CARPENTRY MIDTERM REVIEWER 5.

Maintain appropriate safety margin between

cutting edge and hands.
COVERAGE 1: INTRODUCTION TO CARPENTRY
6. Never carry a tool by the cord or hose.
CARPENTRY 7. Disconnect tools when not using them, before

• is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary servicing and cleaning them, and when

work performed is the cutting, shaping and changing accessories such as blades, bits, and

installation of building materials during the cutters.

construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, 8. Secure work with clamps, or a vise freeing both

concrete formwork, etc. hands to operate the tool.

9. Avoid accidental starting. Do not hold your
CARPENTRY SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES
fingers on the switch button while carrying a
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS: plugged-in tool.
10. Never reach over a blade to remove cut-offs.
1. Remove jewelry and loose clothing; suitably
11. Do not try to free a stalled blade until the power
confine long hairs.
is off.
2. Wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
12. Be sure to keep a good footing and maintain
3. Inspect work area for unsafe conditions, and
good balance when operating power tools.
remedy before beginning work.
4. Inspect all equipment before using. TYPES AND OCCUPATIONS:
5. Keep all equipment in good maintenance.
1. Finish Carpenter
6. Keep work areas in a clean and safe condition.
➢ or also called joiner are generally
7. Follow all lockout/tag-out procedures as
specialize in lighter and ornamental
required.
work that can be done by a carpenter.
8. Ask for help when you need it.
This includes fine woodworking, fittings,
9. Be responsible and stay focused; avoid drugs
doors and windows, furniture, and so
and alcohol.
on.
HAND TOOLS: 2. Trim Carpenter
➢ install and repair trim and molding
1. Keep all hand tools clean, sharp and in good
found on doors, windows, baseboards,
repair.
mantels, etc. It is precise work, and as a
2. Use all hand tools for the purpose for which
type of finish carpentry, elements need
they were intended.
to be neat and clean.
3. Do not carry sharp/pointed objects in pockets.
3. Cabinetmaker
POWER TOOLS: ➢ is a carpenter who does fine and

1. Take time to read the tool manual before using detailed work specializing in the making

a new tool. of cabinets made from wood,

2. Make all adjustments and tighten all locking wardrobes, dressers, storage chests,

devices before attaching the tool to the power and other furniture designed for

supply. storage.

3. Make sure the tool is switched off before 4. Rough Carpenter

connecting to the power supply. ➢ build rough wooden structures, such as

4. Operate all tools with safety guards in place. concrete forms (form works); scaffolds;
false works; tunnel, bridge, or sewer
 supports; and temporary frame CATEGORY OF A CARPENTER:
shelters, according to sketches,
1. Apprentice Carpenter
blueprints, or oral instructions.
➢ receives on-the-job training from an
5. Ship Carpenter
experienced, licensed carpenter. They
➢ specializes in shipbuilding,
learn basic carpentry skills such as how
maintenance, repair techniques and
to read a blueprint, identify the best
carpentry specific to nautical needs in
tools for a job, measure and cut wood,
addition to many other on-board tasks;
and assemble parts to create a finished
usually the term refers to a carpenter
product. During the apprenticeship, the
who has a post on a specific ship. Steel
job duties of an apprentice carpenter
warships as well as wooden ones need
include cleaning up debris from
ship's carpenters, especially for making
construction areas, retrieving tools, and
emergency repairs in the case of battle
refilling work pouches for fully qualified
or storm damage.
carpenters. As they gain experience and
6. Cooper/Barrel Maker
familiarity with the tools and carpentry
➢ is someone who makes barrels: wooden
skills, an apprentice carpenter performs
staved vessels of a conical form, of
tasks that require more skill and
greater length than breadth.
responsibility.
7. Scenic Carpenter
➢ Duties and Responsibilities:
➢ builds and dismantles temporary
o Assist a journeyman carpenter
scenery and sets in filmmaking,
with construction and
television, and the theater.
remodeling projects.
8. Framer
o Help build wooden structures.
➢ -construct or repair the framework of
o Attend courses on carpentry.
commercial, residential, and industrial
o Learn and practice essential
buildings. They determine the
carpentry skills on the job.
dimensions of the framework to be
o Maintain a safe work
constructed, measure, and cut the
environment.
required building materials accordingly,
o Set up and maintain tools for
and assemble the materials to form the
your supervising carpenter.
framework.
2. Journeyman Carpenter
9. Luthier
➢ specialize in the construction of wooden
➢ is an artisan who makes or repairs
infrastructure, including concrete forms,
stringed instruments such as cellos,
studding, and other structures used in
violins, guitars, mandolins, dulcimers,
residential, commercial, and industrial
and banjos.
settings. Their responsibilities include
10. Log Builder
designing and building new wooden
➢ -builds structures of stacked, horizontal
structures, as well as renovating and
logs including houses, barns, churches,
remodeling existing wooden
fortifications, and more.
infrastructure.
➢ Duties and Responsibilities:
 o Reading and interpreting
architectural blueprints,
diagrams, and plans.
o Determining the type and
amount of material required for
each project.
o Transporting the materials and
equipment to each work site.
o Constructing wooden structures
such as concrete forms,
frameworks, scaffolding,
furniture, and similar
o elements.
o Installing wooden structures
o Assist technical director in the
planning and technical design of
scenery.
o Purchase materials as needed
and help track shop supplies.
o Help manage load-in and strike
of each production.
o Manage over hire crews as
needed.
o Other duties to help the
company as necessary.
COVERAGE 2: CLASSIFICATION OF TOOLS

such as frames, stairways, Different Testing and Guiding Tools:

rafters, furniture, and
1. Level (for Carpentry the widely used is Spirit
partitions.
Level)
o Inspecting the integrity of
➢ These levels come in many sizes, as two-
structures upon their
, four-, six-, and eight-foot models are
installation with the help of an
commonly available. For the tasks most
engineer.
of us address, one each of the two-foot
o Monitoring inventory and
and four-foot varieties will be sufficient.
replenishing supplies, as
Is used to designed to indicate whether
needed.
a surface is level on the horizontal or
o Complying with all applicable
vertical planes, and there are a variety
safety regulations.
of sizes and designs for every project.
o Training and managing
2. . Level Hose
apprentices and subordinates.
➢ is a simple device that can provide an
3. Master Carpenter
accurate elevation comparison between
➢ is a woodworking professional who has
multiple points that rival each other to
obtained the highest certification
be a county high point, or to be the
possible in the industry. This
highest summit of a major peak (and
woodworker will generally spend many
therefore the summit that takes its
years working as a journeyman, and
prominence). It is based on the principle
before that an apprentice, before he or
that if you fill a hose with water and let
she is eligible to become a master
it come to rest, the water level at both
carpenter.
ends will be the same.
➢ Duties and Responsibilities:
3. Plumb Bob
o Primarily responsible for the
➢ is a simple tool that is used to establish
construction of scenery and
whether something is “plumb” (exactly
scenic elements
vertical). When the string is attached to
a static object and the plumb-bob
 weight is suspended below, the laws of
gravity will ensure that the string is both
vertical and perpendicular to any
horizontal plane through which it
passes.
4. Miter Box
➢ Miter is a union between two pieces,
each cut at an angle, at a corner.
Commonly, as for painting and picture
frames, the two ends of the two boards
are cut at a 45-degree angle and placed
next to one another to form a corner of
the frame. However, the angles can and
do vary. is consists of two components
—a hand saw whose teeth are set for
crosscutting (cutting against the grain of
the wood) and a “box” that is pre-
fashioned with slots on both sides to
help the woodworker make accurate
angled cuts (typically 90° and 45°).
5. Miter Shooting Board
➢ the special purpose of the tool is to
enable you to plane a miter in an
accurate and controlled manner.
6. Sliding T-bevel
➢ Bevel: a slope from the horizontal or
vertical in carpentry and stonework 5.
Miter Shooting Board - the special
purpose of the tool is to enable you to
plane a miter in an accurate and
controlled manner.
- is an instrument that is used for both
laying out and transferring angles.
These tools are pivotal for many kinds
of construction jobs, especially for those
in which the ideal 90° angles are not
possible. With the sliding T-bevel, one
can conform his/her projects to less
than ideal angle measurements.
7. Angle Divider
➢ is a double bevel used to divide an angle
of a complicated work. This tool could
divide an angle in one.
8. Square
➢ is called a “Trying Square”. Square is a
right-angle standard at 90 degrees used
in marking or testing work. There are
many different types of Square.
Different Types of Square:
1. Try Square
➢ is special purpose square in wood- and
metalworking used to mark or measure
material. The name ‘try square’ comes
from the concepts of ‘trying a surface’
(to check a surface’s straightness or
correspondence to an adjacent surface)
and ‘square’ (a 90° , or right, angle).Try
squares generally consist of two parts.
The ‘blade’ is the longer portion, usually
made of metal. The ‘handle’ (or ‘stock’)
is usually made of wood, plastic or
metal.
2. Miter Square
➢ is a tool used to mark out angles for
miter joints, with two blades set at a 45°
angle or adjustable to any angle.
3. Combined Try and Miter Square
➢ Try and miter squares are marking and
checking tools used to assess angles and
mark straight cuts. They consist of two
straight pieces, the stock, and the blade,
which intersect one other at either 90°
or 45°.
4. Framing or Steel Square
➢ it is also called as “steel square” and is a
handy tool for carpentry. Its uses extend
into framing and laying rafters and
stairs. It can also be used as a straight
edge, finding, and establishing right
angles and marking cut-off work on
wide stock.
Parts of a Framing Steel Square:
a. Body – the longer and wider part.
 b. Tongue – the shorter and the narrower part.
c. Face – the side visible when the square is held
by the tongue in the right hand, the body
pointing to the left.
d. Back – the side visible when the square is held
by the tongue in the left hand, the body
pointing to the right.
Different Toothed Cutting Tools:
1. Rake/Hook Angle – Rake is the angle that the
front of the tooth makes with a line drawn
perpendicular to the point line and lying in the
plane of the saw plate. The main role that rake
plays is controlling the aggressiveness of the
saw. All other things equal, a saw will cut more
aggressively as its rake is decreased.
2. Pitch – is a measure of the number of points or
teeth that fall within one inch, as measured
along the point line. It is expressed as either
points per inch (ppi) or teeth per inch (tpi).
While most American saws were (and are)
described in ppi, rumor has it that British saws
are traditionally described in tpi. Not to worry,
though - converting between the two is simple:
ppi = tpi + 1
tpi = ppi – 1
3. Set – is created by bending the tips of the teeth
in alternating directions. This creates clearance
in the cut for the saw plate, reducing friction
and binding.
4. Saws - Relevant parts of a saw, the
nomenclature used in this presentation is
identical to handsaws.
Kind of cut
a. Crosscut Saws - this saw is used for
making rough cuts of wood, for
example, trimming branches or cutting
lumber, and is designed to cut across
the grain of the wood (i.e.,
perpendicular to the grain). These saws
have large teeth and a relatively thick
blade to make it sturdy against rough
wood. Crosscut saws can be for use by
one person, or for two people
simultaneously
b. Rip Cut Saw - is one of the most
common types of saws that anyone who
works with wood will own, and
probably the saw that gets used the
most often as it is versatile and suitable
for several jobs. A rip cut saw is
designed to cut wood parallel to the
grain. It has few teeth per inch
compared to most other hand saws,
though each tooth is very sharp to
remove chips of wood as it works,
almost like a collection of chisels
working together all at once.
Shape of the blades
a) Thin Back Rip Saw
b) Skew Back Rip Saw
According to its use
a. Coping Saw - has a blade that is secured
in place by tension. It is used for making
curved cuts on wood, and in fact, this is
where it gets its name from, as it is
ideally used to create coping joints
rather than miter joints. The blades of
these saws are narrow, with between 15
and 17 teeth per inch of the blade.
These saws are lightweight and typically
measure around 6 inches across.
b. Bow Cut Saw - is a modern type of
crosscut saw. It is a medium-sized hand
tool that is most used outdoors for
pruning trees and cutting logs. A bow
cut saw has crosscut teeth that are able
to remove sawdust while being pushed
in and out. Their blades are long and
narrow, making them suitable for
 cutting thick sections of wood. They can
also be used to make curved cuts.
c. Fret Saw - These saws are designed to
complete much more intricate
woodwork. The name of ‘fret’ comes
from the French word ‘freter,’ which
translates in English to ‘lattice,’ as this
saw was made for use on latticework. Its
blades have around 32 teeth per inch,
which makes them very precise and able
to produce accurate work; however, it
also makes them fragile. Fret saws can
