COURSE OUTLINE

EPS32011: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 2023/2024

Course Objectives:
By the end of the course students should be able to:
1. Explain the key concepts and terms related to educational administration
2. Develop the ability to explain the various administrative and management theories and
principles and how they can be applied in school administration and management
3. Have an understanding of the relevancy of leadership in educational institutions
4. Analyse the administrative structure of the education system both at national, district
and institutional level
5. Identify and explain the roles of the statutory organs concerned with the administration
of education.

Detailed Course Description:

 Introduction: Concept, definition of educational administration, management,
distinction between administration and management, broad aims of educational
administration, roles of a teacher in school administration.
 Organisational theory- Meaning and types of organisations: Significance of
organisational structures, merits and demerits of informal and formal organisations.
 Classical/Scientific Management theories and principles by: Taylor, Fayol, Gullick,
Urwick, Weber and their applications in school administration.
 Human relations theories and principles by: Mayo, Follet, McGregor, Maslow, Hertzberg,
Stacey Adam, Argyris and their applications in school administration.
 Leadership: Concept, theories, traits, qualities, styles and ways of improving leadership
in school administration.
 Elements of educational administration: planning, organising, controlling, directing,
supervision, motivation, delegation, communication, decision making and budgeting.
 Organisation and administration of education in Uganda: the structure, functions of the
Ministry of education and sports, key officials and their roles in the Ministry of
education and sports.
 The functions and challenges of statutory organs in the administration of education ie
UNEB, NCDC, NCHE, ESC, DSC.
 Organisation and administration of education at the district level: the functions and
roles of local authority in the administration of education at the district level: DC, CAO,
DEO, DIS, Social Services Committee, Personnel in-charge of teachers.
 Administrative structure at the school level: Governing bodies at the school level and
their roles and challenges; BOG, SMC, Headteacher.

i
  Voluntary agencies- PTA its functions, formation and challenges.

Mode of delivery
This course is taught through lectures, tutorials, presentations and group discussions.

Assessment
This course is assessed through assignments, tests and final written examinations whose
contributions are as follows

Requirements Contribution

Assignment 10%
Test 30%
Final written Examination 60%
Total 100%

Akpan, C. P., Uko, E. S., & Osim, R. O. [Eds.]. (2018). Educational planning in Nigeria:
Principles and practices. Calabar, Nigaria: University of Calabar Press.
Bird, J. [Ed.]. (2017). Educational planning and management. New York, NY: College
Publishing House.
Campbell R.F, Corbally J.E & Nystrand R.O (1983), Introduction to Educational
Administration.Allyn & Bacon.

Chabra, S., Singh, S. R., & Tiwari, G. N. (2016). Administration and management of education.
New Delhi: Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Education Act 2008. Aggarwal, J. C. (2009). Development and planning of modern education (9th
Ed.). New Delhi, India: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Limited.
Government White Paper on Education, 1992.

Hallak, J., & Caillods, F. F. [Eds.]. (2018). Educational planning: The international dimension.
New York: Routledge.
Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C.G. (2008). Educational Administration: Theory, Research and Practice.
8th ed. Boston, USA: McGraw-Hill
Kajubi Report (1989), Education for National Development, Ministry of education. Uganda

Kochhar, S. K. (2011). School administration and management. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Pvt. Ltd
Laurence, J. C. (2010). Educational planning and management. New Delhi, India: Rajat
Publications.

ii
Lunenburg, F.C., & Ornstein, A. C. (2021). Educational administration: Concepts and practices
(7th Ed.). Los Angeles USA: SAGE Publications, Inc
Mbua, F. N. (2002). Educational planning: Issues and perspectives. Limbe: Presbyterian
Printing Press.
Musaazi J.C.S (1982), The Theory and Practice of Educational Administration, Macmillan
publishers, Nigeria.

Nehru, R. S. S. (2013). Educational administration, management, and planning. Delhi, India:

APH Publishing.
Onek S.S.B (1990), School Management and Administration, Kampala, Uganda.

Owiny C.D (1993), Educational Administration: A guide to Teacher Educators and Educational
managers. Kampala Star Education Publishers.

Passi F.O, Olal O.A & Kibuuka H (1996), Educational Administration, (Foundations of Education),
Makerere University, Kampala.

REFERENCES

Salaam, Tanzania: Karljamer Print Technology.

Stoner, J.A.F., Freeman, E.R & Gilbert (JR), A, D (2000). Management. Sixth Ed. Prentice-Hall of
India.

Suru, M. H. (2013). Educational systems planning: Theories, development and practice. Dar es

iii
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF EDUCATIONAL

ADMINISTRATION

NOTES
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................ii

EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION...........................................................................................................1
Course objectives:.......................................................................................................................................1
Course outline:............................................................................................................................................1

TOPIC 1: MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION...........................................................2

Relevance Of Educational Administration In The Management Of Educational Institutions......................4
Management................................................................................................................................................4

TOPIC 2: THE CONCEPT OF AN ORGANIZATION..............................................................................6

Types Of Organization................................................................................................................................6
Principles Of An Organization....................................................................................................................8

TOPIC 3: THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SCHOOL........................................................................9

Human Relations Movement.....................................................................................................................13
Critics Of The Human Relations Movement.............................................................................................14
Behavioral School Of Administration Or Rationalist School Of Administration.......................................14
Important Points On Weber’s Bureaucracy...............................................................................................15

TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES/ELEMENTS OF ADMINISTRATION.............................................................17

Planning.....................................................................................................................................................17
Decision Making.......................................................................................................................................19
Importance Of Decision Making In Administration..................................................................................21
Steps In Decision Making Process.............................................................................................................21
Delegation.................................................................................................................................................23
Authority...................................................................................................................................................24
Leadership.................................................................................................................................................26
Leadership Styles Of Leaders....................................................................................................................27
Communication.........................................................................................................................................31
Purpose Of Organization Communication.................................................................................................32
The Process Of Communication................................................................................................................33
Bureaucracy...............................................................................................................................................36

TOPIC 5: ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN UGANDA...................38

TOPIC 6: ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL...................................41

ii
TOPIC 7: GOVERNING BODIES OF EDUCATION INSTITUTION....................................................46
The Parents Teacher’ Association (PTA)..................................................................................................47

TOPIC 7: SEMI-AUTONOMOUS/STATUTORY ORGANS..................................................................48

Uganda National Examinations Board.......................................................................................................48
National Council For Higher Education (Nche)........................................................................................50
Directorate of Education Standard (Des)...................................................................................................55
National Curriculum Development Centre................................................................................................61

iii
 EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION

Course objectives:
By the end of the course students should be able to:
1. Explain the key concepts and terms related to educational administration.
2. Demonstrate a clear understanding of the principles of administration.
3. Discuss the functions and roles of various stakeholders, officers and other statutory
organs.
4. Demonstrate a clear understanding of the overall objectives of the education system.

Course outline:
- Meaning of educational administration, management, functions of educational
administration and an overview of the challenges of educational institutions.
- Concepts or organization – meaning, types and principles of an organization.
- Elements of educational administration: planning, organizing, controlling, directing,
supervision, motivation, delegation, communication, decision making, leadership and
budgeting.
- Organizing and administration of education in Uganda: the structure, functions of the
Ministry of Education and Sports, key officials and their roles in the Ministry of
Education and Sports.
- The functions and challenges of statutory organs in the administration of education i.e
UNEB, NCDC, NCHE, ESC, DSC.
- Organization and administration of education at the district level; the functions and roles
of local authority in the administration of education at the district level.
- Administration structure at the school level: governing bodies at the school/college level
and their roles; BOG, SMC, Headteacher.

1
TOPIC 1: MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Education is the process of learning aimed at equipping an individual with relevant knowledge,
skills and values so that they can become productive members of the society.

Administration has been defined by Musaazi, 1982 as the social process concerned with
identifying, maintaining, motivating, controlling and unifying formally and informally
organized human and material resources within an integrated system designed specifically to
achieve predetermined objectives.
Administration exists to:

i) Implement decisions of an organization

ii) Influences results to be achieved
iii) Determines the organization climate and working relationship
iv) Help to make employees more productive
v) Helps to assemble and ensure effective use of resources
vi) Unifies and coordinates the human and materials resources available for use in the
organization
vii) Evaluates the quality and quantity of outcomes accomplished
viii) Shapes the image and prestige of the organization
ix) Tries to build in to the organization provisions for innovations, change and
development

Educational administration is the management of controlled running of institutions designed to

cater for teaching and learning (Campbell, 1973). These institutions include: Primary,
Secondary schools; Business/Technical Institutes, Districts, Municipal and the Ministry of
Education and Sports.

Therefore, because of the complexity of education institutions, there is need to plan, organize,
direct, coordinate, supervise, monitor, lead and control. All these are done to direct performance
achieve the set goals and objectives.

2
Educational administration is practical focusing on public and business administration. There
is a lot of capital investment attached. Education is delicate since it deals with the whole set of
society. It does uphold society’s ideals and values; it caters for diverse interest of parents,
pupils, local community and the nation.

Education administration has broad field with many career positions and departments i.e Heads
of Department, Career Officer, Director of Studies, District Education Officer etc.

School administration is specifically concerned with pupils, teachers and the rules, regulations
and policies that govern the school system. The school is a community of adults, youth and
children working together for the solution of common problems. Thus school administration
should be guided by certain basic ideas, some of which are;

i) School administration must strive to create a community of learners who are physically
and mentally healthy, efficient, responsible and whose behavior is acceptable to the society.
ii) School administration should ensure that both teaching and non- teaching staffs function
as a team. This unity in action serves as a good example to be pupils of the spirit of
cooperation in carrying out common tasks.
iii) Good school administration demands that both staff and pupils have a large part to play
in decisions that determine the school rules, regulations and programmes.
iv) School administration should encourage and provide for the professional growth of
teachers. Through planned educational seminars, conferences and in service education
programmes.
v) The administrative decisions and procedures in the school must be consistent with the
underlying philosophy of the school. These decisions should all the time aim at achieving
the set objectives and goals of the school.
vi) The school head and staff must always keep the Ministry of Education, School Board of
Governors and the general public fully informed of the policies, programmes, failures and
successes of the school.

3
RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
i) Educational administration helps to create an atmosphere that facilitates teaching and
learning.
ii) The knowledge of educational administration helps the administrator to positively
influence and formulate the goals, objectives and projections or be able to develop new ones
for the institution.
iii) It enables the institutional manager to secure and manage resources well. These
resources are needed to support organizational programmes. This involves budgeting
(income and expenditure), accounting and management of physical plant in the school.
iv) Educational administration helps the institutional manager to evaluate whether work is
adequately carried out. There is always need to appraise the effectiveness and efficiency of
the different activities and programmes of the institution.
v) It helps to promote coordination and organization of the various departments and sections
of the institution in order to implement the stated programme.
vi) Educational administration helps the manager to solicit and look for cooperation of other
members because it is important to note that if you are a manager of any educational
institution you cannot succeed without the help of your colleagues.

