Part 2

The Research Process

7. Thinking Critically about the Research Process
8. Evaluating and Interpreting Information
9. Summarizing Research Findings and Other
Information

Chapter 7
Thinking Critically about the Research Process
“As a freelance researcher, I search online databases, Web sites, and
social media for any type of specialized information needed by my
clients. For example, yesterday I did a search for a corporate attorney
who needed the latest information on some specific product-liability
issues, plus any laws or court decisions involving specific products. For
the legal research I accessed LexisNexis, the legal database that offers
full-text copies of articles and cases. For the libility issue I began with
Factiva and then double-checked by going into the Dialog database.”

—Martin Casamonte, Freelance Researcher

The importance Major decisions in the workplace are based on

of critical careful research, with the findings documented
in a written report. The research process follows
thinking at every
a general sequence, but it is not a rigid set of
stage of the procedures. Researchers must make decisions at
research process each step of the process and carefully evaluate
the information they gather.

Three Essential Approaches to Research

7.1 Ask the right questions, explore a balance of views, and
achieve adequate depth in your research

To approach a research assignment effectively, start by clearly defining

and refining your topic by asking insightful questions. Next, explore a
variety of perspectives to ensure a balanced understanding of your
topic. Finally, delve beyond superficial information to gain a deeper
understanding of your subject matter.

Asking the Right Questions

The quality of your research outcomes is directly linked to the quality of
the questions you ask. Consider a scenario where you encounter the
following situation:

Case: Defining and Refining a Research Question

The potential health risks of EMF
exposure are a complex and
controversial issue. More
research is needed to determine
whether there is a causal link
between EMF exposure and any
adverse health effects. In the
meantime, it is important to take
steps to reduce EMF exposure
whenever possible.

Defining the The community's concerns about

electromagnetic fields (EMFs)
questions surrounding the power lines near
the school center on three main
questions:

1. What are EMFs?

2. Do EMFs pose a health risk
to children?
3. If so, what can be done to
mitigate the risk?

Refining the To address the community's

concerns about EMFs, you need
questions to break down the main questions
into smaller, more manageable
ones.
As you delve deeper into the
research, the list of questions will
likely expand.
Critical thinking helps you refine
and redefine the essential
questions.
Once you've identified the key
question, you can determine the
appropriate sources to consult for
answers.
These sources may include
journals, interviews, reports,
internet sites, database searches,
and more.
Exploring a Balance of Views
● Seek the most accurate answer rather than the one that
aligns with your preferences or convenience.
● Expert opinions may be valuable but should not be
considered the ultimate authority due to potential
discrepancies or errors.
● Ensure a balanced perspective by consulting reliable and up-
to-date sources (Figure 7.3).
● Exercise caution when evaluating online sources. Verify the
source's credibility, information origin, and adherence to
established facts.
 ● While balance is crucial, don't equate all perspectives as
equally valid. Disregard extreme or highly politicized
interpretations.

Try to • What do informed sources have to

conside say about this topic?
r all the • On which points do sources agree?
angles • On which points do sources
disagree?
NOTE Recognize the difference between “balance”
(sampling a full range of opinions) and “accuracy”
(getting at the facts). Government or power industry
spokespersons, for example, might present a more
positive view (or “spin”) of the EMF issue than the
facts warrant. Not every source is equal, nor should
we report points of view as though they were equal
(Trafford 137).

Achieving Adequate Depth in Your Search

Conduct thorough research by examining a wide range of evidence in-
depth from reliable sources.
1.The surface level of information includes popular The depth of
media sources like print and online newspapers, a source
magazines, radio, TV, websites, Twitter feeds, Facebook often
pages, and blogs. Intended for broad consumption, this determines
layer often provides a superficial understanding of an its
issue.
quality

2. Trade, business, and technical publications occupy the

next level of information depth. Examples include Frozen
 Food World and Publisher's Weekly. These publications
are available in both print and digital formats and cater
to readers with varying levels of expertise, from
moderately informed to highly specialized. This layer of
information emphasizes practical applications over
theoretical concepts, focuses on industry-specific issues,
and engages in public relations activities. While the
information presented is generally accurate, it may
reflect the biases inherent in the respective field.
3. Research involves examining a wide range of evidence
in-depth from reliable sources, from popular media to
specialized literature.

