Roofs

Roof & Roof covering: Sloping roofs, flat roofs, roof covering (AC Sheets, GI corrugated sheets,
sheet materials, glass covering, stone roofing, RCC roofing etc.)
A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of the building, provided as a structural covering, to
protect the building from weather so that rain, snow or wind may not damage the building.
Requirement of good roofs:

1) It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the super imposed dead and live load.
2) It should effectively protect the building against wind, rain, sun etc.
3) It should be water-proof, and should have efficient drainage arrangements.
4) It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
5) It should be fire resistant.
6) It should provide adequate insulation against sound.
- The general type of roofs are listed below
1. Sloping roofs or pitched roofs
2. Flat roofs or terraced roofs
3. Shelled roofs
4. Domes
- The selection of type of roofs depends upon the shape or plan of building, climatic conditions
of the area and type of constructional materials available.
- In Practice, it is found that sloping roofs are very suitable in coastal regions where
rainfall/snowfall is heavy but the temperature more or less equal.
- Whereas, flat roofs are considered suitable in plains where rainfall is limited and heat is great,
and hence greater protection is required from the sun.
- Shell roofs are constructed for buildings such as factories, workshops, assembly halls, theaters,
recreation centers, libraries etc. where either large area is covered without obstruction or for
the purpose of natural lighting, ventilation etc.
Fig. 1 Shell roof
Sanu Meena, Assistant Professor (Department of Civil Engg, M.B.M. University, Jodhpur)
- A dome roof, which is a special type of shell roof, is used for covering large areas for assembly
halls, gymnasiums etc.
Fig. 2 Dome roof
Sloping Roof
The various shapes which can be given to roofs of this type depends on the area covered, materials
available, type of lighting and ventilation needed inside etc.
Some important type of sloping roofs are given as under:
1) Shed roof or lean to roof: This is the simplest type of roof, provided either for a room of
small span or for the verandah. It has slope only in one direction.
2) Gable roof: This is common type of sloping roof which slopes in two direction. The two
slopes meet at the ridge. At the end face a vertical triangle is formed.
3) Hip Roof: This roof is formed by four sloping surfaces in four directions. At the end faces,
sloped triangles are formed.
4) Gambrel roof: This roof, like gable roof, slopes in two direction but there is a break in the
slope in each side. At each ends vertical face is formed.
Fig. 3 Types of basic sloping roof
5) Mansard roof: Mansard roof, like a hip roof, slopes in four directions but each slope has
a break. Thus, sloping ends are obtained.
6) Deck roof: A deck roof has slope in all four directions, like a hip roof, but a deck or plane
surface is formed at the top.
Technical Terms used in Sloping Roof:
1) Span of Effective Span: Span or clear span is the clear horizontal distance between the
internal faces of wall or supports. The effective span is the horizontal distance between the
centers of walls or supports.
2) Rise: It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and the wall plate.
3) Pitch: It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane. It is expressed either
in term of degrees (angle) or as a ratio of rise to span.
4) Ridge: It is the apex line of sloping roof. (Apex means the top or highest part of
something).
5) Eaves: The lower edge of the inclined roof surface is called eaves. From the lower edge
(eaves), the rain water from the roof surface drops down.
6) Hip: It is ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping surfaces, where the exterior angle
is greater than 180 degrees.
7) Valley: It is a reverse of hip. It is formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces, making
an external angle less than 180 degrees.
Fig. 4 View of a Building with Basic Sloping Roofs
8) Ridge Piece / Ridge Beam / Ridge Board: A horizontal member which runs horizontally
at the highest level of the roof truss. It supports the common rafters fixed to it.
Fig. 2 Ridge and Common Rafter

9) Common Rafter: These are the inclined wooden member running from the ridge to the
eaves. They support the battens or boarding to support roof covering. Depending upon the
roof covering material, the rafters are normally spaced at 30 to 45 cm center to center.
10) Purlins: These are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to support common rafters
of a roof when span is large. Purlins are supported on trusses or walls.
Fig. Purlins
11) Hip Rafters: These are the wooden members which form the hip of a sloping roof. These
rum diagonally from the ridge to the corner of the walls to support roof covering. They
receive the ends of the purlins and ends of jack rafters.
Fig. 4 Hip Rafters
12) Valley Rafters: These are sloping rafters which run diagonally from ridge to the eaves for
supporting valley gutters. They receives the ends of the purlins and ends of jack rafters on
both sides.
Fig. 6 Valley Rafters

13) Jack Rafters: These are the common rafters shorter in length which run from a hip to the
eaves or from a ridge to a valley.
Fig. Jack Rafters

