UNIT I

SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

L.I INTRODUCTION and rigid
we come across may be classified into elastic, plastic
Materials which
when to an external
An elastic material undergoes a deformation subjected
materials.
on the removal of the loading. A plastic
such that the deformation disappears the
of loading and
loading
deformation during the period
materialundergoes a continuous dimensions on the
and the material does not regain its original
deformationis permanent when
A material does not undergo any deformation
of the loading. rigid
removal
to an external loading.
subjected

1.1.1 Definitions

1.1.1.1 Force in a
extermal agent. It produces or tends
to produce motion
Force is defined as an
or tends to destroy motion in a body.
body, it destroys P.
Newton (kN). It is denoted by a letter

Unit of force is Newton (N) or kilo

Force Mass x Acceleration,

N orkN.
1000 N -1 kN (Kilo Newton)
1000 kN= 10'N =MN (Mega Newton)
1000 kN=10 N
= GN (GigaNewton) 1

force
1.1.1.2 Moment of t is
a on a body on which it acts.
effect, produced by force,
It is the tuming between
of the force and
the perperndicular distance
to the product
mathematicallyequal which the moment is required.
force and the point about
the line of action of the
Reactions
1.1.1.3 Actions and action. i.e some sort of
force it is called
to an external
When a body is subjected

deformation takes place. deformmation caused by the

to resist the
resistance offered by the body
The internal

force is called reaction.

external

1.1.1.4 Statics their magnitude

science dealing with forces,
Static is a branch of physical engineering
etc.
of
line of action and point application

of bodies
1.1.1.5 Static equilibrium and
when it is not moving, translating rotating

A is said to be in static equilibrium

body
the body is at
i.e., rest

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 1.2

to
when subjected
1.1.4.6 Mechanics of bodies
with the behaviour
dealing
It is a branch of engineering effect on the body.
of action, and subsequent
method
forcesand their
conditions
1.1.1.7 Engineering Mechanics static or moving
of forces acting
on bodies under
It deals with the analysis

and the effects. Dur

of static equilibrium bendir
1.1.1.8 Conditions
forces should be
zero. 2F=0
also be zero
2r0 deter
1) Sum of external
any axis must
forcesabout In
of torque due to external
2) The sum Member
on a Structural devel
1.1.2 of Forces Acting
Types member.
types of forces acting
on a structural C1
The following
torce.
1. Tension (or) Tensile

2 3.
Compression (or) Compressive
Shear (or) Shear force
force as n

exF
4 Torsion force
(P
1. Tension (or) Tensile
Force

When a body is subjected to

two equal and opposite
the body tends
to elongate. P P
result of which
pulls as a tension.
It is
is said to be under
Then the body Fig. oh
and its unit is N.
denoted by a symbol P,

force (Pc)
2. Compression (or) Compressive
P
to two equal and opposite
When a body is subjected
tends to shorten
of which the body
pushes as a result to be under
its Then the body is said Fig 1.2
length.
is denoted by a symbol
Pe and its unit
It
compression.
is N.
3. Shear (or) Shear force (V)
two equal and opposite sliding
When a body is subjected to
tends to slide from its
as a result of which the body
forces, under shear. It is
Then the body is said to be
originalposition.
a symbol Vand its unit is N.
denoted by Fig-1.3
of material
1.1.3 Study of strength
In practice
an engineer comes across construction
as steel, cement, concrete, wood etc.
materials such

L CIC
 1.3

The selection of material

depends upon itsstrength. The strength of material may
be defined as an ability to resist its failure and behaviour under the action of several
loads.

Report from the study of the capacity of the the

forces, materials to resist

deformation, elongation,contraction, deflection, torque etc. are determined.

After testing of materials
the design of size and shape of the structural elements are
designed 1. Analysis 2. Design
During analysis the forces coming on the structure, the effects such as shear forces,

bending moments, twisting moments etc. which are developed in the materials are
determined. Ihese etects develop different types of stresses in the members.
In the design the size and shape of the elements are
determined such that the stresses
developed are well below the permissible limits.

Mechanical properties of materials

1.4
The properties of material under applied external forces or loads are broadly known
as mechanical properties of material.
From Engineering point of view the important mechanical of
properties materials are.

explained below.
1. Bigidity 2. Elasticity
3.Plasticity
4. Compressibility 5. Hardness 6. Toughness
7. Stiffness 8.Brittleness 9. Ductility
10. Malleability 11. Creep 12.Fatigue
13. Tenacity 14. Durability
1.1.4.1 Rigidity

Rigidity is the which a material capable of withstanding

property by loads
is external
without any deformation or failure.

1.1.4.2 Elasticity

Elasticity the property of a

is
material, when it is loaded it undergoes some
and when the extermal load is removed, it returns to the original stage.
deformation
1.1.4.3 Plasticity

The property of a material to undergo permanent deformation without fracture

is known as
loads applied plasticity.Example: Clay, lead.

1.1.4.4 Compressibility
A material to certain extent efect extemal loads
is compressed due to of (or) forces.

The quantity of compressibility depends upon the nature and type of material.

1.1.4.5 Hardness

Hardness may be defined as the resistance of a material against wear, indentation,

scratching and abrasion etc. Example: Diamond.
 1.4

the impact forces or Mathes

1.1.4.6 Toughness to resist agains sho
the property
of a material
into pieces easily by h
Sho a.
Toughness is cannot be
broken
a material meim
loads. Thus tough
iron.
Example: Stone, wrought
P=
enables it to resist elastic defomm.

l-
1.1.4.7 Stiffness
metal which
Stiffness
is the property
of a
is a measure,
of their stiffness. Note
modulus of elasticity
deflection. For metals, Y.1.5.2

1.1.4.8 Brittleness by which

the material breaks into iWh
Brittleness is
the property of
material

of suddenly applied
a
loads.
deform
under the action lengt
without any deformation
Ma
bronze,glass, etc.
Example: Cast iron, by th

1.1.4.9 Ductility matenal can be drawn out into

of a material by whnich tne
is the property silver. con
Ductility action ot tensile loads. Example: Gold,
pper
under the
wires without rupture
Aluminium.
1
1.1.4.10 Malleability to undergo and change
a metal which enables
it in

is the property of
Malleability a metal foil produced from
without rupture under compressive load. IhenicKness ot
shape tin. 2.
of malleability. Example: Copper, gold,
a metal is a measure of the degree
1.1.4.11 Creep

Creep is the property of a material

which undergoes slow and progressive deformation 3
of constant load over
a certain period of time. Example: Copper.
under the application

1.1.4.12 Fatigue
a material under repeatedly applied S
C
The term fatigue is used to describe the tailure of

at a stress much smaller than the ultimate stress.

loads. The machine parts fail

1.1.4.13 Tenacity

is the property of a material to resist a tensile force without giving way.

Tenacity
1.1.4.14 Durability
A material is said topossess the property of durability, when it with stands the effects of

all external forces and actions, without any wear and tear

1.1.5 Definitions of Stresses and Strains

1.1.5.1 Stress a

When a body is subjectedto loading it gets deformed. But intemally the boay
external

offers a resistance to this deformations.This resistanceto deformation is called as stress.

jThis resistanceper unit area to deformation is known as stress.

 1.5

Mathematically stressmay be defined as the force per unit area. Unit of stress is
N/m
or Pa. It is
denoted by a symbol a
External Force
|Stress Cross Sectional AreagAN/m (or)N/mm
on the body in N;A =cross -sectional area of the body in
2
P-load or force acting
= m
Note: N/m2 1 Pa 106 = N/mm?; 1 N/m?= 1MPa, 1 kN/mm2 = 1 Gpa.
Strain e
y.1.5.2
When a body is subjected to external forces the
body gets deformed, Due to this
the dimensions of the
deformation body gets changes. This deformation per unit
length is known as strain.
Mathematically strain may be defined as the deformation per unit length. It is denoted

by the
Greekletter e(epsilon). It has no units.

Strain Change in dimension

Original Dimension eto
16 Types of Stresses
The various types of stresses may be classified as

Simple or direct stress

(6) Tensile Stress (i) CompressiveStress (i) ShearStress

2. Indirect stress
() Bending i)Torsion
3. Combined stress
1.1.6.1 Tensile Stress o
When a section is subjected to two equal and
opposite pulls along its axis, and the body tends to
increase its length, as showri in figure 1.4(a). The
stress induced is called tensile stress. The tensile Fig. 1.4(a)

stress is denoted by a Greek letter

'ot' and its unit is

N/m orN/mm
Tensile Stress(
Tensileforce
Cross Sectionalarea
N/m2 orN/mm
1.1.6.2 Compressive Stress o
When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite
pushes along its axis and the body tends to shorter its
length, as shown in figure 1.46). The stress induced is

called compressive stress. The compressive stressis

Flg -1.4(b)
denoted by a Greek letter
'oc' and its unit is N/m* or
N/mm?
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 1.6
or N/mm
force o,-"N/m
Compressive areu
Compressive Stress(oc)CrossSectional

1.1.6.3 Shear Stress resist

in a body to
he intermal resistance developed due to
the body
in the shape of
angular distortion stress or
the is shear
force (V) I4(c)
shear force or tangential letter
"T Fig
the Greek
stress. It is denoted by
N/m or N/mm*
tangential is
(Tau). The unit of shear stress
N/mm|
N/mm
Shear load
Shearstress{ T)Cross Sectional area(or Sned

1.1.7 Types of Strain

The are the types of strain. strain

following 2. Lateral
Strain
1. Linear strain or Longitudinal Strain
4. Volumetric
3. ShearStrain E
Linear Strain
Strain (or) as
1,1.7.1 Tensile strain (or) Longitudinal direction is called
stress in the longitudinal
The strain produced due to the
axial

strain.
linear strain or longitudinal
Change in length
Linear strain
(E,Original length

Strain ea,eb
å er
1.1.7.2 Compressive strain (or) Lateral
is called lateral
stress in the lateral direction
due to the axial
The

d
strain produced
strain.
lateral
Changein dimernsion
(or)e,-(or)e,
Lateral strain=- (or)e,
Original dimension

lateral depth (d), breadth (b) and

where o S and o, are the change
in original

thickness (t) respectively.

1.1.7.3 Shear Strain o

the or shear
P
It is the ratio between transverse

of the length. It is.

displacement to the original position

denoted by a symbol o.

Shearstrain= Transverse
or shear displacement 777LY
Original position length Flg -I.5

Shear strain ()

1.1.7.4 Volumetric Strain

The strain produced due to the stress in all direction is called volumetric strain.

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 1.7

Volumetric strain=Change in volume

Original volume
Where, &y =Change in volume,V =original volume

1.1.8 Elongation and Contraction

When a bar is subjected to tensile force the of bar
length is increased that is called
elongation. The increasein length is also called Elongation.
When a bar is
subjected to compressive force the length is decreased i.e. shortening
takes This decrease in length is called
place. Contraction.
The strain produced in the longitudinal direction is called
longitudinal strains.
The strain produced in the lateral direction is called Lateral strains.

1.1.9 Poisson's Ratio y or 1/m

With in the elastic limit the ratio between the lateral strain to the
linear strain of a
material
is called Poisson's ratio. It is denoted by the Greek letter y (Nu) or 1/m.
The value of poisson's ratio is the same in tension and compression. It has no units. It
is usually fractional number. For most of the materials itlies between 0.25 to 0.5.

For steel, 1/m =0.25 to 0.33

For concrete, 1/m = 0.08 to 0.118

y =ateral Strain
Posisson's ratio,
Linear Strain
(constant)

1.1.10 Simple problems in computation of stress, strain, Poisson's ratio,

change
in dimensions and volume etc.

Solved Problems
1. A of 16mm diameter and 300mm long is subjected to a tensile
steel rod
load of 30kN.Determine the intensity of stress and strain if the elongation
of the rod due to the load is 0.21mm.

Given data:
Diameter of the rod (d) =16mm; Length of the rod () =300mm
Tensile Load (P) = 30 kN = 30 x 103 N; Elongationofthe rod (8) =0.21mm.
Td E-Tx162
Area of c/s of the rod (A)
4 4
To determine : Intensity of Stress o and Linear Strain, e,

Solution:

G=
Stress,
Area
Tensile load
of Cross section
P30x10
A 201
G 149.25 N/mm
 1.12
and
brass rod
of dia 255 of length
2.

modulus of load of 50 kN, when the 1.1

4 Find the young
to a tensile extension
The
mm, which is subjected
the rod is equal 0.3 mm.
to sthin

P =50kN,
= mm, =250 mm
8, 0.3
D-25 mm,
Given data:
To modulus, E 2
Wh
find: Young's ect
Hints: Stress P/A =101.85 N/mm

Strain-6/t
=0.0012 x N/mm 2

- Strain 0.85 10
E Stress / E = O.85 x 105N/mm
.1.1
modulus,
Result: Young's
external dia
200 has to carru an mm Th
column of 1.
5. A hollow circular diameter of the column i
420 kN. Find the internal 3.
compressive of
stress
in the column is
120 /mm.
G 120 N/mm = W
Given data:D 200 mm, P 420 x 10N, =
oun
d
To find: Internal diameter of the column, e y-

=3500mm,A=TD-d*).
d=P/A A
A=200-d)
4
Hints: , 4
diameter ofthe column, d
188.53 mm
Result: Internal

6. Calculate the shear force for a plate of

50 mm wide and 10mm thick if t
the plate is 9x10' Pa.
shearing strengthof

Given data: b =50 mm, = 10 mm,t= 9 x 10' Pa

t

To find: Shear force, V

Hints: A =500 mm,T =V/A =4.5kN
Result: Shearforce, V-4.5 kN
1.1
1.1.12 Modulus of Elasticity/ Elastic Constants
Introduction
sh
uni
A material is said to be elastic when
a deformation on the application
it undergoes oti

loading such that the deformation disappears on the removal of the

loading. When
member is subjected to an axial loading, its section will offer a resistance or stress.
the loading is removed, obviously the stress
will vanish and the deformation a8 will
Ww
vanish. But this is true when the deformation
caused by the loading is within a
cere
limit.

