1

5. Integumentary System
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - Skin – largest organ
- Helps in temperature regulation
Cell →Tissue → Organ → Organ System - Controls water loss
OVERVIEW
6. Lymphatic/Immune System
1. Circulatory/Cardiovascular System - Lymph
- Blood carries gases and helps • clear fluid from blood
remove carbon dioxide plasma surrounding cells
- Transports nutrients • collects, filters, and returns
▪ Heart – pumping machine that lymph to blood
transports blood around - keeps body safe from pathogen
▪ Arteries – carry blood away from
the heart 7. Muscular System
▪ Vein – carry blood back to the heart - 3 Types: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac
▪ Capillaries – tiny blood vessels
- Blood is always red; the shade 8. Nervous System
changes due to the amount of - Coordinates the body
oxygen present. - Brain, spinal cord
- Controls voluntary and involuntary
2. Digestive System actions
- For breaking down and absorbing - Cell: neuron
food for body to get nutrients
- Digestion starts in the mouth – 9. Reproductive system
saliva has enzymes to get digestion - Allows animals to reproduce
going
- Stomach – contains acid which 10. Respiratory system
furthers the process - Involves intake of oxygen into the
- Small intestine – absorbs nutrients body and exhaling carbon dioxide
- Large intestine (colon) – absorbs
water 11. Skeletal system
- Adults have 206 bones
3. Endocrine System - Supports, protect, and produce
- Includes many glands that secrete blood cells from bone marrow
hormones
SPECIALISTS
4. Excretory System
- Excreting wastes (feces includes in Endocrinologist Hormones
digestive) like urine Urologist Urinary
- Kidneys excrete waste from the Dermatologist Skin
blood Orthopedist Bones
- Other ways: Sweating Neurologist Brain
Cardiologist Heart

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LESSON 1: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integument – means covering
SKIN DERIVATIVES/OUTGROWTHS
1. Hair
2. Nails
3. Sweat and oil glands (exocrine)
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
1. Protection
- First line of defense against
dehydration, UV, microbes
2. Sensation
- Receiving different stimuli
- Sensory receptors (nerve endings)
detect heat, cold, touch, pressure,
pain
3. Vitamin D Production
- Needed in calcium homeostasis
- The sun doesn’t give vitamin D. The
skin already has vitamin D that gets
activated by sunlight.
4. Temperature regulation
- Amount of blood flow and activity
of sweat glands
5. Excretion
- Release waste products and
through gland secretion
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2
TWO MAJOR TISSUE LAYERS OF THE SKIN
1. Epidermis – thinner, outer part
2. Dermis – thicker, inner part
Hypodermis
- Subcutaneous tissue where the skin
rests on
- Below the skin
EPIDERMIS
- Stratified squamous epithelium
• Undergoes change in shape and
chemical composition
- Prevents water loss
- Resists abrasion
- Keratinization
• keratin that replaces cytoplasm
• keratinized cells are rigid and push dead
cells out
5 Strata of Epidermis
A. stratum corneum
• topmost and superficial layer
• made up of totally dead cells
• Function: protects, waterproof
B. stratum lucidum
• thin and clear
• extra layer of dead cells on palms and
soles
• Function: extra protection
C. stratum granulosum
• cells in the process of dying
• Function: cells contain granules that
make keratin
 3

D. stratum spinosum - Cleavage/tension lines

• has many spikes
• living cells that make vitamin D in
sunlight
• Langerhan’s cells (microphage-like - Dermal Papillae
cells)
• Function: phagocytosis
E. stratum basale/germinativum
• deepest layer
• multiplication of cells (mitosis)
• contains melanocytes that produce
melanin
• Function: makes brown pigment
melanin
• Resists stretch
• Overstretching forms stretch marks
• Singular: papilla
• Projections of dermis extending
towards epidermis
• Provides oxygen and such (since
epidermis are purely cells and doesn’t
have blood vessels)
• Gives identity (finger and foot prints)
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

- callus - adds protection

- thick skin
➢ 5 strata
➢ subjected to weight, friction, stress,
pressure
- thin skin
➢ 4 strata, no lucidum

DERMIS

- Dense connective tissue with:

• Fibroblast – produce collagen and
elastic fiber
• Fat cells – adipocytes
• Macrophages – large WBC that eats
Veins – blue
microbes that can enter and harm the
skin Arrector Pili

- Collagen (acts as scaffolding) and elastic - Smooth muscle

fibers (allows skin to stretch) are - Pulls hair follicle to stand
responsible for most of the structural (goosebumps)
strength Hair Root – grows from the hair bulb
• Age affects it. As people grow older,
collagen fibers collapse resulting to Sweat Glands
wrinkles and makes skin saggy. - sudoriferous gland
- 2 types:

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• Eccrine gland HAIR

➢ Palms and soles
➢ Mostly watery
• Apocrine gland
➢ Armpits and genitalia only
➢ Thick secretion with org
subs
➢ Active at puberty = sex
hormones

SKIN COLOR

Lesser production of melanin – lighter skin

Greater melanin – darker skin

Hair Root – below skin surface

Hair Shaft – above skin surface

Hair Bulb

- base of hair root

- site of hair cell production

3 LAYERS OF HAIR

1. Cuticle
- Outermost
- Provides waterproofing
2. Outer cortex
3. Inner medulla
Melanocyte – a cell that produces and contains
the pigment called melanin.

1. Melanosomes are produced by the

Golgi apparatus of the melanocyte.
2. Melanosomes move into melanocyte
cell processes.
3. Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of
the melanocyte cell processes.
4. The melanosomes (produced inside
melanocyte) have been transferred to
epithelial cells and are now inside them.

