Introduction to Production

Logging Tools

Ihsan M. Gok, PhD

Reservoir & Production Domain Champion
1
 - The aim of PLT is to determine
where oil, gas and water are
coming from in producer well

- where to gas or water is going to

injection well

2
 Why PL?

Cross-flow Channeling Casing Leak

3
 Why PL?

Coning Up Coning Down Fracture

4
Flow Rate
Rate = Velocity x Hold up x Area

Qi=Vi yi A

If it is single phase, y=1, then

Rate = Velocity x Area

 PLT Output

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 PLT sensors

7
 CTF (Capacitance/Temperature/Flowmeter)

Main Measurements
of PLT: Spinners

CFSM CFBM CFJM

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 Fullbore Spinner Jewelled Spinner

Shut-in Horizontal Calibration, Shut-in Horizontal Calibration

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Main Measurements of PLT: Auxiliary Sensors/Equipment
FDI FDR ILS PDC QPC QPS PGR CWH PRT

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 Typical Tool String

Oil Well Gas Well Water Injector Well

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 How to QC PL Data ?

- Depth matching

- Repeatability

- Consistency

- Qualitative Analysis

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 Quiz Time

Why CH GR does
not match to OH
GR ??

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15
 Flow Regimes in Wellbore

- Even when single phase gas or liquid flow

exists near the bottom of a well, multiphase
flow can occur throughout most of the
wellbore.

- This is a result of evolution of gas from oil or

condensation of liquid from gas with reduction
pressure and temperature as the fluids flow up
the well
- Multiphase flow in a production string is very
complex phenomena. The accurate prediction of
the pressure drop which occurs in vertical,
horizontal, and inclined multiphase flow is a
widely recognized problem in the production
engineering.

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 Downhole Environment

 = oil density
 = velocity
d = pipe diameter
 = dynamic viscosity

- Reynolds number is less than 2000, there is laminar flow

- Reynolds number is above 4000, there is turbulent flow
- Reynold number between 2000 and 4000, there a high degree of
17
uncertainty
Example

- Pipe diameter= 5 1/2” pipe (ID=4.9”=0.12m

- Water density=1000 kg/m3
- Viscosity=0.001 Pa.s (1cp)
- Rate=500 b/d, velocity=0.076 m/s

- Majority of oil, gas & water wells, turbulent flow

dominates except the case of heavy oil (viscosity is
more than 100cp)
Velocity Profile
 Spinner Data

- Up and down passes are acquired

at different cable speed

- This is need repeatability and in situ

spinner calibration

20
Conventions
• POSITIVE cable velocity is going down
– Consider that depth, Z, is assumed to be increasing
with time as we go down, so dZ/dt is positive, the cable
velocity is positive

• Positive spinner when tool is going down

– In zero flow conditions the spinner rps has the same
sign as the cable velocity
Positive Spinner
• Calibration plot axes
Up Velocity Down Velocity

Negative Spinner
21 CW
 Example Cable Speed, Spinner
ft/min Response, rps

Up pass Down pass

22
Perforations
 Spinner QC
Spinner, rps

• Crossflow ?
– Check multiple passes
• ID change ?
– Check caliper

• Cable speed change ?

? – Check multiple passes
• Change in flowrate ?
– Check PRESSURE overlay

• Sticky spinner ?
– Check & repeat pass

PLT-Interpretation
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 Typical response Spinner
Cable Speed response
ft/min rps
Perforation

Flowing region

Zero flow
region

24 CW
 Spinner Calibration

25
 Spinner Response

26 CW
 Cable Velocity
• Flowrate measurement relies on relative fluid to tool
velocity

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Example
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30
31
32
 Spinner Correction
The spinner velocity, Vt,
comes from the green
area and therefore the
mixture velocity, Vm, is
smaller.

