CHAP 10: FOOD, SOIL, PEST MANAGEMENT an organism’s genetic material through adding, deleting,,changing lower) than traditional
deleting,,changing lower) than traditional strains. – High inputs cost too much for
Many people suffer from chronic health , malnutrition
• Food security: enough nutritious food to live active , healthy life. •
1/6 people in less-developed face food insecurity - chronic hunger,
poor nutrition => threatens their ability to lead healthy , productive
lives. The root cause of food insecurity is poverty. – obstacles: political
upheaval, war, corruption, bad weather or disasters (prolonged
drought, flooding, heat waves.) • To maintain good health,resist
disease, individuals need: - Large amounts of macronutrients
(carbohydrates, proteins,fats) - Smaller amounts of micronutrients
(vitamins, minerals)• chronic undernutrition, or hunger. • chronic
malnutrition: a deficiency of key nutrients, makes them vulnerable to
disease, hinders normal development of children. Deficiency of one or
more vitamins, minerals, usually vitamin A, iron, iodine. Lack of iron
causes anemia which causes fatigue, makes infection more likely,
increases woman’s chances of dying from hemorrhage in childbirth. •
cause stunted growth, mental retardation, goiter. • eliminating this
health problem would cost only 2–3 cents per year for every person in
the world. Many people have health problems from eating too much
• Over-nutrition: food energy intake exceeds energy use, causing
excess body fat. • health problems: lower life expectancy, greater
susceptibility to disease , lower productivity , life quality. Obesity: four
of the top ten causes of death in the United States - heart disease,
stroke, Type 2 diabetes, some forms of cancer.Food production has
increased dramatically • shift from hunting, gathering food->
growing, raising animals for food, labor. • three systems supply food.
– Croplands produce mostly grains. – Rangelands, pastures, feedlots:
meat. – Fisheries , aquaculture: seafood. • Since 1960, increase in
global food production technological advances. – Tractors, farm
machinery,high-tech fishing equipment. – Irrigation. – Inorganic
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, high-yield grain varieties, industrialized
production of livestock ,fish.
Industrialized crop production relies on high-input monocultures
Agriculture to grow crops has two types: – Industrialized agriculture,
high-input agriculture: uses heavy equipment, large amounts of
capital, produce single crops,,monocultures. • Major goal: increase
yield, food produced per unit of land. • Used 25% world’s cropland,
mostly in more-developed countries, produces 80% world’s food. –
Plantation agriculture: form of industrialized agriculture used in
tropical less-developed countries.• Grows cash crops: bananas, soy
beans, vegetables.• Crops grown on large monoculture plantations,
for export to more-developed countries. – Modern industrialized
agriculture violates the three principles of sustainability by relying
heavily on fossil fuels, reducing natural, crop biodiversity, neglecting
the conservation, recycling of nutrients in topsoil. Traditional
agriculture often relies on low-input polycultures in less-developed
countries.• two main types – Traditional subsistence agriculture
supplements energy from the sun with labor of humans, draft animals
to produce enough crops for survival, with little left over to sell. – In
traditional intensive agriculture, farmers increase their inputs of
human, water, fertilizers to obtain higher crop yields, some for sell •
Polyculture grow several crops on the same plot simultaneously. –
Crop diversity reduces the chance of losing most of the year’s food
supply to pests, bad weather, misfortunes. – Crops mature at different
times, provide food throughout the year, reduce the input of human
labor, keep the soil covered to reduce erosion from wind ,water. –
Lessens need for fertilizer, water – Insecticides ,herbicides are rarely
needed. Low-input polyculture produces higher yields than does
high-input monoculture.