Government sources and corporate documents accessible through the

Freedom of Information Act provide in-depth, factual information and
unbiased perspectives.
NOTE: Web pages and social media feeds offer links to increasingly specific
levels of detail. But the actual “depth” and quality of such information
depend on the sponsorship and reliability of the organization behind the
information (see “Guidelines for Researching on the Web and with Social
Media” in this chapter).

Evaluating and Interpreting

Your Findings
7.2 Evaluate and interpret your sources
Exercise caution when evaluating information sources. Consider potential biases, both from the
source itself and from your own confirmation bias. Critically assess the evidence supporting the
findings and explore alternative explanations.
Questions for • Is this information accurate, reliable, and relatively unbiased?
• Do the facts verify the claim?
evaluating a
• How much of the information is useful?
particular finding • Is this the whole or the real story?
• Do I need more information?

Questions for ● What are my conclusions and do they address my original

research question?
interpreting your
● Do any findings conflict?
findings ● Are other interpretations possible?

● Should I reconsider the evidence?

● What, if anything, should be done?

Primary versus Secondary Sources

7.3 Differentiate between primary and secondary research
Primary research involves firsthand data collection, while How primary
secondary research utilizes existing information. Online sources
vary in credibility, with those from reputable institutions being and secondary
more reliable.
research differ
Start with secondary research for a comprehensive understanding Why you should
of your topic. Supplement existing knowledge with your own
primary research findings whenever possible. combine primary
and secondary
research
Primary research complements secondary research by providing How primary
fresh insights and enhancing the credibility of your work. For
example, conducting surveys and interviews can supplement research adds
secondary sources like sales reports and reviews when
evaluating the reception of a new product. credibility to
your work

Exploring Secondary Sources

7.4 Conduct secondary research using online and traditional sources
Secondary sources, ranging from online content to government documents Examples
and academic journals, provide a foundation for research. Beginning with
secondary research helps identify key questions and narrow down the of
scope of primary research methods, such as interviews and surveys.
secondary
sources
Locating Begin by conducting broad searches to identify relevant themes,
prominent researchers, and key sources. Document your findings,
secondary including URLs, source information, and page numbers. Consider using
citation management tools like Zotero or Endnote. Refer to Appendix A
sources and for citation management app details and note-taking guidelines.

ideas
NOTE Most of us engage in online research throughout the day, looking up everything

from weather trends to the price of a new phone to restaurant reviews. Consider this activ-
ity as “everyday research,” which differs from research for a school or workplace project.

Workplace research, as discussed previously in this chapter, requires you to achieve

adequate depth by reviewing numerous sources, keeping careful records, and using critical
thinking skills to evaluate and report your findings.

Searching for Secondary Sources

Avoid relying solely on your phone's digital assistant for secondary source searches. Instead,
employ a systematic approach using reliable search engines like Google, Bing, Yahoo!, and
Ask. WolframAlpha is an "answer engine" that provides specific responses based on external
data sources. When conducting Google searches, prioritize results from reputable institutions
like universities and government research labs. For in-depth research, utilize Google Scholar to
access peer-reviewed journal articles. Remember that different search engines utilize varying
algorithms, yielding diverse results. Explore multiple search engines to broaden your findings.
Utilize digital libraries like the Internet Public Library, the Haithi Trust Digital Library, and the
Internet Archive to access a vast collection of digitized books, articles, and online content.
Leverage the "WayBackMachine" on the Internet Archive to explore historical versions of
websites and other online materials. Supplement digital library research with visits to physical
libraries for access to print materials, specialized archives, and expert assistance from
librarians.

Types of Secondary Sources

A wide range of secondary sources are available for workplace and school-related
research. These sources include:

● Web sites: Search engines can be used to find a variety of websites, including
commercial (.com), organizational (.org), and academic (.edu) sites. Be critical of
the information presented on these sites, especially those with a commercial or
political agenda.

