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NON DESTRUCTIVE
TEST - NDT
RADIOGRAPHIC
TESTING (RT)
LEVEL II
LECTURE
Address : 24 El-Gahez St., Haey Sabeaa, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
Phone : +20 01012000780- +20 01012000760
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Fax : 02-23877325
Website : www.kit-egy.com
Email : info@kit-egy.com
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Contents

▪ Basic of Radiography

▪ RT procedure

▪ RT Equipment

▪ Film Processing
 Penetration and Absorption 3

➢ The film darkness (density)

will vary with the amount
of radiation reaching the
film through the test object.

X-ray film

= less exposure

= more exposure

Top view of developed

film
Basic 4
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RT Procedure

➢ A film is placed inside a cassette between lead screens. It is

then placed to the rear of the object to be radiographed, a
radiographic source is exposed to the work and film for a pre-
calculated time.

➢ Any imperfections in line with the beam of radiation will be

shown on the film after exposure and development.
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Method

Exposure to Interpret
Load film
Radiation Film

Radioactive Developed
source Film
IQI

Film cassette Latent image on the film

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Good Sensitivity

source specimen Film

Contrast Definition

Processing

Processed Film

Interpretation
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RT Equipment
 Radiation Sources 9

➢ The two types of radiation used in industrial radiography:

1) X-rays (from Cathode Ray Tube)
2) Gamma rays (from a Radioactive Isotope)
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❑ Gamma ray & X-ray from electromagnetic family and
have same properties:

1. Travel at the light speed (185000 m/s).

2. Travel in straight lines.

3. Not affected by magnetic fields.

4. Will exposed photographic film.

5. Scatter in any direction.

➢ A radioactive isotope can
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decay by any one of the
following:
➢Gamma emission only.
➢Beta emission only.
➢Alpha & Gamma.
➢Beta & Gamma.

➢ Only Gamma Rays are of

use to the radiographer.
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Gamma Radiography (cont.)

❑ Units of Radioactivity Measurement:

➢ A unit of activity = “Curie”(Ci) and the SI unit for activity is

the “Becquerel” (Bq).

➢ 1 Curie (Ci) = 37 E9 atoms disintegrate or decay in one

second (37 E9 dps).

➢ 1 Becquerel (Bq) = atom disintegrate or decay in one

second (1 dps).

➢ 1 Curie (Ci) = 37 E9 Bq or 37 GBq

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Gamma Radiography (cont.)

➢ Radioisotopes used for gamma

radiography are encapsulated to
prevent leakage of the material. Radioactive Isotope
Material

➢ The radioactive “capsule” is attached

to a cable to form a “pigtail”.

➢ The pigtail has a special connector

at the other end that attaches to
a drive cable.
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Gamma Radiography (cont.)

➢ A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport and

expose the pigtail containing the radioactive material. The
camera contains shielding material which reduces the
radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use.
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Gamma Radiography (cont.)

➢ A hose-like device called

a guide tube is connected to
a threaded hole called an
“exit port” in the camera.

➢ The radioactive material will

leave and return to the camera
through this opening into the
“guide tube” when performing
an exposure!
 Gamma Radiography (cont.) 17

➢ A “drive cable” is connected to

the other end of the camera.
This cable, controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force the
radioactive material out into the
guide tube.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.) 18
❑ Half-Life & Decay Law :
➢ Half life : The time required for half of the atoms to decay or
disintegrate.

➢ Example: 120 Ci of Ir-192 (t 1/2 = 75 days), after half-life = 60 Ci

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➢ Decay Law:
120
−t

Activity (curies)
A(t) = A(0) * e 100
80
Where: 60
A(o) = Initial Activity
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A(t) = Activity after time "t"
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t = Decay time
0
λ = Decay constant = 0.693 / t1/2
0 75 150 225 300 375 450 525
t 1/2 = half-life Time (days)
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 Gamma Radiography (cont.) 20

❑ Half-Life of the common Radioisotopes:

Radioisotopes Half-Life
Cobalt 60 (Co-60) 5.3 years
Iridium 192 (Ir-192) 75 days
Cesium 137 (Cs-137) 30 years
Thulium 170 (Tm-170) 130 days
Radium 226 (Ra-226) 1620 years
General Principles of Radiography 21
(cont.)
X-ray Radiography
❑ Origin:

➢ Wave type of radiation - non-particulate.