produce curved cuts, like a coping saw,
but the coping saw offers much less
accuracy than a fret saw
d. Keyhole Saw - These saws take the
shape of a dagger, with a blade that
comes to a point at the opposite end of
a single handle. They are also known as
‘jab saws’ because the sharp point
allows them to jab through materials
such as drywall, and then saw through.
Their thin blade makes them ideal for
making awkward cutting maneuvers or
making small holes. They are also used
for cutting rough patterns out. These
types of saws typically come in two
varieties: with a fixed blade or with a
retractable blade
e. Back Saw - These saws are also known
as dovetail saws, as they are ideal for
making dovetail joints that require
precision and accuracy. These saws have
fine teeth and narrow blades, making
them suitable for making exact cuts.
Back saws benefit from a stiff piece of
metal such as brass or steel attached to
the opposite side of the cutting edge.
This helps to give them greater control
and means they can cut with less
applied force.
f. Veneer Saw - These saws are designed
for cutting hardwood veneers,
laminates, and plastics. They are a
double-edged saw with a small, curved
blade, usually measuring just 3 or 4
inches long. Their size means they are
only useful for working on small areas,
but they offer fast and smooth results.
Typically, these saws have around 13
teeth per inch of blade. When teamed
with a straight edge, the veneer saw can
cut square-edged materials perfectly to
achieve butt-joints for matching
veneers.
g. Wallboard Saw - Also known as drywall
saws, these saws look very similar to
keyhole saws. The difference is that
wallboard saws usually have shorter and
wider blades. Their blades are also often
double-edged, with sharp teeth running
along both the top and bottom sides of
the blade. These saws have a pointed
nose and are used for punching holes
into drywall or paneling. They tend to
have fewer teeth per inch than a
keyhole saw and are ideal for making
rough cuts
• Power Saws - are saws that are
powered by rechargeable batteries,
electricity, or gas motors to make cuts.
These can be stationary or portable
tools. They are great for efficiency and
precision and help to complete cutting
jobs much more quickly than hand saw
equivalents
a. Circular Saw - This saw is so named
because of its blade, which is a circle
shape. The circular blade spins at high
speed and is guided down by the user to
cut the material which needs to be held
firmly in place underneath it. These
saws are hugely popular because of
their versatility and portability. Unlike a
table saw, these saws are reasonably
lightweight and so can be transported to
 construction sites or used in different
locations with ease. They are also
compatible with several different blade
types, enabling them to cut through
various materials, including stone,
metal, wood, plastic, and ceramics
b. Miter Saw - These saws operate
similarly to circular saws in that they
have a round blade which is pulled
downwards to cut the material.
However, a miter saw is specifically
designed for making precise angled cuts,
notable for miter joints, which are when
two pieces of wood are seamlessly
joined at an angle. Miter saws allow you
to custom set the tool to make any
angle of cut you need, and they are
indispensable if you are cutting trim or
molding.
c. Compound Miter Saw - is like a hyped-
up miter saw. It has the same blade
which operates on an arm instead of on
a pivoting lever, giving the user greater
scope for adjustment on more complex
cutting. These saws can produce miter,
straight, and compound cuts, and are
great for efficiency and precision.
d. Jigsaw - Is a handheld power tool that
can make both straight and curved cuts.
It has a downward pointing blade that is
guided along by an upper handle and
can come in both corded and cordless
varieties. They are lightweight and easy
to handle, as well as being quiet, and
are most suitable for cutting out
patterns in thin materials such as
plywood. Thicker blades are available to
be purchased for jigsaws to allow them
to cut through metal, tile, or ceramic,
but these are not typically included as
standard. Jigsaws are a versatile tool
that will see heavy use in home
woodworking households.
e. Chainsaw - Chainsaws operate with the
use of a linked chain that rotates around
a piece of steel, with specially designed
teeth attached, which cut through wood
at high speed. It is most used to cut
through lumber and fell or trim trees.
Chainsaws come with various power
sources, including gas engines, battery-
powered motors, or corded electric
powered motors. Chainsaws with gas
engines have the most power; however,
they can also be more difficult to use
because they vibrate the most.
Chainsaws powered by battery or
electric cables are better for longer jobs
as they will induce less fatigue on the
user.
f. Table saw - Table saws have circular
rotating blades that emerge upwards
from out of a table to cut the chosen
material. These work almost in the
opposite way to a circular saw, in which
you pull the blade down onto your
material. With a table saw, instead, you
push your material onto the blade. The
blade depth can be adjusted to suit your
cutting needs, and the blade itself can
be swapped out for masonry or metal
blades so that you can cut different
types of materials. These types of saws
are ideal for making exact straight cuts
but require training before use as they
can be dangerous to operate.
5. Files - A metal tool of different shapes and sizes
used for abrading, reducing or smooth cutting
metal, wood or other materials.
• Tang - is the part of the file that fits
inside the handle. However, files with
tangs are quite often sold without
handles.
• Heel - also called the shoulder, is the
part of the file closest to the tang where
 the actual body of the file begins. No h. Augur Bit Files - we use augur bit files to
teeth are cut into the heel. sharpen augur bits. An augur bit is a
• Face - is the term used to describe the helically shaped drill bit with which you can
wide, flat area of the file that usually make holes in wood.
does all the work. It may also be i. Knife Files - if you have wood with fine
referred to as the belly, or the side. grooves or tight internal angles, you will do
• Edge - the thin surfaces between the well to use a knife file. As the name
faces on a file. These may or may not be suggests, this file has a knife-like shape
cut with teeth depending on the with a narrow blade.
intended purpose of the file.
• Point - The end of the file opposite to
COVERAGE 3: MEASUREMENT or NOMENCLATURE used
the tang.
in CARPENTRY
a. Mill Files - we use this type of file to
sharpen flat-bladed tools. We can also level DEFINITION OF TERMS:
the teeth on saw blades with these files.
• Area – extent of part of a surface enclosed
b. Taper Saw Files - this is a classic file which
within a boundary
we use to sharpen wood saw teeth. It is
• Classification – group or category within an
triangular in cross-section, and the angle of
organized system
the triangle corresponds to the angle of
• Circumference – distance around the circle
teeth in the saw.
• Decimal – number expressed in a counting
c. Double Ended Saw Files - we use a double-
system that uses power of 10 (such as 10, 100,
ended saw file to sharpen saw blades. It is
1000, etc.)
characterized by its high durability.
• Dimension – measurable extent such as length,
d. Chainsaw Files - these files are round in
thickness, width
cross-section, but we get them in different
• Fraction – number expressed as a quotient of
shapes as well. The specialty of chainsaw
two other numbers
files is that they fit into the cleft of a
• Geometric Shapes – characterized by straight
chainsaw blade to sharpen it.
line, regular curves, and angles.
e. Flat Files - you get a variety of different
sizes of flat files. These files are • Graduation– refers to the marking on a