● Government web sites: Government websites at the local, state, and federal
levels offer a wealth of research and reports. Some examples include the Food
and Drug Administration's (FDA) website for information on food recalls, clinical
drug trials, and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) website for data on recent
flu outbreaks, vaccines, and more.

● Blogs: Blogs offer ideas, opinions, research discussions, and more. Be sure to
evaluate the information on individual blogs carefully before using it in your
research. Consider the author's credentials, cited sources, and reader feedback.

In addition to these sources, there are many other types of secondary sources
available, such as books, magazines, and journals. It is important to use a variety of
sources to get a well-rounded understanding of your topic.

A variety of secondary sources are available online, including:

● Wikis: Wikis are collaborative encyclopedias that allow anyone to contribute

content. While wikis can be a valuable source of information, it's important to be
critical of the information presented and verify it against other sources.

● Social media: Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram can
provide insights and links to additional sources of information. However, it's
important to be aware of the biases of the organizations or individuals posting the
information.

● Online groups: Online forums and discussion boards can offer valuable
perspectives and information. However, it's important to consider the credibility of
the sources and the moderating structure of the group.

● News outlets: Major news organizations provide online access to their

broadcasts and print publications. Be sure to consider the reputation and biases
of the news outlet when evaluating the information.

● Online news aggregators: Online news aggregators like Google News and
Yahoo! News collect and display news articles from a variety of sources. These
 aggregators can be a good starting point for research, but it's important to use
them in conjunction with other sources.

It's important to use a variety of secondary sources from different perspectives to get a
well-rounded understanding of your topic. Be critical of the information you find and
evaluate it carefully before using it in your research.

A variety of secondary sources are available online and in print, including:

● Online news aggregators: These sites collect and display news articles from a
variety of sources. Be sure to consider the reputation and biases of the news
outlet when evaluating the information.

● Books: Look for books that are published by well-regarded publishing houses
and have been through a systematic review process. For time-sensitive topics,
more recent publication dates may provide you with up-to-date information.

● Peer-reviewed journal articles: These represent the highest standard in research

and are written by researchers and reviewed rigorously for accuracy and
objectivity by peers in the field.

● Gray literature: These are unpublished or not typically catalogued documents,

such as pamphlets, reports, and conference proceedings.

When conducting research, it's crucial to consider a variety of secondary sources to

gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic. These sources include:

● Online news aggregators: Gather news articles from various sources. Evaluate
the credibility and biases of the news outlet before using the information.

● Books: Favor books published by reputable publishers that have undergone a

rigorous review process. For current topics, consider more recent publications.

● Peer-reviewed journal articles: Represent the pinnacle of research, written by

experts and meticulously reviewed for accuracy and objectivity by peers in the
field.

● Gray literature: Uncataloged or unpublished materials, such as pamphlets,

reports, and conference proceedings. To access gray literature, contact relevant
organizations, companies, or government agencies.
 ● Reference works: Provide background information and guide you to more
specific sources:

o Bibliographies: Lists of books and/or articles categorized by subject.

Consult the Bibliographic Index Plus to locate bibliographies in your field.
o Indexes: Provide access to information beyond standard bibliographies.
Examples include the Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings for
conference proceedings and newspaper indexes for historical articles.
o Encyclopedias: Alphabetically arranged collections of articles. Use
encyclopedias as a starting point to guide you to other material.

Remember to critically evaluate the information you gather and consider its reliability
before incorporating it into your research.

A variety of secondary sources are available to aid in research, including:

● Bibliographies: Lists of books and/or articles categorized by subject. Consult the

Bibliographic Index Plus to locate bibliographies in your field.

● Indexes: Provide access to information beyond standard bibliographies.

Examples include the Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings for
conference proceedings and newspaper indexes for historical articles.

● Encyclopedias: Alphabetically arranged collections of articles. Use encyclopedias

as a starting point to guide you to other material.

● Government documents: Include maps, periodicals, books, pamphlets, manuals,

research reports, and other information. Use tools like the Monthly Catalog of the
United States Government, Government Reports Announcements and Index,
and Statistical Abstract of the United States to locate specific documents.

● Dictionaries: Alphabetically arranged lists of words, including definitions,

pronunciations, and word origins. Consult specialized dictionaries for highly
specialized terms or jargon.