1.1.12.1 Elasticity pe
The property of any material
force is called as Elasticity.
body regaining its
original size and shape on remova
a
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 1.13

th 25 113 Elasticity Limit

ion The limit upto which the material keeps its
property is called as Elastic
elastic limnit.

Within ceptah lhmpit

the material recovers its shape when the applied load on it is removed

1.144 Hooke's/Law
when a material
is loaded, within its elastic limit, the stress induced while loading is

to the strain. This law is known as Hooke's law.

directly proportional

Stress aStrain;
Strain
S-E-Constant.
1.1.15 Elastic Constants
The elastic material has the following four elastic constants.
axia Modulus (G or N or C)
1. Young's Modultus (E) 2. Rigidity

f th 3. Bulk modulus (K) 4. Poisson's ratio (y or 1/m)

Modulus of Elasticity (E)
1.1.15.1 Young's
Within the elastic limit the ratio between the axial stress to the linear strain is called as
denoted by the letter E, The unit for
young's modulus or modulus of elasticity.
It is

the young's modulus is N/mm?.

Young's modulus = Axial stresS N/m2 orN/ mm
Linear Strain

E-N/m
E
or N/mm2

th o= Axial stress; E,= linear

Where strain

Axial stress, =
a =Axial strain, e

Modulus ofelasticitu, E-P/A__ P E =P

or Linear deformation, |8,
AE
ô,/1, Ao
Ad

1.1.15.2 5hear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity 6)

Within the elastic limit the ratio between the shear stress to the shear strain is called as
rigidity. it is denoted by the letter G or (or) C. The N
shear modulus or modulus of
unit forshear modulus is
N/mm
a Rigidity modulus
Shear
=>hear StressN/mm?;GorN or C-N/mm°|
Strain

t-Shearstress, o = Shear Strain

n
Where
Bulk Modulus (K) or Modulus of compressibility
n 1.1.15.3
Within the limit the ratio between the direct three mutually
stress along
elastic
direction to the volumetric strain is called as bulk modulus, it is denoted by
perpendicular
the letter K. The unit for the bulk modulus is N/mm.
Direct Stress
Bulk modulus (K) N/mm2 K N/mm
Volumetric Strain
 1.14

Where o = direct stress; ey

= Volumetric strain.

modulus (G), Bulk

modulus (K) and Poisson's a
Note: Young's modulus (E) Rigidity

()are Elastic constant.

and Modulus (N or G or
1.1.16 Relation between Young's Modulus (E) Rigidity

and Poisson's Ratio (1/m)

are known the oth
material if the values of any two constants
For any elastic

from the relations.

following
constants can be computed
E- 2G 14 2. E
1.
-3K 1-2
m
3. E 9KG 4.3K-2G
3K +G
1.1.17 Young's Modulus forSelected Engineering Materials
Materials
St.No. Young'smodulus
Steel 2x10 2.2x 10 N/mm to
2 Wrought iron 1.9x 10 2x10 N/mm to

Cast iron 1x 10 to1.6x 10 N/mm

Copper 0.9 x10 to 1.17 x 10 N/mm
6
Brass

Aluminium
0.8 x10 to 0.9x 10 N/mm

0.6x 10 to0.8x10 N/mm

2
Timber x
0.1 10 N/mm 2
8 Nickel 2.07 x10 N/mm

.
9 Gold
0.71 x10 N/mm
10 Bronze
1.2x 10 N/mm
Solved Problems
11.18
A steel bar 300mm long of section 50mmx12mm is subjected to an axia

compression of 84kN. Calculate the volumetric strain and change in

volume of the bar E=2x 10N/mm, 1/m =0.3

Given Data:

Length of the bar () = 300 mm; =50 mm

Width of the bar (b)

Thickness of bar (t) 12mm; Compressive load (P) -84 kN 84x10 N

To
Young's modulus (E)

Calculate: Volumetric strain

2x 10 N/mm; Poisson's = 0.3 ratio
o
(ey), Change in volume (8)
Solution:

Area of c/s of bar (A) bxt 50x 12-600mm

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 123

Formulae

Stress. a
N/mm
A or N/m
2. Tensile stress,
N/mm or N/m
3 Compressive stress,Oc N/mm or
N/m
Shear stress,t
N/mm or N/m

Straine

6. Linear strain,e

7 Lateral
strain,e ort,
8. Shearstrain

9 Poisson's ratio Y

10. Young's modulusE N/mm

11. Modulus of rigidity G N/mm

12. Bulk modulus K N/mm

13. Relation between three module (or)Elastic constants

00E-2G m (1) (i) E - 3K

(1 -m
3K-2G
E 9KG
E
(ii)
Cii) Gv)ylor m 6K+2G
3K+G

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 1.36

e.APPLICATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN IN

ENGINEERING FIELD
121 Behavieur of ductile material under direct loads
1211 Load Extension Curve (or) Stress strain curve of a Ductile Material
Conskder a mikd steel bar of
unifom diameter'd, and
gauge length, '*.
When a ductile metal is subjected to a tensile test, it is found
that the is
proportional
to the strain up to a certain tensile stress
limit. before
Slightly reaching the
proportionalityliinit the elasticity of the material will be just broken down.
On hurther increasing the load, the material will yield or flow so that
the material is in a
semi plastie stage
Further increase of load will result in extensions

which increase with time. The increase of load

makes the strains to increase at a
higher rate with
the stresses until finally local stretch ot the material
is marked
occurs. This by the formation of a waist.
n this condition due to the considerable
decrease in
cross section even à smaler load than the load at
which the waist was formed, can produce further

elongation.
Srain ()
As elongation continues, the
sectional area
Flg-16

continues to become smallerso that the load necessary to produce further extension will be
gradualy reduced until fracture occurs.

hg 1.6 shows the stress strain diagram for a ductile material (mild steel).

The characteristics are briefly explained below

A -Proportional limit (or) Limit of proportionality
B Elastic limit C.D - Yield points
E Strain Hardening point F Ultimate load point
G Breaking point
1.2.2.1 Limit of Proportionality (A)

When a mikd steel bar

is under tensile force, its length is increased and itattains its

original length when the force is withdrawn. This happens upto a certain limit. i.e.,

is proportional to strain. The point is known as the limit of proportionality.

1.2.2.2 Elastic Limit (8)

Up to the elastic limit the body regains its

original shape after removal of the load.
Beyond this point, any increase ot load, will cause a permanent deformation known as
permanent set

The stress is not proportional to the strain in the range beyond elastic limit. This
range is called elastic range and it is called elastic limit.
 1.37

1.2.2.3 Yield point or Yield Stress(o,)(C.D)

limit, with
increased without increase in load. After certain
Beyond elastic limit strain is

The phenomenon of increase in strain without

increase in load strain remains constant
increase in load is called Yielding or yield points
as stress.
The lower yield stress is more important and hence this points is called yield

Yeld load
Yeld stress, dy
Actual area of c/s A N/mm
1.2.2.4 Strain Hardening points (E) is
DE the creeping stage The point
E upto which the stress
The cure portion is
point.
constant in the range DE for increase in strain is termed as strain hardening

load point (F) and Ultimate stress

Ultimate
ultimate load. The
1.2.2.5
under a load is called
The Maximum stress which a bar can carry
stress.
stress is comesponding to ultimate load is called ultimate

Ultimate stress ia)

Ultimate load

Original area of c/s A N/mm

1.2.2.6 Breaking stress and Breaking point (G)
and the stress decreases
In a load test under plastic stage this strain increases, to the point G at
two pieces. The stress coresponding
suddenly. The bar
breaks into is
the breaking point
point (G). And stress
at
which the bar breaks is termed as breaking
called breaking stress
Breakingload ,N/mm
ioWaist area ofc/s A
Breaking
stress

1.2.2.7 Actual/Nominal stresses

Actual stresses
is known as actual breaking
The of breaking load to waist area of cross-sections
ratio

Breaking load 2
stress. Breaking stress (Actual)
Waist area of C/S

Nominal stresses
to area of cross-sections is known as nominal
The ratio of breaking load original

Breaking load
breaking stress. Breaking stress (Nominal) =
Original area of CS Nmm
1.2.2.8 Working stress
from the ultimate stress for design purposes. This is caled
A safe stress is determined
the
working stress. It is much less than the ultimate stress and is
actually kept well
within

elastic limit.

Ultimate stress
For brittle material, Working stress=
Factor of safety FS
N/mm.

5 PUBUCATnONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E

 1.38
12.29 Factor of safety
The raio of ultimate stress to
working stress is known as
factorof safety
Ultimate Stress
Factor of sabety
(,)
Working Stress
The ratio of uitimate losd (0
to working load is
called as load
factor.
Load factor-Ultimate
Load load
factor
Working load
1.2.3 Significance of
Percentage Elongation and Reductionin area
Percentoage Elongation
The ratio of extension of the
specimen after fracture to the
a percentage, is called gauge length, expressed as
percentage elongation.

Percentage elongation=mal length Original length)

x100
Original length

Percentage elongation- 10o

)Percentage reduction in ared
The ratio of the maximum
reduction in aoss sectional area of the fracture test
the area of cross section, piece to
orniginal
expressed as a percentage reduction
in area.
area Waist
Percentage reduction in area _(Original area)
Original area area)100

Percentage reduction in area = A100

Yield stress
(a) Load atyield point
Original area
N/mm
Ultimate stress Ultimate (or)
(o) Maximum load
Original area of C/S N/mm.
Breaking load
Breaking stress (Nominal)
Orniginal area of C/SVmm
Breaking stress (Actual) Breaking
Waist area of loadN/mm.
C/S
(Finallength-
Percentage elongation original length)10
Original length

Percentage reduction in area (Original area -Waistarea)100

Original area

PUSUCATnONS
M-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)DM
 1.53 and le
ON and
a load of 1500N of s
lifting welght
die is used for the specific of.
of 60 mm
of
m, taking total elongation
160
AA steel uire
15 steel

f7.8510 Nmm'
the wire hanging
eertkcally
E- 2 x 10Nmm'Find
and

10 N/mm d-60
har
y-7.85x
Dote 10mm
N.7-160x
5
Given

To Find
,
E-2x10N/mmP-1500
Bongation 8 024
N,8-5
N,
mm
w-A-35496.56 5.4486m
Hints A-2826 mm-AE w-Ar-35496.56
mm Totalelongation

Eongation
deto ioad &-P/AE-04246
Total Eongation-5.449
m
Result
1.2 11 CompositeBeams/Section
types
of materials jo
different
Definition two or more a compo
is made up of member or generally
A members which is called
a composite
unit
to act as a single
together
field
Section/bar section
in engineering
in a single struct
of composite are used
1.2.12Exomples types
of materials
or three different columns steel reinforcements
Sometimestuo in concrete
For example, their load carrying capad
for various reasons and to increase
member
overal size
of columns
constuction
and at the
to reduce the economy
in
used materials for
used as core
materials are
Cheaper
time to hae more stability
sections
of composite
1.2.13 Advantages with stronger materials.
(Example:Concre
materials can be reinforced
1) Weaker with steel)
is reinforced
weak in ternsion: It by introdu
size of the
members can be reduced
and overall
2) Area of cross-section
RC.C. Columns)
some strong materials. (Example: suitable covering mate
can be improved by providing
of members
Appearance steel or wood.
or aluminum tubes around
Example: Brass materials inside costly materials
achieved by using cheaper
Economy can be
with concrete
Steel pipes filled

1.2.14 Assumption ie. Deformation per

of the bar being equal, the strain,
Extension or contraction
1.
is also equal.
D
2 length
The total extemal
different materials
load on the bar, is equal to the sum of the
loads carried

MECHANICS
-ENGINEERING
SPUBLCATIONS
 1.54
3 The two materials are
symnetrically distributed about the axis of the bar
4 A composite section, contains different materials, the stresses in all the dilferent
materials will be equal

5 The ratiois known as modular ratio of the two materials and is denoted by the

letter 'm'
1.2.15 Principles of analysis of Composite section
The compositebars are analyzed based on the following two main
principles:
1 The deformations (extensions or contractions) of each
component of a composite bar are equal
the lengths of
under axial forces. If
4LLLLLL
all
components are in a member, the

L
equal
strains are equal in a member, the strains are in each
equal
material, -
(e, E,
2 The total load applied on the composite bar is shared
by the
components according to
their areas of cross-section and

young's modulus values. The applied load is equal to the sum of Fig-L17
the loads carried by the different materials. (P
P,+P,+
=
Consider a composite bar made up of two different materials as
shown
P
in

-Total
fig.1.17
load on the bar; = Length of bar:

Area of bar 1
E, Modulus of Elasticity of bar 1
P,- Load shared by bar 1 and -
A,. EP, Coresponding value forbar 2:
we know Total load on the bar, P- P,+P
-
Stress in the bar, o,
A Strain in bar,

P
A the E,
AE
Elongation of bar 1, 8a = E1 (1)
AE
Similarly. Elongation forbar 2,Ote
PA (2)

Since both the Elongation are equal, Therefore equating (1) and (2), we get,

AE AE
P
P AE AE hAE
Total load caried by both the materials is equal to the applied load.