14) Eaves Board or Facia Board: These are the wooden board fixed to the feet of the common
rafters at eaves. It is usually 25 mm thick and 25 mm wide. The ends of lower most roof
covering material rest upon it. These eaves gutter, if any, can also be secured against it.
15) Wall Plates: These are long wooden members, which are provided on the top of stone or
brick wall, for the purpose of fixing the feet of the common rafters. These are embedded
from sides and bottom in masonry of the walls, almost at the centre of their thickness. Wall
plates actually connect the walls to the roof.
16) Battens: These are thin strips of wood or metal, which are fixed on the common rafters to
support the roofing material like clay tiles.
Fig. 3 Battens
17) Boardings: They act similar to battens and are nailed to common rafters to support the
roofing material.
18) Gable: Wall which follows the slope of the roof from eave to ridge and cover the end of a
roof.
19) Barge Board: Wooden planks used to fix the ends of common rafters projecting beyond
the sloping top of a gabled wall.
Fig. 8 Gable Fig. 9 Barge Board
20) Truss: A framework of Triangles.
Pitched Roofs or Sloping Roofs:
- Pitched roofs are those which have the considerable slope for covering the building structure.
- These roofs are generally lighter than flat roofs and are constructed either in wood or steel.
- These roofs are classified into the following three categories:
1) Single Roofs
1. Lean to roof or shed or Verandah roof
2. Couple roof
3. Couple close roof
4. Collar-beam roof or collar tie roof
2) Double or Purlin Roofs
3) Triple-membered or Framed or Trussed Roofs
1. King-post roof truss
2. Queen-post roof truss
3. Combination of king-post and queen-post roof truss
4. Mansard roof truss
5. Truncated roof truss
6. Belfast-Roof Truss
7. Composite Roof Truss
8. Steel Sloping Roof Truss
Fig. 11 Types of Roofs
Single Roofs:
- These roofs consist only of common rafters which are attached at the ridge and wall plates.
- These are used when span is less so that no intermediate support is required for the rafters.
Such roofs are used only when the span is limited to 5 meters.
- The maximum span of the rafters is taken as 2.5 meters.
- The various forms of this type are as follows:
1. Lean to roof or shed or Verandah roof
2. Couple roof
3. Couple close roof
4. Collar-beam roof or collar tie roof
5. Collar and scissors roof
1. Lean to Roof:
- This is the simplest type of sloping roof, in which rafters slop to one side only.
- The wall to one side of the room is taken higher than the wall to the other side.
- A wooden plate is supported either on a steel corbel or a stone corbel, which are
provided as 1 m center to center. The wall plate is embedded on the other side, to the
wall or pillars.
- Common rafter usually inclined at 30 degrees against a wall.
- The common rafters are nailed to wooden wall plate at their upper ends, and notched
and nailed to the wooden plate at their lower end.
- This type of roof is suitable for maximum span up to 2.5 meters. If however, slightly
greater span are used, purlins may be used.
Fig. 11 Lean to Roof or Verandah Roof

2. Couple Roofs:
- This type of roof is formed by couple or pair of rafters which slope to both sides of the
ridge of the roof.
- the upper ends of each pair of rafter is nailed to a common ridge piece and
- Lower end of common rafters are notched or nailed to the wooden wall plates
embedded in the masonry on the top of the outer walls.
- Couple roof are used for up to 3. 6 meters.
- They are unsuitable for larger spans because of the danger of walls being spreading due
to the thrust of the rafters.
Fig. Couple Roof

3. Couple Close Roof:
- This is similar to a couple roof except that the legs of the common rafters are closed by
a horizontal tie known as tie beam.
- This horizontal tie beam prevent the rafters from spreading and thrusting out of the
walls. The tie beam may be a piece of a wood or a steel rod in tension.
- The connection between the tie beam and the feet of rafters is usually obtained by
means of Dovetail halved joint.
Fig. 13 Dovetail Halved Joint
- There is one tie beam for each pair of common rafters.
- Under normal loading condition, this type of roof can be used for maximum span of
4.2 meters.
- For increased span or for greater loads, the rafters may have tendency to sag in the
middle. This can be prevented by providing a central vertical rod called king rod or
king bolt which connects the ridge piece and the tie beam.
Fig. Couple Close Roof (with and without king rod)
4. Collar-Beam Roof or Collar Tie Roof:

- This is similar to the couple roof, except that the horizontal tie is now raised up from
the feet of the rafters to almost middle of the rafters.
- When the span increases, or when the load is more, the common rafters of the couple
roof have the tendency to bend.
- This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing at 1/3 to ½ of the vertical height from
the wall to the ridge. This raised beam is known as the collar beam (or collar tie).
- For span up to 5 meters this type of roof is commonly used.
- It is better to place collar beam low as possible to giving maximum strength to the roof.
- The collar beam is dovetail with the rafters. Bolts may be used as an additional safety.
Fig. 15 Collar Beam Roof

5. Collar and scissors roof:
- It is similar to collar roof, except that two collar beams, crossing each other to have
an appearance of scissor.
Fig. Collar and scissors roof
Double or Purlin Roof:

- In this type of roof, additional member, called purlins are introduced to support the
common rafters at intermediate points.
- These purlins are required for roof with span more than 5 meters.
- The function of the purlin is to tie the rafters together, and to act as an intermediate
support to the rafters. They are supported on end walls.
- The common rafters are provided fairly close (40 to 60 cm c/c). Each rafter is thus
supported at three points:
a. At the bottom; on the wall through wall plate
b. At the top; by the ridge beam
c. At the center by purlin.
- For larger roofs, two or more purlins may be provided to support each rafter.
Fig. 16 Purlins
Fig. 17 Double or Purlin Roof
Triple Membered or Framed or Trussed Roof:

- These roof consist of three set of members:
a) Rafters to support the roofing material (i.e. tiles etc.)
b) Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters
c) Truss to provide support to the ends of purlins.
- In a roof truss, common rafters distribute the weight of the roof covering material or
snow (if any) and wind pressures to purlins, which transmit this load to the trusses and
the purlins in their turn, transfer the weight to the walls.
- When there is no inside wall to support purlins, framed structures, known as trusses are
provided at suitable interval along the length of the room.
- Spacing is generally limited to 3 meters for wooden trusses.
- The trusses span in the same direction in which the couple rafters run. The trusses also
support the ridge piece or ridge beam.
- Each member of the roof truss is thus subjected to direct stress, either compression or
tension.
- The roof truss or framed structure are generally used when the span exceed 5 meters
and when the length of the room is large i.e. when there is no internal walls or partitions
to support the purlins.
- The various types of truss used in trussed roof are as follows:
1. King-post truss
2. Queen-post truss
3. Combination of king-post and queen-post truss These are made up of
4. Mansard truss wooden trusses
5. Truncated truss
6. Bel-fast truss
7. Composite truss
8. Steel Sloping truss
1. King-post roof truss:
- This King-post roof truss is suitable for span varying from 5 to 8 meters.
- A King post truss consist following components:
a. Two inclined principal rafters
b. Lower tie beam
c. Two strut
d. A king post
- These roof trusses are spaced not more than 3 meters center to center.
- The principal rafters support the framework of roof and a tie beam receives the ends of
the principal rafters and prevents the walls from spreading outwards. A King post
prevents the tie-beam from sagging at its center and struts support centers of the
principal rafters and prevent sagging.
- The purlins support the closely spaced common rafters which are rested on the principal
rafters at the ends.
- The principal rafters have the same slope as the common rafters.
- The common rafters rest on the purlins, at equal distance of 30 to 45 cm, and their upper
end is supported by ridge piece, middle part by the purlins and lower ends by wall
plates.
- The trusses are supported on the bed blocks of stone or concrete, embedded in the
supporting walls so that load is distributed to a greater area.
- The battens are nailed across the common rafters and over this frame so prepared, the
roof covering is finally laid.
- Purlin cleat is a wooden block used to support purlins which is fixed on the principal
rafters.
Fig. 17 King-Post Roof Truss

- The Principal rafters and strut (designed to resist compression) act as a compression
member. Whereas, Tie beam and King-post act like tension member.
- The common rafters and purlins are designed to carry the transverse stresses.
2. Queen Post Roof Truss:
- The queen-post roof truss is suitable for spans varying from 8 to 12 meters.
- This truss differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical members rather than one
(instead of king-post). The vertical post known as queen-post.
- This truss consist of two-queen rafters, two principal rafters, struts, tie beam, straining
beam, straining sill and purlins etc.
Fig. 18 Queen-post roof truss

- The queen post are tension member which is prevent the sagging of tie beam.
- The upper end of queen post kept in position by straining beam.
- The straining sill, which is fixed on the tie beam, between the feet of queen-posts,
counteracts the trust of the struts.
- The principal rafters, straining beam, strut and straining sill are in compression,
whereas the queen-post and the tie beam are in tension.
3. Combination of King-post and Queen-post Roof Truss:
- For span greater than 12 meters, the queen-post truss is further modified by
introducing one or more upright members called princess or princess post.
- This combination of king-post and queen-post trusses are suitable for span up to 18
meters.
Fig. Combination of King-post and Queen-post Roof Truss
4. Mansard Roof Truss:

- This wooden truss is named after the name of architect. Francois Mansard, who first
designed this truss.
- This is a combination of king-post and queen-post truss.
- It is a two storey truss, with upper portion consisting of king-post truss and lower
portion of queen post truss.
- The entire truss has to pitches or slopes, the lower slopes varies from 60 to 70 degrees
and the upper slope varies from 30 to 40 degrees.
- The use of this type of truss results in the economy of space and a room may be
provided in the roof itself.
Fig. Mansard Roof Truss
Fig. Details of Mansard Truss
5. Truncated Roof Truss:

- This truss is just similar to a mansard roof truss except that the top in this type is
finished flat.
- This type of roof truss is used when a room is required to be provided in the room.
Fig. Truncated Roof Truss
6. Belfast Roof Truss:
- This truss is in the form of a bow and is also called bow string or latticed roof truss.
- This is made of thin section of timber.
- This truss can be used for big span up to 30 meters, provided light roof covering are
used.
- The central rise in this type of truss is usually kept about 1/8 of the span (i.e. L/8).
Fig. 22 Belfast Roof Truss (or Bow-string Truss)
7. Composite Roof Truss:
- The roof truss, which are built with the combination of materials such in wood and steel
are known as composite truss.
- In a composite truss, the tension members are made of steel, while compression
member are made of timber.
- The principal rafters in composite truss are always made of timber, as the rectangular
sections of timber have a great strength in compression and moreover the purlins can
be fixed easily.
- The composite roof truss are light in weight and economical in construction.
Fig. Composite roof truss
8. Steel Sloping Roof Truss:
- The mild steel roof truss have practically replaced timber truss.
- The use of steel trusses proves to be economical for spans greater than 10 meters.
- The safe working stress for mild steel is about 20 times that for the ordinary structural
timber in direct tension.
- Steel truss are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angles,
T-sections and plates.
- The most suitable sections for mild steel roofs are angles, as they can effectively resist
both compression and tension stresses.
- The angled members are easily jointed and are also produced economically. Therefore
most of the members of modern steel roof trusses are made of angle-sections.
- The various form of trusses along with their suitability for different span ranges, used
in the modern construction are:
Fig. Steel Truss
The following points regarding design and construction of steel roof trusses should be noted:
1) Steel roof trusses should be designed in such a way that the members of a truss are either in
compression or in tension and do not have any bending stress in them.
2) The compression member such as struts should be short as possible to avoid buckling and the
principal rafter’s subjected to direct stress (i.e. compression or tension) should not be longer
than 3 meter maximum.
3) Normally, T-section are best suited for use as principal rafters, whereas angled section are used
as struts. The tension members should preferably be of a flat section.
4) The distance between the steel roof trusses should not exceed 3 meters.
5) The joints or connection of members to each other are made by means of thin plates called
gusset plates or gusset to which end of members are riveted or bolted.
6) In riveting, the pitch of the rivets should not be less than 3 times the diameter of the rivets. The
maximum pitch is 15 cm for compression members and 20 cm for tension members.
The relative advantages of steel roof trusses over timber sloping roofs are as follows:
1) Steel sections forming the roof truss are light in weight and can be fabricated in different shapes
and sizes suit the structural as well as architectural requirements.
2) Steel truss being made of mild steel are free from the attack of white ants and dry rot.
Dry rot: fungal timber decay occurring in poorly ventilated conditions in buildings, resulting
in cracking and powdering of the wood.
3) Steel truss are much stronger than timber truss and they are equally strong in tension and
compression.
4) These truss have a greater resistance against fire and hence especially suited where fire-proof
construction is required.
5) Timber truss can only be used up to a maximum span of 15 meters or so, whereas there are no
span restriction in case of steel roof trusses.
6) The various sections, forming a steel truss can be easily machined and shaped in the workshop
and subsequently packed and transported to site for assembling. Moreover there is no wastage
in cutting.
7) The construction of steel trusses from the rolled steel sections is very easy, rapid and
economical.
Roof Covering for Pitched Roofs and their Selection
- Roof covering is the material which gives a protective surface to the roofing structure
against the weather elements such as rain, sun-rays, wind action and snowfall etc. and
sometimes it gives decorative appearance also.
- Roof covering rigidly fixed with the roof structure by means of various types of fittings
and fixtures.
- There are several types of roof-covering, but only those which are commonly adopted in
India for pitched roof are given below:
1. Thatch covering
2. Wood shingles
3. Tiles
4. Asbestos cement sheets
5. Galvanized iron corrugated sheets
6. Eternit slates
7. Light weight roofing
1) Thatch Covering:
- This is the cheapest roof-covering, commonly used in village. It is very light, but is
highly combustible.
- It is unstable against high winds. It absorb moisture and is liable to decay.
Decay: the state or process of rotting or decomposition.
- Thatch roof covering consist of bundles of reeds or straw.
- The framework for supporting the thatch consist of round bamboo spaced at 20 to
30 cm apart and tied with split bamboos laid at right angles to the rafters.
- The thatch is tightly secured to the framework with the help of ropes.
- For adequate drainage of rain water, the thatch covering should be at least 15 cm
thick and laid with a slope of 45 degrees.
- Thatch is easily combustible, absorb moisture, rots or mud gives out a foul odour.
On account of these defects, it requires frequent renewals and it is not
recommended to be used in good work.
- It is claimed that reed thatch can last about 60 years and straw thatch can last for 2
years, if properly attended to.
Fig. Thatch covering
2) Wood Shingles Covering:
- The use of wood shingles as a roof covering is generally restricted to hilly area
where roof is easily and cheaply available.
- Wood shingles are nothing but the split thin pieces of wood.
- To form a continuous roof covering, wood shingles are laid in a similar manner as
slates and tiles.
- Shingles strips are driven on rafters and shingles are nailed on their top.
- Shingles are commonly obtained in lengths varying from 30 to 50 cm and in width
varying from 6 to 25 cm.
3) Tiles:
- The use of tiles one of the oldest methods of roof covering.
- The tiles are named according to their shape and pattern, and they are manufactured
in the similar manner as bricks. The clay tiles are of various types:
a) Plain or flat tiles
b) Curved or pan tiles
c) Pot tiles or Half-round country tiles; Spanish tiles
d) Italian or Allahabad tiles
e) Inter-locking tiles
- Sometimes, cement concrete tiles have also been used but their use is limited on
account of high cost and the difficulties in their manufacture.
Clay tiles have been widely used as a roof covering for residential buildings because
of the following advantages:
1. Clay tiles being non-conductor of heat, prevent the buildings from extreme changes
of temperature outside and keep them cool.
2. These tiles provide quite a durable roof covering when made of well-burnt good
materials.
3. They are quite strong and pleasing in appearance.
4. If properly selected and laid, they have good resistance against fire and moisture
penetration.
5. These tiles provides a very economical roof covering with aesthetic values and
hence are used for urban and rural houses.
Limitation of clay tiles:
1. These tiles are heavy in weight. The average weight of tiles roof is about 75 kg/m2.
2. In casting tiles, the precaution should be taken to see that they are made impervious
and uniform in size and shape.
The methods of lying or fixing clay tiles is given below:
1. Flat or Plain Tiles:

- Before laying or fixing any roof covering, certain amount of ground work is
required to be done.
a) For this, the common rafters are laid usually at a spacing of 20 to 30 cm.
b) And then battens are fixed across the rafters at a spacing of about 4 to 6 cm.
- Flat or plain tiles are manufactured in rectangular shapes (sizes, 25 x 15 cm to 28 x
18 cm) in thickness varying from 9 to 15 mm.
- Tiles are not perfectly flat but have a slight camber, usually 5 to 10 mm.
- These tiles have two small projecting nibs and two or more nail holes help to fix
the tiles on the battens of the roof truss.
- Sometimes, continuous nib is provided at the head.
- Each tile has two holes and these tiles can be nailed through these holes. It is not
necessary to nail every tile.
- These tiles should be laid at proper gauge and overlap, both at sides and edges, as
it is important for their strength, durability and imperviousness.
- For normal exposures, it is usual to nail every fourth and fifth course. However, in
very exposed positions, especially if the roofs are pitched, it may be necessary to
nail every tile.
Fig. 27 Details of fixing flat or plain tiles