MANAGEMENT
Management is the process of working with and through other people to effectively achieve
organizational objectives by efficiently using limited resources in a changing environment.
It also deals with establishing laws and regulations to guide a particular activity. Evarrad ,
Morris & Wilson (2004) observes that management has five basic aspects:
i) Involves setting missions, aims, objectives and policies.
ii) Planning how goals shall be achieved.
iii) Organizing available resources i.e human, financial, time infrastructure, information
and materials etc.
iv) Controlling the operations and activities in the organization
v) Setting organizational standards

4
5
Educational administrators are in summary expected to carry out the following:
- Planning
- Decision making
- Organizing
- Communication
- Coordination
- Motivation
- Budgeting
- Evaluation

Educational managers are in summary expected to perform the following tasks:

- Set objectives for using available resources
- Formulate plans for achieving those objectives
- Identify the activities into groups
- Define the tasks into jobs
- Staff the jobs with people
- Initiate work activities
- Supply incentives to stimulate work productivity
- Set up controls to measure the achievement of objectives
- Take remedial action if the objectives are not being met
An educational organization expects its managers to:
- Integrate its resources in the effective pursuit of its goal
- Be the agent of effective change
- Maintain and develop its resources

6
TOPIC 2: THE CONCEPT OF AN ORGANIZATION
Beach (1990) defined an organization as a system which has an established structure and
consciously planning in which people work and deal with one another in a coordinated and
cooperative manner for the accomplishment of recognized goals.

There are three important elements to be identified in an organization:

i) People-who come together to form an organization
ii) Structure where by every member plays a part and someone at the top coordinates
the activities.
iii) Goals and objectives of the organization which must be understood by all the
members.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATION
Classification of organisations may be formal or informal depending on the structure and the
goals to be accomplished; simple or complex depending on their size. Organisations can also be
classified based on their goals and objectives namely; economic-for income generations,
religious-focus more on spiritual aspects of their members, social- deals with welfare of its
members (clubs), environmental- deals with partial or total personal or emotional involvement of
its members. There is also primary and secondary organisations.
i) Formal organizations:
Characteristics
 Membership is consciously gained at a specific time
 Goals and objectives are clearly defined including policies that guide them.
 Rules and regulations are clearly stated
 There is usually an established structure that also establishes channels of communication.
 It relies heavily on rational decision making
 They have a long life span
 Membership is open
 Relationship is too impersonal
 Deliberately established for purpose of delivering explicit aims and objectives.
 They have documented rules and regulations, statutes, charters, manifesto or constitutions
that clearly stipulate duties and responsibilities of its members.
ii) Informal organization

7
They are more of a social group made up of cliques, age mates/groups who do not necessarily
have bad intentions but have common objectives. Informal groups tend to simple emerge.
Characteristics
 They lack clearly defined structures to guide its operation.
 There is no clearly defined power procedures ie. No identifiable leadership.
 They have no specific goals and objectives.
 They tend to encourage fact to face interaction.
 They are quite dynamic and responsive.
 Membership is gained either consciously or unconsciously.
 Treat people as individuals.
 Membership is bonded by trust and reciprocity

Advantages of informal organisations

 They perpetuate the cultural and social values that the group believes in.
 They provide social status and satisfaction that may not be obtained from the formal
organization.
 They promote communication among members. The informal group develops a
communication channel/system (grapevine) to keep its members informed about how
management actions will affect them in various ways.
 It provides social control by influencing and regulating behavior inside and outside the
group. Internal control persuades members of the group to conform to its style.
 Provides a feeling of highlighting deficiencies or weaknesses in the formal organization.
 It fulfills individual social needs that may not be catered for by the formal organization.
 They help workers solve some job related challenges.
 It tends to promote unity, cooperation and cohesion.

8
Disadvantages of informal organisations
 It tends to promote irrational arguments.
 They can oppose the leadership which is in place.
 They intentionally polarize the formal system in the organization.
 Members can become stubbornly inefficient on duty.
 They encourage sectarianism.
 They encourage gender discrimination.
 They influence irrational acts i.e.-subversive acts such as strikes.
 They spread rumours and promote grapevine.

PRINCIPLES OF AN ORGANIZATION
In any organization there must be principles that guide its operations. According to Musaazi
(1982) the following principles are key in any organization:
i) There should always be a clear line of authority from the top to the bottom of the
organization hierarchy.
ii) Every worker/employee should be immediately responsible to one senior employee only.
iii) Authority must be proportionate to responsibility.
iv) Authority and responsibility of each executive should be clearly spelt out to avoid
isolation/interference.
v) Easy access to and flow of information.
vi) Span of control- An administrator should not be assigned more persons than he/she can
adequately supervise.
vii) Exercising the right degree of control.
viii) Make the best use of specialists and the principle of specialization.
ix) Ensure that the responsibility and authority of each executive is defined.
x) Ensure that the organization includes built-in ways of co-ordinating the work of the
whole concern to avoid emergencies.
xi) The number of levels of management should not be unnecessarily excessive because it
slows down work.
xii) Ensure that responsibility is allocated for the whole scope of the work.

9
TOPIC 3: THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SCHOOL
A management approach formulated by Frederick Taylor and others between 1890-1930 that
sought to determine scientifically the best methods for performing any task, and for selecting,
training and motivating workers.

Scientific management theory arose in part from the need to increase productivity. Frederick
Taylor, Henry Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreath devised the body of principles known as
Scientific Management Theory.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) rested his philosophy on four basic principles:

1. The development of a true science of management so that the best method for performing
each task could be determined.

2. The scientific selection of workers, so that each worker would be given responsibility for
the task for which he/she was best suited.

3. The scientific education and development of the worker.

4. Intimate, friendly cooperation between management and labor.

Contributions of SMT:

1. Organisations must have objectives to achieve.

2. Organisations must aim at results to be achieved (results oriented)

3. Workers must be rewarded on merit. Workers should be rewarded according to amount of

work accomplished. This Taylor termed differential rate system.

4. Emphasis be put on productivity in organisations

5. Workers be given a good life in order to be productive

6. Time at work should be for meaningful production

7. Emphasis be put on strict discipline on the job, more concentration on organisational task
with minimum interpersonal relationship.

Limitations
1. Workers began to note that working hard would exhaust available jobs and this could
lead to lay -off.
2. This led to some managers exploiting their workers

10
 3. This led to workers joining unions and thus reinforced a pattern of suspicion and mistrust
which still exists today.

Classical organisation theory

An early attempt pioneered by Henri Fayol to identify the principles and skills that underlie
effective management. Scientific management was concerned with increasing the productivity of
the shop and the individual worker. Classical organisation theory grew out of the need to find
guidelines for managing such complex organisations as factories.

In brief classical organisation theory was an attempt by Henri Fayol to identify the principles and
skills that underlie effective management. Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is generally hailed as the
founder of the Classical management school not because he was the first to investigate
managerial behaviour but because he first systemised it. Fayol believed that sound management
practice falls into certain patterns that can be identified and analysed. Fayol focused on
management. Before Fayol it was generally believed that managers are born, not made. Fayol
insisted that management was a skill that could be taught.

Fayol analysed the activities of an organisation into six groups:

1. Technical- Concerned with production and manufacturing.

2. Commercial- Buying, selling and marketing.

3. Financial- Includes obtaining capital and optimum use of available funds.

4. Security- This includes dealing with insurance and protection services.

5. Accounting- Covers economic position, stock-taking, balance sheet, costs and statistics.

6. Managerial- Apply to management functions. Fayol noted that managerial activity is

divided into five elements:

a) Planning- In French it is “prevoyer” meaning to foresee and it includes forecasting. It

examines the future, deciding what needs to be achieved and developing the plan of
action.

b) Organising- It is providing the material and human resources and building the structure to
carry out the activities of the organisation.

c) Command- Is the process of maintaining activity among personnel, getting optimum

return from all employees in the interest of the organisation.

d) Coordination-This is unifying and harmonising all activities and efforts of the

organisation to facilitate its working and success.

11
 e) Control- To verify that everything occurs in accordance to plans, instructions, established
principles and expressed command.

It is important to note that Fayol did not see managerial activities as exclusively belonging to the
management. Such activities are part and parcel of the total activities of an organisation or
undertaking. Fayol’s analysis has more far reaching implications than Frederick taylor’s ideas on
scientific management which centred on the shop floor (grassroot) workers. He therefore
developed 14 principles of management.

Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management

1. Division of labour- The most people specialise, the more efficiently they can perform
their work.

2. Authority-Managers must give orders so that they can get things done.

3. Discipline- Members in the organisation need to respect rules and agreements that
govern the organisation.

4. Unity of command-Each employee should receive instructions from only one person.

5. Unity of direction- Operations within the organisation that have the same objective
should be directed by only one manager using one plan.

6. Subordination of individual interest to the common good.- In any undertaking, the

interests of the employees should never take precedence over the interests of the
organisation as a whole.

7. Remuneration-Compensation for work done should be fair to both employees and

employers.

8. Centralisation- Decreasing the role of subordinates in decision making is centralisation;

increasing their role is decentralisation.

9. Hierarchy- the line of authority in an organisation-often represented today by the neat

boxes and lines of the organisation chart.

10. Order- Materials and people should be in the right place at the right time.

11. Equity-Managers should be both friendly and fair to their subordinates.

12. Stability of staff- A high employee turnover rate undermines the different functions of
an organisation.

12
 13. Initiative- Subordinates should be given the freedom to conceive and carry out their
plans, even though some mistakes may result.

14. Esprit de corps-Promoting team spirit will give the organisation a sense of unity.

GULICK (1937)

He worked on Fayol’s ideas by refining them and came up with POSDCoRB

P-Planning- Forecasting and making ‘strategic’ planning or preparing for the future, structure of
the organisation and organisation activities.

O-Organising-Structure and mobilisation.

S-Staffing-Recruitment of qualified staff, how and where to get the staff, how to remunerate
them, involves selection eg. Through interviews, their welfare.

D-Directing-Giving direction or steering the organisation into a proper direction so that the
organisation expands, grows etc.

R-Reporting-Institution or establishment of an effective reporting mechanism. This can be

completed through delegation- delegation of work to subordinates can motivate the subordinates.

B-Budgeting-Budgeting for the financial resources. A top manager can involve the subordinates
in budgeting.

URWICK (1937)
Urwick was an enthusiastic and prolific writer on the subject of administration and management.
His experience covered industry. His principles were:
a) Specialisation- He advocated that one group should do one function ie-one group and one
function.
b) Principle of objective-There should be an over- all purpose or objective.
c) Coordination- The process of organising is primarily to ensure effective coordination.
d) Authority- Every group should have a supreme authority with clear line of authority to
other members of the group.
e) Responsibility- The superior is absolutely responsible for the acts of his subordinates.
f) Definition- Jobs with their duties and relationships should be clearly defined- What is
attached to the jobs.
g) Correspondence- Authority should be responsible for more than 5-6 direct subordinates
whose work is interlocked.
h) The span of control- No one should be responsible for more 5-6 direct subordinates
whose work is interlocked.
i) Balance- Various units of the organisation should be kept in balance.
j) Continuity- the structure should provide for the continuation of activities.