➢ Same properties as gamma rays relative to mass, charge,
distance travelled and shielding.
➢ X-rays are produced by an X-ray machine, this machine
include an X-ray tube head (high voltage generator), and
a control panel.
❑ X-Ray Tube Head Components: 22
High Voltage Power Supply
➢ The cathode contains a heated wire
Anod Cathod
filament (source of electrons).
Electrons
➢ Current is passed through the filament + -
which heats it. The heat causes
electrons to be stripped off. Target Filament
➢ The high voltage between cathode and
anode causes these “free” electrons Window

to be pulled toward a target material

(usually made of tungsten) located in
the anode.
➢ The electrons impact against the Radiation
Penetrate
target. This impact causes an energy the Sample
exchange which causes x-rays to be created.
❑ X-Ray Tube Head Components (Cont.): 23

➢ Origin of X-rays when change in electrons K.E on the anod:

➢ At 300 KEV change to 97% heat energy & 3% X-rays.
➢ At 50 KEV change to 99.9% heat energy & 0.1% X-rays.

➢ To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside

a vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
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❑ X-Ray Production: 25

➢ Continuous X-rays:

- For high atomic number

of target (Tungsten or
gold) & high energy
X-ray. Photons

➢ Characteristic X-rays:

- For low atomic number

of target (Cu or Fe) & low
energy X-ray.
❑ Target Position: 26

➢ Which geometric unsharpness depend on “Effective Focal

Spot” so that the target is set at an angle thus the effective
focal spot is smaller than the actual focal spot.
❑ X-rays Control Panel : 27

Filament current High voltage Exposure

(intensity) meter (energy) meter time

Lamp Switch

Filament current High voltage

(intensity) control (energy) control
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Film processing
 Film Radiography 29

• One of the most widely used and

oldest imaging mediums in industrial
radiography is radiographic film.

• Once exposed to radiation and

developed in a darkroom, silver
bromide turns to black metallic silver
which forms the image.
 ❑ Radiographic film layers: 30

• A cetate base (polyester): used as the base of radiographic film.

• The emulsion layer (image layer): contains microscopic grains
of silver bromide.
• Protective layer (gelatin): to protects the emulsion layer from
scratches.
•A latent image is formed on the emulsion layer when silver
bromide grains are ionized by the X-ray, Gamma ray, or light.
 Film Radiography (cont.) 31

• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be

“developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similar to
photographic film development.

• Film processing can either be performed manually in open

tanks or in an automatic processor.
❑ Manual Processor: 32
❑ Automatic Processor: 33
➢ Three Processing Solutions: 34

(1) Developer (2) Stop Bath (3) Fixer

(1) Developer (combination of chemicals from alkaline):

- First chemical act as accelerator to removes the protective layer.

- Second chemical act as reducer to reduce the exposed silver
bromide grains to black metallic silver.

• The time of development is about from 5 to 8 minutes at 20 °c.

• “Replenishment’’ is the usual technique used to deal with a
weakened developer solution, which controlled by combination
of record-keeping and use of a “control strip”.
(2) Stop Bath (from glacial acetic acid): 35
- Stops developing action by neutralizing the alkaline developer
& stop bath of unexposed ions.
- Always add acid to water because may cause severe burns.

(3) Fixer (from hypoacid):

- Fixes the image on the film.

- Removes all unexposed silver grains from the film as:
1. Clearing time: Removing unexposed silver grains
2. Hardening: Hardens the emulsion gelatin which helps prevent
scratching during handling

• Washing : Then the film is washed with water for 20 minutes to

remove all the processing chemicals.

• Drying : The film is dried for viewing.

➢ Artifacts: 36

Pressure marks Crimp marks Static marks

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