Industrialized crop production • Farmers can produce more food by
increasing their land,their yields per acre. • Three steps of green
revolution: 1. develop monocultures of selectively breed, high yield
varieties of key crops. 2. produce high yields by using large inputs of
water, synthetic inorganic fertilizers, pesticides.3. increase number of
crops grown per year on a plot of land through multiple cropping. first
green revolution (America, 1950 -1970)
Crossbreeding,genetic engineering produce varieties of
crops,livestock • Crossbreeding through artificial selection has been
used for centuries by farmers,scientists to develop genetically
improved crops,livestock animals. • second gene revolution : Alters
that rivers provide. -Desalination:removing dissolved salts from ocean
segments of its DNA to produce desirable traits,to eliminate
undesirable ones (gene splicing); resulting organisms are called
genetically modified organisms – GMOs.– Gene splicing is faster, costs
less,allows for the insertion of genes from almost any other organism
into crop cells.
Meat production has grown steadily • 50% world’s meat: livestock
grazing on grass in unfenced rangelands,enclosed pastures.• The
other half: industrialized system ( animals are raised in densely packed
feedlots ,concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), where they
are fed grain, fish meal,,fish oil, doctored with growth hormones,
antibiotics) • serious environmental impacts on the air,water. Fish,
shellfish production increased dramatically • A fishery :
concentration of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial
harvesting in a given ocean area,inl,body of water. • Industrial fishing
fleets harvest most of the world’s marine catch of wild fish. •
aquaculture: raising marine,freshwater fish in freshwater ponds,rice
paddies,in underwater cages in coastal waters,in deeper ocean waters.
• Industrialized food production requires huge inputs of energy • The
industrialization of food production has been possible by energy
(nonrenewable oil,natural gas) • Energy is needed to run farm
machinery, irrigate crops,produce synthetic pesticides,synthetic
inorganic fertilizers, process food,transport it long distances
agriculture: most harmful environmental impact • limit future food
production -> unsustainable.
Topsoil erosion: serious problem • Soil erosion: movement of soil
components, (surface litter,topsoil) from one place to another by
wind,water. • harmful effects: – Loss soil fertility through depletion of
plant nutrients in topsoil. – Water pollution in nearby surface waters ->
kill fish,shellfish,clog irrigation ditches, boat channels,
reservoirs,lakes.• removing vital plant nutrients from topsoil,adding
excess plant nutrients to aquatic systems -> degrade the
topsoil,pollute the water,alter the carbon, nitrogen,phosphorus cycles.
Drought,human activities are degrading drylands • Desertification
(arid,semiarid parts) threatens livestock,crop contributions (food
supply) • Desertification: productive potential of topsoil falls by
10%,more because of prolonged drought + human activities that
expose topsoil to erosion.
Excessive irrigation • Irrigation boosts productivity of farms •
irrigation water : a dilute solution of various salts that are picked up as
the water flows over,through soil,rocks. • Repeated annual
applications of irrigation water in dry climates -> gradual accumulation
of salts in upper soil layers (salinization) that stunts crop growth,
lowers crop yields, kill plants,ruin the land. • waterlogging: water
accumulates underground -> raises the water table • contributes to
depletion of groundwater,surface water supplies.
Agriculture contributes to air pollution, projected climate change •
25% of the human-generate demissions of Co2, other greenhouse
gases. • Industrialized livestock : 18% greenhouse gases; cattle,dairy
cows release methane( generated by liquid animal manure stored in
waste lagoons)• Nitrous oxide, 300 times the warming capacity of CO2
per molecule: released in huge quantities by synthetic inorganic
fertilizers + livestock manure.
Food, biofuel production systems caused major losses of biodiversity
• Natural biodiversity, ecological services are threatened when
forests, grasslands are replaced with croplands to produce
food,biofuels( ethanol) • loss of agrobiodiversity, the world’s genetic
variety of animal,plant species. • genetic “library,” for increasing food
yields, is rapidly shrinking.
