Respiratory System\

→ System that controls breathing.

→ Allows one to obtain oxygen, eliminate carbon dioxide.

• Two Phases of Breathing

○ Inhalation
→ The process of taking in air.
○ Exhalation
→ The process of blowing out air.

• Parts of the Respiratory System

○ Nose
→ The organ through which air entered and is filtered.
○ Nasal cavity
→ Filters, warms, and moistens air.
○ Cilia (nose hair)
→ The hair in the nose.
→ Traps and removes dust and pathogens from the air as it flows through
the nasal cavity.
○ Pharynx (throat)
→ Passageway for the air, leads to trachea.
○ Epiglottis
→ a small, movable "lid" just above the larynx that prevents food and drink
from entering your windpipe.
○ Larynx
→ Production of sounds.
→ A passageway for the air to enter into the lungs.
○ Trachea
→ Also called windpipe.
→ A hallow tube that serves as passageway of the air into the lungs.
○ Lungs
→ The main organs of the respiratory system.
→ It is also the hardest working organ of the body.
→ In the lungs oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is breathed
out.
 Healthy lungs - the lungs are light pink.
 Smokers lungs - the lungs appear dark and mottled.
○ Bronchi/Bronchus
→ Two branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs.
○ Bronchioles
→ The smaller branches of the bronchi.
→ Hairlike tubes that connect to the alveoli.
○ Alveoli
→ Also called air sacs.
→ Allow the gas exchange in lungs.
○ Diaphragm
→ Dome-shaped muscle located at the bottom of the lungs.
→ Is the main respiratory muscle that contracts and relaxes to allow air into
the lungs.

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Circulatory System\
→ Also known as cardiovascular system.
→ Is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with food and oxygen.
→ Works directly with the Respiratory and Digestive System.

Major Parts :
• Blood Vessels
• Heart
• Blood

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Blood Vessels
→ Carries and transport blood throughout the body.

3 Types of Blood Vessels:

○ Arteries
→ Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs
of the body.
→ They are the thickest blood vessels with muscular walls that contract to
keep the blood moving away from the heart.
 Aorta
→ Biggest artery in the body.
 Pulmonary artery
→ The only artery which carries deoxygenated blood.
→ Carries blood containing carbon dioxide from your heart to your lungs.
○ Vein
→ Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
→ They are not as muscular as the arteries, but they contain valves that prevent
blood from flowing backward.
 2 largest veins:
→ Superior vena cava
→ Inferior vena cava
 Pulmonary vein
→ The only vein in the body that carry oxygenated blood.
○ Capillaries
→ Smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the
smallest veins.
→ The actual site where gasses and nutrients ae exchanged.

Human Heart Facts :

→ Hardworking organ • Heart is muscle
→ Pumps the blood throughout the body • Moves 2,000
gallons of blood
Parts of the Human Heart:
each day
4 chambers of Heart:
• Beats between
• Left and Right atrium
60-100 times
• Left and Right ventricle
per minute

○ Atrium
→ Upper part of the heart or also known as receiving
chamber.
○ Ventricles
→ Lower part of the heart also known as delivering
chamber.
○ Right side
→ Pump deoxygenated blood.
○ Left side
→ Pump oxygenated blood.

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Blood
→ Blood transports materials throughout the body inside blood vessels.

○ How much blood is in the human body?

• 8% of the body
• About 5 liters
○ Blood components
• Plasma - 55%
 Nutrients, salt
 Respiratory gases
 Proteins
 Waste products
• Formed elements - 45%
 Red blood cells
 Platelets
 White blood cells

○ Plasma
→ Straw colored, nonliving part of the blood.
→ 90% water
○ Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
→ Main function is to carry oxygen.
→ Blood is red because it contains hemoglobin.
 Hemoglobin - Picks up the oxygen molecules an drops off CO²
○ White blood cells ( leukocytes)
→ Help the body to fight invading bacteria.
→ Will engulf and ingest invading bacteria.
→ Fights infections
→ Large in size
→ Have a nucleus
→ Phagocyte
○ Platelets
→ To help blood clot and form a scab.
→ Smallest part of blood
→ No nucleus
→ Live 2-4 days
→ Involved in clotting of blood

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Genetics\

→ Branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organisms. It carries
traits from parents to be passed down into their offspring.

Why there's a variation? Not all of our DNA are the same.
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have? 23 pairs

○ Chromosome
→ carry the hereditary information (genes).
→ It contains traits from parents to be passed down into their offspring.
→ Largest chromosome is the X chromosome.
○ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
→ contains the hereditary information (genes).
○ Gene
→ a unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence .
○ Alleles
→ Different forms of characteristics.
○ Gregor Johann Mendel (Father of Genetics)
→ Austrian Monk, born in what is now Czech Republic in 1822
→ Son of peasant farmer, studied Theology and was ordained priest Order
St. Augustine.
→ Went to the university of Vienna, where he studied botany and learned the
Scientific Method.
→ Worked with pure lines of peas for eight years.