P-P,+ (3)
S PUBLUCATIONS l-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)IM
 1.55

Substiutefor P,in 3 P- P-P, P -P,|1+A [AE+AEE

A,E
AE
From
A,E,+A,E,Similarly,
these equations we can find out the
P AE AEg
+AEg
loads shared by the difterent
]
materials
P P
A,E A,E, ie EE
E
Similarly, xo
From the above we can find out the stresses
equations, in the different
materials.
P-P+P2-d,A,+GA,
2.16 Modular ratio
The ratio between modulus of
elasticity of two materials is called
modular
denoted by the letter 'm'. ratio.
t
Modular ratio m--
m
In case of
reinforced cement
concrete, modular ratio m is equal Es
1.2.17
to;
Ec
m= Es
Ec
Equivalent Area
If'm' is he modular ratio of two
area
area of materials such as steel
ncrete and concrete in
equivalent to steel will be RCC.Te
Area of
equal to m
times the area of
concrete AC =m times the area of steels.
steel i.e AC =mx AS

Fte

nnosulus

cti
 1.56

Formulae
1 Change in length, ô- mm
2. Elongation of prismatic bar, 8, WE
2AE mm (or) AE

3 Factor of safety, FOS Ultimate Stress

Working Stress
Yield
stresS
Working stress
4 Yield stress (oy) Load at yield
point
Original area of cross section N/mm2
5. Ultimate stress (o Maximum load
N/mm
Original area of cross section

6.Breaking stress (nominal) Breaking load

N/mm
Original area of cross
section
load
7.Breaking stress (Actual) Breaking
Waist area of cross section N/mm
Final length
8. 96 of elongation original gaugelength100
Original gauge length

9. 6 reduction

)E m
Original area Waist
in area
Original area
x100
area100

Deformation of Prismatic Bars Subjected to Uniaxial Load

PE
10.Deformation in length mm
AE
- 1P-1AE Pb

) AEAF mm
11.Deformationin Breadth (6)
m
12.Defomation in Depth (6)
AF YAF mm
m AEAF
P
13.Defomation in Thickness m AE AE mm
14.Deformation of Stepped Bars

8EA n
15.Deformation of Prismatic Bar due
mm: 8-l,',+o,', +,'s inmm

to Self Weight

6, W in mm
2AE
16.Principles of analysis of Composite section

E E N/mm P-Pi+P2 = +a,A,kN

E
Similarly, o,A,

PUBUCATIONS ll-ENGINEERING MECHAMIESM

 UNIT I
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
21 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Bea
Beam is a member which is acted upon by a system of extermal loads at right
structural

angie to ts
axs Generaly a beam is a horizontal member carrying vertical loads. A beam
is provided to support fioor and roof slabs, secondary beams, stair case, walls etc.

2.1.1.1 Aial Load

A load acting along the centre of graity line of a structural member is called axial

load.

21.1.2Transverse Load
The which acts perpendicular to the
loads horizontal axis of a beam is called

Transverse load.

2.1.1.3 Types of Loads

Type af load acting on a beam are as folliows

1 Concentrated ioad (or) Point ioad

2 Uniformly distributed load

3 Unaiomaly varying load

2.1.1.4 Concentrated Load (W)

The which actsat a
load particular point of a beam is called 1 W2
Concentrated load.
Example: The load
W, and W, which acts on the beam is

called
comgentrated
load. The unit kN (or)N
is
R R2
Fig-21
2.1.1.5 niformly Distributed Load (udi))2
The lbad which acts uniformly throughout the length of a
beam, is called Uniformly distributed load (UDL).This may throughout the
act length

ofthe beam or part of the beam. The unitiskN/m (or)N/m

Wim Wim

Fig-22(a) Fig-22(b)
Lood
2.1.1.6 Uniformly Verying
The rate of oading which increasesor decreases at a specified natureover the length of
beam is caled Uniformly Varying Load.
e

SPUBUCAToNS -ENIGINeERING MECHANICS (E) M

 2.2
Wm
WIm

Fig 2.3(b)
Fig-2.3(a)_
reactions
2,1.2 Types of support and
2.1.2.1 Support the beam and load ac
These support acting
on walls or columns.
bearm or truss rest
ny the beam. This is called support.
through

2.1.2.2 Simple Support

is called simple support.
reaction
A offers only a vertical
Support which
support a
beam.
Example: A wall just

Beam
Wall R

Fig 2.4 (a) Fig 2.4(b)

Simple Support

2.1.2.3 Roller Support

reaction like a simple support is called rolle
A Support which offers only a vertical

beam about the hinge. The reaction

support. It is free to allow the rotation of the in th

to the plane of which is passing through the centroid.

roller support is normal rolling

Roller bearing for wheels in vehicles

Example: trusses,

Beam

Fig 2.5 (a) Fig 2.5 (b)

Roler Support

2.1.2.4 Hinged Support

A support which offers vertical and horizontal reaction is called hin
reaction

support. Both vertical and horizontal moments of the structural member are
prevente
this support. The hinged support is also called as pinned
supports. Example: S
riveted lap joint, Joints in mini drafter.

End condition:Effectively held in

position but not restrained
against rotation.

SPUBUCATIONS I-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS (
 23

Fig-26ia) Fig-26(b)
Hinged Support

2.1 25Fied Support

A upport which offers vertical reaction, horiaontal reaction and moment reaction is
called fixed support. Example: Column connected with beamn
End condition:Efectively held tn position and restrained
against rotation

P-271b)

2.1.3Reaction
The support of a beam is subjected to forces and moments due to the external loads
applied to the beam to keep the beam in equilibriurn condition. These extermal forces and
moment which are equal and opposite to the applied forces and moments to
keep the
beam in equilibrium condition is known as reaction.

Types of reaction
1 Vertical reaction

2. Horiontal reaction

3 Moment reaction

Vertical reaction
A force action against the vertical load systern on a horizontal beam at support
or
points is called vertical reaction.

Horisontal reaction
A reaction opposing a force along the horizontal axis is called horisontalreaction.
Moment reaction
A reaction against the moment due to extemal forces on a beam is called Moment
reaction
2.1.4 TYpes of Beams Based on
Support Conditions and Diagrammatic
Representation of Beams, Loads and supports. A
Based on the supports provided for the beam. They are lassified into the following
typs

SPUGUCAnONS H-ENGINEeERINGMECHANICSIE M
 2.4
bean
supported
2.Simply
1.Cantilever beam Fixed beam
bearm 4 beam
3.Over hanging cantilever

5. Continuous beams 6.Propped

1s fixed and
1. Cantilever Beamn like one end rigidly
othe
condition
the support
A beam which has
is called cantilever beam.
free slab projection
for the portico
A beam provided
Example: Beam

Fig 28(b)
Flg 28 (a) Cantilevee Beam

2. Simply Supported Beam the ends are simply suppo

like both
A beam has the support condition
which
one end is hinged
other end is roller support is k
both the ends are hinged or
A beam resting on walls.
simply supported beam. Example:
Beamn
R

Fig 2.9(a) Fig 29 (b)

Simple Support

3. Over Hanging Beam

Fig 210a)
Sings Over Hanging BeamFi9210(
Besm

Fig-210c)
Double
Hanging BeaFig-21O(4
A beam
beam
has the support condition like
which
on one
side or both the
both the ends are
simply suppot t
projections sides of the ha
beam support is called
oue
Types are 1 Single over hanging beam 2. Double over
hanging Beam.

PUBLKAroNS
-ENGINECRING MecHAN
 2.5
4. Fixed Beam
A beam which has the support condition like both the ends are fixed is called
rigidly
fixed beam. Example: Beam resting on columns.

Beam

Fig 2.l ( a)
Fixed Beam
Fig- 2. (b)
5. Continuous Beam
A beam which is resting on more than two as continuous
supports is called
beam.Example: Beam resting on more than two columns.
Types are 1. Ends are fixed.
2. Ends are
sirhply supported.
3. One end fixed, other end free.

Beam

Flg 2.l2 (a) Fig 2.12 (b)

Beam

T Fig-2.12 (c) Fig 2.12 (d)

6. Propped Cantilever Beams

A beam which has the support condition like one end rigidly fixed and other end simply

supported or supported at any intermediate point is called as propped cantilever beam.

Example: Portico slab with end column.

Flg 213

2.1.5 Static Equilibrium Equations

Based on the principle of static any structural element in equlibrium should satisfy the
conditions
tollowing statíc equilibrium

SPUBUCATIONS 1 ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)M]

 2.6
to zero.
should
be equal
forces
1. m of all vertical
2V-0,algebraic sum vertical forces
sum ofdownward to zero.
Sum of upward vertical forces be equal
forces should forces
2. 2H-0, algebraic sSum of all horizontal horizontal
forces
= sum
side horizont
of left side
to zero.
be equal
Surn of
forces should
right
of all
3. 2M-0, algebraic sum ofmoments
of anticlockwisemoments
uTm of clockwise moments-sum
Beams
2.1.6 Determinate and Indeterminate
1. Statically determinate beams
indeterminate beams.
2. Statically

1. Statically Deterninate Beams

due to external loads
are determined h
The beam in which all the reaction components e beam.
determinate
are called statically
the use of the three static quilibrium equations
2. Simply supported
beam 3. Over hangingbeam
Example: 1.Cantilever beam
2. Statically Indeterminate Beams
due to external loads cannot bo
The beam in which all the reaction components are called staticalh
equations
determined by the use of three static equilibrium
indeterminatebeam.
Example : 1. Fixed beam 2. Continuous beam

REVIEW OuESTIONS

PART A
1. What is a beam? (Apr 2014)
2 Marks
Beam is a structural member which is acted upon by a system of extermal loads at

right angle to its axis.

2. Define axial load and transverse load. (Apr 2015)
the centre of of a member
laad acting along
line
A gravity structural is called axia
load.
The loads which acts perpendicular to the horizontal axis of a beam is
callec
Transverse load.
3. Name the types of loads.
1. Concentrated load (or) Point load 2. Uniformly distributed
load
3.Uniformlyvarying load

Define concentrated load.

The load which acts at a particular point of a beam is called
The unit is kN (or) N. Concentrated load
5. Define uniformly distributed load. (Oct
The load which acts 2013,2014)
uniformly throughout the
length of a beam, is
distributed load (UDLJ.Thismay act called
throughout the length or Uniform
The unit is kN/m (or) N/m part of the bea

JS PUBUCATIONS

IN-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS (E
 2.9

2.2 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT IN BEAMS

Definition
2.2.1 Shear Force
Shear force is defined as the
algebraic sum of vertical forces either to the left or to
the right hand side of a section. The unitof shearforce is kN
(or) N.
2.2.2 Definition: Bending Momet
Bending morment defined as the
algebraic sum of the moments
is
of all vertical
forces either to the left or to the
right of a section. The unit of moment kNm
bending is
(or) Nmm.
2.2.3.1 Sign Convention for shear force

X
(-Shear Force) (Shear Force)
(LeftUp- Right Down:+) (LeftDown Right Up:-)
Fig-24la) Fig-24b)

A an upward direction to the left hand side of a section or

shearing force having
to the right side of the section will be taken
downvards 'positive.
Sirilarty, a 'negative'shearing force will be one that has a downward direction to the

leftof the section or upward direction to the right of the section.

2.2.3.2Sign Covention for bending moment

IC

(Bending Moment )
(BendingMoment)
Fig-25/a) Fig-25b)

A bending moment causirng concavity upwards will be taken as positiveand caled

sagging bending moment.
a bending moment causing convexity upwards will be taken as negative and
Strilarly,
alled hogging bending moment.

PUBUCATIONS IM-ENGINEERING
MECHAWICS (E) DM
 2.10 ams
Bear
for Determinate
Moment Diagrams
2.2.4 Shear Force and Bending
End
Point Load
at the Free B Let W bethe poinint loud

22.41 Cantilever with

at andfreeat
A
Corsider a cantilever
beam of AB fixed

acting at B x from B
XX at a distance hand side oo
Consider section
at the nght
the load and moment sections
are
X
Using
the SF and of variousBM
the section
calculated as follows.
1. Reaction
beam. (WJ). (+) SFD
the
W be the
Let
loadtotal
in
act at
to the above should
The load W opposite WT
at A V,
(-)BMD
supports. Reaction
Diagram WI
2. Shear Force
hand side
The dowward load
W acts at the right
XX the Fig-2
of the section
the section. To
the left
of
SF at XXX =W
reaction W acts upward. B the SFD
no load between
A and
Since there is

to the base line.

can bedraun parallel = Load
XX.BM at XX x
3. Bending Moment Diagrams section
at the hand side of the
right
Let us take load acting
- = Wx. BM
Distance=WxX section. Hence
hand side of the
acts at the right
The
negative
clockwise

BMaA M, -W substituting
Cantilever
moment
BM at B =M =0. (There

Beam
'
with Point Load
is

for
no rotation
x' M,will be
at the free end

"Wat a Distance
of the cantilever beam)

obtained.)

'a' from the Fixed End

2.2.4.2
1. Reaction nE

load W
the
acting at
There is only one downward
beam. (W) Hence an equal amount of
shouid act at the supports. (W)T
opposite load
xx 1
W
WT
V
2. Shear Force Diagram (+) SFD
In BC let us take a section XX at a distance x from 2
B. There is no load at the right hand side of BC
Hence SF at B 0; SF right of C =0 -)BMD
Wa
For the portion AC,
SFatA +W. SF at C +W.
Fig-2.17

3. BM Calculations

The BM at any place in BC is zero because there is no load at BC

S PUBUCATIONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E

 2.11
BM B= Mg = 0
at
BMatC Me 0
BM at A --Wa.
As the BM is
negative, it should be drawn downloads of
thebase liné
2.2.4.3Cantilever Beam
with UDL of w/m Acting throughout the Entire
Length
1. Reaction

Thetotal downward load

There should be an equal
acting
load in
on the beam
the supports.
W Wim
Reaction at support, Va = WT
2. Shear Force Calculation
WE
Let us take a section XX a
at distance *' from B
Consider the load at the right hand side of
SF at XX - +wx the section. W
(+) SFD
SF at B - 0 fwhen x = 0
SF at A = w when x =
(-)BMD
SF at the end A +wt & SF at the end B
is
i 0.Since the
SF is +ve it should be drawn above the base line.

3. BM Calculations Fig-218

BM at XX -M - Force x Distance

Mx=-wx
BM at B =Mg = 0 when x = 0
BM at A- Ma- -wxxix when x MA
The BM at A is w and at B is zero. The BMD is of parabola in shape. As the BM is

negative, it should be drawn below the base line.