Controversy over genetically engineered foods • Arisen over the use
of genetically modified (GM) food,other products of genetic
engineering. • GM food: potentially sustainable way to solve world
hunger problems,improve human health. • Some consider it
potentially dangerous “Frankenfood.” – We know too little about the
long-term potential harm to human health,ecosystems – GMOs
released into the environment -> unintended harmful genetic,
ecological effects – Reduce natural genetic biodiversity of wild strains –
potential benefits may > its risks
Limits to the green revolution– Without huge inputs of inorganic
fertilizer, pesticides,water, produce yields no higher (are sometimes
less-developed countries. – Clearing tropical forests,irrigating arid land
has poor soil fertility, steep slopes. – Cultivating such land usually is
expensive, unsustainable, reduces biodiversity –Fertile croplands in
coastal areas flooded by rising sea levels – Food production could
drop because of increased drought, heat waves
Industrialized meat production: harmful environmental
consequences • Feedlots, confined animal production facilities
increases meat production, profits reduces overgrazing.• use lot of
energy (fossil fuels),water -> lots of animal waste -> pollute surface
water ,groundwater, saturate the air -> climate-changing greenhouse.•
Meat produced by industrialized agriculture is artificially cheap –
harmful environmental andhealth costs are not included in the prices.
• The use of fossil fuels energy pollutes the air,water,emits greenhouse
gases. • Use of antibiotics increased.
CHAP 11:
Concerns regarding water include: ∙Access to freshwater. ∙An
economic issue vital for reducing poverty and producing food and
energy. ∙Women’s and children’s issue because they’re responsible for
finding and carrying daily supplies of water. ∙A national and global
security issue(tensions within and between nations over access to
limited water resources that they share). ∙Environmental issue
because excessive withdrawal of water from rivers and aquifers.
-About 0.024% water available as liquid freshwater. -freshwater is
distributed in hydrologic cycle, except : ∙Overloaded with pollutants.
∙Withdraw water supplies faster than it is replenished. ∙Alter long-term
precipitation rates and distribution patterns of freshwater through our
influence on projected climate change. -The zone of saturation where
the spaces are fully filled with water. -Water table:The top of
groundwater zone. -Aquifers (Most aquifers are renewable resources)
:underground caverns and porous layers of sand, gravel, or bedrock
through which groundwater flows. -Watertight layers of rock or clay
below such aquifers keep the water from escaping deeper into the
earth. -Surface water:freshwater from precipitation and snowmelt
that flows across the earth’s land surface and into lakes, wetlands, to
the oceans. -surface runoff: Precipitation that does not infiltrate the
ground or return to the atmosphere. -Watershed, or drainage basin:
The land from which surface water drains into a particular river, lake,
wetland… -2/3 of the annual surface runoff in rivers and streams is
lost by seasonal floods, 1/3 còn lại is reliable surface runoff, We now
withdraw about 34% of the world’s reliable runoff of freshwater.
-70% of the water we withdraw used to irrigate cropland, industry
uses 20%, and residences 10%. -Affluent lifestyles require large
amounts of water. - The main factors that cause water scarcity are dry
climate, drought, too many people using a water supply more quickly
than it can be replenished, and wasteful use of water. -We can
increase freshwater supplies by: ∙withdrawing groundwater; building
dams and reservoirs . ∙Transporting surface water from one area to
another; and converting saltwater to freshwater. ∙reducing freshwater
waste. -Withdrawing Ground water: ∙Advantages: useful for drinking
& irrigation, exist almost everywhere, renewable if not over pumped
or contaminated, cheaper to xtract than most surface waters. ∙Disadv:
Aquifier depletion form overpumping, sinking of land, land subsidence
damage roadways, water &sewer lines, & building foundations,
pollution of aquifier last for decades, deeper wells are nonrenewable,
Groundwater near coastal pull saltwater into freshwater aquifers->
undrinkable and unusable for irrigation. -Deep water aquifers hold
enough freshwater to support billions of people for centuries. -Ground
water depletion: ∙Prevention: waste less water, subsidize water
consumtion, limit # of wells, don’t grow water-inensive crops in dry
areas. ∙control: raise price of water to discourage waste, tax water
pumped from wells, set minimum stream flow, divert surface water in
wet years. -dam and reservoir (increased the annual reliable runoff
33%.): ∙capture and store runoff and release it as needed to control
floods. ∙generate electricity (hydroelectricity). ∙supply water for
irrigation and for towns and cities. ∙provide recreational activities.