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 5

GLANDS LESSON 2: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeleton
NAILS - Greek word means “dry”
- Bones are living tissue

An infant has more bones while in the womb

since it has not combined yet.

COMPONENTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

A. Cartilages
1. Ears
Free Edge – the part that is cut by a nail cutter - Most cartilaginous part: outer ear
(pinna)
Eponychium (cuticle) – skin that have dead cells
that are cut by a nipper
2. Nose
Nail body – surface of the nail - Anterior part

3. Thoracic cage/ Rib cage

- Where cartilaginous bones are found
(the white bones)

4. Vertebral Column/ Spinal Column

- Not the spinal cord →inside the spinal
column

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5. Along the joints 2. PROTECTION

- Serves as cushion between bones • Bones
- Thinning out causes the bones to rub ➢ Enclose/ encage vital organs of
each other the body
▪ Skull – brain
B. Ligaments ▪ Vertebrae – spinal cord
- Bone to bone ▪ Rib cage – heart, lungs, organs
of thorax
C. Tendon
- Muscle to bone 3. MOVEMENT
• Tendons
D. Joints – point where two bones meet ➢ Attaches muscles to bones
allowing movement of
3 Types:
appendages
1. Freely Movable • Joints/ Articulation
Ex. Joints on limbs ➢ Bone to bone
• Ligaments
2. Slightly Movable ➢ Allows restricted movement
- Restricted movement
Ex. Joints joining vertebral column 4. STORAGE
• Calcium and Phosphorus
3. Immovable ➢ Minerals in the blood that are
- No movement stored in the bones
Ex. Sutures (bones between the brain) • Adipose Tissue
➢ Stored in bone cavities such as
yellow bone marrow
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ➢ Source of energy

1. SUPPORT 5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION (Hematopoiesis)

• Bones • Red Bone Marrow
➢ Framework of the body ➢ Contained at the cavities of the
➢ Can bear weight because of epiphysis (ends of a long bone)
rigidity and strength produce blood cells and
• Cartilages platelets through
➢ Firm yet flexible hematopoiesis
➢ Keeps trachea airway open (C-
shape cartilage)

Air causes vocal cords to vibrate to produce

sound.

• Ligaments
➢ Fibrous connective tissue
➢ Attach and hold bones together

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EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX COMPONENT (ECM) 2. Short Bones

- Ex. Carpals or wrist bones (hand have 8
- Outside surrounding the osteocyte carpals; 2 rows)
- Tarsals or ankle bone (7 each foot)
1. Collagen
- Tough, rope-like protein
- Present in bones, tendons, ligaments,
cartilage

2. Proteoglycan
- Consists of polysaccharides attached to
core protein that can attract and retain
water
- Makes cartilage smooth and resilient
- Excellent shock absorber

3. Minerals
- Calcium and phosphate
- Present in bones in the form of calcium
phosphate crystals (hydroxyapatite)
giving weight-bearing strength

CATEGORIES OF BONES BASED ON SHAPE

1. Long Bones
- Height > Width
- Upper and lower limb
- Femur → longest

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3. Flat Bones
- Thin, flat
- Skull bones, ribs, scapulae (shoulder
blades), sternum (breast bone)

4. Irregular Bones
- No distinct shape
- Vertebrae, facial bones

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Parts of Osteon or Haversian Canal System

Diaphysis – shaft of a bone - Named after Clopton Haver

Periosteum
A. Central or Haversian Canal
- Peri = periphery • Found at the core
- Covers sides of long bone • Contain blood vessels
B. Lamellae
Endosteum – inside long bone
• singular: lamella
Cancellous/ Spongy Bones – filled with red • Concentric rings
bone marrow where blood cells are produced C. Lacunae
• Singular: lacuna
Epiphyseal Plates
• Contains osteocytes
- Leads to the growth of bone D. Osteocytes
- More bone cells are produced • Bone cells
- Remains cartilaginous • Inside lacunae
E. Canaliculi
Ribs don’t have epiphysis. • Singular: canaliculus
• Lines radiating outwardly from the
canal which connects osteocytes

TWO TYPES OF BONES BASED ON

HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

1. Compact or Cortical Bone

- Mostly solid matrix
- Located in diaphysis
- Consists of osteons/Haversian Canal
System/Haversian system

2. Spongy or Cancellous Bone

- Lacy network of bone with many small,
narrow-filled spaces filled with red bone
marrow
- Found in epiphyses
- Lines the medullary cavity along the
diaphysis
- Consists of trabeculae (beams)

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• Delicate interconnecting • Trabeculae radiates out from

rods/plates of bone (like beams of a ossification center.
building) • Trabeculae may enlarge or replaced
• Add strength to a bone by compact bone
• Marrow fill spaces between ▪ Ex. Skull
trabeculae
• Without blood vessels and central
canals Head of a Baby
• Osteoblast – bone-building cells
• Osteoclast – bone-destroying cells

2. Endochondral Ossification
- Inside hyaline cartilage
- Process where the base of the skull and
most of the remaining skeletal system
develop
- Starts off with cartilage models having
the general shape of a bone

TYPES OF BONE OSSIFICATION

Ossification - formation of bone by osteoblasts

1. Intramembranous Ossification
- Osteoblasts begins to produce within
connective tissue membrane
• Osteoblast will begin to deposit
osteocytes and the membrane will
form areas – ossification center

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Perichondrium – surrounds the sides of the

cartilage.

Periosteum – surrounds bone

Remains cartilaginous.

Room for growth of the bone.

Once a person reach adulthood, epiphyseal

plate will be gone and will be replaced by an
epiphyseal line signaling the end of the growth.