Mendel's Principle
○ Principle of Dominance
→ One allele masked another, one allele was dominant over the other in the F1
generation.
○ Principle of Segregation
→ When gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary factors (genes) become
separated, so that each sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of
gene.
○ Principle of Independent Assortment
→ “Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs
during gamete formation”.
→ Genes get shuffled – these many combinations are one of the advantages
of sexual reproduction

○ Mendel's peas
→ Mendel looked at seven traits or characteristics of pea plants.
→ plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position
and color.

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 ○ Dominant
→ the allele of a gene that masks or suppresses.
→ the allele of a gene that traits that are being expressed.
Ex: Skin color black is dominant than white color.
○ Recessive
→ an allele that is masked by a dominant allele.
→ the allele of a gene that does not appear in the heterozygous condition, only in
homozygous.
Ex: Straight hair is recessive to curly hair.
○ Homozygous
having identical genes (one from each parent) for a particular characteristic.
Ex: Both father and mother passes down the trait of curly hair.
○ Heterozygous
→ having two different genes for a particular characteristic.
Ex: Father has passed down the allele of curly hair and mother passed down the
allele of straight hair.
○ Genotype
→ the allele of a gene that the genetic makeup of an organisms.
Ex:
Homozygous Curly Hair – CC
Homozygous Straight Hair – cc
Heterozygous Curly Hair- Cc
○ Phenotype
→ the allele of a the physical appearance of an organism.
Ex:
Curly Hair
Straight Hair
○ Monohybrid cross
→ a genetic cross involving a single pair of genes (one trait); parents differ by a single
trait.
○ Punnett square
→ A useful tool to do genetic crosses in order to determine possible traits from
parent to the offspring.
→ We use the Punnett square to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the
offspring.

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
→ any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with
Mendel’s laws.
→ Some traits don’t follow the simple dominant/recessive rules that Mendel first
applied to genetics.
→ Traits can be controlled by more than one gene.
→ Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.
 Types of Non-Mendelian Inheritance
• Incomplete Dominance
• Co dominance
• Multiple allele
• Sex linked traits

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  Incomplete Dominance
→ Blending
→ Also known as partial dominance or blending dominance.
→ Is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not
completely dominant over the other allele.
→ This result in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a
combination of the dominant and recessive phenotypes.

 Co Dominance
→ Means together, work together.
→ The two dominant genes are expressed at the same time.
→ Both traits appear in the heterozygous individual at the same time.

 Multiple Allele
→ there are more than two alleles for a gene.

When we say phenotype it easy to observe in a individual example eye color, one phenotype
that you cannot tell by just looking is blood type. they are not naked; they have proteins
with their surface. These (ABO groups) letters are called antigens.

○ Antigens
→ expressed in most human cell types.
→ play an important role in immune responses, responsible for organ
rejections following transplantations.
→ alternative name: major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes.
○ White blood cells
→ Our auto immune will attack incompatible blood group or transplant organ.
→ WBC are very protective.
In blood there are several phenotypes:
• TYPE A ○ Blood Type O
• TYPE B → "O" means zero
• TYPE AB → Doesn't have A, B, AB antigens
• TYPE O → Universal donors
Blood Type is genetically inherited.
"I" stands for immunoglobin.

 Sex Linked Traits

→ Are traits that are specifically on sex chromosomes.
→ Usually most of the traits in the sex chromosomes are genetic problem/
disorder.

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Biodiversity\

(Bio) = life (diversity) = variety

→ The variety of different types found on Earth.
→ Scientists have identified more than 2 million species. Tens of millions -- remain
unknown.

3 Components Affecting Biodiversity

○ Diversity of Genes
→ There is no natural organism that has an identical set of gene except in the
process of cloning.
→ By varying genes, traits are also varied.
• Polar bears
• Bengal tigers
○ Diversity of Species
→ An organism may look like each other but a closer look will reveal that they
belong to different species.
• Chihuahua
• Newfoundland
• Greyhound
○ Variety of ecosystems
→ Ecosystem - a biological community of interacting organisms and their
physical environment.
→ Habitat – a place where an organism lives.
→ Adaptation – the ability of an organism to survive.
→ Animals adapt to their environment ex. Human have homeostasis or internal
balance.
→ If the specie cannot adapt extinction follows.
• Desert
• Tropical Rain Forest
• Taiga