- Special tiles are made for eaves, ridges, hips and valley. At hip, special granny
bonnet hip tiles are used.
- These hip tiles are bonded with mortar on the back of the tile below and secured
with a long nail to the hip rafter.
Fig. 28 Hip and Valley Details
2. Curved or Pan Tiles:
- These tiles are shorter, less curved, heavier, stronger and more durable than the pot-
tiles.
- The tiles are moulded flat first and then the required curvature is given.
- They are flat longitudinally, but are curved transversely to a flat wave or S-curve.
- These tiles may be made of clay or asbestos cement. These tiles are 33 to 36 cm
long, 22.5 to 25 cm wide and about 12 to 19 mm thick.
Fig. 29 Details of Fixing curved or pan tile
- The curved pan tiles are fixed over battens in a similar manner as the plain tiles.
- These tiles are laid with side lap varies from 38 to 50 mm and head or longitudinally
lap varies from 7.5 to 10 cm, according to pitch of the roof.
3. Pot Tiles or Half-round Country Tiles: Spanish Tiles:
- These tiles are laid on a ground work consisting of boarding or closely derived
battens (size 5 cm x 1 cm).
- A layer of matting can be provided on this before lying the tiles.
- These tiles are very commonly used for rural houses as they offer a very cheap roof-
covering.
- Further economy is achieved by replacing battens in ground work by split bamboos.
- These tiles are laid in pair of under tiles (i.e. concave upwards) and over tiles (i.e.
convex upwards) with a proper overlap of at least 8 cm on all the sides.
Fig. Roofing Half-Round Country Tiles or Spanish Tiles
Fig. Description of Tapered Mission Clay Tiles
4. Italian or Allahabad Tiles:
- These tiles are also used in pair- flat broad bottom under tile which alternate with
convex curved over tile.
- The under tiles is flat, tapered, with upturned edges or flanges at the sides. It
measures 23 cm at the interior end (tail), 26 cm at the wide end (head) with a length
of 37 cm and flange height of 4 cm.
- The over tile is half round in section and tapered in plan. The diameter tapers from
16 cm at tail to 12 cm at the head.
- The head lap varies from 6.5 to 7.5 cm, depending upon the pitch while the side lap
is 5 cm.
- The taper in over tile allow the tile in the next course to fit in.
- The ground work consist of rafters to which 5 cm x 2.5 cm battens are fixed at the
gauge apart. The gauge equal to the length of tile tap.
- Vertical battens of size 2.2 cm x 7.5 cm are fixed between sides of adjacent under
tiles and to these the half round over tiles are laid.
- Alternatively, 2.5 cm boarding, covered with felt may be used.
- The last row of tiles, near the eaves and the ridge, the valley and the hip is laid in
lime mortar.
Fig. Roofing with Italian Tiles or Allahabad Tiles
5. Patent Tiles or Interlocking Tiles:
- These tiles are available under patent names, with patent locking devices, the
objective of which is to prevent their dislodgement even in the most exposed
conditions.
- These tiles are machine made.
- Some of the forms of inter-locking tiles are shown in fig.
Fig. Various form of Inter-locking Tiles
- If, there is a possibilities of tiles to be blown away by strong wind action, the
lowermost row (i.e. at eaves) should be screwed down to the battens, or secured
by wires through holes drilled in them.
4) Asbestos Cement Sheets (A.C. Sheets):
- Asbestos cement sheets are now increasingly becoming popular for industrial
buildings, factories, shed, cinema houses, auditorium and even residential
buildings since they are cheap, light weight, tough, durable, water-tight, fire
resisting and vermin resistant.
- These sheets do not require any protective paint and no maintenance is required.
- Asbestos cement is a material which consist of Portland cement and asbestos
fibers (about 15%).
Asbestos: Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral exiting in veins of metamorphosed
volcanic rocks. It is found in several varieties but white asbestos, which is
compound of magnesia and silica, is principally used.
- A.C. roof covering have added advantages of low maintenance cost and high
speed of construction.
- A.C. sheets roof covering have also some drawbacks-
a) Condensation (water collects as droplets on a cold surface when humid
air is in contact with it) in buildings when located in colder climates.
b) Low heat insulation
c) Low aesthetic values
- In India, asbestos cement roof coverings are available in the following three
forms:
i. Everest Big Six corrugated A.C. sheets
ii. Everest Standard corrugated A.C. sheets
iii. Everest Trafford A.C. tiles (or sheets)
Table: Particulars of Asbestos Cement Sheets
- These sheets are fixed direct to either steel purlins or wood purlins.
Fig. A.C. sheet connection with bolts and screws
Procedure for laying A.C. sheets:
- A.C. sheets may be laid from left to right or vice versa, but it is preferred to lay
them, commencing from the end opposite to the direction of prevailing wind
and rain.
- The purlin spacing are adjusted to provide specified overlap at intermediate
point and specified overhang at the eaves.
- The holes for fixing the screws or bolts to purlins are drilled through the tops
(i.e. crown) of the corrugations with their diameter 3 mm bigger than the
diameter of the screw or bolt. This provides an allowance for expansion of A.C.
sheet due to temperature changes.
- Coach screws are generally used with wooden purlins and crank bolts are used
with steel purlins.
- The laying of A.C. corrugated sheets is always commenced from the eaves. So,
in the first row, i.e. eaves course, the first sheet is laid uncut.
- End lap and side lap should be properly maintained. General end lap is 15 cm,
but this can be varied to suit purlin spacing.
- Purlin spacing and length of the sheets should properly checked, before laying.
- Ridge capping should be secured to the ridge beam.
- The sheets should be “mitred” or cut properly as required.
- The unsupported overhang of A.C. sheets should be exceed 30 cm.
Recently Fiber-concrete Roofing (FCR) technology is gaining widespread attention as a low cost
roofing material. FCR tiles are claimed to be less-expensive and have less imposed weight. FCR
mix is comprised of 1 part of cement to 3 part of sand with a fiber (15 to 25 mm) of 1 percent by
weight of total mix. Only a small amount of water is required to produce a workable paste.
5) Galvanized Corrugated Iron (G.I.) Sheets:

- These sheets are extensively used as a roof covering material in factories, workshops,
sheds, cheap buildings etc.
- Galvanized corrugated iron sheets do not have an attractive appearance but still they
are widely used as they are durable, fire-proof, light in weight and require no
maintenance.
- These sheets are manufactured in a form which have the corrugations (i.e. a series of
parallel depressions) from one end to another.
- The purpose of the corrugations is to impart additional strength to thin iron sheets and
to discharge the water quickly away from the sheets.
Fixing of galvanized iron sheets:
- These corrugated G.I. are fixed in a manner similar to A.C. sheets

- G.I. sheets are usually 60 to 75 cm wide, 150 cm long and of about 1 to 2 mm thick.
These sheets, like A.C. sheets can be fixed to timber purlins by means of special G.I.
screws and bolts along with curved washers respectively.
- The holes through the crowns of corrugation, for receiving screws, should be drilled
and not punched.
- The sheets are laid on the roof with an end lap not less than 15 cm over the sheet below
it, and the side lap should, as a rule extend from 1.5 to 2 corrugations.
- Special sections are available for covering hips, ridges and valleys.
6) Slate Roofing:
- Slate is a hard, fine grained sedimentary argillaceous (clayey) stone. Late in obtained
from either open quarries (a place, typically a large, deep pit, from which stone or other
materials are or have been extracted) or mines. These stone cut and shaped into slates.
- The thickness of slates used for roofing may vary from 4 to 8 mm. The size of slates
vary from 600 mm x 300 mm to 400 mm x 200 mm.
- A good slate should be hard, tough and durable and not split when holed or dressed.
- Slates are not commonly used in India.
- For fixing the slates holes are made at the centre or the head.
- Slates are fixed to the battens by means of copper or zinc nails.
- The spacing of the battens, known as gauge is determined from the following
expression.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝐿𝑎𝑝
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
2
- Ridge and hips are generally covered with blue or grey ridge tiles-matching the colour
of slate.
7) Light Weight Roofing:
- For wide span industrial structures, it is desirable to reduce the weight of roof, so that
structural framing can be economized.
- Conventional roofing materials (such as tiles, slates etc.) are heavy and require heavy
framing to support them.
- The light weight roofing materials are of two types:
a. Sheeting
i. Aluminum Sheets
ii. Asbestos Cement Sheets
b. Decking
i. Wood Wool
ii. Straw board
iii. Aluminum alloy and Steel Decking
Aluminium Roof Sheeting:
- They consist of aluminum alloyed with a small percentage of manganese for strength.
- It is the lightest of all roofing.
Fig. Metal Roof Sheeting
Wood Wool:
- Wood wool are made from wood fibre interwoven together and cement bonded under
pressure in mould.
- They are available in the form of slabs, varying in thickness from 12 mm to 100 mm,
and in size of 0.6 m width and up to 3.9 m length.
- Wood wool had good sound absorbing and thermal insulation properties.
- For roofing, the slabs are generally of 50 to 75 mm thickness and they are nailed to
timber joist.
Fig. Wood Wool
Straw Board:
- Straw board is made of compressed straw with thick water proof paper covering.
- The board is thickness is 50 mm, width 1.2 m and length from 1.8 to 3.6 m.
Fig. Straw Board
Flat Roof or Terrace Roofs:
- A roof which is generally flat (i.e. angle to the horizontal less than 10 degree) is known as
flat roof.
- It should be noted that no roof can be laid perfectly level. The flat roofs are normally laid
at a slope of 1 in 2 to 1 in 6, sloping in one or more direction from center, to drain off the
rain water efficiently and smoothly.
- With the very reliable water-proofing and heat insulating materials, flat roof construction
has replaced the pitched roofs in all types of superior construction including multistory
buildings.
- Although flat roofs have high initial cost and are difficult to construct also, but even then
they are extensively adopted even in places where rainfall is heavy.
Advantages of Flat Roofs:
- The flat roofs can be utilized for serval purposes such as an outdoor living room in domestic
buildings, a place for celebrating functions, roof gardens and play grounds etc.
- The construction and maintenance of flat roof is simpler than other types of roofs.
- It is easier to make the buildings with flat roof fire resistant than those with pitched roofs.
- Flat roofs possess good insulation properties. In hot climates, they keep out the heat from
rooms during day time, and in cold climates they keep out cold.
- Flat roofs require lesser area of roofing material than the pitched roofs.
- In case of flat roofs, the construction of upper floors can be readily taken up when desired.
But in case of pitched roofs, the entire roof has to be first dismantled and then to be replaced
by a new floor under such circumstances.
- A flat roof is proved to be overall economical than a pitched roof.
Disadvantages of Flat Roofs:
- A flat roof cannot be used for longer spans without the use of intermediate columns and
beams.
- The flat roofs are not considered suitable at places of heavy rainfall or snowfall.
- Due to extreme temperature variation in tropical counties like India, hair cracks are
developed on the surface which cause leakage of flat roof. Moreover, the hair cracks are
difficult to be traced and required in case of flat roofs.
- The self-weight of flat roofs is comparatively heavier which makes the construction of such
roofs more expansive than pitched roofs. The initial cost of flat roofs is also much more
than pitched roofs.
- The speed of flat roof construction is slower than that of a pitched roof.
Drainage of Flat Roofs:
- It is one of the basic requirement of flat roofs that the rain water should be drained-off from
roof surface easily and quickly otherwise it will lead to leakage of roof.
- To achieve water tight roof surface, the selection of slopes and drain outlets, depending
upon the roofing materials and climate conditions should be made carefully.
- 4 possible arrangements for drainage of flat roofs with drain outlets (i.e. pipe) are
illustrated.
Fig. Alternate arrangements for drainage of flat roofs with drain
- Normally, for porous type of flat roofs, slopes of 1 in 20 in regions of heavy rainfall and 1
in 36 in comparatively dry regions are provided.
- If the roofs are made of R.C.C. or reinforced brick slabs duly water-proofed or with a layer
of bitumen or tar with 7.5 cm of earth on top, a slope of 1 in 40 and 1 in 60 respectively
are found to be satisfactory.
Types of Flat Roof Construction
- Flat roofs are constructed in similar way as the floor except that the top surface is required
to be protected against weather elements such as rain, heat, snow etc.
- For this purpose, the top surface of roof is given necessary slopes, either two way or four
ways and also treated with damp-proofing materials to safeguard against the effects of rain
and snow.
- Broadly speaking, the flat slabs are of two types:
a) The flat roofs consisting of just a roofing slab with an adequate slope to drain
off the rain water.
b) The terraced roof, which are designed and constructed for use as an outdoor
living room, celebrating functions, roof gardens and play-ground etc. These
terraced roofs require better finish, appearance, wearing resistant and insulation
characteristics.
- The flat roofs of different types are constructed depending upon the availability of
materials and climatic conditions but the common types which are generally adopted
are as follows:
1. Mud Terrace Roof
2. Brick-jelly or Madras terrace Roofing
3. Mud-phuska terracing with tile paving
4. Lime concrete terracing
5. Lime concrete terracing with tile paving
6. Bengal Terrace Roofs
7. Light weight flat roofing
1) Mud Terrace Roofs:
- This type of roof is suitable where rainfall is less.
- It can be provided either on tiles (Punjab type terracing) or on wood boards
(Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh practice).
- In both the cases, terracing is made with white earth mud containing large percentage
of sodium salt.
In mud terracing in Punjab:
- Mud terracing is provided over roof which consists of 50 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm T-