-Negative effects of dams: ∙displaced 40–80 million people from their
homes. ∙flooded an area of mostly productive land totaling roughly the
area of California. ∙impaired some of the important ecological services
water or from brackish water in aquifers or lakes for domestic use.
∙Distillation: heating saltwater until it evaporates. ∙Reverse osmosis
(or microfiltration) uses high pressure to force saltwater through a
membrane filter with pores small enough to remove the salt. -3 major
problems of desalination: The high cost, kills many marine organisms
and need nhiều energy, produces huge quantities of salty wastewater
that must go somewhere. -Flood: happens when water in a stream
overflows its normal channel and spills into the adjacent area, called a
floodplain. -Floodplains: highly productive wetlands, provide natural
flood and erosion control, maintain high water quality, and recharge
groundwater. -Reduce the threat of flooding: narrowed river equipped
with protective levees and walls. -Floods provide several benefits:
Create farmland, Recharge groundwater, refill wetlands. -Water
pollution:change in water quality -> harms humans, living organisms
or unsuitable for human uses. -Point sources: discharge pollutants at
specific locations (easy to identify, monitor, and regulate). -Nonpoint
sources: broad, diffuse areas, where pollutants enter water or air
(Difficult, expensive to identify & control). -Agricultural activities are
the leading cause of water pollution. -Rivers, streams recover rapidly
from moderate levels of degradable through combination of dilution &
biodegradation by bacteria. -Lakes and reservoirs vulnerable to
contamination because contain stratified layers & Little or no flow.
-Eutrophication: natural nutrient enrichment of a shallow lake caused
by runoff of plant nutrients. -Cultural eutrophication: human activities
near urban or agricultural areas accelerate plant nutrients to lake.
-Prevent or reduce cultural eutrophication: Advanced (but expensive)
waste treatment to remove nitrates and phosphates before
wastewater enters lakes, Banning the use of phosphates in detergents,
soil conservation & land-use control to reduce nutrient runoff. -clean
up lakes suffering cultural eutrophication: Mechanically remove
excess weeds, Control undesirable plant growth with herbicides and
algaecides, Pump air through lakes and reservoirs to prevent oxygen
depletion. -Groundwater pollution: is a serious threat to human
health because it cannot cleanse itself of degradable wastes.(Flows so
slowly, Low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, small populations
bacteria, Usually colder so chemical reactions slower). -Largest source
of ocean oil pollution is urban & industrial runoff from land. -Recovery
from exposure to crude oil in warm waters, rapid currents within 3 yrs.
But in cold and calm waters take decades. -Recovery from exposure to
refined oil can take 10–20 yrs or longer. -Preventing oil pollution: Use
oil tankers with double hulls. More stringent safety standards and
inspections reduce oil well blowouts at sea. Businesses, institutions,
citizens in coastal areas should prevent leaks and spillage of oil.
-Prevent water pollution: ∙prevent groundwater pollution, ∙reduce
non-point runoff, ∙reuse treated wastewater, ∙find substitute for toxic
pollutants, ∙work with nature to treat sewage, ∙practice
reduce,reuse,recycle, ∙reduce air pollution, ∙reduce poverty, ∙slow
population growth, ∙fertilize with manure & composet fertilizer,
∙minimize use of pesticide, ∙prevent yard waste from entering drains,
∙not use water freshener in toilets, ∙not flush unwanted medicine in
toilets, ∙not pour pesticide, paints,oil,… down the drain or to the
ground.
CHAP 13
Net energy yield = total available – total needed
Net energy = energy produced/energy used to produce it (ratio < 1:
loss). Any energy resource with a LOW or NEGATIVE net energy ratio
cannot compete in the open marketplace without government
financial support and outside fundings (vd: nuclear power). Most
commercial energy comes from extracting and burning nonrenewable
energy (87% fossil fuels – oil, coal, natural gas, 6% nuclear, 8%
renewable).