BONE REMODELLING

- Involves the removal of existing bone by

osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone
by osteoblasts
- Occurs in all bones
- Responsible for:

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 12

• Bone growth
• Changes in bone shape
• The adjustment of bone to stress
• Bone repair
• Calcium ion regulation in the body
fluids

BONE REPAIR

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 13

1. Osteoclasts break down bone and BONE FRACTURES

release Ca2+ (blue arrows) into the
blood, and osteoblasts remove Ca2+
from the blood to make bone.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates
blood Ca2+ levels by indirectly
stimulating osteoclast activity, resulting
in increased Ca2+ release into the blood.
Calcitonin plays a minor role in
Ca2+maintenance by inhibiting
osteoclast activity.

2. In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca2+

reabsorption from the urine.

3. In the kidneys, PTH also promotes the

formation of active vitamin D (green DIVISION OF THE BONES OF THE SKELETON
arrows), which increases Ca2+
absorption from the small intestine. A. AXIAL SKELETON
B. APPENDICULAR SKELETON

FEATURES OF BONES
AXIAL SKELETON = 80 BONES
Foramen – hole in a bone 1. SKULL = 22
Canal/Meatus – hole that has elongated into a A. Braincase
tunnel-like passage i. Paired
• Parietal = 2
Fossa – depression in a bone • Temporal = 2
Tubercle/Tuberosity – lump on a bone ii. Unpaired
• Frontal = 1
Process – projection from a bone • Occipital = 1
Condyle – smooth rounded end of bone where • Sphenoid = 1
it forms an articulation with another bone • Ethmoid = 1

B. Face
i. Paired
• Maxilla = 2
• Zygomatic = 2
• Palatine = 2
• Nasal = 2
• Lacrimal = 2
• Inferior Nasal Concha = 2

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 14

ii. Unpaired E. Metacarpals = 10

• Mandible = 1 F. Phalanges = 28
• Vomer = 1
3. Pelvic Girdle = 2
A. Coxal bone = 2
2. AUDITORY OSSICLES = 6
A. Malleus = 2 4. Lower Limb = 60
B. Incus = 2 A. Femur = 2
C. Stapes = 2 B. Tibia = 2
C. Fibula = 2
D. Patella = 2
3. Hyoid = 1 E. Tarsals = 14
F. Metatarsals = 10
G. Phalanges = 28
4. Vertebral Column = 26

A.
B.
Cervical Vertebrae = 7
Thoracic Vertebrae = 12
LESSON 3:
C. Lumbar Vertebrae = 5
D. Sacrum = 1 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
E. Coccyx = 1
Three Types:

• Skeletal
5. Thoracic Cage = 25 - Voluntary and striated
A. Ribs = 24 • Smooth
i. True Ribs = 7 pairs - Involuntary
ii. False Ribs = 3 pairs • Cardiac
iii. Floating Ribs = 2 pairs (part of - Involuntary and striated
the false ribs)

B. Sternum = 1
FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

A. Skeletal
APPENDICULAR SKELETON = 126 BONES 1. Body Movement
- Contraction of skeletal muscles which
1. Pectoral Girdle = 4
pulls forcibly to move
A. Scapula = 2
- Ex. Walking, running
B. Clavicle = 2

2. Maintenance of Posture
2. Upper Limb = 60
- Skeletal muscles constantly maintain
A. Humerus = 2
tone
B. Ulna = 2
- Ex. Sitting, standing erect
C. Radius = 2
D. Carpals = 16

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 15

3. Respiration FOUR MAJOR FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

- Muscles of the thorax like diaphragm OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
and intercostal rib muscles carry out
breathing action 1. Contractility
- Diaphragm flattens and rib cage - Ability to shorten or pull with force
expands allow the lungs to have more - Made possible by excitability
space to expand. 2. Excitability
- Inhalation or inspiration - Capacity to respond to stimulus from
- Exhalation or expiration nerves
3. Extensibility
4. Production of Heat - Can be stretched to its normal resting
- Heat is given off as a by-product of the length and beyond
contraction of skeletal muscles and is 4. Elasticity
needed in thermoregulation - Ability to recoil to their original resting
length after being stretched
5. Communication
- Ex. Speaking, writing, gesturing,
texting/typing & facial expressions are
due to skeletal muscles contraction

B. Smooth
1. Constriction of Organs and Vessels
- the contraction of smooth muscles in
the walls of internal organs help propel
& mix food & water in the digestive
tract, propel secretions from organs, &
regulate blood flow through blood
vessels
- Peristalsis or Peristaltic movement –
contraction of smooth muscles lining
the esophagus
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF A SKELETAL
C. Cardiac MUSCLE
1. Heartbeat
- cardiac muscle contraction causes 1. Epimysium/Fascia
heartbeat & propel blood to all body - connective tissue surrounding a skeletal
parts muscle

2. Perimysium
- loose connective tissue surrounding a
muscle fascicle/fasciculus or
fascicles/fasciculi→ muscle bundle
composed of several muscle fibers. Ex.
Corned beef

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3. Endomysium
- Surrounds each muscle fiber/muscle
cell in a fascicle
Mysium/Myo/Mys – muscles
Figure n. one muscle fiber
STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE FIBER/CELL
1. Sarcolemma – cell membrane
2. Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm
3. T or Transverse Tubules – tube-like
invaginations of the sarcolemma that wrap
around sarcomeres
4. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
- Highly organized smooth ER
- Contains a high concentration of
calcium ions needed for muscle
contraction
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16
Myofibril – thread-like structure contained in
the sarcoplasm
Myofilament –composed of proteins in the
form of actin and myosin inside a myofibril
Sarcomere
- Where contraction begins
- Basic structural and functional unit of a
skeletal muscle
- Extends from one Z disk (blue lines) to
the next
1 long myofibril = repeating units of sarcomere
Sarcomere count is just -1 of Z disk count
STRUCTURE OF A SARCOMERE
1. I-band or Light band – actin filaments
2. A-band or Dark band – central region of
a sarcomere where actin and myosin
overlaps
3. H zone – 2nd light zone in the center of a
sarcomere consisting only of myosin
myofilaments
4. M line – where myosin are attached
5. Z disk – where actin are attached