section spaced at 32 cm centre to centre over R.S.J.
- Well burnt tiles of size 30 cm x 30 cm x 5 cm or 30 cm x 15 cm x 5 cm are placed
between the flanges of the T-section, using lime mortar.
- A 15 cm layer of stiff mud made from good white earth is laid over the tiles. This layer
is continuously beaten till the surface becomes hard.
- The top is plastered with mud plaster in which the sufficient quantity of cow-dung is
mixed.
- The surface is finally finished with a wash of 4 part of cow-dung and 1 part of cement
in water.
- To drain off the rain water effectively, the roof terrace is given a slope of 1 in 30.
In M.P. and Maharashtra:
- Fairly good mud roofs which do not leak in spite of heavy rainfalls, are made. These
roofs, provide sufficient insulation against heat and hence keep the building cool for
comfortable living.
- The construction procedure of such a mud terracing s described below:
1. The piece of teak boards 4 to 5 cm thick, are first nailed on the top of wooden
bridging joist of adequate section which have been spanned along the width of
the room at 30 cm centers.
2. On the top of these boards a 2.5 cm thick layer of wood shaving is spread.
Which is then covered by a layer of well burnt bricks on edge and set in lime
mortar.
3. This layer of bricks is further covered with an 8 to 10 cm thick layer of stiff
mud which is beaten hard.
4. The mud layer is finally covered with the topping made up of 2.5 cm thick layer
of loose good white earth containing large percentage of sodium salt.
5. This layer of loose earth has to be renewed once or twice year before the rains
to ensure the roof water-tight.
6. The terrace roof is generally given a slope of 1 in 30.
Note: If wooden joist and boarding are replaced by R.C.C. slab in the above mud terracing,
then a perfectly cool or leak proof terrace can be formed.
2) Brick-jelly roofing or Madras terrace Roofing:

- Figure below shows the section through the roofing, which is constructed in the
following steps:
1. Wooden joist are placed on rolled Steel joist (R.S.J.) with a furring piece in
between. The furring piece height at the centre is so adjusted that the required
slope of roof is obtained.
2. A course of specially prepared bricks of size 15 cm x 5 cm x 12 mm is placed
on edge in lime mortar (1:1.5) laid diagonally across the joist.
3. After the brick course is completely set, a 10 cm thick layer of brick bat concrete
is laid over the brick course.
 This brick bat concrete consist of 3 part of brick bats, 1 part of gravel
and sand and 50 percent of lime mortar by volume.
 The 10 cm thick concrete layer is beaten down to 7.5 cm thickness by
wooden hand beaters for three days with frequent wetting with water.
4. After the brick bat concrete is set, three set of Madras flat tiles (15 cm x 10 cm
x 12 mm) are laid over it in three layers, making a total thickness of 5 cm. the
tiles are laid in 1:1.5 lime mortar.
 Sometimes, for better quality of terracing, the flat tiles are replaced by
glazed china mosaic pieces.
5. Finally, the top surface is plastered with three coats of lime mortar. The surface
is carefully rubbed and slope of 1 in 30 is provided.
Fig. Madras Terrace Roof Construction Details
Fig. Madras Terrace Roof
3) Mud-Phuska terracing with tile paving:

- This method of terracing is equally suitable for hot as well as arid regions, and is
commonly used over R.C.C. roofing.
- The work of roofing is carried out in the following steps:
1. The R.C.C slab is cleaned off dust and lose material. A layer of hot bitumen is
spread over it at the rate of 1.70 kg of bitumen per square of roof surface.
2. A layer of course sand is immediately spread over the hot coat bitumen.
3. A mud-phuska is prepared from the puddled clay mixed with bhusa and a 10
cm thick layer of this mud-phuska is applied over the sand bitumen layer.
4. Proper slope, usually 1 in 40 is given in mud-phuska layer. Alternatively,
slope may be given in R.C.C. slab itself.
5. The mud-phuska layer is consolidated properly. It is then plastered with 13
mm coat of mud-cowdung mortar (3:1).
6. Tiles bricks are laid flat on plastered surface. The joints are grouted in 1:3
cement mortar.
Fig. Mud-phuska and Tile Terracing
4) Lime Concrete Terracing: Jodhpur Type Roofing
5) Lime concrete terracing with tiles paving

