy; GJikfspd; Ntfj;jpy;
xOq;fw;w jd;ik tzpf Vw;w ,wf;fq;fSf;F xU MjhukhfpwJ.
ruf;Ffspy; khWghLfs;
ruf;Ffspd; khWghLfs; - tzpfq;fs; itj;jpUf;Fk; nghUl;fspd;

ruf;Ffspd; kl;lj;jpy; tpupthf;fk; kw;Wk; RUf;fk; business
tzpf Row;rpfSf;Fk; gq;fspf;fpd;wd. gl;bay;fs; nghUl;fs;
epWtdq;fspd; gq;Ffs; ifapy; itj;jpUf;Fk; $l;lj;jpy; jq;fs;
jahupg;Gfis Njit. ruf;Ffspd; kl;lj;jpy; cs;s khWghLfs;
tzpfr; Row;rpapy; khw;wq;fisj; J}z;LtJ vg;gb? tof;fkhf> xU
tzpf tPo;rr; papd; NghJ> epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; ruf;Ffis Fiwf;f
mDkjpf;fpd;wd. ruf;Ffs; Fiwe;J tUtjhy;> tzpfq;fs; ,Wjpapy;
jq;fs; ruf;Ffis mit FWfpa ,lj;jpw;F gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
,ijnahl;b> epWtdq;fs; tpw;fg;gLtij tpl mjpfkhf cw;gj;jp
nra;aj; njhlq;Ftjhy; ruf;F msTfspy; mjpfupg;G njhlq;FfpwJ>
,J nghUshjhu tpupthf;fj;jpw;F toptFf;fpwJ. tpw;gidapd;
mjpfupg;G tpfpjk; ,Uf;Fk; tiu ,e;j tpupthf;fk; njhlHfpwJ
kw;Wk; jahupg;ghsHfs; Ke;ija tpfpjj;jpy; ruf;Ffis
mjpfupf;fpd;wdH. ,Ug;gpDk;> tpw;gidapd; mjpfupg;G tpfpjk; Fiwe;J Self-Instructional Material
247
tzpf Row;rp tUtjhy;> epWtdq;fs; jq;fs; ruf;Ff; Ftpg;igf; Fiwf;fj;
njhlq;Ffpd;wd. ruf;F KjyPlb
; y; mLj;jLj;j Fiwg;G nghUshjhu
Fwpg;G tpupthf;fj;ij Fiwf;fpwJ> ,Wjpapy; nghUshjhu tPo;rr ; pia
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. nray;Kiw gpd;dH kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk;. ruf;F
kl;lq;fspy; cs;s khWghLfs; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpapd; xl;Lnkhj;j
tpfpjq;fis ghjpf;Fk; mNj Ntis> ,jd; tpisthf tUk; tzpf
Row;rpfs; cz;ikapy; ePz;ljhf ,y;iy vd;gij ftdj;jpy;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ruf;Ffspd; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fshy; cUthf;fg;gLk;
tzpf Row;rpfs; rpW my;yJ FWfpa tzpf Row;rpfs; vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd . tof;fkhf ,uz;L Kjy; ehd;F Mz;Lfs;
ePbf;Fk; ,e;j fhyq;fs; rpy Neuq;fspy; ruf;F Row;rpfs; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs;
murhq;f nrytpdq;fspy; cs;s khWghLfs; tzpf Vw;w

,wf;fq;fspd; kw;nwhU MjhukhFk;. nghUshjhu Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs;
my;yJ cWjpaw;w jd;ikf;fhd Mjhukhf ,y;yhky;
nghUshjhuj;jpy; cWjpg;gLj;Jk; rf;jpahf murhq;fk; gutyhff;
fUjg;gLtjhy; ,J rhj;jpakpy;yhj Mjhukhfj; Njhd;wyhk;.
MapDk;$l> murhq;f nrytpdk; gy re;jHg;gq;fspy;> Fwpg;ghf
NghHfspd; NghJ kw;Wk; mjw;Fg; gpwF xU ngupa
];jpukpd;ikf;Fupa rf;jpahf ,Ue;J tUfpwJ. ,uz;lhk; cyfg;
Nghupd;NghJ murhq;f nrytpdq;fs; kpfg; ngupa mstpy;
mjpfupj;jd> ,J nghUshjhu tpupthf;fj;jpw;F toptFj;jJ> ,J
NghUf;Fg; gpd;dH gy Mz;Lfshf njhlHe;jJ. ,uz;lhk; cyfg;
NghUld; xg;gpLk;NghJ> nfhupa kw;Wk; tpal;ehk; NghHfspd; NghJ
murhq;f nrytpdq;fSk; rpwpa mstpy; mjpfupj;jd. ,it
nghUshjhu tpupthf;fq;fSf;Fk; toptFj;jd. ,Ug;gpDk;> murhq;f
nrytpdk; nghUshjhu tpupthf;fq;fSf;F kl;Lky;y> nghUshjhu
RUf;fq;fSf;Fk; gq;fspf;fpwJ. cz;ikapy;> 1953-54 ,d; ke;jepiy
nfhupag; NghH Kbe;j gpd;dH murhq;f nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjd;
fhuzkhf Vw;gl;lJ. kpf rkPgj;jpy;> gdpg;Nghupd; Kbtpy;
mnkupf;fhtpd; ghJfhg;G nrytpdq;fs; Fiwf;fg;gl;ld> ,J rpy
ghJfhg;G rhHe;j njhopy;fs; kw;Wk; Gtpapay; gpuhe;jpaq;fspy;
ntspg;gilahd jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
murpay; uPjpahf cUthf;fg;gl;l tzpf Row;rpfs;
gy nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs;> tzpfr; Row;rpfs; murpay; uPjpahf

Cf;fkspj;j nghUshjhu nghUshjhuf; nfhs;iffis (ehza
248
tzpf Row;rp
kw;Wk; epjpf; nfhs;iffs;) kPz;Lk; NjHe;njLg;gjw;fhf Nghl;bapLk;
murpay;thjpfspd; eyDf;fhf tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;W
fUJfpd;wdH. NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l mjpfhupfs; ([dhjpgjp> fhq;fpu]; Fwpg;G
cWg;gpdHfs;> MSeHfs; Nghd;wtHfs;) jq;fs; kWNjHjy;
Kaw;rpfSf;F cjTtjw;fhf tpupthf;f Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuf;
nfhs;iffis tbtikf;Fk; Nghf;iff; nfhz;Ls;sdH vd;w
ek;gpf;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; murpay; tzpfr; Row;rpfspd; Nfhl;ghL
fzpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ehzaf; nfhs;iffs;
ehl;bd; gztpay; nfhs;iffspy; cs;s khWghLfs;> murpay;

mOj;jq;fshy; J}z;lg;gl;l khw;wq;fspypUe;J RahjPdkhf ,Ug;gJ
tzpfr; Row;rpfspYk; xU Kf;fpa nry;thf;F. epjpf; nfhs;ifapd;
gad;ghL-mjpfupj;j murhq;f nrytpdq;fs; kw;Wk; / my;yJ tupf;
Fiwg;Gf;fs;-xl;Lnkhj;j Njitia mjpfupg;gjw;fhd nghJthd top>
nghUshjhu tpupthf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. kj;jpa tq;fp>
mnkupf;fhtpd; tp\aj;jpy;> ngluy; uprHt; tq;fp> rl;lg;g+Ht ,uz;L
Fwpf;Nfhs;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ-tpiy epiyj;jd;ik kw;Wk; KO
Ntiytha;g;G. ehzaf; nfhs;ifapy; mjd; gq;F tzpfr;
Row;rpfis epHtfpg;gjw;fhd xU Kf;fpa mk;rkhFk;> NkYk;
EfHNthH kw;Wk; KjyPll ; hsHfspd; ek;gpf;ifapYk; ,J xU Kf;fpa
jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
Vw;Wkjp kw;Wk; ,wf;Fkjpapy; Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs;
Vw;Wkjp kw;Wk; ,wf;Fkjpf;F ,ilapyhd NtWghL nghUl;fs;

kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd epfu ntspehl;L Njit> ,J epfu Vw;Wkjp
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. epfu Vw;Wkjpfs; nghUshjhuj;jpd;
xl;Lnkhj;j Njitapd; xU mq;fkhf ,Ug;gjhy;> Vw;Wkjp kw;Wk;
,wf;Fkjpapy; cs;s khWghLfs; tzpf Vw;w ,wf;fq;fSf;Fk;
toptFf;Fk;. fhyg;Nghf;fpy; Vw;Wkjp kw;Wk; ,wf;Fkjpapy;
khWgLtjw;F gy fhuzq;fs; cs;sd. xU nghUshjhuj;jpd;
nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; tsHr;rp vd;gJ ,wf;Fkjp
nra;ag;gl;l nghUl;fSf;fhd mjd; Njitia epHzapg;gjhFk;
people kf;fspd; tUkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ> ntspehLfspy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; cl;gl $Ljy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
NritfSf;fhd mtHfspd; grp mjpfupf;fpwJ. ntspehl;L
nghUshjhuq;fs; tsHe;J tUk; NghJ ,jw;F NeHkhwhdJ-
ntspehLfspy; tUkhdq;fspd; tsHr;rpAk; ,e;j ehLfspy;
trpg;gtHfshy; ,wf;Fkjp nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fSf;fhd Njit Self-Instructional Material
249
tzpf Row;rp mjpfupg;gjw;F toptFf;fpwJ. ,J mnkupf;f Vw;Wkjpfs; tsu
fhuzkhfpwJ. ehza khw;W tpfpjq;fs; rHtNjr tHj;jfj;jpy;
Fwpg;G tpaj;jF jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;-vdNt> cs;ehl;L tzpf
Row;rpfSk;.
tzpf Row;rp khWghLfs;> epiyg;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; Ntiyapd;ik kPl;G
tzpf Row;rpfs; Jy;ypakhf vjpHghHg;gJ fbdk;> Vndd;why; ngupa

nghUshjhu mikg;Gfspy; <LgLk; khwpfs; vz;zpf;if. MapDk;$l>
tzpfr; Row;rpfisf; fz;fhzpg;gjw;Fk; Gupe;J nfhs;tjw;Fk; cs;s
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;> ,e;j tp\aj;ijg; gw;wpa ngupa Ma;tpw;Fk; nghUs;
Fwpj;j mwptpw;Fk; toptFf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> 1970 fspy;> ehL
Kuz;ghlhd nghUshjhu epiyikfs;> nkJthd nghUshjhu
tsHr;rp kw;Wk; caUk; gztPf;fk; Mfpatw;wpd; xU fhyfl;lj;jpy;
rpf;fpf;nfhz;lijf; fz;lJ rw;W Mr;rupakhf ,Ue;jJ. ,e;j epiy
Njf;fepiy vd;W ngauplg;gl;lJ kw;Wk; 1970 fspd; eLg;gFjpapy;
,Ue;J 1980 fspd; Kw;gFjp tiu mnkupf;f nghUshjhuj;ij
Klf;fpaJ.
rw;Nw vjpHghuhj kw;nwhU tzpf Row;rp epfo;T 2000 fspd;

Kw;gFjpapy; epfo;e;jJ. ,J "Ntiyapd;ik kPl;G" vd;W
mwpag;gLfpwJ. Njrpa nghUshjhu gzpafj;jpd; tzpf Row;rp
Nll;bq; fkpl;bapd; $w;Wg;gb> 2003 ,d; gpw;gFjpapy; xU
mwpf;ifapy;> "kpf rkPgj;jpa nghUshjhu cr;repiy khHr; 2001 ,y;
epfo;e;jJ> ,J 1991 ,y; njhlq;fpa rhjid ePz;l tpupthf;fj;ij
KbTf;Ff; nfhz;Lte;jJ. kpf rkPgj;jpa njhl;b etk;gH 2001 ,y;
Vw;gl;lJ> tpupthf;fj;ijj; Jtf;FfpwJ. " tpupthf;fj;jpd; rpf;fy;
vd;dntd;why;> ,J Ntiytha;g;G my;yJ cz;ikahd jdpg;gl;l
tUkhdj;jpd; caHit cs;slf;fpapUf;ftpy;iy> ,J Ke;ija
vy;yh kPl;nlLg;GfspYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Ntiyapd;ik kPl;Gf;fhd fhuzq;fs; KOikahf Gupe;J

nfhs;sg;gltpy;iy> Mdhy; mit nghUshjhu kw;Wk; murpay;
tl;lhuq;fspy; mjpf tpthjj;jpw;F fhuzkhfpd;wd. ,e;j
tpthjj;jpw;Fs; Ntiyapd;ik kPl;Gf;F Ma;thsHfs; mspj;j ehd;F
Kd;dzp tpsf;fq;fs; cs;sd. 2004 Nfhilapy; nghUshjhu
ghHitapy; ntspaplg;gl;l xU Ma;tpd;gb > ,e;j ehd;F
tpsf;fq;fs;:
· Jiwahy; fpilf;Fk; ciog;gpd; Vw;wj;jho;T.

250
tzpf Row;rp
· rupahd Neuj;jpy; gzpakHj;jy; eilKiwfspd; Njhw;wk;.
· Rfhjhu eyd;fSf;fhd caUk; nryT.

Fwpg;G
· nkhj;j Njitahy; tpiuthf cw;gj;jp nra;ag;glhj

cw;gj;jpj;jpwd;.
ntw;wpfukhd tzpf Row;rp Nkyhz;ikf;fhd tpirfs;
rpW tzpf cupikahsHfs; jq;fs; epWtdq;fspd; thdpiy tzpf

Row;rpfis Fiwe;jgl;r epr;rakw;w jd;ik kw;Wk; Nrjj;Jld;
,Ug;gij cWjpg;gLj;j gy eltbf;iffis vLf;fyhk;. Row;rpapd;
mbg;gFjpapy; nray;gLk; cj;jpfs; xU Row;rpapd; cr;rpapy;
nray;gLtijg; NghyNt gpd;gw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij xg;Gf;
nfhs;Sk; MjuthsHfis Row;rp epHthfj;jpd; fUj;J rk;ghjpf;fpwJ.
xt;nthU epWtdj;jpw;Fk; cWjpahd #j;jpuk; ,y;iy vd;whYk;>
mZFKiwfs; nghJthf xU epWtdj;jpd; Kf;fpa gyq;fis
ikakhff; nfhz;l ePz;lfhy ghHitia typAWj;Jfpd;wd> NkYk;
vy;yh Neuq;fspYk; mjpf tpNtfj;Jld; jpl;lkpl Ntz;ba
mtrpaj;ij typAWj;Jfpd;wd. mbg;gilapy;> xU epWtdj;jpd;
nray;ghLfis xU tzpfr; Row;rpapd; Vw;w jho;Tfspd; %yk; xU
rkepiyia guhkupf;Fk; tifapy; rupnra;a Kaw;rpfs;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
tzpf Row;rp rupTfis epHtfpg;gjw;fhd Fwpg;gpl;l cjtpf;Fwpg;Gfs;

gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Ffpd;wd:
· tise;J nfhLf;Fk; jd;ik a nefpo;thd tzpfj; jpl;lj;ij

itj;jpUg;gJ KO Row;rpiaAk; gug;gf;$ba tsHr;rp Neuq;fis
mDkjpf;fpwJ kw;Wk; gy;NtW ke;jepiy-vjpHg;G epjp fl;likg;Gfis
cs;slf;fpaJ.
· ePz;lfhy jpl;lkply; - MNyhrfHfs; rpW tzpfq;fis

jq;fs; ePz;l J}u Kd;dwptpg;gpy; kpjkhd epiyg;ghl;il vLf;f
Cf;Ftpf;fpd;wdH.
· thbf;ifahsHfSf;fhd ftdk; an nghUshjhu

tPo;rr
; papypUe;J ntsptu tpUk;Gk; tzpfq;fSf;F ,J xU
Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf ,Uf;fyhk;. thbf;ifahsHfSld; neUq;fpa
cwitAk; jpwe;j jfty;njhlHGfisAk; guhkupg;gJ ey;y
fhyq;fspy; guhkupf;f xU fbdkhd xOf;fkhFk;> Mdhy; ,J
251
tzpf Row;rp Nkhrkhd fhyq;fspypUe;J ntspNaWtJ kpfTk; Kf;fpakhdJ. xU
epWtdk; nghUshjhu ke;jepiyapypUe;J kPsj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ
Fwpg;G thbf;ifahsHfs; rpwe;j mstPLfs;.
· Fwpf;Nfhs; business rpW tzpf cupikahsHfs; tzpfr;