Therefore Vm = Vt x VPCF

Practically VPCF varies

from around 0.6 to 0.93

33 CW
 Velocity profile correction factor
( Vavg = Vmax * C )
1.0
Correction
0.9
Factor→ C
0.8
Laminar
0.7 Flow
Turbulent Flow

Transition Region
0.6

0.5
0.4
0.2

0.1
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Reynolds Number, NRe

PLT-Interpretation
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 Velocity profile correction factor

In most cases, and for use in the field, a value of:

C = 0.83
will give satisfactory results

For computational use, a curve fit can be used using:

m=log10(NRe)
where m is defined and C computed from the table

0.000 < m < 3.200 C=0.5

3.200 < m < 3.348 C=1.0135m - 2.7432
3.348 < m < 3.554 C=0.4440m - 0.8360
3.554 < m < 3.850 C=0.1450m + 0.2390
3.850 < m < C=0.0400m + 0.6260
8

PLT-Interpretation
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 Example

PLT-Interpretation
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 Quiz Time

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 Quiz Time

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 Oil-Water Flow Regimes

- In bubble flow the spinners

encounters the continuous phase,
typically water traveling slowly, and
discontinuous bubble phase ,
typically oil traveling quicker

39
Slip Velocity
- Velocity difference between the oil and water is defined as
slip velocity, Vs=Vo-Vw
Slip Velocity

41
 Definition: Hold-up
Hold-ups are defined as the volume fraction that a phase occupies in the pipe
section.

Yw + Yh = 1

Vh
Vw

Yw

Yh

42
 Hold-up, Density Measurement

Water 100% water

Holdup point
100%

Yw = 40%

100% oil
point
0%
 oil  tool  water Density
 Density Log Interpretation

44
 Example
Density
Water Salinity=30,000ppm
=0.82 g/cc
water=0.9963g/cc

API=35 oil=0.78 g/cc

GOR=250 scf/bbl
SG=0.7
=0.83 g/cc

=0.94g/cc

=1.08 g/cc Rathole

45
Example, Density to Holdup

Density Oil Holdup Water Holdup

 Holdup vs Cut

- Low rate wells, there is a huge difference between holdup and

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cut
 Density Measurements

Gradiomanamoter Nuclear Density Tuning Folk DPDZ

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 Density Measurements: Gradiomanometsrs

P2 = PB P2 - P1
PA PB = PA + gh = +  SO
P2 = PA + gh gh
P1 = PA +  SOgh
Silicone P2 - P1 = gh -  SOgh
Oil

Diaphragm
97.0
 SO =
aT + (95.4 - 2.95x10-4P)
P1
P2 PB
a = 0.0536 - 3.22x10-6P + 8.73x10-11P2
SO = Silicone oil density (g/cm3)
T = Temperature (degF)
P = Pressure (psia)

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 Factors Affecting the Gradio measurement
Friction – In liquid wells above 2.5 m/s corrections will be needed
for the frictional pressure drop.

Yo-Yo – A bouncing tool will superimpose a sinusoidal signal on the

density. This will require careful filtering to remove it.

Jetting Entries – First one and then the second pressure port will
see an elevated pressure from a jetting entry. Density data
opposite a jetting entry cannot be interpreted.

Acceleration – Where the flowing cross sectional area changes, the

flow will accelerate/decelerate and the apparent density
increase/decrease. No corrections are possible.
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Example
 Density Measurements, Nuclear Fluid Density

- Tool sends GR from one side of chamber

and detects them on the other side

- Gamma ray attenuation will only be

function of the fluid density inside the
camper

- There is no correction for friction or

deviation required

- Fluid in the chamber is not representative

in deviated well

- Radioactive source (Americium 241)

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 Density Measurements, Tuning Folk Density
- The mixture fluid inside the
chamber and its temperature
affect the vibration frequency

- The frequency output of the tool

is converted to mixture fluid
density through a master
calibration chart, which is a
function of the temperature and
has a weaker dependency on
the pressure

- There is no need to correct for

friction and deviation

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 Density Measurements, DPDZ

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Problems with Density Measurement

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Flow Regime Effect on Density Measurement

Capacitance Sensor
Density Tool

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 Problems with Density Measurement

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 Electrical Probe for Water Holdup
Probe
- Probe output is binary
0 1

- Water Holdup is computed as

Yw=signal low time/total time
Flow

Time

59
Limitation for Electrical Probe
(1) Salinity: Should be higher than
3000ppm at 25 degC

(2) Velocity

(3) No emulsion
 Capacitance

- Capacitance is a water holdup tool

- This is a tool based on the difference of dielectric

constants between water and hydrocarbon’

- This tool will provide correct measurements when

the water holdup is less than 40%.