● Handbooks: Offer condensed facts (formulas, tables, advice, examples) about

particular fields.

● Almanacs: Collections of factual and statistical data, usually arranged by subject

area and published annually.

● Directories: Provide updated information about organizations, companies,

people, products, services, or careers.
 ● Abstracts: Collected summaries of books and/or articles. Reading abstracts can
help you decide whether to read or skip an article.

Guidelines
for Researching on the Web and with Social
Media
When evaluating online information, consider the following factors:

● Search engines: Use a variety of search engines and subject directories to get a
broader range of results.

● Keyword selection: Choose specific and technical keywords rather than general
terms.

● Citations: Check for footnotes and other citations to identify reliable sources.

● Domain type: Consider the domain type (.com, .edu, .gov, .mil, .net, .org) to
assess potential bias.

● Purpose and sponsor: Identify the website's purpose (informational, commercial,

ideological) and sponsor.

● Visual appeal: Don't be fooled by a website's professional appearance; evaluate

the content carefully.

● Creation date and updates: Check for the date of publication and recent updates
to ensure the information is current.

● Author's credentials: Assess the author's expertise, reputation, and institutional

affiliation.

● Evidence and claims: Verify extreme claims or assertions with other sources.

● Personal biases: Be aware of your own biases that might influence your
evaluation.

● Social media: For social media posts, identify the author or organization
responsible for the content.
Remember to use multiple sources and critically evaluate the information before
incorporating it into your research.

● Bookmark websites: Use bookmarking tools or apps to save and organize your
favorite websites for quick access.

● Save webpages: Save webpages as PDF files or use screen capture tools to
preserve content in case it changes or disappears.

● Be mindful of copyright: Download only what you need, use material ethically,
obtain permission when necessary, and always credit your sources.

Exploring Primary Sources

7.5 Perform primary research using interviews, surveys, and other techniques

Primary research involves collecting information directly from sources rather than
relying on secondary sources. There are several methods of primary research,
including:

● Unsolicited inquiries: Sending letters, emails, or making phone calls to experts

to gather information.

● Informational interviews: Conducting in-person interviews with experts to gain

insights and perspectives.

● Surveys: Collecting data from a specific group of people through questionnaires.

● Observations or experiments: Directly observing or conducting experiments to

gather data.

When conducting primary research, it's important to:

● Identify the right experts: Target individuals with relevant expertise and
experience in your research topic.

● Ask specific questions: Formulate clear and focused questions that cannot be
answered easily through secondary sources.
 ● Respect the interviewee's time: Be mindful of their schedule and keep the
interview concise.

● Maintain confidentiality: Respect any sensitive or confidential information

shared during the interview.

Primary research can provide valuable insights and original data that complement
secondary sources, offering a more comprehensive understanding of your research
topic.
Guidelines
for Informational Interviews
Planning the Interview

Before you start interviewing, it's important to have a clear plan in mind. Here are some
tips for planning your interview:

● Know your goals: Clearly define what you want to learn from the interview and
who you want to interview.

● Do your research: Gather as much information as possible about the interviewee

and the topic you'll be discussing.

● Schedule the interview: Make arrangements with the interviewee by phone,

letter, or email.

● Prepare your questions: Write out clear and specific questions that can't be
answered with a simple "yes" or "no."

● Submit questions in advance: If possible, send your questions to the interviewee

beforehand so they can prepare their answers.

Conducting the Interview

When conducting the interview, it's important to be respectful and professional. Here are
some tips for conducting your interview:

● Make a courteous start: Introduce yourself, express your gratitude for their time,
and explain why you're interviewing them.

● Be mindful of cultural differences: Adapt your behavior to the cultural context of

the interview.

● Let the interviewee talk: Allow the interviewee to do most of the talking.

● Be a good listener: Pay attention to what the interviewee is saying and ask
clarifying questions when needed.

● Stay on track: Gently redirect the conversation if it strays from your plan.
 ● Take notes: Write down key points and summarize responses on notecards.

Remember to be respectful of the interviewee's time and privacy. Thank them for their
participation at the end of the interview.