Row;rpfspy; rthup nra;Ak;NghJ mjpf msT Fwpf;Nfhisg;
guhkupf;f Ntz;Lk;. cz;ikfis epjhdkhf Muha;tij tpl
ek;gpf;iffs; kw;Wk; Mirfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l nray;ghl;L
KbTfs; xU tzpfj;ij Nguoptpw;F cl;gLj;Jk;> Fwpg;ghf
nghUshjhu fhyq;fspy;.
· gbg;G a xU vOr;rpf;fhd ve;j nraiyAk; Neuk; nra;tJ

je;jpukhdJ. Neuj;ij jtwhfg; ngWtjd; tpisTfs;> Kd;$l;bNa
my;yJ jhkjkhf ,Ug;gJ> jPtpukhf ,Uf;fyhk;. mg;gbahdhy;> xU
epWtdk; Muk;gj;jpy; my;yJ jhkjkhf ,Ug;gjw;F ,ilapy;
rupahd rkepiyia vt;thW Vw;gLj;JfpwJ? vd;d elf;fpwJ
vd;gijg; Gupe;Jnfhs;s nghUshjhu ty;YeHfs;> murpay;thjpfs;
kw;Wk; Clfq;fisf; Nfl;gJ gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. vt;thwhapDk;>
caHitf; fzpf;f Kaw;rpg;gijj; jtpHg;gNj rpwe;j top. mjw;F
gjpyhf> cq;fs; thbf;ifahsHfisf; Nfl;L> cq;fs; nrhe;j
kWnkhop Neuj; Njitfis mwpe;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

Fwpg;G:
1. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfspd; Nehf;fk; vd;d?
14.6.1 gztPf;f nghUs;:

gztPf;fk; vd;gJ nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd tpiyfs;
mjpfupf;Fk; tPjkhFk;. gztPf;fk; ngUk;ghYk; EfHNthupd; thq;Fk;
jpwid ghjpf;fpwJ. ngUk;ghyhd kj;jpa tq;fpfs; me;je;j
252
tzpf Row;rp
nghUshjhuq;fs; jpwikahf nray;gl gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j
Kaw;rpf;fpd;wd.
Fwpg;G
gztPf;fj;jpw;F ed;ikfs; kw;Wk; jPikfs; cs;sd.
gztPf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzq;fs;
gztPf;fk; gy fhuzpfshy; Vw;gLfpwJ> ,q;Nf rpy:
1. gzk; toq;fy;
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; mjpfg;gbahd ehza (gzk;) toq;fy;

gztPf;fj;jpw;F Kjd;ikahd fhuzkhFk;. xU ehl;by; gzk;
toq;fy;/ Gof;fj;jpy; ,Ug;gJ nghUshjhu tsHr;rpia tpl tsUk;
NghJ ,J epfo;fpwJ> vdNt ehzaj;jpd; kjpg;igf; Fiwf;fpwJ.
etPd rfhg;jj;jpy;> ehLfs; jq;fsplk; ,Ue;j jq;fj;jpd; msitf;

nfhz;L gzj;ij kjpg;gpLk; ghuk;gupa KiwfspypUe;J khwptpl;ld.
gz kjpg;gPl;bd; etPd Kiwfs; Gof;fj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; ehzaj;jpd;
msthy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd> gpd;dH me;j ehzaj;jpd; kjpg;igg;
gw;wpa nghJkf;fspd; fUj;J gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ.
2. Njrpa fld;
Njrpa flid ghjpf;Fk; gy fhuzpfs; cs;sd> mtw;wpy; ehLfs;

fld; thq;Fjy; kw;Wk; nryT nra;jy; Mfpait mlq;Fk;. xU
ehl;bd; fld; mjpfupf;Fk; #o;epiyapy;> me;je;j ehl;bw;F ,uz;L
tpUg;gq;fs; cs;sd:
 tupfis cs;ehl;by; caHj;jyhk;

 flid milf;f $Ljy; gzj;ij mr;rplyhk;
3. Njit-,Oj;jy; tpisT
xU nghUshjhuj;jpw;Fs; Cjpaq;fs; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ tsHe;J

tUk; nghUshjhuj;jpy;> nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;F nrytopf;f
kf;fSf;F mjpf gzk; ,Uf;Fk; vd;W Nfhupf;if ,Of;Fk; tpisT
$WfpwJ. nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd Njit mjpfupg;gjhy;
epWtdq;fs; toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njitia rkepiyg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf
EfHNthH jhq;ff;$ba tpiyia caHj;Jk;.
4. nryT-G\; tpisT
,e;j Nfhl;ghL $Wifapy;> epWtdq;fs; %yg;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;

EfHNthH nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhd Cjpaq;fs; kPjhd Self-Instructional Material
253
tzpf Row;rp mjpfupj;j cs;sPl;L nryTfis vjpHnfhs;Sk;NghJ> mjpfupj;j
cw;gj;jp nryit ,Wjp EfHNthUf;F mjpfupj;j tpiyfspd;
Fwpg;G tbtj;jpy; nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; mtw;wpd; yhgj;ij ghJfhf;Fk;.
5. gupkhw;w tpfpjq;fs;
ntspehl;L re;ijfSf;F ntspg;ghL nfhz;l nghUshjhuk;

ngUk;ghYk; lhyH kjpg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; nray;gLfpwJ. tHj;jf
cyfg; nghUshjhuj;jpy;> gztPf;f tPjj;ij epHzapg;gjpy; khw;W
tpfpjq;fs; Kf;fpa fhuzpahFk;.
gztPf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzpahyhdJ epjpj; jpl;lkplYf;F xU Kf;fpa

nray;KiwahFk;. ePq;fs; Xa;T ngWk;NghJ cz;ikapy; vt;tsT
Njitg;gLk; vd;gJ Nfs;tp. gztPf;fj;ij kdjpy; itj;J ePq;fs;
epjp uPjpahf Xa;T ngw rpy topfs; ,q;Nf.
1. ePz;l fhy KjyPLfspy; KjyPL nra;Aq;fs;.
ePz;l fhy KjyPLfSf;F tUk;NghJ> ,g;NghJ gzj;ij

nrytopg;gJ vjpHfhyj;jpy; gztPf;fj;jpypUe;J gadila cq;fis
mDkjpf;Fk; ..
2. NkYk; Nrkpf;fTk;
Xa;T ngWtjw;F xUtH fw;gid nra;tij tpl mjpf gzk;

Njitg;gLfpwJ. Xa;t+jpa ,yf;Ffis miltjw;fhd ,uz;L
topfs; mjpfkhf Nrkpg;gJ my;yJ jPtpukhf KjyPL nra;tJ.
3. rPuhd KjyPLfis nra;Aq;fs;
gj;jpuq;fspy; KjyPL nra;tJ ghJfhg;ghdjhf czHe;jhYk;> gy

,yhfhf;fspy; KjyPL nra;Aq;fs;. gztPf;fj;ij tpQ;r cq;fs;
Kl;ilfs; midj;ijAk; xNu $ilapy; itf;f Ntz;lhk;.
14.6.2: gztPf;fk; tiffs;;:

nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpiyfs; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ
gztPf;fk; MFk;. gztPf;fj;jpd; ehd;F Kf;fpa tiffs; cs;sd>
mtw;wpd; Ntfj;jhy; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mit CHe;J nry;tJ>
eilgapw;rp> fhy;gpq; kw;Wk; kpif gztPff; k;. Fwpg;gpl;l tifahd
nrhj;J gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; Cjpa gztPf;fk; Mfpait cs;sd. rpy
ty;YeHfs; Njit-,Oj;jy; kw;Wk; nryT-ce;Jjy; gztPf;fk;
,d;Dk; ,uz;L tiffs; vd;W $WfpwhHfs;> Mdhy; mit
Self-Instructional Material gztPf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzq;fs;.
254
tzpf Row;rp
1. CHe;J nry;Yk; gztPff
; k;
tUlj;jpw;F 3 rjtPjk; my;yJ mjw;Fk; Fiwthf tpiyfs;