indispensable for smoothing out rough measurement instrument that signifies a

edges and corners, to avoid forming particular space or distance.

splinters that could injure you while • Mensuration – act or art of measuring

handling wood. • Perimeter – bounding line or curve of a plain

f. Slotting Files - helps to cut or clear slots in area

a screw. This proves to be quite handy if • Standard – serves as a measure of reference

you need to use a wood screw that has a • Stock – refers to a lumber for a certain furniture

poorly made slot. job

g. Needle Files - these files help us to work • Volume – space inside a solid figure

with extremely fine detail. Needle files • Substrate – wood to be cut in a cutting machine
again are incredibly versatile. You can use
them to finish off roughly shaped wood or
to clean dog holes and bores.
Different Measuring Tools: resort to any mathematical calculations.
An architect uses the scale ruler to
1. Pull Push Rule
convert dimensions into a smaller
• also called as flexible rule, this familiar
drawing of a building plan. The reader
device is spring loaded so that the tape
of the blueprint will then use a scale
retracts into its metal or plastic case
ruler to translate the drawing into the
when not in use. It is used in geometry,
real sizes for construction.
technical drawing, and
5. Caliper
engineering/building to measure
• are used to measure the distance
distances and/or to rule straight line.
between two opposite sides of an
2. Zigzag Rule
object. They are very simple measuring
• is an essential tool in the toolbox of a
instruments and have an inward and
carpenter and is effectively used in the
outward point, just like a compass.
measurement of place and things where
Different kinds of calipers allow
an ordinary tape scale cannot do the
measuring on a ruled scale, a dial or a
job. It is also referred as folding ruler
digital display.
because its piece of one foot each can
6. Try Square
be folded to make a compact tool and
• is special purpose square in wood- and
can easily be fit in the toolbox.
metalworking used to mark or measure
material. The name ‘try square’ comes
• USES OF ZIGZAG RULE:
from the concepts of ‘trying a surface’
o SCRIBE A LINE
(to check a surface’s straightness or
o DRAW A 90 DEGREES
correspondence to an adjacent surface)
o DRAW A CIRLCE
and ‘square’ (a 90°, or right, angle). Try
o PROTRACTOR FUNCTION
squares generally consist of two parts.
o BEVEL TRANSFER
The ‘blade’ is the longer portion, usually
3. Ruler
made of metal. The ‘handle’ (or ‘stock’)
• a measuring instrument consisting of a
is usually made of wood, plastic, or
thin strip of wood, metal, or plastic that
metal.
has a straight edge and length
7. Meter Stick
measurement markings along the edge.
• a meter stick measures one meter and
Rulers are sometimes referred to as a
shows only metric units of
rule or line gauge. Are used for
measurement of millimeters and
measuring a line, and the straight edge
centimeters. Meter sticks are used to
allows them to be used for drawing,
measure objects that are larger than a
scoring, or cutting. They are often used
piece of paper.
in technical drawing, math & geometry,
8. Divider
engineering, carpentry, and print fields.
• used to transfer measurements, to step
4. Scale Ruler
off a series of equal distances, and to
• a three-sided ruler used by engineers,
divide lines into several equal parts.
architects and readers of blueprints to
Dividers are manipulated with one
convert between scaled drawings and
hand.
the actual dimensions without having to
9. Compass
 • an instrument used to draw circles, or
the parts of circles called arcs. It
consists of two movable arms hinged
together where one arm has a pointed
end, and the other arm holds a pencil.
10. Protractor
• an instrument used for measuring
angles. It is usually made of transparent
glass or transparent plastic. Depending
on the measurement system, protractor
can have radian scale or degrees scale
on it. The protractor is usually had semi-
circle size divided into one hundred and
Linear Measurements for the 6 faces of Lumber
eighty parts or full circle divided into
three hundred and sixty parts.
• also known as the Imperial System,
originated from England. Commonly
used linear measurement for these
systems are yard, inch, and foot.
2. Metric System
• metric system’s unit of measurement
usually ends in a word “meter” and
varies its value to its prefix. This is
originated from France. Commonly used
linear measurement for these systems
are meter, kilometer, centimeter and
the like.