2.2.4.4 Cantilever Beam with Point Load 'Wat Mid Span

1.Reaction
The total load in the beam = Wl
The opposite load at the supports = W X-X-
2.Shear Force Calculations
Let us consider a section XX at a distance 'x' from B. There
W ()SFD
is no load in the section BC.
Hence, SF at B 0, SF right of C =0 -BM
Let us take the section AC
SF at C- +W SF at A - +W Fig-219

SPUBUCATIONS l-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E) IMM

 2.12

3. BM Calculations
load in BC. -M, -0
0 BM at C
There is no
Hence, BM at B- Ma- WE
BMatA M- 2 zero.
is always loadings in
Note beam of tthe the
end of the cantilever for any type
1 The BM at the free
be negative and
SFD will be positive
2. BMD will fixed end.
at the
will be
cantilever beam. SF
maximum on the beam.
BM and the the total load line. If
theSFD
3.
he maxirnurn of the beam
is
be of inclined
the BMD
the fixed end will
4. SF at then
The line,
5 the SFD is of horizontal
BMD be of parabola.
will
the
of incined line then beams
for Simply supported
2.2.5 SF and BM diagrams
with Point
Load 'W at Mid Span.
Supported Beam
2.2.5.1 Simply

Step 1:
Total load on
the beam W
M -0-W,+R, R
R-W R,-2RR+w/2=W ()SFD
EV 0;R +RB T.L; (SFD

RA2
RA
W 2W-W_W =
supports. Using
the static
( W BMDD

The load is equally taken by two

= 0, EV 0)the reaction at
equilibrium equation (EM The
Fig-2.20

Rg can be calculated.
B and
A and such as Ra
supports be taken towards A and it should
to loads should
moment due
be equated to zero.

Step 2: SF Calculations from B.

BC let us take a section XX at a distance'x'
Consider the section
at right hand side
SFatXX- load
W hand side of the section is negative
load at the right

W W
SFat 2 SFtorightofC- 2
the section XX at AC
Now let us take

IH-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS
(
SPUBUCATIONS
 2.13

SFleft of C--W:SFatA 2
Step 3: Bending Moment Calculations
The BM at the supports of
simply supported beam is
always zero.
Hence, BM at = MA = 0; BM at A
A Mg =0
W
BMatC-Mc+x M, 4
We WL

IThe moment will be positive when the moment at the right hand side of the section is
anticdockwise moment
Note:As the BM is positive the BMD should be drawn above the base line.

2.2.5.2Simply Supported UDL of w/m over entire

Beam carrying
span
Step 1 Total load

Total load
=wxt. Wim

(The load acting at the beam is taken by the two supports)

Step 2:To find Reaction Rg (EM = 0) R,W
Let us take the moments towards A and equate it to zero.

-
()

MA-wx+Rg.l =0 : Rgf
Step 3: To find reaction RA
: Rg

SFD
(EV 0) R+ R=T.L; RA+W =w;
RA -w
wl
RA
Step 4:Shear force calculations BMD

SF at B - SF at A WE
-+w=+
Fig-22

Step5: Bending moment calculations

BMat A =M,=0; BM at B M =0
BMatC-Me-2 4 MM
2.2.5.3 Simply Supported Beam with two Point Loads atMiddle Third Points

Step 1: To find total load

Total load-2W
Step 2: To find Reaction R
ZM-0;Let us take moment atA and equation it to zero.

SPUBUCATIONS l ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E) [M]

 2.14

Ha-Ww-0, R--W
W W
R-We H,-W
RA
3 To find Reaction
Step
M 0
R+R, -TL R, W -2W
R+2W-W-W, R-W RV
For symmetrical loading
() SFD

R
Total Load 2W w
RA 2 2
calculations
Step 4: Shear force
SF at B W
C- -W ()
SFat right of

SF atleft of C -W W-W
BMD
SF at rght of D- 0
SF at left of D- 0+ W-W Fig-2.22

SF at A +W
Step 5: BM calculations

BMat B- Mg-0(S.S)
BM at

BMatC Mc Rg
A M^
W
-0(S.S)
%3 BMatD=Mp RAx BM
BM atD-
at D
We

Note
The BM in SS beam Is assurmed positive. (Sagging)
The BM at the
supportsof SS beam is always zero.
The SF at the two ends will be equal to the reaction of the ends.
BM will be maximum where the SF is zero.

2.2.5.4 Over hanging Beam

WIm WIm
poobecgoo
Fig2.22l) Flg222(b)

PC()
SingleOver Manging Beam Double OverHanging8eam
Fig223(a)
Hg223(b)
PUBUCATIONS
I-ENGINEERING MECANICS
 2.16

wex M+dM
M-0 N Fdx + 2

Fdx d dM-0
Fdx
-dm; F
dM
dx
at the
(2)

at section
value henc it is ignored, shear force
is very small to the

0
It
is equal
moment
Thus the rate of change
of bending dM
moment, dx
value of the bending
For maximum
But
dMF
dx force
for is
zero
where shear
at a section
is maximum
Therefore bending noment

changes sign.
and Sagging MomenT
2.2.7 Hogging Moment

Moment )
(Hogging
(Sagging Moment)
Fig-226
Fig 225
1. Hogging Moment 2,26)
(Fig.
to bend the beam wt
the bending moment at any section tending
Hogging moment
is

convex upwards. and clockwise to th

the
counter clockwise to
left
moment at a section is
lfa
moment or hogging moment.
right, then
it is negative
to tensile stres
the top fibreof the beam
is subjected
In hogging bending moment,
to compressive stress.
and bottom fibreof the beam is subjected
2. Sagging Moment (Fig.2.25)
moment at any section tending to bend the beam wi
Sagging moment is the bending
concave downwards.
If a moment at
a section clockwise to the left and counter clockwise to th
is

momernt or sagging moment.

right, then
it is positive

In sagging bending moment the bottom fibre of the beam is subjected to ten
stress and top fibre of the beam is subjected to compressive stress.

PUBUCATONS IH-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS(E)
 2.17
2,2.8
between Cantilever Beam and SS Beam
Distinguish
Cantllever Beam
Simply Supported Beam
Thebearn in which one endis The beam in which two ends are
are
fixed and other end is free are supported
called
simply supported beam.
called cantilever beam
There will be maximum SF at There will be positive SF and negative SF The
support and it is
positive SF. maximum SF will be a any one of the
support
according to the load condition
The BM will be maximum at The BM will be zero at supports. The point at
the fixed
support which SF is zero, the BM will be maximum
The bending moment will The bending moment will always be sagging
always be hogging moment momen

Ply
7() Flg .27 (b)

2.2.9 Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical

Loading on Beams with Sketches
Symmetric Loaded Beam:
From the center
of the beam, if there is
equal load at an equal distance, then it is

termed as symmetrically loaded beam.

In this beam the reaction takes the load
equally

WI m

Flg-R.28(a) Flg-2.2B(b)

UnsymmetricallyLoaded Beam:
From the center of the
beam, if there is load at an unequal distance, then it is termed as
Unsymmetrically loaded beam.
2W

Flg 2.29 (a) Flg 2.29( b)

Wlm

Fig-R29(C)

SPUBUCATIONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS(O(M

 3.1

UNIT -II
GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIEs OF SECTION
3.1 CENTROID
3.1.1 Geometrical Properties
The strength and behaviour of all structural elements under the applied loads depernds
mainly on the geometrical
properties like
shape, size, area, centroid, moment of inertia.
section modulus, polar modulus, radius of
gyration. etc. A designer should be able to
determine these properties of any given section.
The following are the important Geometrical propertiesof sections
1.
Shape
2 Size

3Area
4. Centroid

5 Centroidal axis

6 Moment of inertia

7.Section modulus
8.Polar modulus
3.1.1.1 Symmetrical Section
A section having the same shape and size on either side of centroid axis is called as
symmetrical section.
3.1.1.2 Ati Symmetrical or asymmetricalSection

F the size and shape of a section varies from the central axis is called as
unsymmetrical section.

3.1.1.3Asymmetricalshapes
The sections which are not having the same shape and size on either side of its

Tatually

3.1.2 Definition of Centroid and Centre of Gravity

1. Centroid

The plane figures like rectangle, triangle, circles, etc. have only areas but no mass. The
Certre of area of such figures is known as centroid

2. Centre of Grovity (CG)

t ie a point in a body which the resultant of the weights of different parts of the
through
body is ossumed to be acting at the Centre of gravity. t may be noted that every body

has one and orily ore centre of graoity.

PUBKATIOWS -ENGINeERING MECHANICS(E)IM

 3.2

3.1.3 Derivation of Centroid of Plane Figures

Consider an of area A whose centroid is to be found out as showr

irregular figure

figure 3.1 Let O, and O, be the axes of

reference
Divide the figure in to a number of small strips.

Let a a as etc. be the areas of be strips

Flg 3.
aom the X X and Y Y

-
be co-ordinate
(X. y) 2.ya) etc. their
Let bx3. Vs)

axis
distance of centroid of the given
from O,
Let x be the horizontal
figures

given area from OO

Let y be the distance of centroid of the
Let A be the Area of the whole figure

Taking moments about o x,

The mument of the area of the first strip =ay

Sum of moments of areas of all such strips

-ay t ay2 +asys ay1 - =A

The moment of the area of the whole figure about y y

From the principle of moments A a

A

simija aX|
3SA A
S1 Centroid of Regular Geometric Figures
circle, I

The centroid of regular geometrical figures like square, rectangular, section et

arefound by the method of geometrical considerations.

where meet e
The centroia of a rectangle or square is at the point its diagonals

other. It is also a middle point of the section.

MECHANICS (
S PUBUCATnONS I-ENGINEERING
 3.3

Shape Area
1. Rectangle

x =b/2 y=d/2 bd

2. Circle

x=d/2 y =d/2 nd
4

3. Triangle

x =b/2
y=h/3 2bh

4. Trapezium

x =b/2 b+2a h
b+a3 lbixh
5. Semi Circle

x=R y 4R 3T

6. Quadrant

x 32D
(0.424r)
3
(0.424r)
16

3.1.5 Centroid of Symmetric Sections

Axis of Symmetry : The axis which passes through the centroid of the
section and
which divides the area of the section into two
equal portions is known as Axis of
Symmetry or Symmetrical Axds.
Centroid of
Symmetrical Section
The Centrod of the
symmetrical section will be the
meeting point of XX and YY axis of
the section.

The area arnd some symmetrical

positions of centrod of sections are shown in
figure

5PUBUATiCNS H-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS(E) M
 3.4

3.2 (a)- Square 3.2 (c)- Hollow circle

fig fig3.2 (b) Rectangle fig

fig 3.2 (d) Circle fig3.2(e) 1-Section

32 (d) Fig 3.2(e

Flg 3.2 (a) Fig
32(b) Fig 3.2(c) Fig

3.1.6 Centroid Asymmetric Sections

of
side of
The sections which are not having the same shape and size on
either its
mutually
section.
perpendicular centroidal axes is said to be an Asymmetrical
some sections are shown in
The area and position of centroid of simple Asymmetrical

A
figure.3.3 (a.b.c.d)

3.1.6.1
Fig

Centroid
3.3 (a)
-

Symmetrical Sections
of Anti
3.3 (b)

Anti Symmetrical sections are also known as unsymmetrical

Fig-3.3 (a)
Fig-3.3 (b)

section about both

the axis pass through the centroid of the section.

Compound sections consist of two or more simple sections whose centroid could be

easily located.

3.1.7 Centroid

Fig 3.4la)Four-L-Section
of
TEL
Fig

Built
3.3 (e) Fig-3.3

up StructuralSections
(f)Fig 3.3 (g)

Fig 3.4 (b) Double Channel (back to back)

Fig 3.4 (c)

Double Channel
Fig 3.4(d) Compound- 1- Section

S PUBUCATIONS
-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (
 3.5
A Built up section is made up of two or more rolied steel sections like R.S.J, angles,
channels etc as per the
design.

3.1.7.1 Procedure for

LL

= Fig

Flg

locating
3.4

3.4
(a)

(c)
Flg

Fig
3.4

P
(b)

34 (d)
Centroid of any Geometrical Section
1. Divide the entire section into
simple squares, rectangles, triangles etc.
2. Find the area of each
elementary strips (a, ag ..a)
3 Find the total area, (A)

4. Find the centroidal distance of each elementary from

5.
(x1. y1x2, y)x3. y3)
Take moments
.
of elementary areas about the
sections

references axis and

the reference axis

find their sum.

(a1,X1, a2 X2.. etc.)
6. Calculate the centroidal distance
(Rand y) of the given section.

Solved Problems in
-a
ayi
2a

Locating Centroid
(or)

on a
y 2ay
A

1.Find out theposition of thecentroid of L section as shown in figure

Step 1

1.
Rectangle(160
mmx 40 mm)
2. Rectangle (80 mmx 40 mm)
3. Let xx and yy be major axis.

4. G be the centroid.
from the base.
5.
be the centroidal distance

PUBICATIONS
H-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E) M
 3.18

3.2 Moment of Inertla

3.2.1 Definition and Notation of Moment of Inertia

f this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance between tho.

the line of action of force, then this quantity is called second moment of
ofpoint and
moment of inertia (M.I).t is denoted by I. Its unit is mm' (or) m. force o
3.2.2 Inertia

A body is said to be a in a state of inertia when it is at rest and moves only

bythe
of a force on its. This is called Inertia. cion

3.2.3 First moment of force

The moment of force about a point, is the product of the force and perpendi.
distance between the point and the line of action of force. This moment is
caled
moment of force. firnt

3.2.4 Moment of Inertia (M.I)

When the moment of a force on a point is multiplied by the perpendicular
distane
betweenthe point and the line of action of force, (as a second time) it is called Moment of
Inertia or Second moment of force.
3.2.4.1 Definition of Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia of an area about any axis is defined as the moment of

momentof
area or the product of the area and the
square of its
perpendicular distance from that point
or axis.

Moment of Inertia Area x (distance Ar

It is denoted by a letter T its units is m or mm.