Crude oil (petroleum) is a black, gooey liquid consisting of hundreds of
different combustible hydrocarbons along with small amounts of
sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen impurities. Crude oil is now the single
largest source of commercial energy in the world. Adv: ample supplies
for decades, high but decreasing net energy, low lad disruption,
efficient distribution system. Disad: water pollutions from oil
spills/leaks, not include environmental costs in market price, CO2 and
air pollutants when burned
Extraction, processing, and burning of nonrenewable oil and other
fossil fuels cause: Land disruption, Air/Water pollution, greenhouse
gas emissions, biodiversity loss. Natural gas: mixture of gas, 50-90%
CH4, high net energy, versatile fuel (for heat, propel vehicles,
electricity), above most reservoirs of crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) – low net energy. Cleanest-burning among the fossil fuels.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel, plentiful, dirty and cheap. Mining, burning
coal’s severe impacts: Largest emitters of CO2, Emits trace amounts of
toxic and radioactive materials, highly toxic ash. Adv: ample supplies,
high net energy yield, low cost (envi./health costs not include). Disad:
severe land distuburnce, water pollution, fine particle and toxic
mercury emissions threaten health, large amount of CO2/air pollutions
when burned.
Nuclear energy Nuclear power plant: highly complex and costly
system, to boil water to produce steam that spins a turbine and
generates electricity. Light-water reactors (LWRs) produce 85% of the
world’s nuclear-generated electricity (100% in the U.S.). The fuel for a
reactor made from uranium ore mined from the earth’s crust,
enriched and processed into pellets of uranium dioxide. Nuclear fuel
cycle includes: mine uranium, process and enrich uranium to make
fuel, use it in the reactor, safely store the resulting highly radioactive
wastes for thousands of years until radioactivity falls to safe levels,
retire highly radioactive plant by taking it apart, store its high- and
moderate-level radioactive material safely for thousands of years.
Stored spent radioactive fuel rods are vulnerable to terrorist acts.
Conventional Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Adv: low envi. impacts (without
accidents), emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coal, low risks of accidents)
Disad: low net energy yield, high cost, long-lived harmful radioactive
wastes, promote nuclear weapons. Deep burial: safest, cheapest way
to store high-level radioactive wastes. Nuclear power reduce oil
dependency, reduce or eliminate CO2 emissions and reduce threat of
projected climate change, increase uranium dependency due to
increased use.
Nuclear power plants do not produce greenhouse gasses but the
nuclear fuel cycle does. Nuclear power is the world’s slowest growing
form of commercial energy.
Energy efficiency: how much work get from each unit of energy. 84%
commercial energy (41% energy is unavoidably + 43% is wasted
unnecessarily). Reducing energy waste: waste large amounts of
energy unnecessarily: Incandescent light bulbs( 95%), internal
combustion engine (80%), nuclear power plant (65%), coal-fired power
plant (66%). Solution Reducing energy waste: prolongs fossil fuel
supply, reduce oil imports and improves energy security, high net
energy yield, saves a lot of money, reduces pollution and
environmental degradation, buys time to phrase in renewable energy,
creates local jobs. Ways for industries to cut energy waste: Save
energy and money in industry by replacing energy-wasting electric
motors, Recycling materials such as steel and other metals, Switch
incandescent lighting to higher-efficiency lighting. Other ways to save
energy in transportation include: shifting, mass transit systems,
high-speed rail lines, bicycle, video conferencing. Design buildings that
save energy and money: Changes in building design and construction,
orienting a building so it can get more of its heat from the sun, green
architecture, super insulated houses, green building certification
standards, efficiency standards. Save energy and money in existing
buildings: Make an energy audit: Insulate the building and plug leaks,
use energy-efficient windows, heat houses more efficiently, Heat water
more efficiently, use energy-efficient appliances, use energy-efficient