- This type of terracing is commonly adopted over R.C.C. roofing.
- Figure below shows a typical section of roofing, which is laid in the following steps:
1. The R.C.C. slab is cleaned off dust etc. and layer of hot bitumen is applied at
the rate of 1.7 kg per square meter of roof surface.
2. A layer of coarse sand is immediately spread over the hot layer of bitumen.
3. A 10 cm thick (average) layer of lime concrete is laid in proper slope. The
entire slope is given in lime concrete itself.
4. The lime concrete may consist of 2 parts of lime, 2 parts of surkhi and 7 parts
of brick ballast of 25 mm gauge. The concrete is well beaten.
5. Two course of flat tiles are laid in 1:3 cement mortar.
Fig. Lime concrete and Tiles Roofing
6) Bengal Terrace Roof:
- This roof is generally used in Bengal to cover verandahs, and hence commonly known
as Bengal Terrace Roof.
- Construction procedure of such roof is described below:
Fig. Bengal Terrace Roof

1. Rafters are placed in position, sloping outward from main wall, at a spacing of
30 to 50 cm center to center.
2. The battens (5 cm x 1 cm) are fixed to the upper surface of the rafters at right
angles and spaced at 15 cm center to center.
3. On the battens, a course of flat tiles (15 cm x 8 cm x 2 cm) well soaked in white-
wash is laid in lime or cement mortar.
4. The roof is finally finished in one of the following two methods
a) Two or more course of flat tiles are laid on mortar and finally finished
off with two or three coats of plaster. The outer top surface of the last
coat is rubbed smooth and polished.
b) A layer of fine jelly concrete, 4 to 5 cm thick, is laid over the first course
of tiles. Over this concrete layer, another course of flat tiles is laid and
the surface is finally finished off with two or three coats of plaster. The
outer top surface of the last coat is rubbed smooth and polished.
7) Light weight flat roofing:
- This consist of aluminium alloy and steel decking. The decking sheet is suitably
supported on steel beams.
- Table given below shows the maximum span over which these can be used:
Table: Metal Decking
- On the top of decking, a felt vapour barrier is bonded with bitumen. Over it a fiber
board is bonded for insulation.
- This is then covered with two or three layers of felt roofing.
- Finally, the top surface is finished with a layer of white tone chipping spread on
bitumen to provide for solar reflectivity and reduce heat absorption.
Fig. Light weight flat roof with metal Decking

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Roof & Roof covering: Sloping roofs, flat roofs, roof covering (AC Sheets, GI corrugated sheets,

sheet materials, glass covering, stone roofing, RCC roofing etc.)

Requirement of good roofs:

Fig. 1 Shell roof

Fig. 2 Dome roof

Fig. 3 Types of basic sloping roof

Fig. 4 View of a Building with Basic Sloping Roofs

Fig. 2 Ridge and Common Rafter

Fig. 4 Hip Rafters

Fig. 6 Valley Rafters

Fig. Jack Rafters

Fig. 8 Gable Fig. 9 Barge Board

20) Truss: A framework of Triangles.

Pitched Roofs or Sloping Roofs:

Fig. 11 Types of Roofs

Fig. 11 Lean to Roof or Verandah Roof

Fig. Couple Roof

Fig. 13 Dovetail Halved Joint

Fig. Couple Close Roof (with and without king rod)

4. Collar-Beam Roof or Collar Tie Roof:

Fig. 15 Collar Beam Roof

Fig. Collar and scissors roof

Double or Purlin Roof:

Fig. 17 Double or Purlin Roof

Triple Membered or Framed or Trussed Roof:

Fig. 17 King-Post Roof Truss

Fig. 18 Queen-post roof truss

4. Mansard Roof Truss:

Fig. Details of Mansard Truss

5. Truncated Roof Truss:

Fig. 22 Belfast Roof Truss (or Bow-string Truss)

Fig. Composite roof truss

Limitation of clay tiles:

The methods of lying or fixing clay tiles is given below:

1. Flat or Plain Tiles:

Fig. 27 Details of fixing flat or plain tiles

Fig. 29 Details of Fixing curved or pan tile

Fig. Roofing Half-Round Country Tiles or Spanish Tiles

Fig. A.C. sheet connection with bolts and screws

5) Galvanized Corrugated Iron (G.I.) Sheets:

Fixing of galvanized iron sheets:

- These corrugated G.I. are fixed in a manner similar to A.C. sheets

Aluminium Roof Sheeting:

Fig. Metal Roof Sheeting

Fig. Wood Wool

Fig. Straw Board

Advantages of Flat Roofs:

Disadvantages of Flat Roofs:

Drainage of Flat Roofs:

Fig. Alternate arrangements for drainage of flat roofs with drain

- Mud terracing is provided over roof which consists of 50 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm T-

In M.P. and Maharashtra:

2) Brick-jelly roofing or Madras terrace Roofing:

Fig. Madras Terrace Roof Construction Details

3) Mud-Phuska terracing with tile paving:

Fig. Mud-phuska and Tile Terracing

4) Lime Concrete Terracing: Jodhpur Type Roofing

5) Lime concrete terracing with tiles paving

Fig. Bengal Terrace Roof

Fig. Light weight flat roof with metal Decking

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