Attachment site
ACTIN
- Thin myofilaments resembling two
pearl strands twisted together with
troponin and tropomyosin
1. Resting Membrane Potential
Troponin
- arranged in specific intervals/gaps
- where calcium is attached
Tropomyosin
- changes position to uncover
attachment sites once there is calcium
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17
- myosin heads are attached
MYOSIN
- Thick myofilaments resemble bundles
of minute/tiny golf clubs
- Its heads can bind to the exposed
attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments to form cross-bridge
CHANGES IN THE CHARGES OF THE CELL
MEMBRANE
- Charge difference outside skeletal
muscle fiber and inside sarcolemma.
- Outside – positive charge
- Inside – negative charge
- Concentration of potassium (K) inside is
higher than the outside
- The cell membrane is more permeable
to K than it is to other ions
 18

2. Depolarization Parts of Neuromuscular Junction

- Reversal of charges
1. Presynaptic Terminal
- Inside of the cell becomes more
- at the end of a neuromuscular junction
positively charged
- mitochondria and synaptic vesicles are
found
3. Repolarization
2. Synaptic Vesicles
- Changing back to the resting membrane
- sacks that stores a neurotransmitter
potential
called acetylcholine.
3. Postsynaptic Membrane
4. Action Potential
- A groove/slight depression formed
- Rapid depolarization and repolarization
when presynaptic terminal pushes to
of the cell membrane resulting to
the sarcolemma.
muscle contraction.
4. Synaptic Cleft
- Gap/space between pre- and
postsynaptic

Motor Unit

- Made up of one motor neuron

innervating to several skeletal muscle
fibers

Figure n. Axon branch attached to a muscle fiber.

Motor Neuron

- Nerve cell where action potential

travels along in a skeletal muscle fiber.

Neuromuscular Junction or Synapse

- point of contact of a motor neuron with

a skeletal muscle to deliver stimulus or
action potential to allow the muscle
fiber to contract.
1. An action potential arrives at the
- located near the center of a muscle presynaptic terminal causing Ca2+ channels
fiber to open, increasing the Ca2+ permeability of
the presynaptic terminal.

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 19

2. Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal

and initiate the release of a
neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh), from
synaptic vesicles into the presynaptic cleft.

3. Diffusion of ACh across the synaptic cleft

and binding of ACh to ACh receptors on the
postsynaptic muscle fiber membrane opens
Na+ channels and increases the permeability
of the postsynaptic membrane to Na+.

4. The increase in Na+ permeability results in

depolarization of the postsynaptic
membrane; once threshold has been
reached a postsynaptic action potential 2. CONTRACTING MUSCLE
results. - Actin slide past the myosin toward each
other.
- Z disks are brought close together
MUSCLE CONTRACTION - Sarcomere shortens.

- Occurs as actin and myosin

myofilaments slide past one another
(Sliding Filament Model), causing the
sarcomeres to shorten.
- Many sarcomeres joined end to end
form myofibrils.
- Shortening of the sarcomeres causes
myofibrils to shorten.
- Shortening of myofibrils causes the
entire muscle to shorten.

1. RELAXED MUSCLE
- Actin and myosin myofilaments in a
relaxed muscle (and a contracted
muscle are the same length.
- Myofilaments do not change length
during muscle contraction. 3. CONTRACTING MUSCLE (continues to
contract)
- H zones (yellow) and the I bands (blue)
narrow.
- A bands do not narrow (since A band
are the same length with myosin).

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ROLE OF CALCIUM

TROPONIN, AND TROPOMYOSIN

in MUSCLE CONTRACTION

1. EXPOSURE OF ATTACHMENT SITES

- Calcium bind to troponin molecules
- Tropomyosin molecules move causing
exposure of myosin attachment sites on
actin.

4. FULLY CONTRACTED MUSCLE

- The ends of the actin myofilaments
overlap.
- The H zone disappears.

2. CROSS-BRIDGE FORMATION
- Myosin heads bind to the exposed
attachment sites on the actin to form
cross-bridges.
- Phosphates are released from myosin
heads.
- One phosphate molecule from ATP is
used to allow myosin head to attach in
attachment site. All there is left is ADP.

NFL 12-10

3. POWER STROKE
- Energy in myosin head is used to move
it causing actin to slide past the myosin.
- ADP molecules are released from
myosin heads.
4. ATP BINDS TO MYOSIN HEADS
- Myosin uses all phosphate and new ATP
molecule binds to the myosin heads.
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21
5. CROSS-BRIDGE RELEASE
- As ATP is broken down to ADP and
phosphates, myosin heads release from
the actin attachment sites.
6. RECOVERY STROKE
- Heads of myosin molecules return to
resting position where energy is stored.
- If calcium are still attached to troponin,
cross-bridge formation and movement
are repeated (step 2). This cycle occurs
many times.
- Not all cross-bridges form and release
simultaneously.