- This tool is also subject to delays in the response

by filming (down passes) and wetting effects (up
passes)

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Pulsed Neutron Holdup
- The carbon/oxygen technique used for formation saturation
logging can be adapted for wellbore holdup logging. the C/O
signal is driven primarily by the carbon in the wellbore oil and
gas while the oxygen responds to the water. Gas is usually
detected by the inelastic gamma ray ratio between a near and
far detector.
- Pulsed neutron carbon/oxygen-derived holdup is a very
powerful measurement for horizontal production logging.
High-velocity vertical and deviated wells where excessive
bubble shear and friction corrections are present can also be
logged in this way, as long as the production logging tool is
not lifted out of the well by the high velocity.
- However, a pulsed neutron carbon/oxygen tool is quite
expensive and quite easily doubles the cost of making a basic
production log
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 Water Flow Log
- High-energy neutrons are used to activate any oxygen in the vicinity
of the neutron source. Activated oxygen decays back to ordinary
oxygen by the emission of gamma rays and with a half-life of 7.2 s.
- Flowing water therefore carries a gamma ray signature that decays
with time from the neutron activation. Either a pulsed neutron
source and a single gamma ray detector or a continuous neutron
flux and two gamma ray detectors are used in determining the
velocity of the water. water velocity carries a very high confidence.
- In the case of slotted liners and to a lesser extent screens, the
oxygen activation log detects both completion flow and annulus
flow.
- Oxygen-activation water flow logs do not have any obvious
application in deviated or vertical wells, except for leak detection
and verifying flow behind pipe. Water flow logs are most effective in
horizontal stratified flow.
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 Production logging interpretation
– Single phase: determination of downhole
profile and interpretation of downhole
data is straight forward

– Multiphase flow : phenomenas like

holdup, slippage velocity and phase
segregation complicates the flow behavior

– For the interpretation of production logs

under multiphase flow conditions, Holdup
is of major importance

PLT-Interpretation
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 Interpretation, Single Phase

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 Interpretation, Two Phase Flow

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 Interpretation, Three Phase Flow

67
Non-Linear Regression

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 Interpretation Example

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 Temperature Exchanges in a well
In a Quasi-Vertical Well

Semi vertical gradient

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 Basic Temperature Surveys

Geothermal gradient
Fluid Entries

Below the first fluid flow

the temperature follows the
geothermal gradient

PLT-Interpretation
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 Basic Temperature Surveys

If there were no other fluid

Geothermal gradient entries, the temperature would
eventually be parallel to the
geothermal gradient
Fluid Entries

As the temperature difference

increases, more heat is lost and
the temperature drops

At the fluid entry, the mass flow

tries to maintain the entry
temperature as it travels upwards

PLT-Interpretation
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 Basic Temperature Surveys

Geothermal gradient If there were no other fluid

entries, the temperature would
eventually be parallel to the
geothermal gradient
Fluid Entries

At the next fluid entry, mixing

of the cooler fluid occurs, so
the temperature drops

PLT-Interpretation
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 Typical temperature log

Third entry
Q3

Second entry
Q2

First entry
Q1

PLT-Interpretation
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 Quantitative Temperature Interpretation

T3 Tm3 TL3
Third entry
Q3

T2 Tm2 TL2
Second entry
Q2

(Q1 + Q2 ) Tm2 = Q1 TL2 + Q2 T2

Qi = Qi-1 (Tmi - TLi) / (Ti - Tmi)

First entry T1
Q1

PLT-Interpretation
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 Joule Thopmson Effects

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 Joule Thopmson Effects
- Gas wells at reservoir pressure below about 5000 psi show the
commonly expected JT cooling effect

- Taking the reservoir pressure above 7000 psi normally results in

JT heating effect

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 Pressure Drop Heating Anomaly

Example: A well flowing water through a 1000 psi drawdown

would see the water arrive at wellbore at about 1.6 degC hotter
than the geothermal temperature if no heat loss occurs to
adjacent layers
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Temperature Analysis
80
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82
 Temperature Applications
• Tool and fluid corrections
– Electronics & sensors are affected by temperature (VTCO, VFC, etc)
– Fluid conversions require downhole temperature data
• Flow behind pipe
– Temperature surveys are affected by flow inside and outside of
pipe
• Fluid entries and type
– Fluid entries cool the flow stream by mixing
– Gas expansion causes additional local cooling
• Quantitative Mass Flowrate
– Under favorable conditions the mass flowrate can be calculated
PLT-Interpretation
directly
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 Example: PLT Combined with IBC

Shut-In Flowing

Perf#1

Perf#2

500 BWPD com ing

Channel clearly from the lower zones
evident with IBC (Channelling)
Solid-Liquid-Gas
map

Temp difference
2.4 degF
between Shut-in and
flowing suggests
water flow behind the
7” Liner.