Handling of Measuring Instruments/Tools:

A. DO’S
1) Wipe measuring tools/instruments
before returning them to the storage
room.
2) Oil the movable parts of the measuring
tools such as zigzag rules, calipers, 1. End 1 to End 2 or AB = Length (L)

dividers, and compasses to avoid stock- 2. Edge 1 to Edge 2 or CD = Width (W)

up. 3. Surface 1 to Surface 2 or EF = Thickness / Height

3) Make sure that grits like sand do not get (T / H)

inside the housing or case of a pull-push Conversion Table

rule to avoid wearing off the
graduations.
4) Check the lock of a pull-push rule if it is
working
B. DONT’S
1) Do not wipe off edges of the steel tape
of pull-push rule with bare hands to
avoid injury.
2) Do not pull the steel tape of pull-push
rule too much to avoid the coil spring
from damage.
3) Do not use the caliper as tongs.

System of Measurement:

1. English System / US Customary System

PARTS OF A PULL PUSH RULE: The tape, also
known as the
The case is like
blade, is what
the house for
you use to get
the tape where
your
it lives all nice
measurement.
and cozy. The
Blade/Tape Most tapes
Case most durable
feature imperial
models are
units (inches)
made from
on the top row
metal, while
and metric units
plastic is more
(cm) on the
affordable.
bottom
Many tape
If you’ve ever
measures come
measured a
with the case’s
table or other
length printed
hard surface,
on the back.
you’ve likely
This
used the hook
number comes
at the end of
in handy when
Case Length the tape. This
you’re
metal piece is
measuring
Hook loose on
around corners
purpose since
as you
the first inch is
simply add it to
1/16th of an
your straight
inch short,
across
meaning it
dimensions.
needs to be
You can stop
pulled taut to
your tape
ensure
measure from
accuracy.
automatically
A donut hole
retracting by
may be there
pressing
Thumb Lock for decoration,
the thumb lock
but that’s not
down. Push it
the case with
back up when Hook Slot
the hook slot.
it’s time to put
It’s designed to
that tape
hook onto a nail
measure away.
or screw, which
can
 come in handy T = Thickness in inches (‘’)
during W = Width in inches (‘’)
construction L = Length in inches (‘’)
projects. o Number of Pieces = given board feet / (solved
Your tape board feet / 1 pc)
measure won’t = given board feet x 1 pc / solved board feet
fit on your tool
COVERAGE 4: WOOD AND LUMBER FOR CARPENTRY
belt or pants
WORK
pocket
Belt Clip
without the belt • Wood - is that fibrous substances which

clip. It’s the only compose the trunk and branches of the three

way to look that lies between the pith and the bark. Wood is

stylish and the most common of the building materials.

official! a) Slab – is a kind of rough lumber which is

cut tangent to the annual rings (or
annual growth rings), running the full
HOW TO READ A PULL PUSH RULE/TAPE MEASURE:
length of the log, and containing at least
one flat surface.
b) Plank – is a wide piece of lumber from
40mm (1 1/2”) to 130mm (5”) thick.
c) Board – is a piece of lumber less than 1
1/2” (40mm) thick and at least 4” or
100mm wide.
• Lumber – is the term applied to wood after it
has been sawed or sliced into boards.
a) Rough Lumber – is the term applied to
unplaned or undressed lumber. In, short
those lumber with rough surfaces.
b) S2S and S4S – is dressed lumber
wherein the number connotes the
smooth sides. For instance, S2S means
lumber having two smooth sides and
S4S with four sides.