MUSCLE TWITCH
- The contraction of a muscle fiber in
response to stimulus.
Three (3) Phases:
Lag Phase
- Time between application of stimulus
and beginning of contraction.
Contraction Phase
- Muscle begins to contract.
Relaxation Phase
- Muscle stops contracting.
CRITERIA OF MUSCLE NOMENCLATURE (and
examples)
A. SHAPE
• Ex. Deltoid muscle – large, triangular
shape (since Greek delta is a triangle)
B. ANATOMICAL LOCATION
• Ex. Frontalis muscle – located on top of
the frontal bone of the skull
C. SIZE
• Gluteus Maximus – largest
• Gluteus Medius – medium
• Gluteus Minimus – smallest
D. LENGTH
• Brevis – short
• Longus – long
E. POSITIVE RELATIVE TO MIDLINE
• Lateralis – to the outside away from the
midline
• Medialis – toward the midline
F. DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS AND
FASCICLES
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22
• Rectus – straight
• Oblique – at an angle
• Transverse – horizontal
G. NUMBER OF MUSCLES IN A GROUP
• Quadriceps – group of 4
H. NUMBER OF ORIGINS
• Biceps Brachii – bi=2
• Triceps – tri=3
I. LOCATION OF ATTACHMENT
• Origin is named first
• Sternocleidomastoid – sternum and
clavicle are two origins then mastoid is
insertion)
J. ACTION
• Flexors – decrease angle at joint
• Extensors – increase angle at joint
• Abductors – move bone away from
midline
• Adductors – move bone towards
midline
• Levators – lift a body part
• Depressors – bring a part down
• Pronators – part is moved to face
posteriorly
• Supinators – part is moved to face
anteriorly
• Rotators – turns a bone about its axis
ADDITIONAL TERMS
Summation
Wave Summation – excitation-contraction
coupling effects of successive motor neurons
signaling is summed or added together.
Recruitment – process of bringing on additional
motor units to produce more tension.

Tetanus – a continuous fused contraction.
a. Incomplete Tetanus
- Muscle goes through quick cycles of
contraction followed by a short
relaxation phase.
b. Complete Tetanus
- If stimulus frequency is so high that the
relaxation phase disappears completely,
contraction become continuous.
Rigor Mortis
Psychological Fatigue
Muscle Fatigue
Muscle Tone – low levels of muscle contraction
that occur when muscle is not producing
movement.
Origin – describes the more proximal
attachment point of the muscle.
Head – muscle’s point of origin (where it is
attached).
Belly – central bulging portion of a muscle.
Agonist – muscle that is contracting
Antagonist – muscle that is
relaxing/lengthening
Prime Movers – muscle that provides the
primary force driving the action.
Synergists – muscle which works in concert with
another muscle to generate movement.
Fixators – serves as stabilizer of one part of the
body during movement of another part.
Isometric Contraction – occurs when muscle
produces tension without a change in muscle
length.
Isotonic Contraction – where tension in muscle
stays relatively constant, a load is moved as the
length of the muscle changes.
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23
Concentric Contraction – muscle produces
tension and shortening to move a load.
Eccentric Contraction – muscle tension
produced is less than the load and a muscle
lengthens while under tension.
LESSON 4:
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS
Circulatory system
- Transports nutrients, wastes, and gases
Respiratory
- For exchange and transport of gases
Excretory
- Transports wastes to organs of
excretion, moving them out of the body
Digestive
- Process and transports nutrients
TRANSPORT IN SIMPLE ANIMALS
Sponges and Cnidarians
- Gas exchange happens between water
in environment and circulating body
fluid in the organism
Roundworms
- Uses body fluids for circulation
- Accomplished by moving the body
against fluids that are directly in contact
with tissues and organs
 24

Cardiovascular System

- Transports nutrients, waste products,

gases, and hormones throughout the
body
- Collects metabolic wastes for acid-base
balance and immunologic reactions
- Regulates homeostatic reactions of the
body

FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM

(Actually just 3 since valves are part of the heart)

1. Heart
2. Blood
3. Blood vessels
4. Valves

HEART

▪ Main propulsive organ of the body

▪ Develops in an embryo 4 weeks after
fertilization
▪ Beats around 2.5 B times without
interruption within the average human
life span
▪ Beats 72X/min.
▪ Pumps 5.5 liters blood/min
▪ Heartbeat may vary depending on one’s
activity
▪ Composed of involuntary, striated
cardiac muscles
FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART
a. Generating blood pressure
- The force providing by the pumping of
the heart allows the blood to flow.
b. Ensures the proper routing of the blood
- Right side – deoxygenated blood
(oxygen deficit) pass through
- left side – oxygenated
- 120/80mmHg
c. Ensuring one-way blood flow
d. Regulating blood supply
e. Pumps blood to all parts of the body

SIZE, FORM, and LOCATION OF THE HEART

Size: As big as clenched fist

Form: Blunt cone with apex as rounded point

and base as the flat part

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Location: in the thoracic cavity between two Fibrous → Parietal →Pericardial Cavity → Visceral
pleural cavities that surround the lungs

Surrounded by its own pericardial cavity

Forms the mediastinum (midline

partition) together with trachea,
esophagus, etc.

FOUR HEART CHAMBERS

Right and Left Atria (singular: atrium)

- On the base of the heart

- Receiving chambers or entry point
- Right - deoxygenated blood enters
- Left – oxygenated blood enters from
the lungs
- Acts as reservoir before entering
ventricles

Right and Left Ventricles

ANATOMY OF THE HEART - Extends from base to apex
- Ejects blood into arteries
Pericardium or Pericardial Sac
- Discharging chambers
- surrounds the heart and anchors it - Where blood exits
within the mediastinum - Right – deoxygenated exits
- forms the pericardial cavity - Left – oxygenated exits
- Two Layers:
a. Fibrous Pericardium – tough, outer
b. Serous Pericardium – thin, inner NOTE: What passes through is also what leaves
➢ Parietal Pericardium – lines the
fibrous pericardium
➢ Visceral Pericardium or Coronary Sulcus
Epicardium – covers heart
- Separates atria from ventricles
surface
- Pericardial cavity
• Filled with pericardial fluid
• Between Parietal and Visceral