Conducting an Interview

During the interview, be respectful and professional. Here are some tips:

● Ask for clarification if needed. Don't hesitate to ask for clarification if something is
unclear.

● Repeat major points in your own words. This shows the interviewee that you are
listening and helps you to ensure that you understand what they are saying.

● Be ready with follow-up questions. This shows that you are engaged in the
conversation and that you are interested in learning more about the topic.

● Keep note taking to a minimum. Note down key points and statistics, but don't
record every word.

● Request permission to contact your respondent again. This may be necessary if

you have follow-up questions.

● Invite the respondent to review your version for accuracy. This is especially
important if the interview is to be published.

Concluding the Interview

● Ask for closing comments. This may give the interviewee an opportunity to share
additional information.

● Thank your respondent and leave promptly. Don't overstay your welcome.

● As soon as possible, write a complete summary (or record one verbally). This will
help you to remember what was said and to organize your notes.

Remember to be respectful of the interviewee's time and privacy.

Surveys
Surveys help you form impressions of the concerns, preferences, attitudes, beliefs, or

perceptions of a large, identifiable group (a target population) by studying representa-

tives of that group (a sample). While interviews allow for greater clarity and depth,

surveys offer an inexpensive way to get the viewpoints of a large group. Respondents
can answer privately and anonymously—and often more candidly than in an
interview.
The tool for conducting surveys is the questionnaire. See Figures 7.6 and 7.7 for a
sample cover email and questionnaire.

Observations and Experiments

Guidelines
for Surveys
Conducting a Survey
Before you start creating your survey, it's important to consider the following factors:
Purpose and Target Population:
● Define the survey's purpose: Clearly articulate the reason for conducting the
survey.
● Identify the target population: Specify the group of people you want to study.
Sample Group:
● Determine sample size: Decide how many respondents you need for a reliable
sample.
● Select a sampling method: Choose a method for selecting participants from the
target population. Random sampling ensures each member has an equal chance
of being included.
Survey Method:
● Choose an administration method: Decide how the survey will be delivered
(phone, mail, online).
● Consider method-specific advantages/disadvantages: Phone surveys provide
quick results but may be intrusive. Mail surveys allow for candid responses but
have low response rates. Online surveys are fast but may encounter technical
issues.
Question Types:
● Open-ended questions: Allow respondents to answer freely, providing rich
insights but requiring more time for analysis.
o Example: "How much do you know about electromagnetic radiation at our
school?"
● Closed-ended questions: Provide limited response options, making data analysis
easier.
o Example: "Are you interested in joining a group of concerned parents?
YES ____ NO ____"
o Example: "Rate your degree of concern about EMFs at our school. HIGH
____ MODERATE ____ LOW ____ NO CONCERN ____"
o Example: "Circle the number that indicates your view about the town’s
proposal to spend $20,000 to hire its own EMF consultant."
Remember to choose appropriate question types based on your research goals and the
information you need to gather.
Designing Surveys
● Develop an engaging introduction: Persuade respondents that their
participation matters and their anonymity is ensured.
 ● Start with easy questions: Begin with closed-ended questions to encourage
completion of the survey.
● Ensure question clarity: Formulate unambiguous questions that can be
interpreted identically by all respondents.
● Avoid biased language: Refrain from using emotionally charged or judgmental
language that could influence responses.
● Keep it brief and simple: Limit the number of questions and types of questions
to maintain respondent engagement.
● Seek expert review: Have an expert review your questionnaire before
administering it.
Administering Surveys
● Provide clear instructions: Clearly state the purpose of the survey and how to
complete it.
● Offer anonymity: Assure respondents that their responses will be kept
confidential.
● Include a stamped return envelope (if applicable): Make it easy for
respondents to return completed surveys.
● Set a return date: Specify a deadline for returning surveys to encourage prompt
responses.
Additional Tips
● Consider using an online survey tool: Online tools like SurveyMonkey offer
user-friendly survey creation and distribution.
● Pilot test your survey: Conduct a small-scale test with a few individuals to
identify and address any issues.
● Proofread carefully: Ensure the survey is free of grammatical errors and typos.
Remember:
● Observational and experimental data can be subjective: Be aware of
potential biases and limitations.
● Follow established guidelines: When conducting experiments, adhere to
established protocols and procedures.