CALCULATING BOARDFOOT OF LUMBER c) Surface or Dressed Lumber or Good

Lumber – is a planed lumber having at
The formula used in computing board foot is:
least one smooth side.
o Board Foot (Bd. Ft.) = T X W X L / 12 d) Timber – is a piece of lumber five inches
where: or larger in its smallest dimension.
T = Thickness in inches (‘’)
W = Width in inches (‘’)
L = Length in feet (‘)
o Board Foot (Bd. Ft.) = T X W X L / 144
where:
 Classification of Wood times, these factors drive up the
cost of the wood.
1. Mode of Growth
➢ - examples are mahogany,
a) Exogeneous - Are those outward
molave, lauan, kamagong,
growing trees which are suitable as
narra, acacia, yakal, tanguile
permanent structural elements.
trees and more
b) Endogenous - Are those inward growing
b) Softwood
trees which can be used momentarily to
➢ is renowned for its versatility
support a part of a structure (not being
and strength. Sourced from all
permanent).
over the globe, with a large
2. Density - Softwood and Hardwood are
breadth of applications and a
distinguished in nature in terms of their
remarkably aesthetic appeal,
reproduction rather than their end appearance
softwood can be used across a
and attributes
broad range of internal and
a) Hardwood
external projects, from furniture
➢ comes from deciduous tree’s
and flooring to decking,
which lose their leaves annually.
landscaping, external joinery,
The trees from which hardwood
and structural applications.
is obtained tend to be slower
➢ are more readily available and
growing, meaning the wood is
easily manipulated. They also
usually denser.
develop at a quicker pace,
➢ is considered the ultimate
leading to lower cost levels. -
versatile material, with
they are flexible, lighter in
applications ranging from
weight and less dense than
exquisite veneers and furniture,
most hardwoods.
musical instruments, flooring,
➢ are commonly used for interior
construction, and boatbuilding.
moldings, the manufacturing of
It is a material of real beauty,
windows, construction framing
available in countless
and generating sheet goods
combinations of species,
such as plywood and
specifications, and colors.
fiberboard. - are cheaper and
➢ because of their condensed and
easier to work with. As such
more complex structure,
they make up most of all wood
hardwoods generally offer a
used in the world, with about
superior level of strength and
80% of timber being a
durability. Hardwoods tend to
softwood.
be much more resilient than
➢ examples are cedar, redwoods,
softwoods and are often
fir, pine trees and more.
reserved for projects that
3. Leaves
require maximum durability.
a) Needle Shape
➢ as this grow at a much slower
b) Broad Shape
rate and require longer drying
4. Shade or Color
a) White
 b) Yellow
c) Red
d) Brown
e) Black
5. Grain
Because of the way wood grows, every board
has a definite grain direction, parallel to the
length of the longitudinal cells. The grain
appears differently depending on how the board
is sawed.
➢ When you cut a board across the grain
(perpendicular to the grain direction
and the growth rings), you reveal end
grain
➢ Cut wood parallel to the grain direction
and tangent to the growth rings, and
you’ll see plain grain (also called
tangential or flat grain).
➢ Cut it parallel to the grain direction but
through the radius of the growth rings
to see quarter grain (also referred to as
radian grain).
➢ Both flat grain and quarter grain are
sometimes called long grain.
6. Texture or Pattern
Texture means the relative size as well as the
amount of variation in size of the wood cells. It's
the cells and how they're arranged in bands
called rays, and the size and distribution of
pores, that make the difference between fine-
textured wood and coarse-textured wood.
a) Coarse Texture – wood species with
large cells.
b) Fine Texture – wood species with
smaller cells.
c) Figured Grain – Wood grain isn’t always
straight and even. The longitudinal and
ray cells sometimes grow in unusual
patterns, many of which are strikingly
beautiful.
➢ Silver grain – A few wood
species, such as white oak, have
especially prominent rays.
When quartersawn, these
produce silver grain
➢ Curly grain – occurs when the
longitudinal cells grow in waves.
This occurs in many species but
is especially striking in maple.
➢ Bird’s eye – are caused by small
dimples in the layers of cells.
These are thought to be caused
by a fungus that affects the
growth of the longitudinal cells.
➢ Ribbon Figure – The
longitudinal cells of certain
species, such as mahogany,
sometimes spiral around the
trunk, reversing direction every
few growth rings. This creates
ribbon figure.
➢ Burl Figure – Sometimes a tree
produces a large growth on the
side of the trunk or a branch.
The cells seem to swirl around
each other inside these
growths. When sliced, these
produce a burl figure such as
this elm burl.
Parts of a Wood
• Pith – the very center of the tree. In some trees,
this is much softer and possibly a different color
than the surrounding heartwood.
• Heartwood – the is made up of dead cells that
no longer serve any purpose except to support
the tree.
• Sapwood – which carries water, minerals, and
plant sugars between the roots and the leaves.
This is often lighter in color than the heartwood.
• Cambium – a thin layer of living cells outside the
sapwood, close to the surface. The cambium is
covered by a protective layer of bark.
• The cambium grows rapidly at the beginning of
each growing season, creating light colored
springwood. As the climate warms, it slows
 down and produces darker summerwood. This towards the sapwood and
later growth is somewhat denser and harder sometimes even towards the
than the early springwood. As the weather heartwood along the lines of
turns cold, the cambium becomes dormant until medullary rays. Cracks are wider
the next spring. This cycle produces distinctive on the outer edge or bark and
growth rings. narrower on the inside (usually
• As the cambium grows, it generates two types sapwood, sometimes
of wood cells. Most of these are long, narrow heartwood). - the main reasons
longitudinal cells that align themselves with the behind star shakes are extreme
axis of the trunk, limb, or root. These are what heat or frosting during the
give the wood its grain. The cambium also growth of the trees and rapid or
produces a smaller number of ray cells that line uneven seasoning after cutting
up in rays extending out from the pith, off the timber. Extreme heat or
perpendicular to the axis. frost causes temperature
difference, which causes
shrinkage leading to the crack
Defects in Wood e) Knots

1. Caused by Natural Forces and Abnormal Growth ➢ are the most common defects

a) Heart Shakes caused due to natural forces.

➢ a type of shake which develop During the growth of a tree,

in maturity approaching trees branches close to the ground or

whose inner part is under lower branches die. Bases of

shrinkage. The shake is spread those branches remain in the

from pith to sapwood following tree as the trees grow. This

the direction of medullary rays. dark-colored stains are due to

b) Wind or Cup Shakes the continuity of wood fibers.

➢ are formed due to non-uniform These dark-colored rings may

growth of a tree or excessive create imperfection known as

bending by cyclones or winds. knots.