13
HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT
1. Mary Follet (1868-1933)

A new group of people came up with new ideas that were meant to develop the old ideas on
management movement systems. Mary Follet introduced the concept of conflict in
administration. She said that conflict resolution is good to solve things in management conflict
resolution and it is in three fold according to her:

a) Domination- in which victory is unilateral.

b) Compromise

c) Integration- In which neither side claims victory ie- win-win situation – a neutral position
is undertaken.

2. Chester Barnard (1938)

Wrote a book- the function of the executive. He talked about the functions of an executive. He
recommended the existence of a formal and informal organisation side by side, each one
complimenting the other. He also emphasised effective communication which brings about the
following:
Communication is one of the principles of motivation. A human resource manager should always
ensure that there is no communication gap in an organisation. There are two types of
communication:

a) Ordinary
b) Classic
A manager must always communicate what is necessary for his subordinates. Effective
communication plays the following role in organisation:

1. It brings about inducement among the subordinates

2. It brings about persuasion
3. It brings about inspiration
4. It brings about cooperation

3. Elton Mayo (1938)

He stressed the importance of acquiring social skills by the manager in order to ensure effective
management of an organisation. The manager can participate in problem solving or conflict
management with employees. A manager must be social, accommodating, listener and learn to
tame emotions.

14
CRITICS OF THE HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT
a) The humanists paid no attention to external environment that might affect the life of an
organisation. They treated the organisation as a family.
b) The humanists considered management to be easy and soft. They felt that the happiest
organisation were the most productive.
c) They made the worker feel happy but did not let the worker participate in the decision
making process.
d) The movement reduced philosophy to psychology people became easy to manipulate ie.
They could not reason/think perform.

BEHAVIORAL SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION OR RATIONALIST SCHOOL OF

ADMINISTRATION
The rationalists most notable are:
a) Herbert Simon
b) Max Weber

Herbert Simon in his book on Administrative behaviour in 1916 conceptualised administration as

highly rational and intellectual decision making process. He believes effective administration in
organisations should involve rational decision making process.

Rational decisions are very tricky due to:

i) Complexity of administrative decisions
ii) Inability to see the future due to dynamism
The above limitations can be compensated by two factors in organisations decision making
process:
i) Demarcation of means of responsibility in the organisation. Demarcation should be
attached to competence and previous training.
ii) Provision of organisation structure, rules and regulations, channels of communication
and staff development.
In summary important points to note on Herbert Simon’s assertions:
1. When rationality decreases there is uncertainty and when uncertainty decreases there is
rationality.
2. Simon believed in rational administrative behaviour.
3. He developed his ideas based on political science, economics, psychology and sociology.
4. He emphasised objective communication in organisations and human relations.
5. He believed in effective administrative behaviour which manifests itself in the following:
i) Rational theories
ii) Well organised setting
iii) Understanding fully the colleagues- that is their background

15
MAX WEBER
Reasoning that any goal-oriented organisation consisting of thousands of individuals would
require the carefully controlled regulation of its activities, the German Sociologist Max Weber
(1864-1920) developed a theory of bureaucratic management that stressed the need for a strictly
defined hierarchy governed by clearly defined regulations and lines of authority.

Bureaucracy is a form of an administrative arrangement in an organisation with legalised formal

and hierarchical structure. He conceived bureaucracy as the most efficient form of administrative
organisation because it provides the following:
a) Impersonal and social distance among officials through dependency on formal rules.
b) Members owe obedience to the organisation.
c) Hierarchical structure of organisations allows the allocation of decision making process
based on professional expertise at various points in the hierarchy.

IMPORTANT POINTS ON WEBER’S BUREAUCRACY

1. A well run bureaucratic organisation would be fair, more impartial and more predictable-
not at the whims of individuals.
2. Well run bureaucracy would be efficient because bureaucrats are highly trained, technical
specialists each skilled in his/her own portion of the administrative work.
3. He advocated for three forms of social influence namely:
a) Authority
b) Power
c) Persuasion
Sources of Power:
a) Legitimate
b) Expertise
c) Coercive
d) Reward
e) Information
f) Connection
g) Referent
4. Hierarchy-Authority is attached to a position and not to a person therefore, hierarchy and
authority are impersonal.
5. Formal recording of actions- files, log books, registers, and visitors books etc.
6. No one owns an office as you can be transferred or relieved.
7. Self- esteem and prestige is one of the rewards.
8. Protection of the bureaucrats is by laws and regulations through job security.
9. Major decisions especially policy decisions are made outside the bureaucracy.
10. Work career in terms of pensions is justified as one of the rewards.

16
CRITIQUES OF MAX WEBER
1. It encourages “group think” this is normally through a Spokesman. Even if an individual
has his/her thinking it cannot be aired out.
2. It turns employees into ritualistic bureaucrats who emphasise impersonal rules.
3. Career orientation of bureaucrats makes them be more interested in rules and regulations
than the problems they are supposed to solve.
4. Innovative ideas die from distortion.
5. Bureaucracy does not take into account informal organisations.

17
TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES/ELEMENTS OF ADMINISTRATION

PLANNING
Planning is a primary function of management. It represents the preparatory step for actions to
follow. Dror (1967) defines planning as a process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the
future directed at achieving goals by optimum means. The four main elements in the definition
are;
 Preparing or designing something,
 Future-oriented,
 Deliberateness of the action and,
 Optimal use of resources.
Planning therefore, is future oriented and goal oriented. Planning is not only concerned with
objectives but also how to achieve them. Planning bridges the gap between where we are and
where we want to go.

Characteristics of planning
1. Planning is an intellectual process – planning involves decision-making. It involves
discovering when, where, to make a decision and making of actual selection from among
many alternatives properly developed, analyzed and evaluated.
2. Planning is the primary function of management – management functions are often
grouped around the activities of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
3. Planning is a continuous process – as a given problem is solved a new one arises.
4. Planning is goal oriented – all plans are directly linked with goals and objectives of the
organization and contribute to its attainment
5. Planning leads to efficiency
6. Planning is based on forecasting. It is made on the basis of predictions about the future
7. Planning does not eliminate risks but simply enables an organization to face it boldly

Types of planning
i) Strategic planning is mainly concerned with long tern policies
ii) Tactical or actual planning. These are steps used to implement a strategic plan or reach
long term goals.

18
iii) Operational planning – it is done on the ground to keep the school functioning smoothly
Strategic plan
This is a general plan out lining decisions on resource allocation, priorities and action/steps
necessary to reach strategic goals. Strategic plans are set by Board of Governors/Directors and
Top management.
Tactical plan
It is developed to implement specific parts of a strategic plan; they involve upper and middle
management. They have a shorter time horizon. They are concerned with accomplishing tasks
than with deciding what to do.
Operational plans
They are developed by middle and lower level managers; they have a short term focus and
have a relatively narrow scope. They deal with a fairly small set of activities

Strategic Policies/Aims
BOG
Policies
Tactical HODS/ Lay Tactics
DEPUTIES

Operational Operation on the ground

TEACHERS
Steps in planning
1. Being aware of problems and opportunities
All administrators should know where the institution stands in line with its strength,
weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT)
2. Establishing objectives
Objectives should be set up for the entire organization and hen for each subordinate work
unit or department. This should be both long and short term. The purpose of setting
objectives is to specify the expected results.
3. Planning premises
Premises include: costs, social and political environment, long term trends, new
innovations, type of technological development, consideration of market forces etc.

19
 4. Determining alternative course of action – various course of action should be considered
especially those which are not immediately apparent.
5. Evaluating the alternative course of action
6. Selecting the appropriate course of action

Importance of planning
1. For easy resource mobilization
2. There are limited resources hence the need to plan
3. It gives satisfaction since one is able to know where he/she is going
4. It creates orderliness in the system
5. It ensures systematic approach to issues
6. It avoids wastage of resources
7. It helps in making work schedules. It enables the various activities to be included

Factors that affect planning

1. Lack of effective leaders and administrators
2. Individual interests overriding organization interests
3. Lack of adequate data on financial, inventory of the institution
4. Inflation and fluctuations in prices of commodities
5. Change in policies and procedures
6. Corruption and embezzlement of funds
7. Inadequate resources
8. Setting unclear goals

DECISION MAKING
Decision making is a process of choosing among alternative courses of action. Some scholars
like Herbert Simon, argue that administration is nothing but decision making. Decision making
is the nervous and central system in the administration of an organization. It determines the
success and failure of any leader in an organization. It is a common knowledge that
administrators make decisions all the time-small, big, formal and informal.

20
Informal decisions are made using the art of administration without prior discussion of
preparation. Formal decisions are made after careful and serious consideration of the policies
and system within an organization. Decisions vary in nature and magnitude depending on the
issues involved:
1. Simple decision – they are numerous and seem to be routine in nature and sometimes
become part of the system. They do not take time o be thought about. But they are vital
and important.
2. Complex decision – they involve complicated and very serious issues. Such complex
decisions may end up in a disaster if not well thought about.

Categories of decision making

1. Programmed/Routine
These are decisions for which a routine has been established. They have a special
procedure for handling issues. The guiding principles are established. Everybody in the
organization knows what to do and the procedure to follow.
2. Non-programmed – includes emergency decisions
These are decisions for which no routine is established and no procedure has been set
because they do not occur regularly.
3. Co-determinate
This is the type of decision which is taken jointly after the involvement of subordinates.
4. Operational decisions – are those that are concerned with responses to people’s actual
problems and situation in execut8ing duties e.g firing or reprimanding.

Elements of decision making

The two important factors to consider in decision making process, they are;
1. Sense of purpose – is it necessary, know what you want, know your priority.
2. The need for the decision – do you need the decision? Is it real? Do you have to make
the decision?