From Outer to Inner:

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TWO ARTERIES THAT EXIT THE HEART

Pulmonary Trunk

- splits into right and left pulmonary

arteries

Pulmonary Arteries

- Arise from right ventricle

- Branching of pulmonary trunk
- deoxygenated blood from right
ventricle
- routes blood respectively to right and
left lung

Aorta

- arise from left ventricle

- oxygenated blood from eft ventricle
- carries blood to all body parts

1. Right Atrium
- Receives blood from superior and
interior vena cava, and coronary
sinus
SIX LARGE VEINS THAT CARRY BLOOD TO THE
2. Left Atrium
HEART
- Receives through 4 pulmonary veins
3. Interatrial Septum Superior Vena Cava and Inferior Vena Cava
- partition between atria
4. Right Ventricle - plural (both): venae cavae
- Pumps to pulmonary trunk - carry deoxygenated blood from the
5. Left Ventricle body to the right atrium
- Pumps to aorta - Superior – where blood pass through to
- Thicker walls head, brain, neck (upper)
- contracts forcefully - Inferior – where blood pass through to
- generates greater blood pressure toes, feet, leg, abdominal area (lower)
than right ventricle to deliver blood
Four Pulmonary Veins
to entire body
6. Interventricular Septum - carry oxygenated blood from lungs to
- divides ventricles left atrium

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HEART VALVES TWO TYPES OF CIRCULATION

Atrioventricular Valves 1. Pulmonary Loop/ Circuit

- Carries the deoxygenated blood from
- Prevents backflow
the right chambers of the heart to the
a. Tricuspid Valve
lungs to pick up oxygen and return to
- Between right atrium and right
the left chambers of the heart.
ventricle
b. Bicuspid/Mitral Valve
2. Systematic Loop/Circuit
- Between left atrium and left
- Carries oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle
chambers of the heart to the different
tissues of the body.
Papillary Muscles – prevents valved - Delivers the needed oxygen for cellular
from opening into the atria respiration and also collects wastes
from respiration
Chordae Tendinae – thin, strong - Ex. Coronary and renal circulation
connective tissues attached to papillary
muscle.
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART

Aortic and Pulmonary Semilunar Valves

- Valves in aorta and pulmonary trunk

- Each valve has 3 pocketlike semilunar
cusps

Cardiac Skeleton

- Plate of fibrous connective tissue

consisting of fibrous rings around the
AV and semilunar valves.

Circle – where blood passes through

Body tissues (systemic circulation) – Start

Superior and inferior vena cava – leads

oxygenated blood to right atrium

Right ventricle – blood from right atrium moves

down here. Blood exits; becomes
deoxygenated.

Pulmonary trunk – blood will be pumped out

and pass through this trunk

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Pulmonary arteries – delivers deoxygenated FUNCTIONS OF PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION

blood to the lungs
• Carry blood
Lung tissue (pulmonary circulation)
• Exchange nutrients, waste products,
- Deoxygenated blood that is delivered gases
has a high concentration of carbon • Transport
dioxide and lungs (specifically alveoli) • Regulate blood pressure
have high concentration of oxygen. • Direct blood flow
Exchange of gases will happen between
alveoli and blood.
BLOOD VESSELS
Pulmonary veins – sends back oxygenated blood
from lungs to left atrium. - Serves as highways through which blood is
circulated in the body.
Left ventricle – has higher pressure than RV
because its where the blood exits and be moved 1. ARTERIES
to the rest of the body via systemic circuit. - Thick-walled
• Resists pressure of the
blood as it is pumped out.
Aorta →coronary arteries → heart tissues → - Allows passage of oxygenated blood
coronary sinus, cardiac veins →right atrium away from heart
- Route where blood is supplied to the • except pulmonary artery
cardiac muscles/heart tissues since deoxygenated blood
passes through pulmonary
artery
- Aorta → largest artery
LUBB DUPP

- Sound heard with a stethoscope caused by 2. VEINS

contraction & relaxation of the heart - Thin-walled
• Pumping towards heart has
low pressure than it is
Lubb sound pumped away.
- caused by closing of the atrioventricular - Carry non-oxygenated blood to the
(tricuspid & mitral/bicuspid) or AV valves heart
during ventricular contraction. • except pulmonary vein –
carries oxygenated blood
Dupp sound - Superior and inferior venae cavae
- caused by snapping sound as the SL valves → two largest veins
(aortic & pulmonary valves) close.
3. CAPILLARIES
- Thinnest
- Having one layer of cells
- Sites through which materials
between blood and cells diffuse.

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ARTERIES AND VEINS LAYERS 2. Muscular Arteries

- Medium-sized and small-diameter
Tunica Adventitia – outer layer; a covering - Smooth muscles than elastic
Tunica Media – middle

Tunica Intima – inner

ARTERIES

- Carry blood away from the heart.

Classifications:

1. Elastic Arteries
- Largest-diameter arteries with
thickest walls of mostly elastic
tissues than smooth muscles.
(b) Muscular Arteries
The tunica media is a thick layer of smooth
muscle. Muscular arteries regulate blood flow
to different regions of the body.

3. Arterioles
- Transport blood from small arteries
to capillaries
- For vasodilation and
vasoconstriction

VEINS
(a) Elastic Arteries
1. Venules
The tunica media is mostly elastic connective - Slightly larger than capillaries
tissue. Elastic arteries recoil when stretched, - Composed of endothelium
which prevents blood pressure from falling surrounded by basement
rapidly. membrane.