In this case, the shakes develop ➢ decreases the strength of the

between annual rings and wood and thus lower its value

separate them partly for structural uses. Knots cause

c) Ring Shakes serious defects when the load is

➢ are like cup shakes, but they perpendicular to the grains.

separate the annual rings. This Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.
is caused during the growth of
➢ Dead Knots
the tree, either by excessive
• the remains of damaged branches after
frost or cold action, check in the
drying out they become loose and fall
growth, or by bending cause by
out. Dead Knots are loosely attached
winds or cyclone.
and reduce strength.
d) Star Shakes
• decreases the strength of the wood and
➢ this type of shake starts
thus lower its value for structural uses.
propagating from the bark
 Knots cause serious defects when the
load is perpendicular to the grains.
➢ Live Knots
• are usually not a problem as the remain
firmly attached to the timber. They are
sound and firm. If small, are not great of
a defect.
2. Caused by Deterioration
a) Dry Rot
also known as brown rot, is
wood decay caused by fungi,
which can ruin any woods or
lumbers.
when dry rot occurs, the fungi
break down cellulose and
hemicellulose, the components
which give the wood strength
and resilience. The wood is left
weakened and brittle, often
with a blocky appearance
will only affect timber that is
damp, typically with a moisture
content in excess of 20 percent.
For this reason, removing the
source of moisture should form
the core of any dry rot
eradication strategy. Read
below for more tips to prevent
dry rot.
b) Wet Rot
is the natural decay of timber
due to high moisture levels. It
occurs in timber with a
moisture content of around
30%-50%, in contrast to dry rot
that occurs in timbers with a
lower moisture content of
around 20%.
is caused by a fungus (cellar
fungus, is the most common)
that is attracted to very damp
wood and feeds off the timber,
destroying it in the process.
those fungus requires a source
of moisture to grow, as wet rot
spores are attracted to wet
wood with a high moisture
content. This moisture source
could occur because of any
number of issues including
defective plumbing, leaking
gutters, leaking roof, broken
pipes, leaking washing machine,
or a leaking bath or shower tray
is confined to a localized damp
area and does not spread,
making it less destructive than
dry rot. However, wet rot can be
just as destructive as dry rot,
and, if left untreated, can
seriously weaken structural
timbers and lead to major
structural damage.
3. Caused by Defective Seasoning
Faulty method of seasoning causes serious
defects in woods. During seasoning of timber,
exterior or surface layer of the timber dries
before the interior surface. So, stress is
developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In
a perfect seasoning process, stress is kept
minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of
the defects resulting from defective seasoning
are as follows:
a) Bow - curvature formed in direction of
the length of the timber is called bow.
b) Cup - curvature formed in the
transverse direction of the timber is
called a cup
c) Honeycombing - stress developed in the
heartwood during the drying process or
seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are
created in the form of honeycomb
texture.
d) Check - is a crack that occurs along the
wood’s growth rings. It does not extend
 through the entire thickness of the
board.
e) Split - is a crack in a piece of wood that
goes all the way through the board.
f) Twist - occurs when there are multiple
different bends in a board.
4. Caused by Insects
a) Termites - also known as white ants
which form a colony inside the timber
and eat the core part of the timber
rapidly. They do not disturb the outer
layer of timber, so one cannot identify
their presence. The trees in tropical and
sub-tropical regions are mostly affected
by these termites. However, some trees
like teak, Sal, etc. cannot be attacked by
termites because of the presence of
termite preventing chemicals in their
cellulose part.
b) Beetles - are a type of insects that
destroy the sapwood of the tree and
make a tunnel-like hole from the bark.
Usually, the diameter of the hole is
around 2 mm. They convert sapwood
into powder form, and larvae of these
beetles use these holes. Almost all
hardwood trees can be prone to
damage by these beetles.
Marine Borers - are found near coastal areas. They do
not consume wood, but they make large holes of
diameter up to 25mm in the timber to live inside it.
They excavated up to 60mm deep in the wood. The
wood attacked by marine borers is of less strength and
discolored. They can attack all types of trees present in
their region.
Board Feet of a Log
(𝐷−4)2 (𝐿)
o Board Feet = 16
Where:
D = smaller diameter of log in inches
L = length of the log in feet
4 and 16 = are slab deduction allowance for
which are constant in the formula
COVERAGE 5: JOINTS AND JOINERY
Pre-test:
_______________ 1. A wood joint like mortise and
tenon that has only three gluing surfaces.
Half-lap Joint
_______________ 2. A dovetail joint in which the
woodworker can conceal the joint from the front end.
Blind Dovetail Joint
_______________ 3. This unusual wood joint is formed
by carving two curved grooves into two pieces of wood,
and then joining them with a wood biscuit that is glued
into place.
Biscuit Joint
_______________ 4. A wood joint that is carved like
puzzle pieces to form an irregular but custom fit.
Coped Joint
_______________ 5. A wood joint that is also known as
a finger joint.
Box Joint
_______________ 6. A type of wood joint used to
connect two pieces of wood to each other at a corner.
Miter Joint
_______________ 7. A wood joint that is attached with
a self-tapping pocket-hole screw.
Pocket Hole Joint
_______________ 8. A wood joint that is cut
perpendicular to the grain.
Cross Halving Joint
_______________ 9. Is recess cut into the edge of a
piece of wood.
Rabbet Joint
_______________ 10. A hand saw that is used to cut a and a groove, or channel, on the other. The
coping joint. tongue slides into the groove to create a strong
joint. Tip: If you are cutting your own tongue-
Coping Saw
and-groove joint, the tongue should be one-
Kinds of Wood Joints third of the thickness of the wood. For example,

o Butt Joint - is a type of wood joint used to if a board is 3⁄4” thick, the tongue should be

connect two pieces of wood to each other at a 1⁄4” (MTCopeland, 2021). Several applications

corner (typically 90 degrees). This wood joinery of Tongue and Groove Joint: Tabletops, Wood

technique involves butting the end of one board Flooring, Parquetry, Wood Paneling

up to the face of another board and driving nails o Pocket Hole Joint – Rely on fasteners, namely

or screws through them for strength. A bit of pocket-hole screws. They are effectively a butt

glue between the boards is also a wise idea joint with a small pocket-hole drilled into one of

(MTCopeland, 2022). Several applications of the pieces of wood. The two pieces are then

Butt Joint: Floor Framing and Decks, Wall Studs, attached with a self-tapping pocket-hole screw.