84
 Pressure Changes in a well

PLT-Interpretation
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 Quiz Time

- Which temperature phenomena will play

role across bottom entry zone in shallow low
pressure gas reservoir ?

86
 Pressure Applications
• For comparison with surface rates
– well stable ?
– Leaks ?
• Gas – Oil – Water contacts
– Using pressure gradient
• Fluid properties at downhole conditions
– Used to estimate: Oil, Water and Gas densities , therefore
holdup from the gradiomanometer can be computed
• Well operating parameters
– Bubble point pressure compared to flowing pressure indicates
if gas-liquid flow is expected

PLT-Interpretation
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 Stability Criteria

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 Stability Criteria

89
 Stability Criteria, Example

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 Steady State Condition
 
• A poor match may indicate :
• well is not stable
• potential leaks in the tubulars

• A good match provides

confidence in the results

PLT-Interpretation
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 PLT Simulation, Prejob Planning

• What is the objective of running of PLT ?

- Identify water entry points for setting a water isolation plug

- Compute layer pressures from a multi-rate production log
- Identify zones of bypassed oil for reperforation
 PLT Simulation, Prejob Planning
• What is the minimum rate we can perform PLT?

Rs

Solution
1/Bo Gas 1/Bw 1/Bg
 PLT Simulation, Prejob Planning

- Which Spinner should be selected ?

- Which sensors should be used as a hold-up tool ?

- Do we need extra sensors such as TPHL, WFL, SNL/HPT ?

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 Simulation in Emeraude

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 Examples

96
 Example: X-Flow & water loading in gas wells

26
MMscf/d

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PLT benefit in Fractured Carbonate Reservoir

Matrix is poor
<=10%
Simulation did not indicate
any flow !! Why we are
perforating ???

OBMI-UBI indicated
Some fractures.
Therefore perforated

Matrix is good
=15%
40% of total production
from 1st perforation !!
 Quiz Time

100
 Quiz-1
Which zone is zero flow zone ?

101
 Quiz

- Why DPDZ does not give representative

density in horizontal wells ?

102
 Quiz

- How velocity will be affected if there is 10%

error in Threshold and Slope ?

103
 Selective Inflow
Performance

104
PL Applications

105
Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

The inflow performance

relationship(IPR) for a well
is the relationship between
flow rate into the wellbore
Average and wellbore flowing
Reservoir pressure, Pwf. IPR is
Pressure illustrated graphically by
plotting Pwf versus q

Absolute Open Flow

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

- With time some variable will change and that cause change to J

- If J changes, slope of IPR will change & linear relationship

will not be valid anymore
Major factors affects IPR
- A decrease in kro as gas saturation increases

- An increase in oil viscosity as pressure decreases and gas is evolved

- Shrinkage of oil as gas is evolved when pressure on the oil decreases

- Formation damage or stimulation around wellbore

- An increase in turbulence term as q o or qg increases

Effect of Depletion on IPR

- Productivity reduced with

depletion

- Increase gas saturation

causes resistance to oil
flow that results
progressive deterioration of
IPR
Effect of Depletion on IPR
PL Applications: Selective Inflow Performance

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 PL Applications: Selective Inflow Performance

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Productivity Tests

Is Well A or B more productive?

Why is Well C exhibiting a curved

behavior instead of straight-line?
Productivity Index

Productivity Index is a measure of the well's ability to

produce fluids under an imposed reservoir pressure drop

J Productivity Index, STB/d/psi

Average pressure in drainage area, psi
Bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
Production rate, STB/day
 Deliverability-Darcy Equation
- The absolute permeability k, can be either increased around the
wellbore by well stimulation (fracturing, acidizing) or decreased
by formation damage such as clay swelling or pore plugging.
 Productivity Index-Darcy Equation

For pseudo steady state boundary condition,

circular reservoir
Pseudo State Flow for Different Shapes &
Well Positions
- The previous equations are used describe pseudo steady state
flow circular drainage area

How I get ‘x’ value ?

Example-1:
Solution-1:

What is the problem in these calculations ?