○ Extinction
→ he end of an organism or of a group of organisms disappearance of a
species when the last of its members die.
→ when its population has become so low that it is possible of becoming
extinct.
Ex. of extinct: • Ex. of endangered species:
• Dinosaur • Philippine Eagle
• Tasmanian Tiger • Tarsier
• Dodo • The Negros Bleeding Heart Pigeon
• Mesosaurus • Palawan Bear Cat
• Mammoth • Dugong

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 ○ Causes of extinction
• Hunting and trapping
• Taking animals for profit
• Destruction of habitat
• Pollution
• Overharvesting
○ High index of diversity
→ Communities with many different species.
○ Low index of diversity
→ Communities with only few species.
Communities with many different species (high index diversity) will be able
to withstand environmental changes better than communities with only a few species (low
index diversity).
How will increasing species diversity affect ecosystem?
→ It increase the efficiency and productivity of an ecosystem.
What is the significance of species diversity?
→ Species interacts with its environment and thus perform certain functions.

○ Pattern of population distribution

→ The amount of biodiversity and species distribution in a community.
○ Population
→ Consists od all organism of a given species that live in a particular area.
○ Population density
→ The number of individuals of a single species per unit area.

Measuring population density

Density = no. of individuals (population) /size of area
Ex: Suppose 60 ants live in a 4 sq. m plot of grass. What would be the population
density of the ants?
60/4=15 sq.m.

○ Limiting factor
→ Anything that limits the size of a population like certain environmental
→ conditions.
• Availability of food and water
• Living conditions
• Light and temperature

○ Causes of deforestation
• Kaingin
• Illegal logging
• Conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects
• Forest fires
• Typhoons
• Effects of deforestation
• Soil erosion
• Floods
• Wildlife depletion
• Water pollution
• Air pollution
• Acid rain

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Photosynthesis\

→ A process where plants make their own food.

→ Takes place in the leaves (chloroplast).

○ Stomata
→ Structure in the leaf looks like holes where CO2 and O2 pass through.
○ Leaf
→ Body part of a plant is responsible for harvesting energy from the sunlight.
○ Roots
→ Body part of a plant is responsible for getting water and minerals from the soil.
○ Stem
→ Body parts of a plant is responsible for transporting water and minerals from
roots to the other parts of the plant.

○ 2 Phases
→ Light Phase
→ Dark Phase
Light Phase
→ Occurs in the grana
→ Has 3 stages
• Chlorophyll Photoactivation
• Photolysis
• Photophosphorylation
○ Photoactivation
→ Electron within the molecules become excited and photoactivated.
→ This reaction gives energy for the next stage of photosynthesis to takes
place.
○ Photolysis
→ The gradual breaking down of H2O molecule and the O2 will be released into
the environment.
→ It gives way to the third process of Light phase.
○ Photophosphorylation
→ The addition of H to NADP and another P to ADP. Thus making high energy
compound called ATP and an electron transporter called NADPH.

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Dark Phase
→ Also known as the Calvin Cycle
→ It occurs in the stroma

○ Calvin cycle
→ It is a cycle run by the ATP and NADPH which is produced in the light
reaction.
→ It produces the glucose.

Respiration\
→ Process in which cells produce the energy (ATP) they need to survive.

○ Chemical Formula

What types or organisms undergo

cellular respiration? Cellular
respiration occurs in all living cells.

○ Mitochondria
→ Powerhouse of the Cell
→ Site of Cellular Respiration
○ Cellular Respiration
• Glycolysis
• Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle
• Electron Transport Chain

○ Glycolysis
→ Occurs in cytoplasm
→ Uses glucose
→ Formation of pyruvate

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 ○ Krebs Cycle
→ Citric Acid Cycle
→ Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
○ Electron Transport Chain
→ Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane.
→ release large amount of chemical energy.
→ 32 ATP and water is produced.

Two Types Of Cellular Respiration

• Aerobic Cellular Respiration
• Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

○ Aerobic Respiration
→ Requires oxygen
→ Happens in the mitochondria of a cell.
○ Anaerobic Respiration
→ Does NOT need oxygen.
→ Happens in the cytoplasm of a cell.
○ Fermentation
→ An anaerobic pathway for breaking down glucose.
○ Alcoholic Fermentation
→ Occurs in plant cells and yeast in the absence of oxygen.

Glycolysis is an anaerobic respiration process… Therefore, glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm

and does not require oxygen.

Summary:
○ Photosynthesis
→ It takes place in chloroplast.
→ Carbon dioxide and water react, using light energy, to produce glucose and
oxygen.
→ Light energy from the sun changes to chemical energy in glucose.
○ Respiration
→ It takes place in mitochondrion.
→ Glucose and oxygen react to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP).
→ Chemical energy in glucose changes to chemical energy in ATP.

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