21
IMPORTANCE OF DECISION MAKING IN ADMINISTRATION
The importance of decision making in the administration of organizations has been recognized
by Chester Barnard (1938), Herber Simon (1947) and Bross (1953) as:
i) It helps to avoid train and error method of trying to solve an identified problem
ii) It compels management to research and collect facts or information on any problem
iii) Gathering of information helps to improve on the capability and guidance of managers in
making a fair and balanced decision
iv) Accurate information analysis is assured hence improving on the management system of
the organization
v) A systematic approach to running of organizations can be arrived at as a result of good
decision making procedure
vi) Systematic decision making process helps the organization to maintain its standard. The
survival of any organization and management system is observed through the skill of
decision making.
vii) If management is skilled in decision making then it is able to compete favorably both
within and outside
viii) Proper decision making helps members of the organization to focus on the organization
goals. It helps members to well arrange purposes and objectives hence find it easy to work.
ix) It helps to avoid interruption of programme from other sources since there will be a
procedure of operations

STEPS IN DECISION MAKING PROCESS

1. Identification of the problem
Decision making process begins with the identification of the problem. Analyze the
nature of the problem by defining it in precise terms. The problem should be clear in
your mind. You need to acknowledge that to make a decision is a simple matter;
decisions made can have a far reaching impact on you the individual and the
organization.
2. Collection of facts (recognizing and defining the decision situation)
These involve facts, figures, opinions, information, data and any other relevant piece of
information available to the decision maker. The central question is which portion of the

22
 information is useful and what should be disregarded. This is necessary as if it helps an
administrator to develop information handling procedure. It involves
a) Ability to define information precisely
b) Ability to analyze information accurately
c) Ability to interpret information correctly
d) Ability to present information correctly
Facts/information collected should be properly sorted out so that quality decision can be
made.
3. Listing of choices (identifying alternatives)
This stage is concerned with making of quantitative analysis of the issue at hand. The
decision maker tries to project out the possible choices, goes through them and tries to
identify the best. This shows that there are many possible choices of action to make in
solving one problem.
How do you choose the best?
It is important that the administrator should be satisfied that he/she made the right choice.
Conviction is the most important. If the decision maker is convinced then he/she will be able to
defend and stand for the decision.
The administrator can also use the following techniques;
i) Creativity – try to relate things which occurred in the past, what is happening in the
present and make predictions. Remember history enables us to understand the past;
preset, and be able to predict the future.
ii) Maintain your focus on the problem or issue at hand so that you do not side track
iii) Brainstorming – many people in the organization can be given a chance to discuss
about the alternative. This help to generate a lot of ideas from a group of individuals
within a short time
4. Prediction of outcomes (evaluating the alternatives)
After all the choices have been listed and risks assessed, you then consider the strength
and weakness of the outcomes. The central question to be asked if you choose this
decision what are the probable likely outcomes? If the risk is great then do not take the
choice.

23
 5. Making the decision (selecting the best alternative)
The crucial point in decision making is decisiveness, which means the readiness and
ability to measure up your choices and be able to pick the right moment and alternative
from the available choices. If you are still in doubt, wait for the right moment
6. Taking the decision (implementing the chosen alternative) follow up and evaluating the
results.

DELEGATION
McFarland (1979:367) defines delegation “as the process by which managers specify authority of
subordinates so that they can share and work responsibility.” In a secondary school, it means
more than that. Delegation is a management technique that allows ordinary teachers to share
authority with the headteachers so that they can jointly made decisions that affect their job of
teaching. Delegation basically involves four (4) aspects;
1. The superior gives part of his/her work to the subordinates
2. The subordinates must be given necessary authority to carry the work
3. Setting up a control mechanism to ensure that the work standards are adhered to
4. The accountability of the superior to his/her bosses cannot be delegated to the
subordinates
Methods of delegation
There are basically three methods of delegation;
1. Formal method – detailed written instructions are used to indicate the scope of work.
2. Informal method – his depends on greater understanding between the superior and
subordinate
3. Implied method – this where a superior and subordinates are very close in working
relationship. When the superior go away, automatically the subordinate acts on behalf of
the superior.
Benefits of delegation
1. It reduces on the work load of the superior to devote more time on serious issues
2. It encourages real decentralization of power and authority
3. It makes subordinates have freedom to direct their own affairs thus satisfying their
ego/esteem needs
4. Both superior and subordinate develop a sense of participation

24
 5. It facilitates job enlargement-increasing the scope of responsibilities
6. It reduces on indispensability
7. It helps in avoiding autocracy within the organization
Problems of delegation
From the superiors perspective
1. Superiority complex – thinking that you are the best
2. Lack of ability to delegate – it requires planning, knowledge of task, and selection of the
right person or the right job at the right time.
3. Over consciousness – fear making mistakes or risks
4. Desire to establish self- importance
5. Lack of confidence
6. Lack of democratic attitude
From subordinates view;
1. Fear of inability to make decisions
2. Fear of criticism in case they do not perform well
3. Lack of self- esteem (confidence)
4. Lack of incentives and motivation
5. Lack of resources – an employee is likely to dodge responsibilities without adequate
resources/facilities

AUTHORITY
According to Koontz and Weihrich (1990), authority is the cement of an organization structure.
The thread that makes it possible, the means by which groups of activities can be placed under a
manager and coordination of organizational units can be done. Authority is the relationship
between two individuals; one superior and the other subordinate. This relationship can be
defined in both objective and behavioristic terms. Authority is therefore, legitimate right to give
orders and to get orders obeyed.

25
Characteristics of authority
1. Right – the right is given to an administrator by his/her superior
2. Legitimacy – the right to give orders is legitimate unless legitimacy is socially and
ethically accepted by all concerned authority cannot be meaningful and operational
3. Authority gives the right to make decisions and ensure they are carried out
4. The basic objective behind the existence of authority is to influence the behavior of
subordinate in doing the right thing at the right time, in order for the organizational
objectives to be achieved.
5. Although ‘authority’ is objective; its exercise is almost subjective. The use of authority
is determined by the personality factors o the person giving orders and the people in
whose content this is made.
Kinds of authority
1. Traditional – it is legitimated by sanctity tradition. It tends to perpetuate the existing
social order and often considered invaluable
2. Charismatic – this is when an individual has an extra ordinary quality to be a leader by
virtue of his/her personality
3. Legal or rational – it is rightful power that is a right to command or act and have
jurisdiction. It has legitimacy whereby law and obedience in it is owned not by an
individual but to a set of rules and regulations
Limitations of authority
a) Authority is not absolute. It is subject to various social, legal, political and economic
factors
b) The use of authority generates different reactions from different groups. It must be
exercised in regard to the culture of the people. Otherwise its effectiveness will be
limited.
c) Biological limits to authority – human beings do not have the capacity to do certain
things and therefore an individual cannot be ordered to do something which is not
possible. Managerial authority is usually restricted by partnership agreement,
memorandum of understanding, articles of association, and company laws. Even though
changes and amendments in the laws are made they must be done through definite
procedures and not by the arbitrary decision of the manager.

26
 d) Since there is a limit on the number of subordinates who can be effectively supervised by
the manager, his/her authority is limited to subordinates who are under his/her
supervision.
e) A manager can only use the authority which has been specifically delegated to him/her.
The same applies to subordinates.
Traditional authority
Derives its’ source from established beliefs in traditions and norms. Obedience is owed to the
traditional position of authority and the person who holds the position inherits the authority
established by custom.
Charismatic authority is based on the devotion of the subject to an extra ordinary individual
who is a leader by virtue of personal trust or exemplary qualities.
Legal authority is based on enacted laws which can be changed through legitimate procedure.

LEADERSHIP
Koontz et al (1984:507) defines leadership as the process of influencing people so that they
strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of organizational goals.
Leadership also involves the ability of a person to inspire people to work together towards
achievement of common goals.

Successful leadership in any organization requires a combination of personality traits. Some of

them include; being adventurous, dealing with emergencies, flexibility, being focused, ability to
manage boldly, effective implementation of policies and programmes. Effective leaders are
considerate in their behavior and expect their members to participate in the organization
activities meanwhile structural (task-oriented) leaders’ stress he tasks to be accomplished. In a
nutshell, leadership is a process of influencing the behaviour of an individual or a group in an
effort to implement policies, goals and activities of the organization.

What are the qualities of an effective leader??? Read more on this task.
Some expected qualities:
 Humility
 Teamwork
 Respect
 Compromise

27
  Consultation
 Discipline
 Time management
 Delegation, Supervision & Trust

LEADERSHIP STYLES OF LEADERS

In fulfilling their roles and functions, leaders adopt various leadership styles depending on the
prevailing situation.
1. The democratic or participative style
A leader using this style involves subordinates in solving problems, generating new ideas
and getting their opinions.
Characteristics
i) There is freedom of speech and association
ii) Uses rules and regulations as a guide
iii) There is active participation of members in decision making
iv) It is people oriented
v) Believes in the strength of the group
vi) Regards administration as a shared responsibility
Comments
The headteacher can use this style in matters of;
a) Making decisions on important issues, incidents and problem
b) Introducing new ideas, concepts, practices and programmes
c) Initiating new projects
d) Setting up policies, procedures
2. The autocratic leadership style
It is also alternatively referred to as authoritarian, directive, or directive leadership style. A
leader using this style exhibits the following characteristics:
i) They believe that power belongs to the leaders
ii) The leader is final
iii) The leader is answerable to nobody
iv) Frequently violates rules and regulations to suit their own interest

28
 v) Promotes the spirit of indispensability
vi) Does not accommodate criticism
vii) Desire to be flattered
viii) There is no freedom of speech and association
Comment
The style is less popular and few subordinates would like to work under such leader. However, a
headteacher may use this style for activities that must be done in the way they should be done.
Examples include; when schemes of work must be prepared, and rules, orders, regulations and
procedures must be followed.
3. The Laissez-faire or Free Rein leadership style
It is also referred to as a hands-off style.
a) Members do whatever they want
b) They lack supervisory capacity
c) Decisions are made and implemented any how without a systematic approach
d) Practically lacks rules and regulations
e) Leaders lack authority
f) Chaos is the order of the day
g) The leader remains aloof from the group and participate only when called upon
h) There is lack of accountability and responsibility
i) Leader tries to please everyone
j) It is characterized by voluntary leadership
4. Charismatic leadership style
Characteristics
i) Workers perform well because they naturally like the leader
ii) Members are guided by convictions
iii) They are generally good speakers and extra gifted such that they are able to attract
and convince the crowd.
N.B: Read about
i) Transformational leaders – they go an extra mile in what they do. They are more of
change agents.
ii) Transactional – uses a mixture of idiographic and nomothetic attributes

29
 iii) Nomothetic – emphasize organization tasks strictly
iv) Idiographic – friendly and care for people
v) Servant leadership
vi) Strategic leadership
vii) Visionary leadership
viii) Bureaucratic leadership
xix) Entrepreneural leadership
ix) Instructional
xi) Pedagogical leadership- This entails Mentoring; Cilinical supervision, Profesional
development programme and Networking.