Cabinets and Carcasses, Tables Pocket-hole joints are strong and easy to make.

o Miter Joint - is another word for an angled Their downside is that they are less visually

cut—and the saw that makes the cut. In the appealing than other joints making them better

term “miter joint,” it refers to two 45-degree for temporary uses, or places where the joint

angled cuts where the pieces of wood adjoin to will not be visible. Tip: The screws will hold

create a 90-degree angle. While the most better in face or edge grain, so avoid screwing

common miter joints are made of 45-degree into end grain (MTCopeland, 2021). Several

angles, miter butt joints can be cut at any range applications of Pocket Hole Joint: Tables,

of angles. They are stronger than butt joints Cabinets

because there is a greater surface area where o Dado Joint - A dado is a slot cut into the surface

the two wood pieces meet, but they still require of a piece of wood. When viewed in cross-

both glue and mechanical fasteners to stay in section, a dado has three sides. You cut a dado

place (MTCopeland, 2021). Several applications perpendicular to the grain. It is different from a

of Miter Joint: Picture Frames, Door and groove, which you cut parallel to the grain. A

Window Trims, Cabinet and Carcasses, Tables through dado passes all the way through the

o Mortise and Tenon Joint - While they look like surface and its ends are open. A stopped dado

butt joints from the outside, a protruding has one or both of the ends stop before the

element is carved into one piece (the tenon) dado meets the edge of the surface

which slides into a corresponding recess (the (Woodworkers Guild of America, n.d.) Several

mortise) in the other piece. With the increased applications of Dado Joint: Cabinets, Desk,

gluing surface area where the two wood pieces Bookshelves, Carcasses

are joined, it is a significantly stronger— and o Rabbet Joint - A rabbet is a recess cut into the

more elegant—alternative to a butt joint edge of a piece of wood. When viewed in cross-

(MTCopeland, 2021). Several applications of section, a rabbet is two-sided and open to the

Mortise and Tenon Joint: Tables and Chairs, end of the surface. (Woodworkers Guild of

Cabinets (including Cabinet Doors), Doors and America, n.d.)

Windows, Bed Frames o Dovetail Joint - is of the most distinctive joints

o Tongue and Groove Joint - These joints consist and is recognized as a sign of expert

of a tongue, or a ridge, on one piece of wood craftsmanship. They are made of a series of
 interlocking pins and tails in trapezoidal shapes.
Their dominant characteristic is their resistance
to being pulled apart, so they are most
commonly used in constructing drawers. Tip:
Key to successfully creating dovetail joints is
accurately marking your baselines before
starting (MTCopeland, 2021).
The various types of dovetail joints are as follows:
• Through Dovetail - The most basic
method of creating a dovetail is called a
through dovetail. Here, two pieces of
wood are joined together at their ends
with a finger-like interlocking method
which is seen from all outside surfaces.
(Toolstoday, n.d.).
• Sliding Dovetail - is a method of joining
two boards at right angles, where the
intersection occurs within the field of
one of the boards that is not at the end.
This joint provides the interlocking
strength of a dovetail. Sliding dovetails
are assembled by sliding the tail into the
socket. It is common to slightly taper
the socket, making it slightly tighter
towards the rear of the joint, so that the
two components can be slid together
easily but the joint becomes tighter as
the finished position is reached
(Toolstoday, n.d.).
o Dowel Joint - To make a dowel joint, drill holes
where the two pieces meet, place a small
amount of glue in them, insert the dowels, and
then clamp the pieces together (MTCopeland,
2021).
o Biscuit Joint - This unusual joint is formed by
carving two curved grooves into two pieces of
wood, and then joining them with a wood
biscuit that is glued into place. Biscuit joints are
typically used with sheet goods like plywood
and particle board but can also be used with
solid panels of different types of wood. The
advantage of this joint is that it is entirely
invisible creating a perfectly flush surface.
(MTCopeland, 2021).
o Coped Joint - A coped joint is a variation on the
miter joint that lays underneath the miter joint.
It addresses the reality that the corners of many
rooms do not in fact meet at 90-degree angles.
Beneath the exterior (visible) miter joint, the
two pieces of wood that make up a coped joint
are carved like puzzle pieces to form an irregular
but custom fit. (MTCopeland, 2021).
o Box Joint - Box joints are sometimes referred to
as finger joints, but finger joints are used to
connect boards end-to-end rather than at a
corner. A box joint looks similar to a dovetail
joint but rather than interlocking angled tails
and pins, a box joint’s pins are straight. Many
woodworking joints conceal the end grain from
view. In contrast, box joints are designed to be
seen rather than hidden, and the exposed
alternating end grain adds a decorative
appearance to projects. (Saws on Skates, 2022)
o Half-lap Joint - With a half-lap joint, the ends of
the two adjoining pieces of wood are reduced to
half their thickness at the point where they
overlap. There are stronger joints, but a half-lap
has an aesthetic appeal over butt joints because
they maintain a uniform thickness with the rest
of the structure. (MTCopeland, 2021).
o Bridle Joint - is a woodworking joint, like a
mortise and tenon. You cut a tenon on the end
of one piece and a mortise into the other piece
to accept it. You cut the tenon and the mortise
to the full width of the tenon piece. This is the
distinguishing feature of this joint. Therefore,
there are only three gluing surfaces
(Woodworkers Guild of America, n.d.).
o Cross Halving Joint - are probably the most
simple of joints to mark out and cut. They are
used whenever it is necessary to join two pieces
of wood that cross over each other. Sometimes
these joints can be seen on the strengthening
rails of tables and chairs (Ryan, n.d.).