Where, ,
L
is

is
the

the
moment
moment
of

of
.-ArI,-Ar
inertia

inertia
about

about
XX axis,

YY axis
A is the area of the
figure,

ris the perpendicular distance

between the centroid of the area
reference axis. and te
3.2.5 Polar
moment of Inertia (Tz
The
axis perpendicular to the
(or) I)
plane of the section and al
passing through its
rectangular axes XX and is known as YY cento
polar axis is known as
polar axis. The moment of inertia about
polarmoment of inertia. It is denoted
u
mm' by the letter lzz or ip.
unit is

Or it is the sum of moment

L--Ar
of inertia about XX and YY axis.

5 PUBLCATiONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)

M
 3.19
3.2.6 Radius of ration r (or)ry
Radius of gyration may be defined
area is asthe
which the entire area uniform
assumed to be
Radius of gyration distance from the reference axis
distrmbuted. reference axs at
is called
(or)
The a
A distance
ance from
from the
the rotational axis
rotational ax
.,itsunit is mm. Itis
denoted by a letterTr

Radius of gyrationabout xx axis - ,- mm

Radius of gyrationabout yy axis
,-A
Radius of

3.2.7 Section Modulus

Section
gyrationabout xx

modulus of
()
a body
axis
- A mm
mm

is determinedby
dividing the moment of about the
centroidal axis by the distance of the extreme fibre from the
inertia

the letter Z. Its unit is

mm or m centroidal axis. It is denoted by

moment of inertia about centroidal axis

extreme fibre distance from
centroidal axis

Section modulus about XX axis, |Z Tmax

modulus about YY axis,

Section
2,
Where Ymmaximun distance of the extreme fibre from the horizontal centroidal axis
XX
Xmaxinum distance of the extreme fibre from the vertical centroidal axis YY
3.2.8 Polar modulus (Zp)
t is defined moment of inertia of the section to the maximum radial
as the ratio of polar
area from the centroidal axis is known as Polar
distance to the farther most part of the
modulus Polar modulus is denoted by Zp or Z and its unit its mm or m'.

Z,R
3.2.9 Parallel Axis Theorem
to the centroidal axis is equal to
to any axis parallel
The moment of inertia with respect
axis plus the product of the area of the
to the centroidal
moment of inertia with respect
the the
gure and the square of the distance between axis.

-ENGINeERING MECGHANICS (O M
PUBLKAnions
 3.20

L-loatA
an axis AA.
about
of the area
centre of gravity
AMomentof inertia

of the area
about its

Moment of inertia
and the axis AA
of the section
section
A Area of the
centre of gravity
y - Distance between the

is required
to be found.
out
of inertia
Proof
of area A whose moment
Consider a plane
section

about an axis AA. to the axis AA.

Let X X be the centroid
axis parallel
from X-X axis.
da at a distance y
of
Consider a strip
area,
y+ y
form AA axis
The distance of elementary area
AA =Area x distance =d, (y + y?
of a about the axis
Moment of Inertia strip
axis
area about the
of the whole
Therefore moment of Inertia

AA Ed,y+y d,(y+y'+2yy)
-4.y dy 2d.vy
... (1)

d, whole elementary area

Ed, -A
the areas, about an axis through the centre
Ed, y is the algebraic
sum of moments of all
and is equal to 0.
of the

d.y 0gravity of the section

AA.
d,y second moment of area about the axis

Therefore l-+Ay
Similarly, 1s +Ax
3.2.10 Perpendicular axis theorem
The moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the

plane and passing through the intersection of the other two

axes XX and YY is equal to the sum of the moments of
inertia about XX and YY.
X-

-
L-M.l
M.I about zz axis;

about yy axis
l= M.I aboutxx axis;

Proof
Consider a plane section of area A Fig-3.22

S PUBLICATIONS
-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E) M
 2 Let XX and YY are two
3.21
area. axis,

3 2Z is the axis
perpendicular to the
of XX
perpendicular to one
other
anot in the plane of the

intersection and
4 Let us take a
smallarea
YY. It is plane and
polar axis. passing through the of
d, at a pointo
5 The mometabout distance of r
from the
zzby the polar axis Zz
6. But the distance
of
elementaryarea is
I-d
7.
elementaryarea from elemantary area from the
Substituting

d,
the axis
the value of
is
in
+
axis x=yy and

the
the distance or

1 we
8.
x+d,y2 equation
get, Lz =d,
The moment of x*+yi)
inertia about zzby the
d,x+d, ):
l =
total area is

9 Zd,x*+
But the moment
by thetotal
d,y
area
d,x-yyisgiven by 2d.*- about the axis
10.

- the moment
Similarly

d,
by the total area about
xx is given by
11. Substituting the
values in
d.
equation
get,
-
yy
Iy
the axis,
I2
we I-I
3.2.11.1Moment of Inertia of a
Rectangular section about Centroidal
Consider the Axes
rectangle section of breadth b and
depthd. let us take a centroidal axis
parallel to breadth
as xx and centroidal axis parallel to
depth as yy axis.
Consider an elementary
strip of thickness at a
d,
distance of y from xx axis.
Elemental area (d)
Moment of inertia of the elemental
bd
area about
G.
xxd-bd,yz -byzd
Moment of inertia of the section about xx D
Moment of inertia of section about xx Fig 3.23
d/2

L-2by,
0
d/2

bdSimilarly.
|12
S PUBUCATIONS H-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E) M
 3.22

section about Base

of a Rectangular
of Inertia 3.23
3.2.11.2 Moment in
XX axis as shown figure
to
Base B8 is parallel of inertia about B,
theorem moment
axis
to parallel
According

a+A
Distance
Area,

betweenXX and
BB,
A -bd
y d/2

1212bxd12 bd

Section
12 modulus and
LSmild
radius of gyration of the rectangular sectio
abou
the centroldal axis.

Section modulus about

x
max

bd
12 Ymd/2
For rectangular section,
L

bd3

212 d/2

Simiarty, 2,-2
Radlusof gyration about ox, r,
= Vh
A
For
rectangular section, La- A =bxd
bd3

T12tbxd) V12
3.2.12 Moment of
25"2 Similarly.,

Inertia of a Circular
Consider a circular Section
section
Consider an elemental
with radius 'Ras shown in
ring of radius 'r and figure. 3.24
elementary ring about the
polar area thickness 'dr'.
Moment of o
Polar
Ring area
moment of inertia
x radius?
of
2r dr r2
2n dr
inertia

the whole
section,

SPUBLCATIONS

- ENGINEERINGMECHANICS (
 3.23

Strip

Fig-324

Let us take diameter

of the section as 'd', R =D/2

-+ .32
According to perpendicular

,
axis theorem,

For circular section, a

-+-2L
TD
32x2 64
modulus and radius of gyration of a circular section
Polar

Polar modulusabout xox, Z R

= R-D/2
Forcircular section, I

D/264
D

D D"/32: Z 32
a section will be
axis passing through centroid of circular
Section modulus about any
equal

Hence,z--

Radasofgration, r-l ,
AD
D4-
64D D/4
"16=D/4
D
a D/4
W-ENGINEERINGMCHANICS (O M
BPUEATIoS
 24
Circudar Section
a Hollow
.2,13 Momant of Inertiaof ardd be the iner

Letstake Dbe the ater diarneter

dlameter

Polar moment of inertia

64 D

3.2.14 Moment of Inertia of a Triangular

Section

base passing the

AA be the axis parallel
to through

vertex.Let us take on elenerital area of thickress dy at a

distance y from AA. aABC ard AADE sirrilar triangles

DE BC b b
Width of the elemental area,

Area of the elernental area -b

d,

Moment of inertia of the elermental area about AA.

Moment of inertia
ax-4 of the whole section about

:
AA,
bh
4hhA-bh
Let xx be the axis
passing through cetroid and
Let xx abe at a distance parallel to AA.
from the vertex.

Using paralel axistheorem, Im-+A'y.

bh
Bt
A bh?
4
bh3
4
5PUBUCATIONS
ENGINEERING MECHASe
 3.25

consilering
parallel axis theorem,
Agair
Moment
of inertia about the base u A h/3

2
Sectlon
bh
36

36
2
bh
12 BR-bh
*
18

modulus and radius of gyration of a triangular

axds.
section about
the

centroldal

Section modulusabout ox, 2

bh
For triangular
section, Yma 23
bh3
*2h 24
aboutxx,
Radiusof gyration

bh
For triangularsection, A-

bh3 2 h
A bh V18
Section Modulus and Radius of Gyration of Com
3.2.15Moment of Inertia,
Plane Geometric Sections

1.

mm =
Square
a

22
mm

2 mm Ag 3.27 ta)

2. Rectangle

db3mm
1212bd3mm, ly-mm
12
DB?
Z
2BD?-mm, Zw6 mm
B
mm, ryy23 mm
23 D fg-327 tb)

-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E M
SPUBLICAnONS
 3.26

Section
3. Hollow Rectangular
DB db mm
BD bd
mm w 12 12
12 12
DB-dbmm
BD-bmm
6D mm 6B
4. Triangular Section
hb
mm" bh3 4R mm
Z24 mm a2
Z h2
P-32

5. Hollow Circular Section

-y -d)mm

-d' mm

Z p'
6. Circular Section
D
-d)mm

D T mm

D
Z2 mm w =D/4 mm; a2
3.2.16 SolvedProblems

1. Determine the moment of inertia of thehollow

rectangular section about x
and yaxes.Determine the section modulus and radius
of Gyration abou
the two axes

Since the section is

symmetrical. Moment of inertia can be calculated Using the
formula
B,-300nm,D 500mm; by 200mm,d-400
mn
.D12 b,d
12
300x 500 200x 400
12 12
3.125x 10- 1.07x 10
2.058x 10mm

UTIONG
-CNGINEENING MECHNICS T M
 3.45

Formulae
1) x 2 mm 6)
A mm
2) y-2,
a mm
MI-Ar mm
7 A mm
3)
2 8) mm
4)-lp-Arg mm 9) 2y mm

5) Amm 10) 2,(or)2,-

max
mm

Square sectionof size 'a

.
11)

a1 mm: mm

3 mm Z Z mm
a
mm
y 2/3
12) Rectangularsection of
size BxD
Z mm:a
B'D

19
BD3
12 mm
B'D
12 mm BDmm:lgB Dmm
6 mm
D B mm
BD BD mm 23mm 23
13) Hollow rectangular sectio
DB d mm
-1 BD3 bd3
12 12 mm:y: 12 12mm
db
BD-bdmm:Z DB 6B mm
6D
14) Triangular section

mm BH3
36
mm =BHmmnm
BH3mm IsB
HBmm
12
AA 12
H
2 mm 6mm
-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E
SPUBUCATONS
 3.46

15) Circular section

mm D 64 mm mmn
2mm 32
D
z,-2,
z,-2, mm+,-D/4mm 22mm
16) Hollow Circular section

0'-d') mm
64
D-6) m
2,-2,pt-d)
32 mm
17) Semi Circular section

ox0.00686D y 128

Sgked Board Exam Problems

AT section of top flange 180mm x 10 mm has a web of 150mm x18mm
so thqt the overall depth is 160mm. Find the moment of inertia ofthe
sectign about its major axis. (OCTOBER 2013)
a bxd 18x 150 -1800 a 1800 mm 180mm
a-bxd- 180 x10 -2700; a - 2700 m 10
X 180
2 90mm X -90mm 150 mm

10
+150 -155 y -155mm mm
75 -75 ya-75mm.
Fig 345ta)

R2+a,X2. (1800 x90)+(2700x90) g0mm

a, +a (1800+2700)

+a, y21800x155)+ (2700x75) 107mm 345

a +a2 2700 (1800
Fig

y, 155-107 y,- 48mm

y,-107-75 y,32mm
90-90
90
x-
X
0
-90 = 0
 4.1

UNIT IN
STRESSESIN BEAMS AND
SHAFTS
IN
AISTRESses BEAMS DUE TO BENDING
4.1.1Introduction
fa load acts perpendicular to the
horizontal axis of a beam, there will be bending
moment and shear force at every cross section of the
member. On the
the other hand if
load acts on planes
transverse perpendicular to the be
vertical
plane, twisting moments will

developed.
The beam deforms due to
bending moment, shear force or twisting moment
developed in the cross section of the beam.

4.1.2 Types of Bending stresses

The resistance developed
in the beam due to bending is

nown as bending stress)

The resistance developed in
the beam due to shear
force is known as shearing stress.
The
beam due
resistance in the to twisting
developed
moment is known as torsional
stress.
4.1.3 Bending stress
Fig-4
When a sirnply supported beam is subjected to extemal
bads bending takes place. Hence the beam deforms. While

bending, top layer shortens and bottom layer elongates The

top fibre compression and the
experience bottom fibre

enperiences tension. Hence there is compressive stress in

the top fibreand tensile stresses in the bottom fibre
Fig 4.2
Thus the beam experiencing cornpressive stress or tensile
stress in the cross section is temed as bending stress.
In a cantilever, while bending, the top fibre has tensile stress and the bottom has

compressive stress.
the bending stress (either compression or tensile) is
In the above mentioned examples,
maximum in the extrerne fibres.

4.1.4 Neutral Axis

stress is zero. Hence the layer at which bending stress
At a particular layer, the bendirng
2ero is called Neutral Axds
section of the beam where bending stress is zero.
Nestral axis is a layer in the cross
stress nor tensile stress
here wll be neither compressive

SPU CATIONS
H-ENGINEGRINGMECHANICS (TM
 4.2

- --

Flg 4.4

Fig-4.3

of Neutral Axis
4.1.5 Properties into two zones of compression and
of the beam
divides the cross
section
1 The N. A
tension.
there is compressive stressand
beam, above the N.A,
2 In simply supported
stress.
below the N.A, there is tensile the N.A and there
tensile stress above
i

In the cantilever beam, there

is
3.

below the N.A.

compressive stress,
In N.A, bending stress is zero.

5 In N.A, the layer is neither contracted

4.1.6 Theory of Simple Bending

nor elongated.

B.M and there is no shear, it is

When a beam is bent due to application of a constant

said to be in the state of simple bending
or pure bending.

4.1.7 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending

The following assurnptions have

been made in the theory of simple bending.
the
The beam is made up of homogeneous material and isotropic i.e., it possesses

sarme elastic properties in all directions.