Fwpg;G
caUk;NghJ CHe;J nry;tJ my;yJ Nyrhd gztPf;fk; MFk;.
ngluy; uprHt; fUj;Jg;gb> tpiyfs; 2 rjtPjk; my;yJ mjw;Fk;
Fiwthf mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ mJ nghUshjhu tsHr;rpf;F
gadspf;Fk;. ,e;j tifahd Nyrhd gztPf;fk; EfHNthH tpiyfs;
njhlHe;J caUk; vd;W vjpHghHf;fpwJ. mJ Njitia
mjpfupf;fpwJ. vjpHfhy tpiyfis Kwpabf;f EfHNthH ,g;NghJ
thq;FfpwhHfs;. Nyrhd gztPf;fk; nghUshjhu tpupthf;fj;ij
ce;JfpwJ.
2. eilgapw;rp gztPf;fk;:
,e;j tif tYthd my;yJ jPq;F tpistpf;Fk; gztPf;fk;

Mz;Lf;F 3-10 rjtpfpjk; tiu ,Uf;Fk;. ,J nghUshjhuj;jpw;F
jPq;F tpistpf;Fk;> Vnddpy; ,J nghUshjhu tsHr;rpia kpf
Ntfkhf ntg;gg;gLj;JfpwJ. ehisa kpf caHe;j tpiyiaj;
jtpHg;gjw;fhf> kf;fs; jq;fSf;F Njitahdij tpl mjpfkhf
thq;fj; njhlq;FfpwhHfs;. ,J rg;isaHfs; njhlHe;J itj;jpUf;f
Kbahjgb Nfhupf;ifia NkYk; nrYj;JfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf>
nghJthd nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfs; ngUk;ghyhd kf;fSf;F
vl;lhj tpiyapy; cs;sd.
3. gztPf;fj;ij caHj;JtJ:
gztPf;fk; 10 rjtpfpjk; my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;ljhf caUk;NghJ>

mJ nghUshjhuj;jpy; KOikahd mopit Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. gzk;
kpf tpiuthf kjpg;ig ,of;fpwJ> ,jdhy; tzpf kw;Wk; gzpahsH
tUkhdk; nryTfs; kw;Wk; tpiyfis itj;jpUf;f KbahJ.
ntspehl;L KjyPll; hsHfs; ehl;ilj; jtpHj;J> Njitahd
%yjdj;ij ,of;fpd;wdH. nghUshjhuk; epiyaw;wjhfptpLk;>
murhq;fj; jiytHfs; ek;gfj;jd;ikia ,of;fpwhHfs;.
gztPf;fj;ij caHj;JtJ vy;yh tpiyapYk; jLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
4. caH gztPf;fk;:
xU khjj;jpw;F 50 rjtpfpjj;jpw;Fk; Nkyhf tpiyfs; caUk; NghJ

kpif gztPf;fk; MFk;. ,J kpfTk; mupjhdJ. cz;ikapy;> caH
gztPf;fj;jpd; ngUk;ghyhd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; NghHfSf;F gzk;
nrYj;j murhq;fq;fs; gzj;ij mr;rpl;lNghJjhd; epfo;e;jd. 1920
fspy; n[Hkdp > 2000 fspy; [pk;ghg;Nt kw;Wk; 2010 fspy; ntdpRyh Self-Instructional Material
255
tzpf Row;rp Mfpait caH gztPf;fj;jpd; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; . filrpahf
mnkupf;fh gztPf;fj;ij mDgtpj;jJ mjd; cs;ehl;Lg;
Fwpg;G Nghupd;NghJ.
5. Njf;fk;:
nghUshjhu tsHr;rp Njf;fkile;J> Mdhy; tpiy gztPf;fk;

,d;Dk; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ Njf;fepiyjhd;. ,J Kuz;ghlhfj; njupfpwJ>
Kbahtpl;lhy;. nghUshjhu tsHr;rpiaj; J}z;Ltjw;F NghJkhd
Njit ,y;yhjNghJ Vd; tpiyfs; caUk;?
1970 fspy; mnkupf;fh jq;fj; juj;ij iftpl;lNghJ mJ ele;jJ.

lhyupd; kjpg;G ,dp jq;fj;Jld; gpizf;fg;glhjjhy;> mJ rupe;jJ.
mNj Neuj;jpy;> jq;fj;jpd; tpiy caHe;jJ.
ngluy; uprHt; jiytH ghy; Nthy;fH Cl;l epjp tpfpjj;ij ,ul;il

,yf;fq;fSf;F caHj;Jk; tiu Njf;fepiy Kbtilatpy;iy.
NkYk; gztPf;fj;jpd; vjpHghHg;Gfis mfw;w mtH mij ePz;l
Neuk; itj;jpUe;jhH. ,J xU mrhjhuz #o;epiy vd;gjhy;>
Njf;fepiy kPz;Lk; elf;fhJ.
6. Kf;fpa gztPff
; k;:
Kf;fpa gztPf;f tpfpjk; czT kw;Wk; Mw;wy; jtpu vy;yhtw;wpYk;

caUk; tpiyfis mstpLfpwJ. Vndd;why; xt;nthU NfhilapYk;
vupthA tpiyfs; mjpfupf;Fk;. tpLKiwapy; nry;y FLk;gq;fs;
mjpf thAitg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. mjpf vupthA nryTfs; czT
kw;Wk; ngupa Nghf;Ftuj;J nryTfisf; nfhz;l NtW vijAk;
mjpfupf;Fk;. ngluy; uprHt; gztpay; nfhs;ifia mikg;gjpy;
mij topelj;j Kf;fpa gztPf;f tPjj;ijg; gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
xt;nthU KiwAk; vupthA tpiyfs; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ tl;b
tpfpjq;fis rupnra;a kj;jpa tq;fp tpUk;gtpy;iy.
7. gzthl;lk;
gzthl;lk; vd;gJ gztPf;fj;jpw;F vjpuhdJ. tpiyfs; FiwAk;

NghJ jhd;. xU nrhj;J Fkpop ntbf;Fk;NghJ ,J Vw;gLfpwJ. 2006
Mk; Mz;by; tPl;Ltrjpfspy; ele;jJ ,Jjhd;. 2005 Mk; Mz;by;
tPLfis thq;fpatHfis tPl;L tpiyfspy; gzthl;lk; rpf;f
itj;jJ. cz;ikapy;> ke;jepiyapd; NghJ xl;Lnkhj;j gzthl;lk;
Fwpj;J kj;jpa tq;fp ftiy nfhz;bUe;jJ. gzthl;lk; xU
ke;jepiyia kdr;NrhHthf khw;Wk; vd;gNj mjw;Ff; fhuzk;. 1929
256
tzpf Row;rp
ngUk; ke;jepiyapd; NghJ> tpiyfs; Mz;Lf;F 10 rjtPjk;
Fiwe;jJ. gzthl;lk; njhlq;fpaJk;> gztPf;fj;ij tpl epWj;JtJ
fbdk;. Fwpg;G
8. Cjpa gztPf;fk;
njhopyhsHfspd; Cjpak; tho;f;ifr; nryit tpl Ntfkhf

caUk;NghJ Cjpa gztPff ; k; MFk; . ,J %d;W #o;epiyfspy;
epfo;fpwJ. Kjyhtjhf> njhopyhsHfs; gw;whf;Fiw ,Uf;Fk;NghJ.
,uz;lhtjhf> njhopyhsH rq;fq;fs; vg;NghJk; mjpf Cjpaq;fis
Ngr;RthHj;ij elj;Jk;NghJ. %d;whtJ njhopyhsHfs; jq;fs;
nrhe;j Cjpaj;ij jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;NghJ.
Ntiyapd;ik 4 rjtPjj;jpw;Fk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;Nghnjy;yhk;

njhopyhsH gw;whf;Fiw Vw;gLfpwJ. njhopyhsH rq;fq;fs; 1990
fspy; thfdj; njhopyhsHfSf;F mjpf Cjpak; toq;f
Ngr;RthHj;ij elj;jpd. jiyik epHthf mjpfhupfs; gy fhHg;gNul;
NghHLfspy; cl;fhHe;J > Fwpg;ghf jq;fs; nrhe;j Cjpaj;ij
jpwk;gl fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwhHfs; . ,e;j #o;epiyfs; midj;Jk; Cjpa
gztPf;fj;ij cUthf;fpaJ.
epr;rakhf> vy;NyhUk; jq;fs; Cjpa caHT epahakhdJ vd;W

epidf;fpwhHfs;. Mdhy; mjpf Cjpaq;fs; nryT-ce;Jjy;
gztPf;fj;jpd; xU cWg;G. ,J xU epWtdj;jpd; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; tpiyia caHj;Jk; .
9. nrhj;J gztPf;fk;:
xU nrhj;J tFg;gpy; xU nrhj;J Fkpop my;yJ nrhj;J gztPf;fk;