2. Small Veins
- Slightly larger than venules with 3
tunics

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3. Medium-sized Veins Arteries have forceful pumps so they don’t need

- Collect blood from small veins and help.
deliver to large veins with 3 tunics
Veins need help from valves to pump the blood
to prevent backflow.

CAPILLARIES

• Its walls consist of endothelium w/c is a

layer of simple squamous epithelium
surrounded by delicate loose
connective tissue.
• 0.5-1 mm long, diameter same as RBC
(7.5µm)
• Its walls facilitate diffusion
(c) Medium and Large Veins

All three tunics are present. The tunics media is

thin, but can regulate vessel diameter because
blood pressure in the venous system is low. The
predominant layer is the tunica adventitia.

(d) Folds in the endothelium form the valves of

veins, which allow blood to flow toward the
heart but not in the opposite direction. Arteriole → Capillaries → Venule

Only veins need valves and arteries don’t

because of the difference in blood pressure.

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BLOOD PLASMA

- Internal circulating medium of the human

body
- Carry nutrients and oxygen to the cells of
the body and carry away carbon dioxide &
nitrogenous wastes from body cells

- Consists of:
• 55% plasma
• 45% blood cells or formed
elements:
▪ RBC (erythrocytes)
▪ WBC (Leukocytes)
▪ Platelets (thrombocytes)

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
- Liquid component; above blood in a test
tube since it has lesser density
• Transport of gases, nutrients, waste
products - made up of 90% water which makes blood
able to flow within blood vessels.
• Transport of processed molecules - Vit
- 7% proteins:
D, lactic acid
• Albumins – 58%
• Transport of regulatory molecules –
• Globulins – 38%
enzymes, hormones
• Regulation of pH & osmosis • Fibrinogen – 4%
- 2% solutes:
• Maintenance of body temperature
• Ions
• Protection against foreign substances
• Nutrients
• Clot formation
• Waste products
• Gases
• Regulatory substances

FORMED ELEMENTS/BLOOD CELLS

1. RBC – highest in number (4.2-6.2 million per

cubic millimeter of blood)
2. Platelets – 2nd highest (250-400
thousand/mm3)
3. WBC
- Least in number (5-9 thousand/mm3)
- Has the most types
-

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Two group categories of RBC: TYPE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

Granulocytes
• Granulocytes – with granules
▪ Basophil Nucleus with Phagocytizes
2-4 lobes microorganisms
▪ Eosinophil
connected by and other
▪ Neutrophil
thin substances.
• Agranulocytes – without granules filaments.
▪ Monocytes
▪ Lymphocytes Neutrophil Cytoplasmic
granules
stain a light
RED BLOOD CELLS pink or
reddish
- Biconcave disks purple.
- Contains hemoglobin which colors the cell
red Nucleus with Release
- Has no nucleus but is a eukaryote 2 indistinct histamine
lobes. (promotes
inflammation)
Basophil Cytoplasmic and heparin
granules (prevents clot
stain blue- formation)
purple.

Nucleus Release
often chemicals
- Function: transports oxygen and carbon bilobed. reducing
dioxide Eosinophil inflammation
Granules – Attacks certain
orange-red worm parasites
or bright red
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Agranulocytes
- Spherical cells Produces
- Contains a nucleus Round antibodies and
nucleus. other chemicals
- Defense
responsible for
- Agranulocytes’ granules are too fine and
Cytoplasm destroying
small that they cannot be viewed in a
forms thin microorganisms.
microscope. ring around
- Function: Five types of white blood cells, Lymphocyte
nucleus. Contributes to
with specific function allergic
reactions, graft
rejection, tumor
control,
regulation of
immune system.

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Nucleus is Phagocytic cell BLOOD CLOT FORMATION

round, in the blood.
kidney, or
horseshoe- Leaves the
shaped. blood and
Monocytes becomes a
Contains macrophage.
more
cytoplasm
than
lymphocyte.

PLATELETS
- just fragments of a huge cell so they are tiny
and doesn’t have a nucleus.
- Important for blood clot.
- Surrounded by plasma membrane and
containing granules
- Function:
• Forms platelet plugs
• Releases chemicals necessary for
blood clotting
HEMATOPOIESIS
- process of blood cell production
- If in fetus, it takes place in the liver, thymus
gland, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone
marrow.
- After birth, it is confined to the red bone
marrow.
HEMOCYTOBLASTS or STEM CELLS
- precursor cells of the formed elements
which differentiate and give rise to different
cell lines, which ends with the formation of
a particular type of formed element.
1. Platelet adhesion occurs when von
Willebrand factor connects collagen and
platelets.
2. The platelet release reaction is the
release of ADP, thromboxane, and
other chemicals that activate other
platelets.
3. Platelet aggregation occurs when
fibrinogen receptors on activated
platelets bind to fibrinogen, connecting
the platelets to one another. A platelet
plug is formed by the accumulating
mass of platelets.
BLOOD TYPES
Two types of protein in the blood:
1. Antigen
- located in RBC
- protein that stimulates the formation of
antibody
2. Antibody
- located in plasma
- proteins that are produced in the presence
of antigen

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Human Blood Types: TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

1. Type A Transpiration – the process through which water
- Has antigen A evaporates from the stomata or the pores on the
- Anti-B antibody surface of the leaves.

2. Type B Xylem – special conduction tissue which

- Antigen B transports water from the roots throughout the
- Anti-A antibody plant’s body.

Translocation – the movement of food materials

3. Type AB
from leaves to other plant parts.
- Antigens A & B
- Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibody Phloem –special conduction tissue that
transports sugars & other food molecules in a
4. Type O plant.
- Used to be called zero (bcs no antigen)
- No antigen A or B
- Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATON

• Creates a negative pressure gradient that

helps draw water and minerals up
through the plant from its roots.
• Helps keep the plant cool on hot weather
– a method of evaporative cooling
• It supports photosynthesis and
encourages the exchange of gases,
helping maintain levels of CO2 and O2 in
the atmosphere.
• Plays a significant role in the water cycle
and releases approx. 10% water back into
the environment.