2 3.
The elastic limit is not exceeded

Transuerse sections which are plane before bending

and hence it obeys Hooke's law.
remain plane after
bending
4 Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract independently of the layer

above or below it.

5. The value of E is the sane in tension and compression.
6. The effect of lateral stress and strain is

7 The beam
4.1.8 Moment of
section

Resistance
is
negligible

synmetrical about the plane of bending.

(MR)
When a beam is subjected to a bending moment is resisted
by a internal moment
set it

inside the bean section. This internal moment is known as moment

up of resistance

BPUBLCATIONS I-ENGINEERING MECHANICS () M

 4.3

41.9 Derivotion of Flenure

Beam subjecded to ordinary

Equation
-
bending.
Ls take a sall section d,
Let us take Mas bernding moment (Before Bending)
in the beam
Neutral Axis

PQ axis ata distance y from

neutral axis
angle between P'Q' arnd

R
the arc

radus of the arc

C'D' from the centre of

A
Before bending,

AB-CDEF-PQ after bending D'

AB deforms to A'B' (After Bending)

CD elongates to C'D' Flg-4.55

PQ changes to P'Q'
EF does not have any changes.

The reduced length of (8-PQ-PQ

Strain at PQ-change
PQ-PQ'
PO
in
length /original length

t1P'Q (1)
P Q
Let us take the OPQ and OEF as similar segments.
Fig 4.66
PQR-Y P' (PQ EF)
R PQ
Substituting in
equation (1)

-1-1- StrainPt Y

PQ-Young's modulus xstrain

R
Stress In the layer

o,ExR
Let us take the cross sectional area of the beam. Area da is taken at a distance y from
the N.A of the beam.
As per the equation (2)
Area of PQ d
the

Stressat PQ yR
Force at PQ- Stress x Area yxxd
H-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS(E) M
FUBILCATIOS
 4.4

NA is =yx4,xy Rd,
Mornentgivern by the forceto
the total moment.
given
themoment towards NA are added, it will

(3)

Totalmoment (M)-v4 I4,. M=A

Moment of (-Area x (distance
Inertia

Substitutingin equation (3)

M- RR (4)

two equations (2) and (4)

We get
Equating the

is called Simple Bending Equation

Distribution
4.1.10 Bending Stress
external load, there will be tensile stress and
1 When the beam is subjected to

compressive stress.

and gradually reduces

2 These stresses will be maximum at extreme tibre towards

neutral axis

3. The stresses will be zero at neutral axis.

with the depth.

4 On either side of N.A, the stresses increases directly

5 f it

tensile
is simply supported beam, there
stress below the N.A.
will be compressive stress above the NA and

6. In cantilewer tensile stress above N.A and compression below N.A.

4.1.10.1 Stress Distribution Diagrams

Ost
- maximum tensile stress

Ocbc maximum compression stress

4.1.11 Curvature of beam

When the beam is subjected to external load it gets
b
bending. As per the bending equation,

M_E 1M
TR'RE d
In this R is the radius of curvature. It is
inversely

(EI) When
proportional to flexural rigidity Flexural

rigidity increases, beam bernds at minimum. Ocbo

4.1.12 Position of N.A and Fig 4.7

Centroidal Axis
At the cross
-sectional beam, the axis at which stress or strain is zero is called Neutro
axis. It divides the beam into compressing area and Tensionarea.
Let us take a small area da at a distance y from NA.

S PUSUCATIONS IM-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)

M
 ,
4.5
Stress attheares d, -(a)-ER xy b
Force-Stress x are
d, -R
Force at the total area 2
Al the Equilibriun section of the beam
Total compresslon Fig 4.8
is equal to total
tension.

Total compressiontotal tension- 0

Total force-0d y-0. 4y0

Xd,y is the moment given by the total area towards N.A is first moment.
The first moment given by the centroidal axis for the total area is zero.
Hence beam is subjected to the Neutral axis and centroidal axis
bending.
coincides each other.

4.1.13 Stiffness Equation

From the bending equation,
M
ustake M-
El represents flexural rigidity Form the above equation, it is clear that El is directly

proportional to M.R

Further R
ME
From this it is clear that is inversely proportional and BM is directly

proportional.
When the radius R and flexural rigidity El of the beam is maximum, the beam bends to
a minimum.
Then stiffness depends on the flexural rigidity.

Hence is the stiffness equation.

4.1.14 Flexural Rigidity

Definition

The product of young's modulus and moment of inertia () is termed as flerural

igidity. Its unit is Nn (or) Nmm (or) KNm.

SPUEUCATIONS H-ENGINEeERING MECHANICS(E M

 4.6

of Flexural Rigidity on the material and cros-soe

Properties
of the beam depends
cross-section of t
1. The flexural rigidity

beam. with the flexural rigidity.

increases
2.The strength of the beam is inversely to the
proportional to tho
of the beam fle
3. The slope and deflection

a lower rate.
beam bends at
rigidity.

4 When the flexural rigidity

increases,

4.1.15 Strength Equation

Consider the simple bending

equation. in this, if the value of y is maxim

the value of awill also be maximum.

M. nax.

max max
The computed value of M will be the strength of the beam. M-
fibre of the beam will not be more than the permissible stres
The stress at the extreme
of the beam solely depends on the section modulus 2. The
Hence the strength

of the beam is called strength equation.

ion related to the strength
y

Ooo0o
00 4.1.16Section Modulus (Z,Z)
I70000 Definition
700
50000 Sectionmodulus is the ratio of moment of inertiaof the beam and the distance from the

extreme fibre. It is denoted by the letter Z The units is mm'

or m°.

Z- Z
4.1.17 Significance of Section Modulus
-u/Y.i Z-/X.
The strength of the beam depends on
the section modulus.

Section modulus depends on its cross-sectional area.

Section modulus is directly proportional to moment of inertia.

Consider the simple bending equation. Hence the section modulus Z

direc

to moment to stress of the beam.

proportional
and inversely proportional

M.,
y
M- M=o2|Z
 4.7

.18Moment of Inertia and Section Modulus of various Cross Sections

0
Beams

H Fig-49 -4 Fg-4

FRg-42
4

1. Square (Fig 4.9)

L-a/12; Yma /2:Z -

2. Rectangle (Fig 4.10)

3. Circle (Fig 4.11)

4. Hollow square section (Fig 4.12)

(B-b")
I1--2
5. Hollow rectangular section(Fig 4.13)
6B

BD bd
12 12 1z(BD-bd)

(BD-bd BD-bd)
12 6D
6. Hollow circular section (Fig 4.14

64 64 32D

S PUBUCATIONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E) M

 4.8

49 The max bending moment M for some standand cases

Max.
Tipe of Beam
BM-M Figure

A cantilever
tree end
beam uith point load at the
W
Fig-415
Wm
A UDL over entire kength of
2 cantilecer with
the beam

g-416
A cantilever beam wth a point load at
WE
the mid span 2
A simply
supported beam wth point WE
load at mid span
t
A simply supported beam with UDL Wm
throughout the span

A simply
6 supported beam with Wab
Unsymmetrically loaded

Fig-420
A simply
supported beam middle third
(/3)distanceof the WE
span 2

A simply
supported beam two point
with
loads at equal
distance(a)
ofthe span Wa

4.1.20 SolvedProblems fis-422

1. A steelflat 150 mm wide x 12 mm
thick is bent
radius.Find the max intoa circular arc of 2m
intensity of stress
induced. Take E 2 x 10'
1
SASUCATnONS N/mm
-ENGINE RING MECHANICS (E)M
 4.17

Formulae
1.Simple bending equation
(or)flexure equation
M
-
3
Flexure equatlon

oby Omax
beam
Vmax
Flexural
R

M -Omax
,
rigidity
R
Strength of sections.
M-
M-,permialte2N/na
Z,
&Square section I -1 mn', Y, mm,
Z-mm
6. Hollow square sectlon I 0mm,Y._
12
mZ 6B
bmm
7 Rectangular sectlon I BD mm'.Y, mm,Z-BDmm
8. Hollow rectangular section

(BD-bd)mm'
12
Y 2
mm Z (BD- bd)mm
(6D-bd)
6D mm
nd
9.
Circular section
I

-mm,Y mm, Z 9 mm
10. Hollow circular section

D-d'}mm': Y,.-mm, Z-2o (D-d mm

11. Cantilever beam
a. Point load: Maximurm BM- M- w
w2
b.
UDL load : M- kNm

12. Simply supported beam

a. Point
load :M
w
kNm

b. UDL load M kNm

PUOUCATONS
(M
-ENGINEERING MECHANIKS
 4.25
A2 STRESS IN SHAFT DUE
TO TORSIONS
42.1 Introduction
A tuning torce Is
always applied in
machines, to transmit energy by This
nuning force is
appled either to the rotatio
shaft or at any other
axis of the shaft suitable polnt at some distance
from the

And the shaft is said to be subjected to torsion.Due to this torque, every cross sectOn
the shaft is subjected to some shear
stress.
The shear stress in the beam will be maximum at the centre and minimun in the
extreme fibre. In shaft, shearstress due to torque will be zero at the centre and maximum
in the extreme fibre

max

Tmax
N
max
Rg-4.28 Flg 4.29
Shear stress Shear stress
Distributlon in Beam Distribution In Shaft

4.2.2 Shaft

Shaft is a horizontal rod of circular or any other section, having pulleys fixed on it at

convenient places, to transmit power by rotation.

4.2.3 Couple

Couple is a pair of equal and opposite tangential forces in the

plane of section.

Due to couple, there will not be any change in position, but Fig-4.30o

there will be rotation.

4.2.4 Torsion (or) Torque (or) Twisting moment

Twisting moment developed due to the loads away from

known as torsion or torque or
the longitudinal axis is

twisting moment.
If the force is applied tangerntially,
the torque may be T FxR
Flg-43
and radius of the shaft.
calculated by the force
T. Its is kNm (or)
T FxR; Torque is represented by
Nm (or) Nmm.
4.2.5 Types of shafts
a force.
end fixed and the other end rotating by twisting
1. One
2. Both ends rotating at different specds.

H-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS()
[M
SPUBLCATIONS
 4.26

Pure Torsion
in the theory of slaw
.2.6 Assumptions and obeysHooke
it
elastic

Material is
hornogeneous, evwen after twisting.
the shaft remain plane
2 Plane sections of
uniform
3 The twisting along the
shaft is
straighit
after twisting9
lines remain een
4 Al radu which were straight
5 The shaft is of unifom section

the limit of proportionality

Stressdoes not exceed
4.2.7 Derivation of Torsionequation
is free at one
a which
Let us consider cylirnder
The of the
length
end and fixed at the other end.
be R. Let the torque
cylinder be t and the radius
acts at the free end
the Fig-4 32
But there is and opposite torque at
equal
It
free end resists the cyiinder from rotation.
the material.
the constituents of
changes its shape due to
the cylinder. Assume
AB to the horizontal axis of that
Let us take an axis parallel

because of torque it moves from AB to AB.

AB moves at a angle

BAB It is shearstrain

As per figure, 4.32

Length of
BB AB x fo (1)
Length of BB Re (2)

Equating (1) and (2), f R6 (3)

Shearstress
Shear modulus(G) or (C) or (N
Shearstrain

Hence, G ="m

Substituting in
equation (3) x Re. R
Ge
(4)

Let us take a small area da from the centre of cylinder at a distance r as shown in figure
The shear stress of small
q=
area from the shearstress of the
cylinder is,
B
Shear force in the
smallarea shear
stress xArea = .Ix
R
da

The moment of resistance by the small area towards the centre =Force x distance
dar da
S PUBUCATIONS
M-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)M
The

The

Sdar
moment
,
M.R by the total

Equating (4)and (6)

of Inertia

Substituting

T-
T
area

we get
towards the

Zda
R r?
about the

in equation(5)
axis of

6
4.27
centre

..(5)
the shaft

This is the Torsion

C/s of
Shaft

Fig-4.33
Shear Stress
Diagram

equation.
4.2.8Shear stress
distributionin
circular section due to
The shear stress due Torsion
to torque in
the cross any one of the point
sectional area of of
the
cylinder. is
proportional to the distance from the
It
directly maA
surface of the centre to the
cylinder. outer

The shear stress is zero at the centre

maximum at the ends. and is
It
gradually rises from the centre.
The central axis at Tmax
which the shear stress is zero is called Fig-4.34
Neutralaxis.

4.2.9
Strength and stiffness of shaft
4.2.9.1
Strength of shaft
When the Shear stress with the
permissible limit,
the twisting moment borne by the
cylinder is termed as
strength of the shaft.
Fromthe equationof Torsion T-
T is the shear stress in the external area and polar modulus is
R when T is
maximum,
lp
thetorque will also be maximum. Tmax Tas
mamax2
TmaxWill be more than the
permissible limit. Hence the strength of the shaft
the polar modulus.
Hence the equation is termed as strength equation. depends on

4.2.9.1(a) Strength of solid cylinder

T
max

4.2.9.1(b)
Tmaz X

Strength of
(d
D/2

x32D-d)
D/2
hollow cylinder

-Tmax
16

16D
(D- d
8
S PUBLICATIONS I-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E) M
 4.28
is termed
of the cyinder
sheft unit lerngth
4.2.10 Stiffnessof in the
the unit torque
caused by
angke
twist
strength of the eylinder
us take,
Torsion, Let
From the eqationof ()
T T

But stifrness
(1)
the vale efrom the equation
Ststilting

Stuffoess
T T rigidity (G.Ip)
on the Torsional
the cyhinder depends
Hence the stifress of Hence the stifiness
is measured by the
recduces
When the TR
is maximuam,
stiffress

twist ange
Twist angle 0-
solid cylinder,
Tuistangle of the

Twist angle of the holiow cylinder

32T
.T 32
GrD)
4.2.11 Torsional Rigidity
terned as
The product of Rigidity
modulus G and polar moment of inertia Ip
is

Torslonal Torsional Rigidity Gx1, lts unit is Nmm or kNm or kNmm.

igidity
4.2.12 Tersional modulus (,)(or) polar modulus

the between moment of inertia and maximum outer radius is temed as

It is ratio polar

polar modulus.
Polar modulus (7) -1/R

md
For circularshaft 2D2xd
For hollow
shaft ZR D/2
4.2.13 Comparative analysis of hollow and solid shafts
The Torsional resistance is zero at the centre and gradually increase
directly with the
distance towards the Outer ends of the circular The shear force is zero at the centre
shaft.