Vw;gLfpwJ. ey;y vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; tPl;Ltrjp> vz;nza; kw;Wk;
jq;fk;. xl;Lnkhj;j gztPff
; tpfpjk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ ,J
ngUk;ghYk; ngluy; uprHt; kw;Wk; gpw gztPf;ff;
fz;fhzpg;ghsHfshy; ftdpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rg; gpiuk;
mlkhd neUf;fb kw;Wk; mLj;jLj;j cyfshtpa epjp neUf;fb
Mfpait rupghHf;fg;glhj nrhj;J gztPff
; j;ij vt;thW
Nrjg;gLj;Jk; vd;gij ep&gpj;jd.
14.6.3 gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;:

gztPf;fk; xU nghUshjhuj;jpw;F xU rpf;fyhd #o;epiyahf
fUjg;gLfpwJ. gztPf;fk; xU kpjkhd tpfpjj;jpw;F mg;ghy;
nrd;why;> mJ xU nghUshjhuj;jpw;F NguopT juf;$ba
257
tzpf Row;rp #o;epiyfis cUthf;ff;$Lk;@ vdNt fl;Lg;ghl;by; ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
Fwpg;G
xU Fwpg;gpl;l eltbf;if my;yJ fUtpiag; gad;gLj;jp
gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ vspjy;y.
xt;nthU eltbf;ifapd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; nghUshjhuj;jpy; gz

tuit Fiwg;gJ my;yJ re;ijapy; gzg;Gof;fj;ijf;
Fiwg;gjhFk;.
gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ntt;NtW

eltbf;iffs; :
gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ntt;NtW

eltbf;iffs;
1. gz eltbf;iffs;:
xU ehl;bd; murhq;fk; gy eltbf;iffis vLj;J nghUshjhu

eltbf;iffis fl;Lg;gLj;j nfhs;iffis tFf;fpwJ.
gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j murhq;fk; nghJthfg; gad;gLj;Jk;
eltbf;iffspy; xd;whFk; gztpay; nfhs;if.
ehzaf; nfhs;ifapy;> kj;jpa tq;fp tzpf tq;fpfSf;fhd fld;

kPjhd tl;b tpfpjj;ij mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> tzpf
tq;fpfs; nghJkf;fSf;fhd fld; kPjhd tl;b tpfpjj;ij
mjpfupf;fpd;wd. ,j;jifa #o;epiyapy;> jdpegHfs; Gjpa
Kaw;rpfspy; KjyPL nra;tjw;F gjpyhf gzj;ij Nrkpf;f
tpUk;GfpwhHfs;.
,J re;ijapy; gz tpepNahfj;ij Fiwf;Fk;> ,J gztPf;fj;ij

fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,J jtpu> gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j tzpf
tq;fpfspd; fld; cUthf;Fk; jpwid kj;jpa tq;fp Fiwf;fpwJ.
xU ehl;bd; gztpay; nfhs;if gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;fpaJ:
(m) tq;fp tpfpjj;jpy; caHT:
,J gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j kj;jpa tq;fpahy; vLf;fg;gl;l

gutyhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU eltbf;ifiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ. tq;fp
tpfpjk; vd;gJ tzpf tq;fpahdJ kj;jpa tq;fpapd; fld;fs; kw;Wk;
ml;thd;]; Fwpj;j kW fzf;fPl;ilg; ngWk; tPjkhFk;. tq;fp
tPjj;jpd; mjpfupg;G nghJkf;fSf;fhd fld;fSf;fhd tl;b
258
tzpf Row;rp
tpfpjj;ij mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,J jdpegHfspd; nkhj;j
nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;f toptFf;fpwJ.
Fwpg;G
jdpegHfspd; nkhj;j nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd Kf;fpa
fhuzq;fs; gpd;tUkhW@
(i) gzj;ij fld; thq;FtJ tpiy caHe;jJ:
kj;jpa tq;fpapd; tq;fp tpfpjk; mjpfupj;jTld; tzpf tq;fpfspd;

fld;fs; kw;Wk; Kd;Ndw;wq;fSf;fhd tl;b tpfpjj;ij mjpfupf;fpwJ
vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,J nghJ kf;fSf;F fld; thq;Ftij tpiy
caHe;jjhf Mf;FfpwJ.
,jd; tpisthf> jdpegHfs; jq;fs; KjyPlL ; j; jpl;lq;fis

xj;jpitj;J> vjpHfhyj;jpy; tl;b tpfpjq;fs; tPo;rr; pailAk; tiu
fhj;jpUf;fpwhHfs;. KjyPLfspd; Fiwg;G nkhj;j nrytpdq;fspy;
Fiwe;J gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j cjTfpwJ.
(ii) tzpfq;fSf;F ghjfkhd #o;epiyfis cUthf;Fjy;:
tq;fp tPjj;jpd; mjpfupg;G rpy tzpfHfSf;F cstpay; uPjpahd

jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. jq;fs; tzpf
eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;F ,e;j epiyik ghjfkhf mtHfs;
fUJfpd;wdH. vdNt> mtHfs; jq;fs; nryTfisAk; KjyPl;ilAk;
Fiwf;fpwhHfs;.
(iii) Nrkpg;gjw;fhd Kidg;ig mjpfupj;jy;:
jdpegHfspd; nkhj;j nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd kpf

Kf;fpakhd fhuzj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. jdpegHfs; nghJthf gztPf;f
epiyikfspy; gzj;ij Nrkpf;f tpUk;GfpwhHfs; vd;gJ midtUk;
mwpe;j cz;ik. ,jd; tpisthf> EfHT kw;Wk; KjyPlb ; w;fhd
jdpegHfspd; nkhj;j nryT FiwfpwJ.
(M) fld; cUthf;fk; kPjhd Neub fl;Lg;ghL:
gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; Kf;fpa gFjpia cUthf;FfpwJ.
gpd;tUk; Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; tzpf tq;fpfspd;

fld; fl;Lg;ghl;L jpwid kj;jpa tq;fp Neubahf Fiwf;fpwJ:
(i) jpwe;j re;ij nray;ghLfisr; nra;jy; (OMO):
259
tzpf Row;rp tzpf tq;fpfspd; fld; cUthf;Fk; jpwidf; Fiwf;f kj;jpa tq;fp
gad;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpakhd Kiwfspy; xd;iwf; Fwpf;fpwJ. kj;jpa
Fwpg;G tq;fp tzpf gj;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; rpy jdpahH tzpfq;fSf;F
murhq;f gj;jpuq;fis ntspapLfpwJ.
,e;j topapy;> tzpf tq;fpfSldhd gzk; murhq;fg; gj;jpuq;fis

thq;Ftjw;F nrytplg;gLk;. ,jd; tpisthf> tzpf tq;fp nghJ
kf;fSf;F fld; toq;fiyf; Fiwf;Fk;.
(ii) ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fis khw;Wjy;:
tzpf tq;fpfspd; fld; cUthf;Fk; jpwidf; Fiwf;f kj;jpa

tq;fpapd; ,Ug;G tpfpjq;fis mjpfupf;fpwJ my;yJ Fiwf;fpwJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> tHj;jf tq;fpfspd; fld; cUthf;Fk; jpwid
kj;jpa tq;fp Fiwf;f Ntz;bapUf;Fk; NghJ> mJ gz ,Ug;G
tpfpjj;ij (rpMHMH) mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> tzpf
tq;fpfs; kj;jpa tq;fpapy; jq;fs; nkhj;j itg;GfspypUe;J xU
ngupa njhifia ,Ug;G itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,J tzpf
tq;fpfspd; fld; jpwid NkYk; Fiwf;Fk;. ,jd; tpisthf> xU
nghUshjhuj;jpy; jdpegHfs; KjyPL nra;tJk; FiwAk;.
2. epjp eltbf;iffs;:
gztpay; nfhs;ifiaj; jtpu> gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j epjp

eltbf;iffisAk; murhq;fk; gad;gLj;JfpwJ. epjpf; nfhs;ifapd;
,uz;L Kf;fpa $Wfs; murhq;f tUtha; kw;Wk; murhq;f
nryTfs;. epjpf; nfhs;ifapy;> jdpahH nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjd;
%ykhfNth my;yJ murhq;f nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjd;
%ykhfNth my;yJ ,uz;ilAk; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %ykhfNth
gztPf;fj;ij murhq;fk; fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.
,J jdpahH tzpfq;fSf;fhd tupfis mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; jdpahH

nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;fpwJ. jdpahH nrytpdq;fs; mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ> gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j murhq;fk; mjd;
nryitf; Fiwf;fpwJ. vt;thwhapDk;> jw;Nghija #o;epiyapy;>
murhq;f nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gJ rhj;jpakpy;iy> Vndd;why;
r%f eyDf;fhf rpy jpl;lq;fs; ele;J nfhz;bUf;fyhk;> mit
xj;jpitf;f KbahJ.
,J jtpu> ghJfhg;G> Rfhjhuk;> fy;tp kw;Wk; rl;lk; xOq;F Nghd;w

gpw gFjpfSf;Fk; murhq;fj;jpd; nryTfs; mtrpak;. mt;thwhd
Self-Instructional Material epiyapy;> murhq;f nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gij tpl jdpahH
260
tzpf Row;rp
nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gNj tpUk;gj;jf;fJ. tupfis mjpfupg;gjd;
%yk; murhq;fk; jdpahH nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;Fk;NghJ>
jdpegHfs; jq;fs; nkhj;j nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwf;fpwhHfs;. Fwpg;G
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> ,yhgq;fSf;fhd Neub tup mjpfupj;jhy;> nkhj;j

nrytopg;G tUkhdk; FiwAk;. ,jd; tpisthf> jdpegHfspd;
nkhj;j nryT FiwfpwJ> ,J re;ijapy; gz tpepNahfj;ij
Fiwf;fpwJ. vdNt> gztPf;f Neuj;jpy;> murhq;fk; mjd;
nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwj;J> jdpahH nrytpdq;fisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd
tupfis mjpfupf;fpwJ.
3. tpiy fl;Lg;ghL:
gztPf;fj;ij epWj;Jtjw;fhd kw;nwhU Kiw> nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;

Nritfspd; tpiyfs; NkYk; mjpfupg;gijj; jLg;gjhFk;. ,e;j
Kiwapy;> gztPf;fk; tpiyf; fl;Lg;ghl;lhy; mlf;fg;gLfpwJ> Mdhy;
ePz;l fhyj;jpw;F fl;Lg;gLj;j KbahJ. mt;thwhd epiyapy;>
nghUshjhuj;jpy; mbg;gil gztPf;f mOj;jk; FWfpa fhyj;jpw;F
tpiythrp caHT tbtj;jpy; fhl;rpg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy. ,j;jifa
gztPf;fk; mlf;fg;gl;l gztPf;fk; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
tpiyf; fl;Lg;ghl;lhy; kl;LNk gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j KbahJ

vd;gij tuyhw;W rhd;Wfs; fhl;Lfpd;wd> Mdhy; gztPf;fj;jpd;
msitf; Fiwf;fpd;wd. cjhuzkhf> NghHfspd; NghJ> gy;NtW
ehLfspd; murhq;fk; tpiythrp caHitj; jLf;f tpiyf;
fl;Lg;ghLfis tpjpj;jJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> ntt;NtW nghUshjhuq;fspy;
tpiyfs; cr;rj;jpy; cs;sd. ntt;NtW nghUshjhuq;fspy;
gztPf;fk; njhlHe;J epiyj;jpUg;gNj ,jw;Ff; fhuzk;> ,J
tpiyfspy; $Hikahd caHTf;F fhuzkhf mike;jJ. vdNt>
gztPf;fj;ij mjd; fhuzk; jPHkhdpf;fhtpl;lhy; epWj;j KbahJ
vd;W $wyhk;.
14.7 gzthl;lk;:
Fwpg;G:
1. bkhz;l; Gy; v/ngf;l; epiy vd;d?
261
tzpf Row;rp 14.7.1 gzthl;lk; nghUs;:
gztPf;fk; vd;gJ nghJthf gztPf;f tpfpjk; 0% f;Fk;
Fwpg;G
FiwAk;NghJ Vw;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd tpiyfspd;
rupT MFk;. xU nghUshjhuj;jpd; gz toq;fy; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;>
gzthl;lk; ,aw;ifahfNt elf;Fk;.
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; gzthl;lk; Nkhrkile;J tUtijf;

Fwpf;fpwJ. gzthl;lk; nghJthf Fwpg;gplj;jf;f Ntiyapd;ik
kw;Wk; ey;y kw;Wk; Nritfspd; Fiwe;j cw;gj;jp epiyfSld;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. "gzthl;lk;" vd;w nrhy; ngUk;ghYk;
"gzkjpg;gpog;G" vd;W jtwhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. gzthl;lk; vd;gJ
xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpiyfs;
Fiwtijf; Fwpf;fpwJ vd;whYk;> gztPf;fk; vd;gJ nkJthd
tpfpjj;jpy; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ gzkjpg;gpog;G MFk;.
gzthl;lk; gy fhuzpfshy; Vw;glyhk;:
1. %yjd re;ijfspy; fl;likg;G khw;wq;fs;
xj;j nghUl;fs; my;yJ Nritfis tpw;Fk; ntt;NtW epWtdq;fs;

Nghl;bapLk;NghJ> Nghl;biaf; fhl;bYk; tpiyiaf; Fiwf;Fk;
Nghf;F cs;sJ.
2. cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; mjpfupj;jJ
GJik kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gk; mjpfupj;j cw;gj;jp nray;jpwid

nray;gLj;Jfpd;wd> ,J nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpiyfis
Fiwf;f toptFf;fpwJ. rpy fz;Lgpbg;Gfs; rpy njhopy;fspd;
cw;gj;jpj;jpwid ghjpf;fpd;wd kw;Wk; KO nghUshjhuj;ijAk;
ghjpf;fpd;wd.
3. ehza tpepNahfj;jpy; FiwT
ehza tpepNahfj;jpy; FiwT vd;gJ kf;fSf;F kypT juf;$ba

tifapy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; tpiyfisf; Fiwf;Fk;.
gzthl;lj;jpd; tpisTfs;
gzthl;lk; xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fis

Vw;gLj;jf;$Lk;:
262
tzpf Row;rp
1. tzpf tUthapy; Fiwg;G
gzthl;lj;ij vjpHnfhs;Sk; nghUshjhuj;jpy;> tzpfq;fs;

Fwpg;G
yhgfukhf ,Uf;f jq;fs; jahupg;Gfs; my;yJ Nritfspd;
tpiyia ntFthff; Fiwf;f Ntz;Lk;. tpiyfisf; Fiwg;gJ
Nghy> tUtha; Fiwaj; njhlq;FfpwJ.
2. Fiwf;fg;gl;l Cjpaq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpePf;fq;fs;
tUtha; Fiwaj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ> tzpfq;fs; Fwpf;Nfhs;fisr;

re;jpf;f jq;fs; nryTfisf; Fiwg;gjw;fhd topfisf; fz;lwpa
Ntz;Lk;. xU top Cjpaq;fisf; Fiwj;J Ntiyfis Fiwg;gjd;
%yk;. EfHNthH ,g;NghJ nrytopf;f Fiwthf ,Ug;gjhy; ,J
nghUshjhuj;ij Nkhrkhf ghjpf;fpwJ.
14.7.2 gzthl;l tiffs;:

gzthl;lk; nghUshjhu tsHr;rpapd; tPo;rr
; p tpfpjq;fs; kw;Wk; mjpf
Ntiyapd;ik Mfpatw;Wld; njhlHGilaJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> NtWgl;l
gzthl;lj;ij itj;jpUg;gJ rhj;jpakhFk; - tpiuthf
cw;gj;jpj;jpwid Nkk;gLj;JtjpypUe;J@ gzthl;lk; nghUshjhu
tsHr;rpapd; caH tpfpjq;fSld; xj;Jg;NghfpwJ.
Kf;fpa gpur;rpid vd;dntd;why; - gzthl;lj;jpw;F vd;d fhuzk;>

tpiyfs; tPo;rr
; paile;jhy; - cz;ikahd Cjpaq;fs; kw;Wk;
cz;ikahd tl;b tpfpjq;fSf;F vd;d elf;fpwJ?
14.7.3: gzthl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd eltbf;iffs;:

gztPf;fj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;j gztpay; kw;Wk; epjp eltbf;iffis
vjpH Kiwapy; gpd;gw;Wtjd; %yk; gzthl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;j
KbAk;.
,Ug;gpDk;> ,e;j eltbf;iffis ehq;fs; RUf;fkhf

tpthjpf;fpNwhk;.
1. gztpay; nfhs;if:
gzthl;lj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;j> kj;jpa tq;fpahdJ kypthd gzf;

nfhs;ifapd; %yk; tzpf tq;fpfspd; ,Ug;Gf;fis mjpfupf;f
KbAk;. gj;jpuq;fis thq;Ftjd; %yKk;> tl;b tPjj;ijf;
Fiwg;gjd; %yKk; mtHfs; mt;thW nra;ayhk;. ,jd; tpisthf>
fld; thq;FgtHfSf;F fld; trjpfis tpupTgLj;Jtjw;fhd
mtHfspd; jpwd; mjpfupf;fpwJ. Mdhy; ngUk; ke;jepiyapd; Self-Instructional Material
263
tzpf Row;rp mDgtk;> tzpfHfspilNa mtek;gpf;if ,Uf;Fk;NghJ fLikahd
kdr;NrhHtpy;> mj;jifa nfhs;ifapd; ntw;wp eilKiwapy; ,y;iy
Fwpg;G vd;W $WfpwJ.
,j;jifa #o;epiyapy;> kWkyHr;rpiaf; nfhz;LtUtjpy; tq;fpfs;

cjtpaw;wit. tzpf nray;ghL fpl;lj;jl;l epWj;jg;gl;bUg;gjhy;>
tl;b tpfpjk; kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ $l> ruf;Ffis
cUthf;f fld; thq;f tzpfHfSf;F ve;j tpUg;gKk; ,y;iy.
khwhf> tq;fpfspy; ,Ue;J Vw;fdNt ngwg;gl;l fld;fis jpUg;gpr;
nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; jq;fs; ruf;Ffis Fiwf;f tpUk;GfpwhHfs;.
NkYk;> tzpf nray;ghL Vw;fdNt kpff; Fiwe;j kl;lj;jpy;

,Uf;Fk;NghJ gztPff; j;jpd;NghJ ePz;lfhy %yjdj;
NjitfSf;fhf fld; thq;Ftjw;fhd Nfs;tp vOtjpy;iy.
Ntiyapd;ik kw;Wk; Fiwe;j tUkhdj;ij vjpHnfhz;l EfHNthupd;
epiyik ,Jjhd;> tq;fpf; fld;fs; %yk; ePbj;j ve;jnthU
nghUisAk; thq;f tpUk;gtpy;iy.
,jdhy; tq;fpfshy; nra;af;$baJ fld; fpilf;f Ntz;Lk;> Mdhy;

mtHfs; mij Vw;Wf;nfhs;SkhW tzpfHfisAk; EfHNthiuAk;
fl;lhag;gLj;j KbahJ. 1930 fspy;> kpff; Fiwe;j tl;b
tpfpjq;fSk; tq;fpfSld; gad;gLj;jg;glhj ,Ug;Gf;fisf;
Ftpg;gJk; cyfpd; jho;j;jg;gl;l nghUshjhuq;fspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jtpy;iy. ,jdhy; gzthl;lj;ij
fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjpy; gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; ntw;wp fLikahf
tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2. epjpf; nfhs;if:
nghJr; nrytpdq;fspd; mjpfupg;G kw;Wk; tupfisf; Fiwg;gjd;

%yk; epjpf; nfhs;if Njrpa tUkhdk;> Ntiytha;g;G> cw;gj;jp
kw;Wk; tpiyfis caHj;j KidfpwJ. gzthl;lj;jpd; NghJ
nghJr; nrytpdq;fspd; mjpfupg;G nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd
nkhj;j Njitia mjpfupf;fpwJ kw;Wk; ngUf;fp nray;Kiw %yk;
tUkhdj;jpy; ngupa mjpfupg;Gf;F toptFf;fpwJ> mNj Neuj;jpy;
tupfspy; Fiwg;G vd;gJ nrytopg;G tUkhdj;ij caHj;Jtjd;
tpisitf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ> ,jdhy; kf;fspd; EfHT kw;Wk;
KjyPlL; nryTfs; mjpfupf;Fk;.
gw;whf;Fiw gl;n[l; kw;Wk; tupfis Fiwg;gjd; %yk; murhq;fk;

jdJ nrytpdq;fis mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;. nghJr; nrytpy;
rhiyfs;> fhy;tha;fs;> mizfs;> g+q;fhf;fs;> gs;spfs;>
264
tzpf Row;rp
kUj;Jtkidfs; kw;Wk; gpw fl;blq;fs; Nghd;w nghJg;
gzpfSf;Fk;> Ntiyapd;ik fhg;gL
P > Xa;t+jpak; Nghd;w epthuz
eltbf;iffSf;Fk; nrytplg;gLfpwJ. Fwpg;G
nghJg;gzpfSf;fhd nryT jdpahH fl;Lkhdj; njhopy;fspd;

jahupg;GfSf;fhd Njitia cUthf;FfpwJ kw;Wk; mtw;iw
GJg;gpf;f cjTfpwJ> mNj Neuj;jpy; epthuz eltbf;iffSf;fhd
nryT EfHNthH nghUl;fs; njhopy;fSf;fhd Njitiaj;
J}z;LfpwJ. fhHg;gNul; ,yhg tup> tUkhd tup kw;Wk; fyhy; tup
Nghd;w tupfspy; Fiwg;G vd;gJ nryT kw;Wk; KjyPlb ; w;F mjpf
tUkhdj;ij tpl;Lr;nry;Yk;.
gl;n[l; gw;whf;Fiwia eptHj;jp nra;a murhq;fk; fld; thq;FtJ

tq;fpfs; kw;Wk; epjp epWtdq;fsplk; fplf;Fk; nrayw;w gzj;ij
KjyPlL ; Nehf;fq;fSf;fhf gad;gLj;JfpwJ. Mdhy; nghJr;
nrytpdq;fspd; nray;jpwd; Kjd;ikahf nghJg;gzpj; jpl;lk;>
nghUshjhu mikg;gpy; mjd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;> nghJg;gzpfspd; msT
kw;Wk; jd;ik kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; jpl;lkply; kw;Wk; Neuk;
Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;jJ.
Fwpg;G:
vOJq;fs;
xg;gpLf
1. gzthl;lj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; VNjDk; ,uz;L fhuzpfisf;
$Wq;fs; ?
14.8 RUf;fk;;
,e;j myF tzpf Row;rp> tzpf Row;rpapd; mk;rq;fs; kw;Wk;
tzpf Row;rpfspd; gy;NtW Nfhl;ghLfisg; gw;wp NgRfpwJ. jtpu>
,e;j myF tzpf Row;rpfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; eltbf;iffs; kw;Wk;
tzpf KbTfspy; jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; fhuzpfs; Fwpj;Jk;
NgRfpwJ. ,J gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk; kw;Wk; gztPf;fk;
kw;Wk; gzthl;lk; ,uz;ilAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; eltbf;iffs;
Fwpj;Jk; ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ.