lighting. Common energy resources are artificially cheap, mainly due
to government subsidies and prices do not include the harmful
envi/health costs, economic incentives for consumers and businesses
to invest in improving energy efficiency, The U.S. government has done
a poor job of encouraging fuel efficiency, Inadequate energy-efficiency
building codes and appliance standards. Renewable energy can come
from geothermal energy from the earth’s interior which provide 20%
of the world’s electricity by 2025 and 50% by 2050. Heat buildings and
water with solar energy: Passive solar heating system, Active solar
heating system. Cool buildings naturally: open windows, living roof,
superinsulation and high-efficiency windows, block the high summer
sun, light-colored roof, geothermal heat pumps. Concentrate sunlight
to produce high-temperature heat and electricity: solar thermal
systems, the net energy yield for solar thermal systems is only about
3%, inexpensive solar cookers focus and concentrate sunlight for
cooking food and sterilizing water. Use sunlight directly to produce
electricity: photovoltaic cells, moving parts, are safe and quiet, and
produce no pollution or greenhouse gases during operation,
paper-thin rigid or flexible sheets, nearly as efficient as using
coal-burning power plants without producing the air pollutants and
climate-changing CO2 emitted by those plants. Produce electricity
from falling and flowing water: hydropower, indirect form of solar
energy because it is based on the evaporation of water, build a high
dam across a large river to create a reservoir, hydropower is the
world’s leading renewable energy source for the production of
electricity, large-scale hydropower plants will fall slowly over the next
several decades, micro hydropower generators, ocean tides and waves
contain energy. Using wind to produce electricity is an important step
toward sustainability: Benefits: widely distributed and inexhaustible,
carbon-free and pollution-free, expanded as needed, small and quiet
wind turbines to produce their own electricity, moderate-to-high net
energy ratio. Produce energy by burning solid biomass: Solid biomass
is burned mostly for heating and cooking. Convert plants and plant
wastes to liquid biofuels: Liquid biofuels such as biodiesel, Adv:
biofuel crops can be grown almost anywhere. Geothermal energy is
heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle.
Will hydrogen save us? Three challenges: Hydrogen gas must be
produced from elemental hydrogen, fuel cells, whether or not a
hydrogen-based energy system produces less outdoor air pollution.
Possible uses of hydrogen fuel: fuel-cell cars, electricity and heat for
commercial and industrial users, a fuel-cell stack
CHAP 15: AIR POLLUTION.OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION
(Primary pollutants and Secondary pollutants). EPA’s list of 6 common
outdoor air pollutants:1. Carbon oxides: CO, CO22. Nitrogen oxides
and nitric acid: NO, NO2-part of photochemical smog, N2O-greenhouse
gas3. Sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid: SO2-industrial smog, H2SO4/SO4
salt–acid rain4. Particulates: Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) – 2
hạt fine và ultrafine5. Ozone: part of photochemical smog,
bad-troposphere, good-stratosphere6. Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs): exist as gases or evaporate in the atmosphere 5 factors to
reduce outdoor air pollution: Gravitational attraction to the earth,
Rain and snow, Salty sea spray, Winds, pollutants removed by chemical
reactions.6 factors can increase outdoor air pollution: Urban
buildings, Hills and mountains, High temperatures, VOCs emissions,
Grasshopper effect, Temperature inversions Photochemical smog =
sunlight + cars. Acid deposition (acid rain) = Wet deposition + Dry
acid deposition Prevention: reduce coal; use low-sulfur coal, natural
gas, renewable energy instead; remove SO2 and NOx from smokestack,
motor; tax emissions of SO2- Cleanup: add lime, phosphate to
neutralize acidified lakesINDOOR AIR POLLUTION- Sources in
less-developed countries: from burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop
residues, coal, and other cooking and heating fuels- Sources in
developed countries: from chemicals used in building materials and
products. 4 dangerous indoor air pollutants in more-developed:
Tobacco smoke, Formaldehyde, Radioactive (radon-222 gas), Ultrafine
particles.