Leadership = function (leader, follower and situation)

 Personality Nature of task

 Behaviour Climate of the group/organization
 Style Relationship established in the group
 Needs and Motives Trust between leader/follower
 Attitudes & Values Limitations
 Time/period in which leadership is being exercised

Leadership theories

N.B: Identify and read more about leadership theories- Charismatic, Contigency, Trait,
Situational etc
ALSO REMEMBER there are three categories of leaders in the world; those who make it
happen, those who let it happen and those who wonder what happened
Motivation
Motivation is the process of stimulating the members of an organization to perform their duties
enthusiastically. People have needs, desires, drives and wishes which lead a person to perform
his/her task effectively. Normally the motive of a person is a starting point in the motivation
process. Motives are directed towards the achievement of certain specific goals which in turn

30
determine the behavior of a person. Motivation can be defined as the process of stimulating the
members of an organization to perform their duties effectively.
Type of motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation
It is self- generated and is able to influence a person to behave in a particular way or to move
in a particular direction e.g responsibility, interesting and challenging work, and
opportunities for advancement.
2. Extrinsic motivation
It is externally generated and initiated inform of rewards. Extrinsic motivators can have an
immediate and powerful effect but does not necessarily last for long
Principles of motivation
a) Catering for physiological needs – food, shelter through payment of salaries, allowances
etc
b) Delegation
c) Participation in decision making
d) Communication
e) Recognition
f) Reciprocated interest
g) Guidance – manager should give suggestions instead of orders
h) Confidence
Strategies of motivating staff
1. Members of staff do not work only for money. The factors which motivate staff are not
necessarily finance. The following ways are of value in achieving success in motivating
staff.
2. Treating staff as colleagues by valuing their contributions, making fair and correct
evaluation of their performance, discussing their work with them ad sharing with them
their grievances.
3. Involving them in planning and decision making process on matters relating to their lives
4. Encouraging creativity and innovativeness by allowing staff some degree of freedom of
action in and outside the working environment, encouraging teachers to try new methods
of doing things.

31
COMMUNICATION
Drucker (1967) describes communication as the life blood of an organization and puts great
emphasis on the clarity of goals and objectives of the organization, clarity to tasks to be
performed and correct procedures to be followed. This kind of information needs to be relayed
from one person to another either formerly or informally.

Communication can be defined as a mutual exchange of information and understanding by an

effective means. This implies that communication to be effective; there should; be exchange of
ideas with high level of understanding. Unless the flow goes both ways, no real communication
takes place.

Communication is a central function of management in any organization. No organization can

exist without communication simply because it is through communication that management
functions are co-coordinated and controlled. Communication is not what is said but heard as
individuals try to transfer information, message, feelings and instructions from a sender to a
receiver.

Communication can be formal or informal; expressive if it relates to values, norms and ethics,
regulative if it is inform of rules and regulations that give directives and procedures for doing
things or performance of particular tasks, consultative if it requires a feedback between superiors
and subordinates. This can be in form of loose minutes, memos, and circulars, innovative if it is
aimed at integrating attitude between the old and new systems.

N.B: There is no communication if the receiver never gets the message

It is the responsibility of the person communicating to make sure what is communicated is
received. Communication takes many forms – it can be one way especially if its directive that is
not to be questioned however 80% of communication is two ways i.e they require a feedback.
Vertical is when communication is hierarchical. Horizontal is when it is between colleagues and
subordinates.

32
Current research indicates that as much as 70% of all organization both oral and written fails to
achieve its purpose. Skills in communication do not come without planning and effort. Like any
other skill it develops through practice.

PURPOSE OF ORGANIZATION COMMUNICATION

i. To establish and disseminate organization goals
ii. To organize organizational resources in the most effective way e.g financial, human,
information, time, infrastructure etc.
iii. Identify, select, develop and appraise members of the organization
iv. To influence, direct, motivate, and create a favorable working environment for
employees
v. To control performance through reporting mechanisms
vi. It makes the organization aware of its customer needs
vii. It makes the organization aware of the availability of supplies, government
regulations, policies, and claims of stakeholders and the needs of society at large.
Provide the necessary leadership by;
- Advising, directing and guiding teachers
- Persuading teachers
- Monitoring teachers’ performance
- Co-coordinating various school activities
- Promoting harmony among teachers
- Motivating teachers
- Training teachers-on-the-job
Provide an opportunity for teachers to contribute towards the success of an organization
through;
 Regular and well planned meetings
 Consultation between the headteacher and teacher
 Interviews intended to collect useful information from teachers
 Informal contacts with teachers and pupils

33
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Message

Sender
Encoding Channel Receiver Decoding Feedback

The process of communication is constituted by elements or fundamentals of communication

namely:
Source (sender), encoding, channel, receiver, decoding (receiving), responses and feedback.

Sender/source
Communication begins with a sender (source) of the message. In an organization the sender will
be a person with information needs or desires and purpose of communication to one or more
people. Without a reason, purpose of desire the sender has not need to communicate.
Message
It is the physical form into which the sender encodes the information. The message may be in
any form that can be experienced or understood by one or more of the senses of the receiver.
Channel
This is the method of transmission from one person to another such as air for spoken words,
letters for written words etc.
Receiver
This is the person whose senses perceive the senders’ message. The message must be designed
to have the same meaning to both the sender and receiver.
Decoding

34
This is the process by which the receiver interprets the message and transfers it into meaningful
information. The receiver first perceives the message then interprets it.
Feedback
This is the reversal communication process in which reaction to the senders’ communication is
expressed. The greater the feedback the effective communication process is likely to be.
Principles of communication
1. Clarity – as a habit when going to communicate ask yourself the following questions
especially in a working environment;
a. What do I want to communicate?
b. To whom and why?
c. What is the best means or mix or means?
d. What about my language?
e. Is it the right time or occasion?
f. Is what I want to communicate well arranged and logical?
g. Is my tone right?
h. Am I trying to communicate too much at one time?
i. Have I understood the receiver’s situation and appreciate the likely reaction?
j. Would I be misunderstood or misinterpreted?
k. Are the examples/illustrations given clear and relevant?
2. Consistency – information passed today should be the same tomorrow. Never imagine
the receiver has forgotten what you communicated before.
3. Be selective – never give too much detail. Avoid talking too much. Plan the timing
4. Choose the most appropriate way to communicate
5. Set up an automatic communication system so that nobody is left out.
6. Empathy- Try to be empathetic in your communication.
7. Adequacy- The necessary details should be provided to make the communication
complete.
8. Timeliness- Ensure that communication is properly timed.
9. Integrity- This should consider the aspects of transparency, honesty and trustworthiness.
10. Appropriateness of language to be used- words should be chosen and used carefully-
avoid use of words recklessly.

35
11. Support words with action- package your message properly to attract the recipients.

36
Problems of communication
Communication breakdown reflects on the leadership style of the administration structure. In a
healthy management system there should be no breakdown in communication. Factors that
hinder effective communication include;
1. Lengthy chains of command especially in bureaucratic organizations
2. Lack of provision of practical systems of communication channels through which
communication can be relayed
3. Type of management – if authoritarian it is always not willing to accept communication
from down the line
4. Lack of provision to obtain a feedback so as to ensure what was communicated was
received and understood
5. Language – misunderstanding and interpretation due to failure to know your audience-
verbosity (talking too much), authority (words with more than one meaning)
6. In accurate translation of messages
7. Mistrust – if the superior keeps changing messages communicated workers will lose
confidence
They will never take anything communicated seriously.
8. Fear – if the superior is harsh this will create anxiety hence fear
9. Distance between the two parties involved
10. Role concept of the receiver
11. Verbal handicap – stammerer
12. Absenteeism due to failure of appointment
13. Attitude towards communication
14. Information overload

Questions
Differentiate between rumours and gossips
Suggest possible solutions to the above problems
What is grape vine in communication?

37
BUREAUCRACY
It is a form of administrative organization/arrangement that strictly adheres to a hierarchy
governed by clearly defined regulations and lines of authority. Bureaucratic organizations
provide for the following:
1. Impersonal and social distance among officials through dependency on formal rules.
2. Members owe obedience to the organization.
3. Hierarchical structure of organizations allows the allocation of decision making process
based on professional expertise at various levels in the hierarchy.
Importance of bureaucracy
1. A well rub bureaucratic organization is fair, more impartial and predictable, not at the
whims of individual
2. Bureaucratic organization is efficient because bureaucrats are highly trained; technical
specialized each skilled in his/her own portion of the administration task
3. Bureaucratic advocates for three forms of social influence namely: authority, power and
persuasion
4. It advocates for hierarchy – authority is attached position and not to a person therefore
authority and hierarchy are impersonal
5. It emphasizes formal recording of actions- file log book, registers, visitor books etc.
6. It believes that no person owns an office since one can be transferred to another office
7. Self- esteem and prestige is one of the rewards
8. Bureaucrats are protected by laws and regulations
9. Major decisions especially policy decisions are taken outside the bureaucracy
10. Rewards like pensions are justified by work career
11. There is no role conflict among the employees in the organization
12. There is impartiality on transacting organizational business
Advantages
- There is control and order of employees behavior and organizational activities.
- Rightful matching of workers in rightful jobs because employment is based on expertise.
- It leads to efficiency and effectiveness if properly implemented.
- There is impartiality in transacting organizational business.
- It promotes good record keeping and flow of information.

38
 - It avoids role conflict among employees in the organization.
Disadvantages of bureaucracy
- Initiative may stifled.
- It leads to bureaucratic behavior.
- Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behavior and lack of responsiveness to
individual problems.
- There is over emphasis on roles and procedures, record keeping and paper work may
become more important in its own right than as a means to an end.
- It is quite rigid and may fail to handle emergencies satisfactorily.

39
TOPIC 5: ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN UGANDA
The organization and administrative structure of the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology
and Sports has been changing from time and time over the years. In the recent past education
Policy Review Communication (EPRC) 1989 recommended that the Ministry should be
restructured in such a way that it improves its performance. The commission recommended
seven directorates to be headed by senior officers. This proposal was adopted by government
and reflected in the White Paper on Education of 1992. The policy was implemented with the
establishment of Education Standards Agency (ESA) which is now the Directorate of Education
Standards (DES) and in 2010 the Ministry went further restructuring and this led to the creation
of three directorates namely: Higher, Technical, Vocational Education and Training; Basic and
Secondary Education and Education Standards with several departments created as well. Some
of them include:
i. Pre-primary and Primary Education
ii. Secondary Education
iii. Private schools
iv. Higher Education
v. Teachers and instructor education
vi. Technical and Vocational education
vii. Primary Teacher Education Standards
viii. Secondary Education Standards
ix. Pre and Primary Education Standards
x. Technical Vocational Education Standards
xi. Physical Education and Sports
xii. Guidance and Counselling
xiii. Inclusive and Special Education
xiv. Education Planning and Policy Analysis
xv. Sports

Functions of the Ministry of Education and Sports

1. It has the overall responsibility of maintaining and development of education system in
Uganda through formulation of policies, reforms etc.
2. To train and retrain the teaching corps and educational administrators. It has to provide
employment facilities for them
3. It is supposed to pay teachers’ salaries, allowances and terminal benefits

40
 4. To ensure adequate and effective planning for educational services in the country through
the Education and Planning department
5. To ensure quality and quantity control, maintenance of education in the country through
regular inspection and provision of educational services through in-service and pre-
service programmes
6. It provides financial support by giving grants to schools, scholarship to students in order
to facilitate the running of educational institutions.
7. It coordinates educational activities such as preparation and administration of National
Examinations conducted at PLE, UCE, UACE etc.
8. It ensures that a central curriculum has been drawn for the education system through the
National Curriculum Development Centre.
9. Procurement and disbursement of imported and local education materials
10. It is responsible for the registration of newly qualified teachers
11. It approves newly established private schools by registering and licensing them
12. It is responsible for promoting and disciplining of teachers
13. It confirms teachers into the teaching service

Key officials in the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology & Sports

The Ministry is headed by the minister of Education, Science, technology and Sports. The
minister is the political head of the Ministry and is appointed by the President of Uganda in
accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda of 1995.
The Permanent Secretary is the Executive head of the ministry and is appointed by the Public
Service Commission in accordance with the 1995 Constitution.
During the colonial and past colonial period the title was CHIEF EDUCATION OFFICER. After
the Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) report in 1989 the title changed to
Commissioner for Education Administration. After restructuring of the Ministry the new title
changed to Director of Education. The departments are headed by an officer whose title is
Commissioner for Education. Deputy is directly below the Commissioners in carrying out their
responsibilities. These are followed by Assistant Commissioners. Principal Education Officers
are senior officers in the administrative and professional hierarchy, of the ministry whose role is
to carryout responsibilities assigned to them by the Deputy Commissioners in accordance with

41
the job description pertaining to those officers. Senior education officers are a set of cadre of
officers in the ministry who are below the principal education officers in the administrative and
professional hierarchy of the ministry. Education officers are yet another cadre of officers at the
headquarters of the ministry who assist the senior education officers in carrying out the
responsibilities in accordance with job description and specification pertaining to those officers.