1. tzpfr; Row;rp xU nghUshjhuj;jpy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfspd; cw;gj;jp cw;gj;jpapd; caHT kw;Wk; tPo;rr ; pia
tptupf;fpwJ. tzpf Row;rpfs; nghJthf cz;ikahd nkhj;j
265
tzpf Row;rp cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; (nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy;) caHT
kw;Wk; tPo;rr
; piag; gad;gLj;jp mstplg;gLfpd;wd my;yJ
Fwpg;G gztPf;fj;jpw;F rupnra;ag;gl;l nkhj;j cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpahFk;.
2. Neub fl;Lg;ghLfspd; Nehf;fk; tpiy ];jpuj;jd;ikapd;

Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf tsq;fis Kiwahf xJf;Ftij cWjp
nra;tjhFk;.
3. xU nghUshjhuj;jpw;Fs; Cjpaq;fs; mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ

tsHe;J tUk; nghUshjhuj;jpy;> nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;F
nrytopf;f kf;fSf;F mjpf gzk; ,Uf;Fk; vd;W Nfhupf;if
,Of;Fk; tpisT $WfpwJ. nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; NritfSf;fhd
Njit mjpfupg;gjhy; epWtdq;fs; toq;fy; kw;Wk; Njitia
rkepiyg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf EfHNthH jhq;ff;$ba tpiyia caHj;Jk;.
4. 1. %yjd re;ijfspy; fl;likg;G khw;wq;fs;
2. cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; mjpfupj;jJ



266
DISTANCE EDUCATION – CBCS – (2018 -19 Academic Year
onwards)
Question Paper Pattern (ESE) – Theory
UG Programme
Time : 3 hours Maximum : 75
marks
பகுதி - அ (10 x 2 = 20 மதிப்பபண்கள்)
எல்லா ககள்விகளுக்கும் பதிலளிக்கவும்
1. மமக்க ா பபாருளாதா ம் என்றால் என்ன?
2. கழித்தல் என்றால் என்ன
3. சந்மத என்றால் என்ன
4. அலட்சியம் வமளவு என்றால் என்ன
5. கதமவயின் பெகிழ்ச்சி என்றால் என்ன
6. ககாரிக்மகயின் குறுக்கு பெகிழ்ச்சிக்கு ஒரு எடுத்துக்காட்டு பகாடுங்கள்
7. உற்பத்தியின் எந்த ொன்கு கா ணிகமளயும் எழுதுங்கள்
8. வணிக சுழற்சி என்றால் என்ன?
9. பபாருளாதா ஸ்தி த்தன்மமயின் கருவிகமளக் குறிப்பிடுங்கள்
10. பணவக்கம்
ீ மற்றும் பணவாட்டம் என்றால் என்ன?
பகுதி - ஆ (5 x 5 = 25 மதிப்பபண்கள்)
11. ஒரு. ெிர்வாக பபாருளாதா ம் ஆய்வின் முக்கியத்துவத்மத பதரிவிக்கவும்
(அல்லது)
ஆ. கதமவயின் பெகிழ்ச்சி குறித்து ஒரு சிறு குறிப்மப எழுதுங்கள்
12. ஒரு. ஒரு ெல்ல கதமவ முன்கணிப்புக்கான அளவுககால்கள் என்ன

ஆ. விெிகயாகத்தின் பெகிழ்ச்சித்தன்மமமய தீர்மானிக்கும் கா ணிகமளக் கூறுங்கள்
13. ஒரு. குறுகிய காலத்தில் பசலவு-பவளியீட்டு உறவு குறித்து ஒரு சிறு குறிப்மப
எழுதுங்கள்
ஆ. மசர்ட் மற்றும் மார்ச் மாத ெடத்மத ககாட்பாடு குறித்து ஒரு சிறு குறிப்மப
எழுதுங்கள்
14. ஒரு. விமல பகாள்மககள் குறித்து ஒரு சிறு குறிப்மப எழுதுங்கள்

ஆ. சரியான கபாட்டியின் கீ ழ் விமல பவளியீடு தீர்மானித்தல் குறித்து ஒரு சிறு
குறிப்மப எழுதுங்கள்
15. ஒரு. குறியீட்டு எண்களால் ெீங்கள் என்ன பசால்கிறீர்கள்

ஆ. உறுதிப்படுத்தல் பகாள்மக என்றால் என்ன
பகுதி இ (3 x 10 = 30 மதிப்பபண்கள்)
ககள்விகளில் 3 க்கு பதிலளிக்கவும்)
16. ெிர்வாக பபாருளாதா த்தின் கொக்கம் மற்றும் ெிர்வாக பபாருளாதா வல்லுெரின்
பசயல்பாட்மட
விளக்குங்கள்
17. கதமவயின் பெகிழ்ச்சிமய பதளிவுபடுத்துங்கள்
18. ககாரிக்மக முன்கணிப்பு முமறகமள விளக்குங்கள்
19. விமல முமறகள் என்ன. பபாருத்தமான எடுத்துக்காட்டுகளுடன் விளக்குங்கள்
20. பணவக்கம்
ீ மற்றும் பணவாட்டத்மத கட்டுப்படுத்துவதற்கான ெடவடிக்மககமள
விரிவாக விளக்குங்கள்.
267

UG - B.Com - Tamil - 102 34-Managerial Economics - 2629

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mofg;gh gy;fiyf;fofk;

Njrpaj; ju epu;zaf; FOtpd; %d;whk; Rw;Wj;jukjpg;gPl;by; A+(CGPA:3.64)

fhiuf;Fb - 630 003

,uz;lhkhz;L - %d;whk; gUtk;

102 34 – epu;thfg; nghUshjhuk;

Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

“The Copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University”

myF - 1: Nkyhz;ik nghUshjhuj;jpd; mHj;jk; kw;Wk; 1 - 13

myF - 2: Njit gFg;gha;T 14- 30

myF - 3: Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy 31 - 49

myF - 4 toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiy

myF - 5: cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T

myF - 6: nryT gFg;gha;T

myF - 7 : yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup

myF - 8;;: tUtha; gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy nfhs;iffs;

tUkhd gFg;gha;T kw;Wk; tpiy eph;za nfhs;iffs; tUkhdk; 103 - 114

myF -- 9 rupahd Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak;> 115 - 135

myF - 10 nray;jpwd; kpf;f Nghl;bapd; fPo; tpiy epHzak

myF - 11 : Nkf;Nuh nghUshjhuk

myF - 12: EfHT nray;ghL KjyPl;L nray;ghL

myF - 13: cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs

myF - 14: tzpf Row;rp

khjpup tpdhj;jhs; 267

myF- II Njit gFg;gha;T gf;fk; 14 - 30

myF- III Njit Kd;fzpg;G epiy gf;fk; 31 - 50

myF-IV toq;fy; kw;Wk; re;ij rkepiy gf;fk;: 51 - 63

myF- V cw;gj;jp gFg;gha;T gf;fk; 64 - 73

myF - VI nryT gFg;gha;T gf;fk;: 74 - 90

myF - VII yhgk; ngupjhf;Fjy; khjpup gf;fk;: 91 - 102

myF XIII cWjpg;gLj;jy; nfhs;iffs; gf;fk;: 203 - 229

khjpup tpdhj;jhs; gf;fk; - 267

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kw;Wk; msT Kiwfspd; njhFg;G MFk;.

cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wj;ij rupghHf;fTk;

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cq;fs; Kd;Ndw;wk; II I rupghHf;fTk;

1.6 epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;

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epWtdj;jpw;Fs; vOk; midj;J rpf;fy;fSk; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;.

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#o;epiyia cs;slf;fpaJ. ehl;bd; nghUshjhu #oypy; gpd;tUk;

3. mLj;j Mz;Lf;fhd cw;gj;jp ml;ltiz vd;dthf ,Uf;f

kw;Wk; epHthf nghUshjhuj;jpd; Nehf;fk; gw;wpa gy;NtW

caHfpwJ vd;gijf; fhl;LfpwJ. tpiyf;Fk; msTf;Fk; ,ilapyhd

tpiy caHTld; Fiwe;j msT Nfhug;gLk;NghJ> Njitapd;

2.5 Njitapd; nefpo;r;rp

mstplg;gLfpwJ. tpiyapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs; fhuzkhf Nfhug;gl;l

Nfhug;gl;l Nfhug;gl;l mstpyhd rjtPj mstpyhd rjtPj

tpiyapy; xU rpwpa khw;wk; vy;iyaw;w

Nfhupf;ifapd; tUkhd nefpo;rr

gpd;tUgit gy;NtW tifahd tUkhd nefpo;rr

g+[;[pa tUkhd nefpo;rr

vjpHkiw tUkhd nefpo;rr

xw;iwahl;rp tUkhd nefpo;rr

xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUspd; Nfhug;gl;l msT kw;w nghUl;fspd;

,uz;L nghUl;fs; khw;whf ,Ue;jhy;> mit Njitf;F rhjfkhd

xU nghUspd; mstpd; kWnkhop kw;nwhU ed;ikapd; tpiyapy;

nghUl;fspd; Njitapy;% khw;wk; A.

NkyhsHfSf;fhd KbntLf;Fk; eltbf;iffSld; Nfhupf;ifapd;

1. cw;gj;jpapy; cw;gj;jp nra;a Ntz;ba nghUl;fspd; msit

2. tpiyfis epHzapg;gjpy; nryT mbg;gilapy; kl;Lky;y>

6. xU njhopw;Jiwia Njrpakakhf;Ftjw;F Fwpg;G