The hardest hit will be:Plant and animal species in colder climate.
species at higher elevations. Plant and animal species with limited
ranges. Those with limited tolerance for temperature change.2. The
ecosystems most likely to suffer disruption and species loss from
climate change are:Coral reefs. Polar seas.Coastal
wetlands.High-elevation mountaintops. Alpine and arctic tundra. The
warmer climate would increase populations of insects and fungi that
damage trees.Ozon depletion causes problems with human health,
crop yields, forest productivity, climate change, wildlife populations,
air pollution, and degradation of outdoor materials.Two basic
approaches to dealing with the projected harmful effects of global
climate disruption. Mitigation is to act to slow it and avoid tipping
points. Adaptation is to recognize that some climate change is
unavoidable and to try to reduce some of its harmful effects.Four
major prevention strategies. Improve energy efficiency to reduce
fossil fuel use, especially the use of coal. Shift from nonrenewable
carbon-based fossil fuels to a mix of low-carbon renewable energy
resources based on local and regional availability. Stop cutting down
tropical forests and plant trees to help remove more CO2 from the
atmosphere. Shift to more sustainable and climate-friendly
agriculture. Preventing and reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Output, or clean up, strategies focus on dealing with CO2 after it has
been produced. Focus on reducing and preventing greenhouse gas
emissions asap. Increase efforts to reduce emissions of other
greenhouse gases. Manipulate natural conditions to counter an
enhanced greenhouse effect. Injecting sulfate particles into the
stratosphere to reflect some of the incoming sunlight into space and
cool the troposphere.Placing a series of giant mirrors in orbit above
the earth for the same purpose.*One major problem with most of
these fixes is that they require huge investments of energy and
materials, and there is no guarantee that they will work.
Governments can use major methods to promote the solutions.
Strictly regulate carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Phase out
the most inefficient polluting coal-burning power plants and replace
them with more efficient, cleaner natural gas and renewable energy
such as wind power. Subsidies and tax on pollution and fuel use, and
offsetting these tax increases by reducing taxes on income, wages, and
profits. Use a cap-and-trade system. Focus research and development
(R&D) efforts on innovations that lower the cost of clean energy
alternatives, so that they can compete more favorably with fossil fuels.
Finance and monitor efforts to reduce deforestation -which accounts
for 12% to 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions - and to promote
global tree-planting efforts. Encourage more-developed countries to
help fund the transfer of the latest energy-efficiency and cleaner
energy technologies to less-developed countries so that they can
bypass older, energy wasting and polluting technologies.
CHAP 6:
Integrated pest management (IPM) program, develop a IPM that uses
a combination of cultivation, biological, and chemical tools and
techniques, reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level,
can reduce synthetic pesticide use and pest control costs by
50–65%.two main approaches to influence food production: Control
prices and Provide subsidies. special programs focused on saving
children: Immunizing more children against childhood diseases. –
Preventing dehydration from diarrhea by giving infants a mixture of
sugar and salt in water. – Preventing blindness by giving children an
inexpensive vitamin A capsule twice a year. Three types of systems
commonly used to irrigate crops: Gravity flow, Center pivot, Drip
irrigation (efficiency 90–95%). Soil sanilisation: prevention and
control: reduce irrigation, use efficient irrigating methods, switch to
salt-tolerant crops, flush soil, stop growing crops 2-5 yrs, install
underground drainage system. cut freshwater waste in industry and
homes: Fixing leaks, using drip irrigation and replacing lawns with
native plants that need little freshwater, About 50–75% of the slightly
dirtied water could be stored in a holding tank and then reused as gray
water to irrigate lawns and nonedible plants, to flush toilets, and to
wash cars.Hard energy paths are based on increasing use of
nonrenewable fossil fuels and nuclear energy. •Soft energy paths are
based on improving energy efficiency and increasing the use of various
renewable energy resources. Three general conclusions of experts
who have evaluated energy alternatives: + from large, centralized
power systems such as coal and nuclear power plants to smaller,