The role of the Minister of Education, Science, Technology and Sports

1. To ensure that budget estimates are prepared correctly and adequately in accordance to
the prevailing policies, priorities and circumstances
2. To control the Ministry’s finances
3. Presentation of education bills to cabinet and parliament for discussion
4. Appoints members of the management committee and board of governors
5. Ensures the government policies on education are being handled properly and effectively
6. Represents the ministry in international conferences, workshops and various forums
7. Ensures that work is performed effectively and efficiently in the ministry
8. Ensures that the education system is open to all Ugandans and is adequately provided
9. Participates in lobbying and securing of loans, grants, donations to the education ministry
10. Ensures that there is adequate funding to the ministry

The roles of Permanent Secretary

1. Is the accounting officer to the treasury
2. Handles and advices on matters of finance
3. Prepares instruments of appointment for the minister
4. Is in-charge of all the administrative matters of the ministry
5. Advices the minister on technical matters

Make further reading on the roles of the other officers and supplement on what was given

42
TOPIC 6: ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT THE DISTRICT LEVEL
Administration of education at the district level should be considered in the context of the policy
of decentralization of education. This policy has been articulated in the local Government Act of
1997. The sectors of education which according to the local government act have been
decentralized include:
a) Primary
b) Secondary
c) Technical institutes and schools
It is important to note that so far it is the primary sector of education which has been affectively
decentralized. This policy has been due to inadequate capacity and resources of the local
authorities to effectively manage the other sectors.
Decentralization of primary education is not a new phenomenon in the system of education in
Uganda. It was first introduced by Thomas Education Committee Report of 1942; in 1953 De
Bunsen Education Committee Report re-emphasized it, the Castle Report of 1963 observed that
despite the previous proposals decentralization of primary education was still weak and should
be strengthened. This was finally reflected in the Local Government Act of 1997.

Reason for the decentralization of education

The policy of decentralization of primary education was hinged on two major considerations:
i. Political – decentralization had to be supported by the local persons by accepting the
policies, participating in the implementation process and hence generate the urge of
having the policy as ours.
ii. Financial – the local people would be in a better position to know and identify their
educational needs better than the officials in the Ministry of Education headquarters.
This would make them be willing to contribute financially and materially towards the
development of education.
Issues of the education sector that are handled at the centre
i. Curriculum design and development
ii. Training of teachers including primary, secondary and teacher education
iii. Funding payment of teachers’ salaries
iv. Setting and conducting national examinations

43
 v. Education policy formulation
vi. Formulation of education goals
vii. Setting national standards for quality education for instance, minimum standards
viii. Provision of transport facilities for education institutions
ix. Training of headteachers for instance primary headteachers under teacher from
recognized institutions
x. Provision of key instructional materials like textbooks, chemicals and equipments.
xi. Registration of teachers who have successfully completed their teacher training from
recognized institutions
xii. Posting of tutors and secondary school teachers
xiii. Appointment of Principals of Primary Teacher Training Colleges, National Teachers
Colleges, Uganda College of Commerce and headteachers of secondary schools.

Issues handled at the district level

i. Recruitment and appointment of primary school teachers and headteachers
ii. Disciplining of primary school teachers through the District Service Commission
iii. Posting and transfer of primary school teachers and headteachers
iv. Supervision of primary schools
v. Granting study leave to primary school teachers and headteachers
vi. Planning and budgeting for primary education
vii. Mobilizing of local community for support and development of primary education
viii. Promotion and development of co-curricular activities in schools
ix. Ensures effective implementation of curriculum in the primary schools
x. Building primary schools and upgrading existing schools
xi. Identify location of new schools
xii. Award bursaries to the needy pupils
xiii. Organize workshops and seminars for staff professional development
xiv. Levy of education tax
xv. Participate in fund raising activities for schools
xvi. Confirmation of primary school teachers
xvii. Managing salary payroll for the teachers
xviii. Ensuring proper implementation of national education policies

44
Roles of Local Council V in Education Administration
Local Council V is the highest political organ in the district. It is responsible for the development
and administration of all the provision of services in the district ad in particular it plays the role
of policy formulation and ensuring that both national and local policies are effectively carried
out. As far as educational administration is concerned in the district, the Local Council V is
responsible for the following main functions:
a) Formulation of educational policy for the district
b) Planning for educational development of the district
c) Carrying out financial mobilization and budgeting for education in the district
d) Ensuring effective implementation of both national and local educational policies in the
district
e) Ensuring provision of non-financial resources for educational development in the district
including utilities namely; electricity, water, vehicles, scholastic materials to mention but
a few.
f) Ensure there is proper accountability of funds for education in the district.
g) Ensure proper coordination between the Ministry of Local government and the Ministry
of Education in accordance with the provisions of the Local Government Act 1997.
h) Ensure organization of workshops, retraining and seminars for developing standards of
education in the district.
The role of the Chief Administrative Officer
According to the Local Government Act of 1997, the Chief Administrative Officer is responsible
for all the administrative matters in the district. All matters pertaining to development and
implementation of educational program and policies are his/her major responsibility;
1. Staffing of teachers, headteachers, education officers and other categories of staff in the
education department
2. Supervision and control of education activities
3. Budgeting – ensuring adequate funding for primary education by mobilizing resources
for instance grants, donations
4. Providing accountability for educational funds
5. Advising the District Council, District Service Commission, District Education Officer
and personnel officer on educational matters.

45
 6. Interpretation of government educational policies and strategies.
7. Attending educational meetings, seminars and workshops.
8. Chairs technical planning committee meetings where overall educational plans are
discussed.
The roles of District Education Officer
1. Disciplining of primary teachers and headteachers in consultation with the district service
commission.
2. Liaises with the district service commission in appointment, promotions and demotions
of primary teachers and headteachers.
3. Organizes workshops and short courses for the teachers to enhance their professional
development.
4. Identify vacant posts in schools, educational departments and informs the personnel
officer for further action.
5. He/she is the link between the ministry of education headquarters and the local authority.
6. Is the professional and technical advisor to District Service Commission, Social Services
Committee, and District Council and Personnel office.
7. She/he monitors expenditure of funds in primary schools through the school management
committee reports, returns and audit reports
8. Ensures budget estimates for education department are prepared and submitted to district
council for approval
9. Overall supervisor of education activities in the district
10. Recommends teachers for study leave
11. Ensures that private schools are run in accordance with government policies, procedures
and minimum standards
12. Mobilizes resources for education development in the district-parents for construction of
schools, pupils to attend schools and be retained in the schools until they finish
13. Makes report on education program in the district and discusses it with his/her team
before sending the report to other authorities for instance; chief administrative officer,
district service commission and the technical planning committee.
The roles of District Education Committee

46
It is the body responsible for the organization and management of education activities in the
district. It is comprised of; 9 members of the district council elected by the district council, 4
representatives of the ministry of education and sport and district education officer is the
secretary to the committee and is an “ex-officio” member. The committee performs the
following roles:
a) Distribution and control of funds allocated to the district education office
b) Approving budget estimates prepared by the district education officer before being
submitted to the district council
c) Constitution management committees in schools in the district
d) Mobilizing and administering of funds for the development of schools in the district
e) Planning and deciding on the location of new schools in the district
f) Awarding bursaries to pupils and students in the district
g) Preparing records and returns required by the ministry of education and sports
h) Approval of buildings, furniture and equipment in accordance with the standards laid
down by the ministry of education of sports
i) Ensure proper staffing in various schools in the district
The District Service Commission
1. Advertisement of vacant posts in the district
2. Receiving application from applicants
3. Short listing of applicants
4. Interviewing the short listed applicants
5. Selection of successful applicants
6. Appointment of the selected applicants
7. Confirmation of teachers and other educational administrators
8. Promotion of teachers and administrators
9. Disciplining of teachers and other categories of staff
10. Validation of academic and professional credentials of teachers and also other staff in the
education department

47
TOPIC 7: GOVERNING BODIES OF EDUCATION INSTITUTION
Governing bodies are organs in the management and administration of schools and colleges,
which play a prominent role in looking after the interest of institutions. They are the supreme
body which governs education institutions. Each school or college has a governing body to
administer it. At primary school level, they are called School Management Committee. At
secondary, Primary Training Colleges and Technical Institutions, they are called Boards of
Governors and at university they are called Governing Council.
1. The School Management Committee
The composition of the management committee is as follows; according to the 2008
Education Act:
a) Six members, including the chairperson, nominated by the foundation body, at least two
of whom shall be women.
b) One local government representative nominated by the district councils standing
committee responsible for education
c) One representative of local council committee who shall be the secretary in-charge of
education at a parish council or the sub-county chief or his/her representative
d) One person elected by the sub-county or city division or municipal whichever is the case
e) One representative of the parents of the school elected at the annual general meeting
f) One representative of the staff (both non-teaching and teaching) elected by the staff at a
staff meeting
g) One representative of old boys’ and girls’ (former students) elected at a meeting of the
association of former students, if any, of the respective institution.
2. Board of Governors
Members of the Board of Governors are nominated according to the Education Act of 2008
as well. The Minister of Education, Science, Technology & Sports establishes the Board of
Governors for an education institution subject to the provision of the Schools Board of
Governors Statute.
a) Five members including a chairperson, nominated by the foundation body at least one of
whom shall be women
b) One local government representative nominated by the district council’s standing
Committee responsible for education
c) One nominee of the local council
d) Two representatives of parents of the school elected at the annual general meeting one of
whom shall be the treasure of the parents’ teachers association
e) Two representatives of the staff elected by the staff at one of their meetings

48
 f) One representative of old students elected at a meeting of the association of former
students, if any, of respective institutions
Duties ad powers of governing bodies
1. A governing body governs the school for which it is constituted
2. It administers the property of the school whether movable or immovable
3. It administers any funds, chattels or things of the school derived by the way of fund
raising or auction on behalf of the school
4. It provides for the welfare and discipline of students and fixes fees and other charges with
the approach of the minister.
5. The board may provide more services to the school by employing specialists’ personnel
like nurses and carpenters
6. They approve budget estimates for the proper management and administration of
financial resources of the institution
7. They may organize funds-raising activities to boost the financial position of the school
8. They may recommend the course of action to be taken against undisciplined teachers,
students and non-academic staff
9. They may negotiate for a loan or overdraft from the bank when the need arises
10. They may perform such other functions as prescribed by the Board of Governors
Regulations

THE PARENTS TEACHER’ ASSOCIATION (PTA)

The origin of Parents Teachers’ Association dates back to 1967. They were initiated to create a
healthy relationship between teachers and parents and to cater for the welfare of both the
teachers and pupils. The management of schools was, however, left in the hands of the
governing bodies and the headteachers.

The Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) of 1989 recommends the following roles for
the PTs;
i) To act as voluntary organizations to cater mainly for the welfare of pupils/teachers.
ii) To involve more in the development of activities of the school namely; supporting
cultural activities, games and sports.
iii) To ensure that the parents are not over burdened by levying of high fees.
iv) To work hand in hand with the governing bodies.

49
TOPIC 7: SEMI-AUTONOMOUS/STATUTORY ORGANS

UGANDA NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS BOARD

a) Legal instrument of its establishment
b) Objectives
c) Functions
d) Structure
e) Challenges
f) Future plans
Uganda National Examination Board was established by an Act of Parliament as a Parastatal to
set, print, conduct, distribute, mark and release results but under the Ministry of Education and
Sports. It has UNEB Act of 1983. It can sue and be sued.

The objectives of Uganda National Examination Board are as here under:

 To ensure continued improvement of quality curriculum and learners’ achievements
 To ensure reliability of assessment and evaluation of curriculum and learners’
achievements
The functions of Uganda National Examination Board are as follows:
 It prints exams that are Primary Leaving Examinations, Uganda Certificate Examination
and Uganda Advanced Certificate Examination and others.
 It conducts examination
 It ensures equality in setting and distribution of examinations
 It also handles issuing of certificates
The structure of Uganda Examination Board is comprised of the board members headed by the
Chairman who must be a Vice Chancellor of one of the government universities. Then there is
the executive secretary, who handles the day to day running of the board.

50
 Chairman

Board of members

Executive secretary

Deputy secretary Deputy secretary Deputy

secretary
Secondary Primary Technical

PES PES PES

The challenges faced by the Uganda National Examinations Board are as here under:
- Government influences
- Inadequate finances
- There is increasing number of students for whom it has to set examinations for
- There is a challenge of working in war torn areas which are a threat to their lives and
examinations
- There is still have a challenge of satisfy the whole country
- They also have limited staff yet the work is a lot
The future plans of Uganda National Examinations Board are as follows:
- They have a plan to expand the labour force
- They have a plan to decentralize or services to regions
- They intend to computerize their data
- They intend to start printing their examinations using their own printing
- They have a plan to improve their staff welfare in form of salary increment working
conditions and many others

51
The achievements of Uganda National Examinations Board are as follows:
- They have been able to work hand in hand with other autonomous bodies like National
Curriculum Development Centre, Education Standards Agency and others
- They have tried to maintain improvement in quality of curriculum and learners’
achievement

NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR HIGHER EDUCATION (NCHE)

Higher Education refers to advanced level of education offered beyond a full course of secondary
education (Uganda Education Policy Review Report 1989). It’s offered to students who have
completed A’ level programme or its equivalent.

National Council for Higher Education was established under the Universities and Tertiary
Institutions Act 2001 as a regulatory body governing higher education in Uganda. It comprise of
the university sub-sector (which provide students with programmes leading to diplomas,
undergraduate, masters and doctorate degrees. The tertiary sub-sector comprise of Uganda
Technical Colleges, National Teachers Colleges (NTC), Uganda College of Commerce (UCC)
among others.
Organization structure of National Council of Higher Education
It comprises of the council members who are twenty (20), headed by a chairperson and the
deputy. The Minister of Education, Science, Technology and Sports is also a member of the
council. There are also council committees which are five and these include the following:
Accreditation: this deals with the recognition of those institutions which have maintained or
come up with a given official standards.
Quality assurance: It’s concerned with setting standards and the regulations and eventually
monitors them
Curriculum: it handles issues of curricula so as to make university education relevant to society
needs through necessary curriculum reviews.
Finance and management: it deals with the financial management of the council activities such
as funding projects
Research and development: it is concerned with identifying areas for research in relevant fields
and under takes it.

52
There is also the Nation Council of Higher Education Secretariat which comprises of:
Executive Director
Assistant Executive Director (2)
Finance Officer
Associate Higher Education Officer (3)
Administrative Officer
Secretary (2)
Receptionist
Storekeeper
Officer Attendant
Objectives of National Council for Higher Education
- To build institutional reputation in a competitive local and global arena through uplifting
the best possible standards in higher education.
- To provide relevant and quality higher education and make it relatively accessible to all
the qualified Ugandans
- To create diversified, integrated and flexible higher education capable of managing the
changes in the dynamic society
- To undertake research in the various fields of higher education so as to use the best
teaching methods ad modern technologies to meet and handle the local, national and
global higher educational challenges of the twenty first century.

Functions of National Council for Higher Education

- It sets standards, regulations and monitor them to ensure that all public and private
tertiary education institutions in Uganda create sustain and improve the relevance and
quality of higher education for all the qualified Ugandans
- Accreditation-National Council of Higher Education is responsible of giving credit and
recognizing those institutions that have upheld the set official standards
- The council manages the issues of curriculum which is geared towards making university
education relevant to the society needs. This is done through curriculum reviews for
example Vocational courses such as VAG, VAD, VTS, VBS and VHE among others
- It manages the issue of financial and management of the council or the proper execution
of the council activities

53
 - Its responsible for the qualifying the universities and other institutions of higher learning
which have fulfilled the necessary requirements
- The council is responsible of under-taking research in various fields of higher education
that require restriction, innovations in the issues of academic development for quality
improvement
The challenges of National Council for Higher Education. They include:
 Financial constraints – there is over reliance on the public sector funding which leads to
inadequate funds to execute the council activities
 Unemployment – there is declining job opportunities for the graduates of higher
institutions of learning resulting into higher rates of graduate unemployment
 Infrastructure – there is higher enrolment which is not matched with the facilities. This
has often leaded to crowded lecture rooms, inadequate furniture, rooms not adequately
furnished
 Too much emphasis on the social sciences and humanities accounting for about 85 – 87%
of tertiary education enrolment at the expense of technical and science disciplines yet
today sciences are being recommended in society
 Limited research activities resultant upon the inadequate funding policy of the
government thus there is a gap between the institutions of learning and the society.
Therefore most attempts to make university education relevant to society are not a
success
 Rising demand for enrolment resultant upon population growth and the Universal
Primary Education. Limited attempts/steps have been taken to accommodate the using
demand in terms of facilities
 Inadequate educational facilities such as relevant and up-to-date textbooks, [particularly
science equipments such as laboratories, libraries are not adequately equipped with
modern facilities
 Limited access to information and communications technologies in higher institutions of
learning where the student-computer ratio is still very higher and some institutions
produce graduates who are computer illiterate in this global village.
 Low motivation to the academic and non -academic staff which culminates into high
rates of attrition and low morale among others

54
Future plans of National Council for Higher Education
These are embedded in the strategic plan for Higher Education 2003 – 2005 approved by the
education sector review, November – 2003. These are broadly categorized into five which
include:
Enhancing quality and relevance
a) Reforming the higher education curriculum to sustain and raise the quality of
higher education and make it more relevant and broadly responsive to local national and
regional needs and aspirations.
Through:
i. Every student will be required to take both science and art subjects up to the first year of
university
ii. Balance the enrolments in social science and humanities to science and technology
iii. Every tertiary student passes English, Swahili and Communication Skills
iv. Include subjects that enhances patriotism and national consciousness among university
students
b) Increasing Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and usage. This is
the major medium of teaching and learning in higher education worldwide
- Buying more ICT equipment to facilitate teaching and learning in tertiary education
institutions to achieve the computer-student ratio of 1:15 in universities by 2007 and 1:5
by 2005
- Installing and maintain appropriate ICTs in classroom/lecture theatres
- Assisting tertiary institutions to develop a five year rolling plan integrating appropriate
private ICTs in their operations based in higher education strategic plans. Also develop
teaching materials on compact disks for purchase by students by 2007
- Encourage students and staff to out computer equipment at negotiated discounts or
guaranteed loans for students and staff by 2007
- Quality assurance: this will be achieved/measured through, the relevance of the
curriculum to national aspirations and general public welfare

55
Attraction and retention of academic staff
The quality of tertiary institution depends on the quality of its academic staff. Who are pillars in
educational provision.
Through:
Instituting a salary package commensurate with staff training and skills establish transparent
living, promotion and firing procedures. Involve staff in institutional decision making process.
- Development of research, intellectual exchange and publications by instituting a research
levy on all students fees. Develop a policy of implementing research findings
- Increased and equitable access. Most students in higher institutions are males. Students
from peasant backgrounds and marginalized regions have limited access to higher
education
Through:
- Extending affirmative action for female students to account for about 50% of the
enrolments. Enabling lectures to access ICTs
Eliminating rigidities so that the students can move easily amongst disciplines without loss of
study
Balancing enrolments in social sciences and humanities
Improving/expanding physical facilities
Through:
Rehabilitation, construction, increasing and maintaining lecture rooms, laboratory, library space
Installing ICTs in libraries, increase the number of relevant library books
Increase total academic staff from current 3,253 to 5056 by 2015.
Efficient and effective higher education
- Through committing public funds key strategic areas setting up a government scholarship
scheme to target strategic disciplines in line with national development and priorities
regardless of whether the beneficiary is in a public or private university
- Loan scheme started as soon as possible but not later than 2007 to benefit poor students
in private and public institutions
- Sourcing loans from local and international donors and institute income generating
activities

56
Improving governance and management in higher education institutions
- Enabling non-university tertiary institutions have them own management organs others
than being controlled by the Ministry of Education and Sports
- Guarantee the autonomy and freedom of the universities
- Establish a functional database management system
- Restructuring the higher education system to allow for horizontal integration
Prevention and control of HIV/AIDS
- Putting deliberate attempts to manage the HIV/AIDS epidemic in higher institutions
- Instituting an HIV/AIDS sub-committee under the National Council of Higher Education
- Developing clear guidelines to be used by Higher Education institutions to combat
HIV/AIDS accordance with government policy on HV/AIDS
References
1. The strategic plan for higher Education 2003-2005. Approved by Education Sector
Review, November 2003.
2. The Uganda Higher Education Review, Journal of the National Council for Higher
Education Vol.2 No.2 October 2005.

DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION STANDARD (DES)

a) Legal instrument establishing it
Directorate of Education Standard (DES) was established in July 2001. Its mandate is to
maintain qualitative academic and disciplinary standards in the education sector and
institutions of Uganda. This mandate emanates from the Education Act from the letter of
Minister of Public Service Reference MPS 14/109/1 dated 5 th March 2001 in accordance
with cabinet’s decision of divestive, authorizing the Minister of Education and Sports to
set up a separate (semi-autonomous) body to replace the Education Inspectorate.
b) Objectives of DES
DES’s mandate embraces the following objectives:
- Setting, defining and reviewing standards in education practice
- To develop systematic approaches to inspection and evaluation and self-evaluation
systems using appropriate indicators
- To assess he achievements of standards and to evaluate the effectiveness of educational
programmes of institutions

57
 - To provide and disseminate regular reports on the quality of education
- To develop the use of reports as a mechanism to provide support for and dissemination of
good practice
Functions of DES
To fulfill the objectives in (b) above the formal operational roles and functions of DES include
the following:
(i) DES is mandated to carry out a national programme of general inspection. Having
defined the standards and quality to be expected, there should be a programme of
inspection and subsequent dissemination of findings aimed at improving the quality
of national education and training provision. This programme covers planned samples
of schools and of other educational institutions and organizations.
(ii) It also reports on aspects of educational provision. Inspectors undertake inspections
and visits which inter alia provide the basis for reports on defined aspects of
educational provision, such as on methods of teaching, on the implementation of the
curriculum, on the implementation of policy, and on the availability and use of
specific resources.
(iii) DES also provides regular reports to the Ministry of Education and Sports. Inspectors
provide reports annually on the strength and weaknesses in the education and training
system as a whole. The state of the nation reports are based directly on the collected
evidence and findings from the inspection programme, indicating trends and reporting
on the influence of government initiatives as appropriate. The reports form part of
the requirement of an annual contract of services between the DES and government
(iv) DES also works in close liaison with the office of the Permanent Secretary of the
Ministry of Education and Sports in providing advice to the minister and appropriate
departments in government. To fulfill this function DES provides advice and expert
information and comments on specific aspects of education policy and practice. This
advice is either in response to requests by the minister or on his behalf or is provided
at the instigation of the DES in the light of collated evidence and conclusions drawn
from the inspection programme.
(v) It maintains close contact with Directors of Education and Chief Administrative
officers in local authorities, and with the heads of major educational institutions. This

58
 is done through programmed visits by members of the region or headquarters office
staff. These contacts enable DES to offer expert advice and at the same time obtain
information which will inform the programme planning within DES.
(vi) DES establishes and sustains links as appropriate with other external bodies. There is
formal liaison through membership of appropriate committees or boards with bodies
such as UNEB, NCDC, ESC and NHCE. This ensures collaborative working with
these bodies and with IGG. There is also informal liaison on key areas of mutual
concern with a suitable range of other agencies and organizations directly concerned
with education and its products, including industry, commence and the public at
large. These links allow DES to be in position to offer expert advice and at the same
time obtain information which in-form programme planning within DES.
(vii) To progressively enhance the status and effectiveness of DES in line with achieved
improvements in the educational service. Directorate of Education Standards should
increasingly be seen as a source of reliable advice and a means by which the quality
of education is improved particular through their identification of good practices as
well as their routing out of inadequacies.
(d) DES structure
The structure of DES is divided into:
Central structure; and
Regional structure
a) Central structure – the structure at the centre (headquarters) is meant to provide overall
coordination of programmes, advice and transmission of collated reports. The
headquarters is situation at Kyambogo next to National Curriculum Development Centre.
The structure is as shown below:

Director

Deputy Director

ACI PPE ACI SEC ACI BTVET ACI TE ACI Tertiary

SI Prerimary SI Secondary BTVET SI SI

SI Technical Teacher Professional
SI Primary 59
SI Business
SI Vocational Education SI University
Education

Principal Administration and Finance Officer

b) Regional structure: There are four regional set up and the staff are based at Mpigi, Mbale,
Mbarara and Gulu. The regional staff coordinate the region’s contribution to the national
inspection programme. The regional structure is as shown below:

Principal Inspector Administrator and head of the region

(1 per region)

Senior Inspectors These cover subject or subject groups of

secondary and post-secondary education.
Also cover specialist areas of SNE and
career guidance and counseling (12 per
region)

Inspectors Secondary Liaise with districts to work out programmes

of inspection and supervision of schools
(4 per region)
c) Achievements of DES
Developed a self-assessment and evaluation model for school/institutional manager to
improve school based supervision.

In partnership with the school of education Makerere University, develop modules for
conducting refresher course for secondary school headteachers on school management,

60
 teaching process and the role of the teacher, and the learning process and the role of the
learner.

DES had develop quality indicators to monitor the implementation of PIASCY (Presidential
Initiative on AIDS Communication to the Youth) in schools in terms of integration of
HIV/AIDS in schools or institutional programmes, involvement of people living with
HIV/AIDS in school/institution programmes, level at which HIV/AIDS information is
accessed, and control measures against stigmatization and discrimination.

DES has continued to consolidate the association (AA) model in monitoring quality
school/institutional process by training headteachers of secondary schools in a number of
districts, district inspectorate staff to inspect not only primary but also secondary schools,
directors and principals of PTCs/NTCs in the management of teacher education institutions,
and regional inspectors who have increased the number of routine inspections.

f) Registered challenges facing DES

Lack of feedback on actions taken or recommendations made in the DES reports to enable the
agency monitor progress in schools/institutions on targets of inspections and implementations of
recommendations to improve performance, District Education Office on follow ups/monitoring
the implementations of recommendations and Ministry of Education and Sports and Teacher
Education institutions on actions taken to address specific areas of policy concern.

Lack of national assurance policy and framework to guide the development and setting of
performance standards to be used as basis for evaluation of sector performance, streamlining of
specific monitoring responsibility centres and establishment of more focused reporting and
feedback channels.

Lack of formal linkage between DES and the Districts for proper coordination of inspection
activities and incorporation of district reports within national reports.

61
Inadequate facilitation (funding and vehicles) for the regional offices to monitor the quality of
education in districts within their areas of jurisdiction.

Inadequate facilitation for District Inspectorates to enable them intensify school inspections.

Absence of a legal framework to provide DES with a more empowering status to set and monitor
the achievement of standards in education provision.

g) Future plans
i) Putting in place an annual work plan
ii) To develop basic requirements and minimum standards of all education institutions under
Ministry of Education.
iii) Try to ensure that quality education is re-installed I Uganda
iv) Proposal to give money to inspectors
v) Teachers of numeracy and literacy to teach effectively
vi) Prepare written inspector’s guide to be used to train inspectors because their input is so
important as far as inspection is concerned
vii) Make greater coverage of institutions and provide guidance and counseling to lecturers, and
teachers
viii) Continual training of people to carryout support supervision
ix) Institution based self- assessment

References
1. Education Standard Agency, Establishment, structure, mission and functions handout,
January 2005.

62
NATIONAL CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE
The legal framework responsible for the establishment of National Curriculum Development
Centre is the National Curriculum Development Centre Act which commenced on 1 st April 1973.

The objectives of the centre include the following:

(i) To carryout curriculum innovations in order to suit the needs of society
(ii) To draft a teaching scheme, textbooks for teachers and examining bodies
(iii) To organize and conduct new courses for institutions and subjects for secondary
schools
The functions of the centre include the following:
(i) To initiate new syllabuses, to revise existing ones and to carry out curriculum
reforms, research testing and evaluation to bring up-to-date and improved syllabuses
to schools and colleges.
(ii) To design and develop teaching aids and instructional materials
(iii) To advise, test and evaluate examination questions and methods of examining
students with other appropriate teaching and examining bodies.
(iv) To organize and conduct in-service courses in instruction for the acquisition of
knowledge and professional skills by persons intending or requiring to teach new
courses develop at the centre.
(v) To organize and conduct courses in the objectives and methods of curriculum
development for persons required to participate in curriculum development work.
(vi) To hold seminars and conferences on curriculum development projects and problems
(vii) To collect, compile, analyse and extract statistical information on curriculum and
matters related to curriculum.
(viii) To publish information, bulletin, digest, periodic on written materials concerning
curriculum and other matters related to curriculum
(ix) To disseminate and promote general and better knowledge and understanding of new
curriculums, teaching methods and aids
(x) The centre may have such other functions as the minister may see fit from time to
time specify by statutory order.

63
The structure of NCDC include:
The governing body of the centre includes the council consisting of:

The Permanent Secretary of the Ministry responsible for education

The Permanent Secretary of the Ministry responsible for Finance, Planning and Economic
Development

The Chief Education Officers

Chief Inspector of Schools

The Principal of Uganda Technical College

The Principal of the Uganda College of Commerce

The Principal of Uganda Management Institute

The Registrar Makerere University

The Director of the National Institute of Education Makerere University

The Director of the Center for Continuing Education Makerere

The Director of the National Examination Board

The Director of National Teacher College Kyambogo

The Chairperson Headteachers Association

The President of the Association of Principals of Teacher Training Colleges

The Representative of East African Academy

The Representative of the National Federation of Uganda Employee

64
Achievements of the centre include the following:
- The center has been able to make sample questions
- It has also been able to work hand in hand with UNEB to produce an evaluation of the
curriculum
- It has been able to discover causes of poor performance in schools by working with
UNEB
- It has equipped teachers and tutors with skills necessary to handle the continuous failure
in school subjects
Challenges faced by the centre include the following:
- Inadequate manpower is one of the challenges faced by the centre because many young
people do not want to teach due to poor pay
- Also lack of qualified manpower in some subjects like Music, Political Studies among
others.
- Inadequate finance is another challenge faced by NCDC. Before the centre used to
publish books since 2003 the authority was taken away from it because of limited funds.
Instead the centre writes support materials like modules, syllabuses which are sold to
supplement on the little finances got from government.
- Limited research is another challenge faced by the centre. This has hindered their
activities like publishing of textbooks
- Political interference is also a challenge faced by the centre. Where decision making
process is integrated by politicians. For instance the implantation of Universal Primary
Education was meant to be a gradual exercise but it was implemented pre-maturely as a
campaigning strategy
- Inadequate education facilities like computers, textbooks has hindered the centre from
performing its duties.

65