SPUBUCATONS -ENGINEERING MECHANICS M

 4.29
at the centre and
and maximum at the outer ends. Hence Torsional resistance is minimum
there is no need of the material at the centre.

Case 1

same outer diameter.

shaft having the
Let us compare a circular shaft and a hollow
Let d nner diameter of Hollow shaft.
D Outer diameter of Hollow shaft
D Diameter of circular shaft
Circularshaft modulus (Zp)- 16

r(D°-d)| But Torque (T)

= tZp
Hollow circular shaft polar modulus |Z)16D
D
Circular shaftTorque
= Te =t 16

=Tokou T
z(D-a)
Hollow shaft Torque 16D
from the table
d can
values the value of olou be calculated
For the different D solk

Tholko

Teold

Case II same cross sectional

area.
and circular shaft having
Let us take hollow
shaft circular
Let D- Diameterof circular
of hollow shaft circular
D Outer diameter
shaft circular shaft
Inner diameter of hollow circular
d
shaft =Cross Sectional Area of hollow
area of circular
Cross sectional

Dd,
4 p2-(pt-d)
D
trD-d)
p-d
D-d
(D-d. Thko 16D DD
Tsad Thko 16D Isolid

16
1+k

(D-F)(D-d")(p+d)
DVD?-d*
D(1+d/D) Ty
D/1-d/D
sold -K
(E)[M
D/D-(D?-d) I-ENGINEERING MECHANICS

5PUBUCATIONS
 4.30

Where k d/D, for different value d/D, the valtue H

ofhulkoMCan
Can
TM be
caleulated
table

k-d/D

Crcular shaft is to
superior hollow circular shall in the
By using hollow following ways
1
shaft, we can save lot of materlal
2. The average of shear stress in
intensity hollow shalt will be
solid shalt greater than that

3.Average torque In hollow

ofthe
shalt is more, It can transmit high
4.2.14 Power power
transmitted by a shaft
The main of a
purpose shalt is to
and tronsrnit
power Irom one shaft to
workshops another in factor
Now consicler a
rotating shaft, which transmits
Let N- power one of its ends to
Speedof the shaft in
rpm another
T Average torque
P
in Nm
Power transmitted in
We know that Nm/sec (or)
watts
work done per minute forcex distance -2nNT
Work donepersecond
-2NANm
60
Power transmitted
work done in kNm
per second
Note: P-2NNm/
60 sec
1 Nm/sec -1
joule/sec 1 watt;
ANNEXURE: 1000watt-1 kilo walt
Flexural
Rigidity and Torsional
Flexural Rigidity
Rigidity
It is the Torsional Rigldity
product of
E and moment Young's modulus he
of product of
EI
Inertia I.
Flexural
polar
Rigidity modulus G and
rigidity moment of Inertia
I. is torslonal
The stiffness of the rigidity. Torsional G x I,
on EI leKural beam rigidity
depends The
rigidity stiffness of the
If torslonal
shaft depends or
flexural rigidity,
rhgldity
ncreases the
stiffness of
the bearm wll torslonal rigidity increases the
increase the shaft
will
stiffness o
PUBTICATIONS increase

I-ENGINEGRINGMECHANICS T D
 4.31
Section modulus and
polar modulus
Section modulus
Polar modulus
Section modulus is the ratio of Ratio of polar moment of inertia and outer
moment of inertia of the beam radius is polar
and moduls 7,-I, /RR
the distance from the Solid shaft polar modulus rD'/ 16.
xtreme fibre It is denoted by Hollow shaft polar
the letter Z The unit is mm'or modulus.
m Z-1/Vmax
Beam-section modulus
16D
2xx-bd /6
Moment of inertia (L)and section modulus (Z)for various sections
Shapeof C/S Moment of inertia (d Section modulus (7)
Rectangle bd/12 bd/6
Square a/12 a/6
Solid circle
D/64 rD
32
Hollow circle n/64 (D-d)
3-d)
Polar MI and polar moment of inertia Zp for various shafts
Shape of C/S Polar
MIlp)Polar modulus (2)
Solid shaft TD'/32 D'/16
Hollow shaft
3 (D-d) 16D (D-d)
4.2.15 Solved Problems

Fid the power transmitted by a shaft 50mm dia at 150 rpm if the max
permissible stressis 80N/mm.
Given data:

Dia of the shaft (D) 50 mm

Speed (N) 150 rpm
Max permissible stress (ma) - 80 N/mm.
To find: Power transmitted, P

Solution:
Torque (T) D 2xx(50 )x80=1.96x10° Nmm=1.96x10 Nm
Power transmitted (P) =2nNT 150x1.96x10- 30.79 x 103 Nm/sec
60
10 watts 30.79
30.79 x kW
Result: Power transmitted (P) 30.79kW
S PUBUCATIONS
-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)IM
 4.40

Formulae
1. Torsion equation

GGe
(R)
2. For a solid circular shaft of radius

a. Polar moment of inertia (1) 32 m

=tD4
TD mm
b.Polarmodulus (Z)- 16
3. Hollow circular section

D-d'}mm'
2,R6D-d'mm'
4. Strength or maximum torque developed

a. By a Nmm
solid shaft:TmxTmaxX
Nmm
b. By ahollow shaft: Tmas ="max 16D(D4-d)
5. Stiffness equation of shafts

a. Angle of twist, Te radians

Gl
32T
b.
For a
solid shaft,
0 radians
GrD4 adians
radians

C. For a hollow shaft, B 32Te

rD4-d4)
P=
6. Power transmitted by shaft,
60 Nm/sec or watts

.V

5PUBUCATIONS
M
-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)
 5.1

UNIT V
PIN JOINTED FRAMES
51 ANALYSIS BY ANALYTICAL METHOD
(METHOD OF JOINTS)
5.1.1 Frame
The built up structure made up of several members such as angles, channels, pipes etc.
to resist the extemalloads is known as frames.
5.1.2 Truss
Truss is a frame connected together at their ends by reveting or welding to carry
roofs. It is called roof truss and it is suitable for sloped roof.

Trusses are made of a series of triangles. Because triangle is simple geometric

which is rigid and stable for external loads and is considered for a simple truss.

5.1.3 Pin Joint

Various members of a truss are connected by frictionless pins to form a series of

triangles. This is called Pin Joint.

5.1.4 Nodes
Nodes are points where two or more members of a truss are connected together by
rivet or welding. These are called nodal points and the loads act through these points.

5.1.5 Rafters
Rafters aremain members supporting roof covering materials and the extemal load.

5.1.6 Ties
Ties are members of a truss having tensile stresses.

5.1.7 Struts
Struts are inclined members of a roof truss having compressive stresses.

5.1.8 Determinate 4 Indeterminate frames

5.1.8.1 Determinate frames
equilibrium equation the three (v =0,
frame can be analysed completely by using
lfa

H 0, = ZM 0) then the frame can be defined as the

more
determinate frame.
than two supports.
frames should not have
Example: All the perfect
5.1.8.2 Indeterminate frames =
the three equilibrium equations (2V =0, EH
fa frame cannot be analysed by using
,2M-0)alonethen the frame can be defined as the indeterminate frames.
and frames with both ends fixed.
more than two supports
Example: Frames having
I-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)
PUBUCATIONS
 5.2

5.1.9
Classification offrames
Pin Jointed frame

Indeterminate
frame
Determinate frames

Perfect frames imperfect frames

m-3) (m2-3)

frames Redudant frames

Deficient
(m> -3)
m 2-3)

Frames can classified into two types as

1 Periect frames 2. Impefect frames

Framescan be easily understood by the folowing explanations

Cescation of

5.1.10 Pertect frames

to keep it in equlibnum withou
number of members of a frame are just
e
sufficient
F the
ioads then the frame as perfect
change ins shape under
the action of extermal i
frame
i A perect frame is one which
wll satisfy
the following expression m 23
framej-number of joints the frame
Where m number of mermbers
in the in

Ag-52
Ag-SI

fig 5.1 Nanber of members (m)-7,

Number -5 of Joints

Asper the eguaticn, 7 -2x 59-3, m -2-3 7-10-37-7 Therelore itsa

perfectframe
attached the as one side of the
in fag 5.2.. since the frame is to
wal, the wall also acts

franes hietype of frameswll satialy

of
-2ni-8,
the equation

members 0-4

)
Thenedore in dhe fig52. Tol no Total namber of joints

ENGINEERNG MECANICS
 5.3
As per the condition, m -2j; 8 (2 x 4); 8 8 Therefore it belongs to a perfect
frame.
5.1.11 Imperfect frame
If the number of members of a frames are not to in under
sufficient keep it equilibriurn

the action of external loads (.e. it may be less or more) then the frame is called as
Imperfect Frame.
It will not satisfy the condition

m-2-3or m - 2j.
Depending upon the number of members it can be further classified into

1. Deficient frame 2. Redundant frame

5.1.12 Deficient frame
If the number of members are less than that is required to keep it in equilibrium is called

as Deficient Frames.
Therefore the number of members will be less than that required for the relation

m 2-3 i.e. it
will be m <2j-3

3
Ag -53 Ag-54

In the figure 5.3,

Total no of
members (m)- 8; Total number of joints ()-6

to the condition
According

M<2)-3; 8 < (2x6)-3;

8< a -
12-3; 8<9: Therefore
itis deficient frame.
number 4
no of members (m)-4; Total of jointsj)
In 5.4,Total
m< 2j -3; 4< (4x2)-3; 4 <8-3; 4<5
fig it is a deficient
Therefore
As per the condition,
frame.
Instable frame
5.1.13 Redundant frame/
is required to keep
it

of a frame are more than that

If the number

is known as redundant
frames or instableframe.
equilibrium
will be more
than that required
members
4
the number of
Therefore m > 2-3.
tor the relation m 2-3 ie., itwill
6;
be like
Total number of joints()
-
h 5.5, Total no of members (m)
tig Flg-55
a
3; 6>5 Hence it is

m>2 3; 6>(2x4)
Hs per the condition,
H-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)
SPUBUCATIONS
 5.4

Redundant Frame.
5.1.14Formulationof perfect frames
The method of construction of a perfect frame
is known as formulation of D
in constructing pertect frames. Theu arect
Frames. There are certain important rules e,

1 Atriangle with
be made up of a minimum of
3 members is the simplest frame.
3 members.
erefore a perfect frame
hould

be connected to each other with pin joints at their ond.

3 All the members should

The members should
The frames should be a combination
not intersect

of continuous
each other at their
s.
joints.

triangles.

5. If
en one
the frames are constructed as a simply supported frames, then
support
and other one should be of hinged one.
should be of roller support

5.1.15 Common types of trusses

XA
Queen
Ag 56a)

Peat Truss (Up to 10 m

CemeeundFinh
Ag-56(d)

EanTru
Tnu ParilToL101e 10m
Ag-569)

AA
Eer Throwah Rridon

NA
Ag-56(b) Ag-56) Ag S6(h)

Eor Dech aridae

Einh TauaLte 10m North Liah InuaaLto Bm)
Ag 56lc Ag-56(
D
Ag-56(f)

EorK-To
Ag-56t)
Rg-56(k)

5.1.16Support conditions

Generally the following four types of support are used in trusses.

1.
Simplesupport 2. Roiler support

3. Hinged support 4. Fixed

support
5.1.16.1 Simple support
If the trusses simply rests over the wiu
supports is known as simple support. here
be only vertical reaction in the
supports

BPUBUEATONS I-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS()
 5.5

Simole Support SimpleSuppor!

Ag-57(a) Ag 57( b)

5.1.16.2 Roller support

the on the rollers over the supports then there will be rotation and lateral
f trusses rests
displacement. Such supports are known as Roller Supports. There will be a vertical
reaction perpendicular the
to rolling plane.

Roller Support RollerSuRner

Ag-58(a) Fig-58(b)

5.1.16.3 Hinged support

this type the trusses are attached to the hinges. There will be
In
only rotation and no lateral displacement. Therefore in a
hinged
will be vertical
support there reaction and horizontal reaction.
Hinaad uneo
5.1.16.4Fixed support -59

If the trusses are rigidity fixed to the supports there will not be
any rotation, lateral displacement or vertical displacements. Such
type of supports are fixed supports. Therefore in a fixed support
there will be a vertical reaction, horizontal reaction and a moment.
5.1.17 Resolution of forces Ag-510o
The process of splitting the forces in a member into various components without
changing its property and finding the force in a member is known as resolution of
forces.

PH H
Ag-511 (a) Ag 511(b)

PUBUICATONS I-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E

 5.6
such as ertical Com
can be resolved into
two compoents
components of t
nent

the
incined member They are known as rectangular
and horiaontal component
menber an angle8 with horizontal
P' which makes
For exarnple consider a force
of P- Pa Po
Horizontal component

Vertical component of

the components
P-P,Pu
depends upon
of the force
the direction of the t
The direction of
the above tigure.
can be understood from
primary force This
force
5.1.18Designation of by two methods.
Trusses can be designated
The forces in the members of the space diagram
(2) Depending upon
They are-() Dependingupon the joints
the joints
5.1.18.1 of Forces depending upon
Designation for
the letters given
The force can be designated by using
the figure the joints
are named as
the For example in
joints.
the force in the member between
A and B
A.B.C. Therefore two
the forces in the other
can be designated as FAB similarly
members can be designated as Fec FAc
used in the following
This method
designation is
of

methodsof analysis of trusses such as, Ag-512

1 Method of Joints, 2. Method of Sections

5.1.18.2 Designation of forces in the members by using space diagram

In this method the force can be designated by the name
given to the space on either side of the member.
In the figure the named as 1, 2, 3 and the space
joints are

in between A, B, C, and D. So the force in

them are named as

the member between the joint 1 and 2 can be designated as

5.1B
FAD the force in the member between the joint 1 and 3 can be
Flg

designated as FaD and the force in the member between 2 and

3 can be designated as Fa This method of designation is used in the graphical analysis

of (Graphic Static's) trusses.