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• Produces 200-1000 lb of water for each

pound of solid material produced by the
plant.
• Creates water vapor that forms into fog
and clouds.

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

1. External Nose
2. Nasal Cavity
LESSON 5: RESPIRATORY 3. Pharynx

SYSTEM
URT: NOSE
Respiratory System
- External nose
- Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Nasal cavity
between blood and air.
- From nares (nostrils – opening of
- Regulates blood pH
the nose) to choanae (opening into
- Consists of: lungs and respiratory passages
pharynx)

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Gas exchange
- Happens between alveoli and
capillaries
2. Regulation of blood pH
3. Voice production
4. Olfaction
- Sense of smell
5. Innate immunity

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• Nasal Septum Three portions of Pharynx:

- Divides cavity into right and left
• Nasopharynx
- Superior part
• Hard Palate
- Associated with soft palate, uvula,
- Floor
pharyngeal tonsil
- Separates nasal from oral cavity

• Oropharynx
• Conchae
- Extends from uvula to epiglottis
- Bony ridges on lateral walls of nasal
- Where oral cavity opens
cavity
- Associated with palatine and lingual
tonsils
• Paranasal Sinuses
- Air-filled spaces within bone
• Laryngopharynx
- Produce mucus (too much
- Extends from tip of epiglottis to
production affects voice quality)
esophagus
- Reduce weight of skull
- Where food and drink pass through
- Acts as resonating chamber
but with small amount of air

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

• Nasolacrimal Duct
- Carry tears from eyes
- Open into nasal cavity

URT: PHARYNX (Throat)

LRT: LARYNX (Voice Box)

- Common passageway for respiratory and - Consists of:

digestive systems ▪ 9 cartilages
▪ 3 unpaired
▪ 6 form 3 pairs

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• Thyroid Cartilage (Adam’s Apple)

- Largest

• Cricoid Cartilage
- Most inferior
- Forms base of larynx
• Epiglottis
- Flap that covers glottis
- With elastic cart
- Covers opening of larynx

• Cuneiform, Corniculate, Arytenoid

Cartilages
- Paired and form an attachment site
for vocal cords

• Vestibular Folds (False Vocal Cords)

- Prevent air from leaving the lungs
- Prevent food and liquid from
entering the larynx

• Vocal Folds (True Vocal Cords)

- Primary source of voice production

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LRT: MAIN/PRIMARY BRONCHI

- Extend from trachea to lungs

- Lined with pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium
LRT: TRACHEA (Windpipe) - Supported by C-shaped cartilages
- Found inside the lungs

1. Left Main Bronchus

- More horizontal
- Displace by heart

2. Right Main Bronchus

- More vertical
- Foreign objects usually lodge
- Membranous tube supported with 16-20 C-
shaped cartilages
• Without C-shaped cartilages, TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
membrane of trachea flattens and
collapses that air cannot pass
through.
- Begins immediately inferior to cricoid
cartilage
- Projects thru the mediastinum and divides
into right and left primary bronchi at the
level of T5 vertebra
- C-shaped cartilages protect the trachea and
maintain an open passage for air
Main Bronchi → Lobar Bronchi → Segmental
Bronchi → Bronchioles → Terminal Bronchioles
→ Respiratory Bronchioles → Alveolar Ducts

1. Lobar/Secondary Bronchi
- Two (2) in the Left
- Three (3) in the Right
- Conduct air to each lobe

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2. Left Lung
- Superior and inferior lobe
2. Segmental/Tertiary Bronchi
- Extend to the bronchopulmonary
segments of lungs

3. Alveolar Ducts
- Open into about 300M alveoli (air
sacs)

LRT: LUNGS

- Principal organs of respiration

- Cone-shaped with base resting on
diaphragm and apex extending superiorly
2.5cm above the clavicle

1. Right Lung
- with superior, middle, and inferior lobes

3. Bronchopulmonary Segments
- Divides each lobe of the lung
- 9 – left lung
- 10 – right lung

PLEURA

- Serous membrane lining the entire lungs

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1. Parietal Pleura (blue lines)

- Lines walls of the thorax,
diaphragm, and mediastinum

2. Visceral Pleura (red lines)

- Covers the surface of the lungs

3. Pleural Cavity (white)

- Between the two pleurae
- Filled with a small volume of pleural
fluid that acts as lubricant and helps
hold the pleura membranes
together

VENTILATION or BREATHING
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- Process of moving air in and out of the
- Where actual exchange of gases/diffusion lungs
happens - Governed by:
- Formed by walls of alveoli and surrounding • Changes in volume result in changes
capillaries in pressure
• Every alveolus is wrapped with • Air flows from areas of higher to
capillaries lower pressure

Diaphragm

- Dome-shaped sheet of muscle serving as

partition between thoracic cavity and
abdominal cavity.

1. Inhalation/Inspiration
- Relaxed diaphragm lowers and
flattens
- External Intercostal muscles
contract, elevating rib cage and
- Consists of: sternum
• Alveolar Fluid - Flattening of diaphragm and
• Alveolar Epithelium expansion of space gives the lungs
• Basement membrane of alveolar enough space to expand.
epithelium
• Interstitial space – space between 2. Exhalation/Expiration
capillary and alveolus - Flattened diaphragm will return to
• Basement membrane of capillary its dome shape
endothelium - Internal intercostal muscle depress
• Capillary epithelium the rib cage and sternum

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