decentralized power systems + from gasoline-powered motor vehicles
to hybrid and plug-in electric cars.+ to fuel cells for cars and to
stationary fuel cells for houses and commercial buildings
Government’s three strategies to help stimulate or reduce the
short-term and long-term use of a particular energy resource: + Keep
the prices of selected energy resources artificially low to encourage
their use.+ Keep the prices of selected energy resources artificially
high to discourage their use.+ Governments can emphasize consume
education.Solutions more sustainable aqua: protect mangrove forests
and estuaries, improve management of wastes, reduce escape of
aquaculture species into the wild, raise some species in deeply
submerged cages, set up self-sustaining aquaculture systems that
combine aquatic plants, fish and shellfish, certify and label sustainable
forms of aquaculture.Solutions more sustainable agri: more:
high-yield polyculture, organic fertilizers, biological pest control,
integrated pest management, efficient irrigation, perennial crops, crop
rotation, water-efficient crops, soil conservation, subsidises for
sustainable farming. Less soil erosion, soil sanilization, water pollution,
aquifer depletion, overgrazing, overfishing, fossil fuels use,
greenhouse gases emissions, subsideies for unsustainable
farming.Solutions sustainable organic farming: eat less meat, no meat
or organically certified meat, use organic farming to grow some food,
buy certified organic food, eat locally grown food, compost food
wates, cut food waste.Solutions reducing irrigation water waste: line
canals bringing water to irrigation ditches, irrigate at night to reduce
evaporation, monitor soil moisture to add water only when necessary,
grow several crops on each plot of land (polyculture), encourage
organic farming, avoid growing water-thirsty crops in dry areas, irrigate
with treated waste water, import water-intensive crops and
meat.Solutions sustainable water use: waste less water and subsidize
water conservation, don’t deplete aquifers, preserve water quality,
protects forests, wetlands,…get agreements among regions and
countries sharing surface water resources, raise water prices, slow
population growthSolutions sustainable use of nonrenewable
minerals: do not waste mineral resources, recycle and reuse, include
harmful environmental costs in the prices, reduce mining subsidies for
recycling and reuse, slow population growth.
CHAP 17:
Several principles designed to minimize environmental harm:
humility: understanding of nature is limited, reversibility: Try not to
make a decision that cannot be reversed later if ends up wrong, net
energy: not encourage with low net energy yields, precautionary: take
precautionary measures to prevent or reduce such harm. prevention:
make decisions that help prevent problem from becoming worse.
polluter-pays: polluters bear the costs of dealing with the pollutants
and wastes they produce (full-copricing).environmental justice: no
group bears an unfair share of the burden created by pollution.
Environmental leaders can influence by: lifestyle and value; campaign
and vote; vote with our wallet; rapidly growing green careers; local
office; better solutions to environmental problems What can you do?
Become informed on issues. Make your views known at public
hearings. Make your views known to elected representatives, and
understand their position on environmental issues. Contribute money
and time to candidates who support your views. VoteRun for office
(especially at local level). Form or join NGOs seeking changes. Support
reform of election campaign financing that reduces undue influence by
corporations and wealthy individuals. Some grassroots environmental
groups use: Nonviolent and nondestructive tactics of protest marches,
tree sitting and lawsuits that generate bad publicity for practices and
businesses that threaten or degrade the environment. Militant
environmental groups use violent. Students, faculty,
administration:Environmental audits of campuses or schools gather
data on practices affecting the environment and are used it to propose
changes. Environmentally sustainable practices usually save money in
the process.• Environmental ethics - what one believes about what is
right and what is wrong in our behavior toward the
environment.Life-centered worldview states that we have an ethical
responsibility to avoid hastening the extinction of any species through
our activities.Increase literacy by understanding three important
ideas: natural capital, ecology footprints, ecological and climate
change tipping points.Three social science principles of sustainability:
Full-cost pricing (from economics):.Win-win solutions (from political
science). A responsibility to future generations (from ethics):