Productivity Index (PI)
- The predictions we made in the example are valid only if J
constant

- This implies that the pressure function f(p)=k o/(µoBo) remains

constant

- More accurately PI can be computed:

Factors Affecting Productivity Index
Relative Permeability

- If pressure drops below the bubble point pressure, free gas will form
and relative permeability to oil will be reduced
- If a well is produced at a rate that requires that Pwf be less than Pb, kro
and, therefore, J will be decreased around wellbore
Factors Affecting Productivity Index
- The viscosity of oil saturated with
gas at constant temperature will
decrease as pressure decreased
from initial pressure to bubble
point pressure

- Below Pb, the viscosity will

increase as gas comes out of
solution leaving the heavier
molecules in the liquid phase.
Factors Affecting Productivity Index

- As pressure decreased on a liquid, the

liquid will expand

- When the bubble point pressure of an

oil reached, gas coming out of
solution will cause oil to shrink.
Vogel’s Dimensionless IPR
Vogel Method, Example
Saturated Reservoir Example
Vogel Method, Example
Vogel Method, Example

Complete IPR
 Fetkovich Method
- Fetkovich’s method can be used for both oil and gas wells
- This method was verified by isochronal and flow after flow tests
- Permeability range is approximately 6md-1000md
- Highly undersaturated to saturated reservoir at initial pressure
- Partially depleted field with gas saturation above the critical gas
saturation

The value of n ranged from 0.568 to 1 for the 40 field tests analyzed by Fetkovich
 Test Types
• Generally oil or gas well production tests may
be classified as:

- Periodic Production Tests

-Deliverability Test
- Pressure Transient Test
 Deliverability Tests Types for IPR
Estimation
- Gas well deliverability testing has received far more attention
then its oil counterpart

- The main motivation for deliverability testing stems from the

desire to ensure a well’s capability to deliver gas a certain
backpressure, as offered by flowline

- Absolute open flow potential (AOFP) is yardstick of

deliverability measurement that is often used to compare well
performance and negotiate contracts. AOFP is defined as the
maximum theoretical rate that a well can deliver against zero
backpressure at the sandface
 Deliverability Tests Types for IPR
Estimation

1. Flow after flow test

2. Isochronal test

3. Modified isochronal test

 Flow After Flow Test
- A flow after flow test begins
with the well shut in so that
the pressure in the entire
drainage area is equal to PR
- Well is produced at constant
rate to achieve constant
flowing pressure behavior
- Pressure should be
measured with gauge
- Once stabilized pressure is
achieved, rate should be
changed, and the procedure
is repeated for several rates
Flow After Flow Test
 Flow After Flow Test
- The conventional flow after flow test, which requires flowing the well to
stabilization during each flow period, has been found to be unusable in
practice because of the excessive time required to attain stabilization.

- Reservoir exhibiting moderate to low reservoir mobility take a long time

to reach stabilization, even for small drainage area

- Besides the time issue, a well was produced with a wide open valve
against atmospheric pressure. This practice in early days was akin to
blowout, in which flow reaches maximum and thereafter rate decline sets
in with the start of constant wellhead pressure production

- Lack of rate control: Excessive volume of flaring gas, promoted water

coning, erosion, and other operational hazard
Example
Solution
 Isochronal Test
- If the time required for a well to
stabilized on each choke size or
producing rate is excessive, an
isochronal or equal time test is
preferred.
- A true isochronal test consists of
flowing a well at several rates,
each separated by a buildup
period of sufficiently long
duration to reach stabilized
reservoir pressure.
- The wellbore flowing pressure is
recorded during each flow period
at a specific time. If the time is 4
hours, then the test is referred to
as a 4-hour isochronal test.
 Modified Isochronal Test (MIT)
- MIT consists of flowing and shut-in periods of equal duration (e.g. 4
hours)
- Stabilized flow does not occur during drowdown or buildup
- Instead of using average reservoir pressure to plot the curve, the shut-in
pressure at the end of each shut-in period is used
- The flowing pressure is used with a shut-in pressure is that
corresponding to the start of the buildup period.
- The MIT should only be run with a normal (increasing) rate sequence.
- MIT should be limited to low permeability wells.
Isochronal Test/ Modified Isochronal Test
versus qo is plotted and n is obtained from the slope of
line

- To determine a value of C,
stabilized test must be used
 Limitations of Productivity Testing
• Assumes stabilized flow conditions (steady state or pseudo-
steady state flow regimes).

• It does not allow us to determine individual values of

parameters (kh, skin, limited entry skin, non-Darcy term,
etc.)

• So, we need PBU (actually transient) tests that allow

individual values of parameters.