Chapter#2 | Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Elements: These are substances made up of only one type of atom.

They cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
means. Each element is represented by a unique symbol on the
periodic table.

Compounds: Compounds are substances composed of two or

more elements chemically combined in fixed ratios. They have
distinct properties different from the elements they are made of.
Compounds can be broken down into their constituent elements
through chemical reactions.

Mixtures: Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances

that are physically mixed together but not chemically bonded.
Mixtures can vary in composition and can be separated into their
components by physical methods such as filtration, distillation, or
evaporation.

2.2 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table:

1. Atom Structure: An atom consists of a central nucleus

containing protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral),
surrounded by electrons (negatively charged) in energy shells or
orbitals.

2. Relative Charges and Masses:

- Proton: +1 charge, 1 atomic mass unit (AMU)
- Neutron: 0 charge, 1 amu
 - Electron: -1 charge, negligible mass (approximately 1/1836
amu)

3. Proton Number (Atomic Number): The number of protons in an

atom's nucleus determines its element and is called the atomic
number.

4. Mass Number (Nucleon Number): The total number of protons

and neutrons in an atom's nucleus is its mass number.

5. Electronic Configuration: It is the arrangement of electrons in

energy shells around an atom's nucleus. The first shell can hold up
to 2 electrons, the second up to 8, and so on. The electronic
configuration of elements and ions can be determined using this
pattern.

6. Outer Shell and Group Number:

- Noble gases in Group VIII have full outer electron shells.
- In Groups I to VII, the number of outer shell electrons is equal
to the group number.
- The number of occupied electron shells corresponds to the
period number.

2.3 Isotopes:

1. Isotopes: Isotopes are different forms of the same element with

the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
2. Chemical Properties: Isotopes of the same element have similar
chemical properties because they have the same number of
electrons and therefore the same electronic configuration.

3. Symbols for Atoms and Ions: Isotopes are represented using the
element's symbol along with its mass number (top left) and atomic
number (bottom left for ions).

4. Relative Atomic Mass: The relative atomic mass of an element is

calculated from the average masses and abundances of its
isotopes.

2.4 Ion and Ionic Bonds:

1. Ions Formation: Positive ions (cations) form by losing electrons,

and negative ions (anions) form by gaining electrons.

2. Ionic Compound Structure: Ionic compounds have a giant

lattice structure where positive and negative ions are arranged
alternately.

3. Ionic Bond: It's a strong electrostatic attraction between

oppositely charged ions.

4. Ionic Bond Formation: Ionic bonds form between metal and

non-metal elements. Dot-and-cross diagrams show how electrons
are transferred from the metal to the non-metal to create ions.

5. Ionic Compound Properties:

 - High melting and boiling points due to strong ionic bonds.
- Conduct electricity when dissolved in water or molten due to
mobile ions but not when solid.

2.5 Simple Molecules and Covalent Bonds:

1. Covalent Bond Formation: Covalent bonds occur when atoms

share electron pairs to achieve noble gas electronic
configurations.

2. Formation of Covalent Bonds: Molecules like H2, Cl2, H2O, etc.,

form by sharing electron pairs. Dot-and-cross diagrams represent
shared electrons.

3. Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds:

- Low melting and boiling points due to weak intermolecular
forces.
- Poor electrical conductivity due to the absence of mobile ions.

2.6 Giant Covalent Structures:

1. Giant Covalent Structures: Graphite, diamond, and silicon

dioxide (SiO2) have extensive covalent bonding networks.

2. Graphite and Diamond Uses:

- Graphite: Used as a lubricant and electrode due to its layers
that can slide over each other.
- Diamond: Used in cutting tools due to its hardness.
3. Similarity Between Diamond and SiO2: Both have high melting
points and are hard due to strong covalent bonds.

2.7 Metallic Bonding:

1. Metallic Bonding: Metallic bonding is the attraction between

positive ions and delocalized electrons forming a "sea" of
electrons.

2. Properties of Metals:
- Good electrical conductivity due to freely moving electrons.
- Malleability and ductility due to the ability of layers of ions to
slide over each other.