5.1.19 Nature of forces in a frame

When a truss is subjected to external force then in each member an opposite force is

induced. It may be either compressive force or tensile force.

5.1.19.1 Compressive force
is acting on a member, then there will be an
force
If a comp 'P
equal &
opposite force induced in the member as shown in

figure 5.14. So the opposite compressive force produced in the Fig -54
member can be expressed by an arrow directing outwards.

S PUBUCATIONS IENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)!

 5.7
5.1.19.2 Tensile force
Suppose a tensile force P"is
an equal and opposite
acting on a member
force is
then there wil
n figure 5.15. This induced in the
opposite tensile force member as showrm
can be
arow directing inwards. expressed by an

5.1.20 Analysis of frames

By analysing a frame the
following factors can be
1.The reaction in each
calculated

2. The
supports
force
produced in every member due to external loads.
5.1.20.1
Assumptions
While analysing the framed
structures and trusses the
1. All frames are following assumptions are made
perfect and statically
2. All deteminate.
joints are frictionless
pinned joints.
3. Loads are
applied only at the joints.
4. Self weight of the
members are not taken into account.
5. The deflection due to extermal loads are
can be neglected.
considered to be minimum and hence
6. All the members lie in one
plane.
7. The effect of
temporaryvariation can be ignored.
5.1.21 Method of
analysis
The magnitude and direction of force in all members of the trusses can be analysed by
the following methods.
They are.
1. Analytical method
2.Graphical method
In the
analytical method,trusses can be analysed either by "Method of Joints" or by
Method of Sections".
5.1.22 AnalyticalMethod
Types of Analysis
There are two methods in the method.They
analytical are
1. Method of joints 2. Method of sections.

5.1.22.1 Method of Jjoints

Following steps are adoptedwhile analysing the frames by using this method.
Step 1

The reaction values in the supports are calculated by the

using statiç

equations (Ev
=0,XH 0, Em-0) assumingthat the truss is in equilibrium condition
equilibrium
as in
SS beams.
Step 2
Then
each
the frame is analysed joint by using static equations (v=0, H= 0, Em 0). In
joint force in all the members of the joint is found out. After finding forces in all the

SPUUCATIONS H-ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)

 5.8
are analysed.
We should select sthe
all the joints
next analysed similarly
embers joint is

joint where there is only two unknown forces.

Step 3 in all members can

can be
and nature of torces
members the forces
After analysing all the

tabulated
Note
In case of cantilever trusses

is
we
a cantilever
need not

truss,
find

we
the reactions.

should start analyzation from the force

2. While analysing, if it

from the supports.

end and in case of SS trusses we should start

3
5.1.22.2Method
The selected joint should not
contain not

of sections
more than two unknown force.

members have to be found out, then this method

If the forces in some intermediate is

while analysing the trusses using method of sections,

suitable. Following steps are adopted
They are,
1
Step
As in S.S beam the reaction in supports are found out using static equilibrium

equations.

Step 2
A section is passed through the members for which the forces has to be found out. But
it
kept in mind that the section line should not pass through not more than two
should be
unknown forces.

Step 3
By taking moment at the external forces about the selected point and equating the
algebraic sum to zero the unknown forces are determined.

Step 4
Similarly by taking moment about different points with different section lines other
unknown forces can be found.

5.1.23 Method of Vs Method

joints of sections
1. If forces in all the members are to be found then the method of
forces in certain members are to joints are used.
be found then
are used.
randomly the method of sections

2 In
to
method of section a section line is
be found and by passed through the members for
which foroes
taking moments abouta
point and equating to zero, forces

3 be found.
In method of
forces in the
Joints in each

members are found

joint using the
out.
static
equations 2V =0 & EH =0 ne
ca

5PUBLICATIONS

H-ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)l

 5.9
4 In the method of sections
the section line an 3
unknowns. In the method
should not pass
through not more
of joint the nor
not more 2
unknowns.
joint taken for
analysis should

5. Method of section is
an easy method.
6. Method of Joint is a tedious method.
5.1.24 Analysis of simple cantilever and SS determinate trusses with nodd
concentrated vertical loads
Following points are to be kept in mind while
analyzing the trusses. They are,
In the
1. method of joints to find the forces in all the members, firstly static equations
are used
2. n case of S.S trusses the support reactions are found initially and it is not

3 necessaryin case of cantilever trusses.

To support reaction in SS trusses first the moment of all external
find the

about any supportis taken and equate it to zero as in SS beam.

forces

Then joints are analysed one by one using static equations.

5. In case of SS truss the analysis is started from the supports.

In case of cantilever trusses the analysis is started from the

free end.
6.
The is started from the joint where
analysis
there is only 2 unknowns.

Example

two
In the

vertical
fig

members
5.16 take the supported
in the joint they are
joint.

1) FAB
There
sin
are only
and the
B
upward direction. So the
direction
reaction. The reaction is in
Py
of force in the joint will be assumed to be only in downward

direction.

ie. R1-FaB Sine = 0. FAB

R
Sine Fig
PH

5.16
forces in the
over there are only two horizontal
joint.
More side therefore Fac should
In Cose directs towards left
and Fac this FaB
They are FAB Cose
be towards right side only.

ie. FaB Cose+ Fac Fac FaB cose0;

then it can be uderstand that
by the above calculation negative
If the answer obtained But the
is wrong and
the direction of force should be changed.
our assumption
will be the same.
magnitude is
at
found then the direction
of a member in a joint
correctly,

the direction of force

If
direction).
can be marked easily (opposite
other end of the member of force in the member is
the joint then the nature
Ifarrow head is towards
the the joint then the nature of force in
head is away from
and if the arrow
compression,
the member is tension.

- ENGINEERING MECHANICS(E)
SPUBUCATIONS
 5.10
a SS tnuss is
symmetrically loadd one, then the reaction
of the
support Is
equal and isequal to More over it is

TOugh to analyse
only half will be as sarme as the first half

it
portion

Example: Symmetrically loaded SS trusses

R-R- FFu: Fuc- Fai Fu Fro R4 FHg 517

sign conventlon
upward force +ve
Vertical loads
downward force
-ve

right hand force

+ue
Horizontalforce
left hand force -ve
5.1.25 of
Analysis trusses by method of joints Cantilever trusses
While analysing the cantilever truss we should start analysis from the free end.
2 By
the
taking the
members
joints one by one and applying the static equatiorn ZV 0, in Joint
in each joint is found out.
3. The in2 unknown
which there are
joint is taken first.

5.1.26 Solved Problems Method of

joints
1. Determine the magnitude and nature of
forces in the member of the given
trussby method of joints.
Step 1
The joint 'c' only has (two member 2 unknown
width) forces. Except 'c' in all the joints
there are more than 2 unknown so the joint 'c' is taken as shown
first, in the figure
5.186)
H 0, Fuc -0, EV- 0, Fo-0

20 KN 20KN D
Ag-518 (a) Flg 5. 1B(b)

5 PUBUCATIONS 1-ENGINEERINGMECHANICS(E)T
 5.33

5.2 ANALYSIS BY GRAPHICAL METHOD

5.2.1 Introduction
In certain frames it is very method
graphical method is used to solve them easily In analyical method the magnit
in
such
tedious to solwe t
of bv analytical ca
forces are obtained upon u
accurately but in graphical method the accuracy depends
method of drawing It is an easiest and simplest way of analyzing the simpletrames
the members o
method lollowing steps are adopted to find the forces in
graphical
the frames They are
1 Construction of space Diagram
Designation of forces by using Bow's notation.
3 Determination of support reactions

4 Construction of ector Diagram

5 Determination of internal forces

6 Displaying the results in Tabulation fom

In this way the forces in all the members of a frame is determined.

5.2.2 Graphic Static's

the various
is method, adopted to find the stresses in
Graphic statics graphical
members.
5.2.3 Advantages of graphic static's
This method is easy in where mathenatical calculations are necessary.
cases

It is easy and simple because drawings can be drawn easily by anybody.

It is less tedious than analytical method

5.2.4 Space diagram
of
or frame to suitable scale indicating the point of application
The diagram of the truss
is known as space diagram.The
external forces with magnitude and direction
their

and should be indicated in the spacediagram.

reaction of the supports shoukd be found out

5.2.5 Bow's notation

method of designation the forces in the members
of the
It is a

truss. It is denoted by the letters on either side or space of a

can be named by using
member. The forces in the members
But
Bow's notation either in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

the member should be named in the same way.

the forces in all

In the figure load W

be named by using the letter 'AB
should Ag 53
reaction R should be
named with 'BC' and is named with
R
are named as AD, DB and DC. be noted
AC.In the same way all the 3 members
It should

all the members are

named in the clockwise direction.

PUBLUCATONS IENGINEERING MECHANICS (E) M

 5.34

5.2.6 Resultant force / Equivalent force 1s

on a truss
the forces acting
The combined effect of all KN
known as resultant force
can be easuy
diagram
The magnitude and direction of space
identified by using Vector diagram 245
P
Example
of 4 KN is acting
at an angle 5m 3m
In the above diagram a force at a Space Diagram
at Q at
90
at P. Another force of 1 KN
is acting
of
45 of two Fig 5.32
inter section
distance of 5m a part from P. From the

forces another force is acting atR.

of the resultant force following
To find the
and direction
magnitude
steps are adopted.
cm - 1KN
is
the space diagrarm
1 To a suitable scale say 1
forces are marked.
drawn and the line of action of the
in the
forces are designated
2. By using the Bow's notation
clockwise direction.
is drawn. vector Diagram
3 Then to suitable scale vector diagram
And
ad will be the of the resultant. Fig 5.33
4 The measure of magnitude

is direction can be identified

5.2.7 Equilibrium force

a there is force developed in each member
When external forces are acting in truss

Such developed force is equilibrium force It is opposite force

to keep it is equilibriurm.

of the resultant and in the same line of action of resultant.

5.2.8 Vector diogram

The diagrams which represent the forces in distance is Known as vector diagram.
be represented in the vector diagram. Suppose we if

The direction of the force can also

warnt to represent a dowrward force of 5 KN, through a downward line of 5 cm. We can
represent it by vector diagrarn

5.2.9 Step involved in drawing vector diagram

1
Step
1. Draw a space diagram to a suitalble scale and designate the forces in the members

by using Bow's notation

2 Mark a point aat some place. Then by using the scale

1 KN-Icm,draw line ab paralel to the force AB ie.(ab-5cm downward)
3. Then mark a poirnt o af any place away from ab joint oa, and ob. This is the

vector diagram
 5.35
Construction
of funicular
polygon

A
R3.5KN
Space Dingram
R21.8 Vector Diagram

Ag-S34(b)
Ag-534(a)
1 Produce the line of action of
forces from the space
diagram.
2 Draw the line o-a in the
space A
from the vector parallel to the line oa
diagram. Similarly a lineo-b in the
B parallel to the line oa from
the vector
space

3. diagram.
Joint the points where
the o-a line and o-b line cuts the
line of
projection of spacediagram. It is known as
closing
line t is denoted by oc
Draw line parallel to o-c in the vector
diagram through o, Ag-5 34(c)
which cuts the force line ab at c.
Now measure bc and ca which gives the vertical reaction.
upward
Bc right reaction; R, 1.5 KN:Ac-
left reaction;R, - 3.5 KN
Determination of magnitude and nature of forces in the members ofa
catilever/simply Supported determinate trusses
1. Take the line in vector diagram (or) separately draw a line abc as in the ector
diagram
2. Draw line parallel to the line BDthe space diagram from the point b in the vector
in

diagram. The point of intersection of these two line is noted by (and a line parallel to d
AD from 'a' in the vector
diagram)
3. Now take the joint (1) in the space diagram
while moving in the clockuise direction
the first member is AD. Simultaneously see the vector diagram. In the vector diagram
the line ad moves from a to d downwardly. So we hawe to put a downward arrow in
the joint (1) It denotesthe compressive force
4 The member DC is also in joint (1) Now see the ector diagram. The point d moes to
c rightward. So in the joint (1) in the space diagram part an arrow in the rightward
direction. it denotes tensile force
5 Similarly take the joint (2). Move in the dockuwise direction. There are two members
BD and DA. See the vector diagram the point b moves upwards towards d so put an
denotes The
aow in upward direction in the joint (2). It compression force in the

EPUBUCATIONS B-ENGINEERING MECHANICS ()M

 5.36
now by seeing the
We can check it

out from joint (1). a so put an

member DA is already found d moves upward towards
the point
ector diagram. In the vector diagram
upward arrow in joint (2).it denotes compression the distance of them in
each member, measure
6. To find out the magnitudeof forces of
vector scale.
it with the selected
the vector diagram and multiply

FAD ad x vector scale

scale
FoB bd x vector
Fpc- dcxvector scale.

Result
Amount of force Designation
Members
AD 4 C
DB 2.6 kN C
T
DC 2
5.2.10 Problems Cantilever Trusses (Graphically)

10. Determine the magnitude and nature of forces in the members of the

trussgiven below by graphically.

R1 470 KN

100 N
100 KN

2 50 KN

1.6 m 1.6 m 1.5 m

R2 480K Ag-535

Solution:

Scale: 1 cm 50kN R470KN

Procedure 100 KN
1 Draw the space diagram of the given 100 KN
truss by using the scale ot Icm -Im.
2.

3.

4.
Designate
using

Now draw
Bow's

vector scale of
the forces

Notation.

the vector

For example- Mark a

Icm
in the

diagram using
=50 kN.
point
members

'a' at any
a R2480 KN
1.5 m D 1.8

space Diagram
Ag-5 35(a)
m
50KN

1.5 m

S PUBUCATIONS
1-
ENGINEERING MECHANICS (E)[MI