Consider This
Frequently Asked Questions
about Copyright
Copyright and Fair Use

Copyright law protects original works of authorship, such as literary, dramatic, musical,
and artistic creations. It grants the copyright holder the exclusive right to reproduce,
publish, and sell the work. Copyright protection lasts for the author's life plus 70 years
for works created after January 1, 1978.

Fair Use

Fair use is a legal doctrine that allows the limited use of copyrighted material without
permission from the copyright holder. The four factors considered in determining fair
use are:

1. Purpose and character of use: Non-profit educational use is generally

considered more favorable than commercial use.

2. Nature of the copyrighted work: Published works are generally considered

more favorable for fair use than unpublished works.

3. Amount and substantiality of the portion used: Using a small portion of the
original work is generally more favorable for fair use.

4. Effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted
work: Fair use should not significantly harm the market value of the original
work.

Public Domain

Material in the public domain is not protected by copyright or the copyright has expired.
Works published in the United States 95 years before the current year are in the public
domain.

When in doubt, it is always best to obtain written permission from the copyright
holder before using copyrighted material.
Projects
The reason for not replying "For all projects, check with your instructor
about whether to present your findings in class, bring drafts to class for
discussion, upload your project to the class learning management system
(LMS), and/or use the LMS forum or discussion boards to collaborate and
review each activity below." is that this is a general instruction that applies to
all projects, and it is not specific to the project that the student is working on.
The student should check with their instructor for specific instructions on how
to present their findings.

Chapter 8
Evaluating and
Interpreting
Information
“Our clients make investment decisions based on feasibility and strategy for
marketing new ideas and products. Our job is to research consumer
interest and experiences with products and ser- vices such as a new
secure phone app and Web site where patients can review their medical
test results. We use surveys to help understand what works and what
doesn’t. In designing surveys,I have to translate the client’s information
needs into precise questions. I have to be certain that the respondents are
answering exactly the question I had in mind and not inventing their own
version of the question. Then I have to take these data and translate them
into accurate interpretations and recommendations for our clients.”

—Jessica North, Senior Project Manager, technical marketing research firm

Evaluate the Sources
8.1 Evaluate your sources, with special attention to online sources

Evaluating Credibility of Research Sources

 When evaluating the credibility of research sources, consider the following
factors:

● Reputation of the source: Check the publication's copyright page to

determine the publisher and whether it is a reputable organization.
Look for institutions like universities, professional societies, trusted
research organizations, or respected news organizations. Consider
whether the publication is refereed, meaning that submissions are
reviewed by experts before acceptance. Assess the author's
credentials and whether they have a well-researched and thorough
bibliography.

● Motives of funders: Much research is funded by private companies

or special-interest groups with their own agendas. Consider the
potential biases introduced by such funding and whether the research
is designed to support a particular interest. Be aware that research
funded by opposing groups can produce conflicting results. Evaluate
what the funders stand to gain or lose from the research outcomes.

● Merits of the research: Ultimately, the quality of the research itself

should determine its credibility. Funding by a special interest should
not automatically discredit a valid and reliable study. Private company
funding can sometimes facilitate beneficial research that might
otherwise be unaffordable.

Remember that evaluating research sources requires careful consideration

of various factors, including the reputation of the source, the motives of
funders, and the merits of the research itself.

Pay Special Attention to Evaluating Online Sources

When evaluating online information, be sure to dig deeper and find out more about the organization
behind the Web site, Twitter feed, Facebook page, Instagram account, or other site. Then, look for
information from a range of sources—but make sure these sources are credible.

Evaluate the Evidence

8.2 Assess the quality of your evidence
• Determine the sufficiency of the evidence.

• Differentiate hard evidence from soft evidence.

 • Decide whether the presentation of evidence is balanced and reasonable.
• Consider how the facts are framed.

Interpret Your Findings

8.3 Interpret your findings accurately and without bias
Interpreting means trying to reach the truth of the matter: an overall judgment about what the findings mean
and what conclusion or action they suggest.

Identify Your Level of Certainty

Research can yield three distinct and very different levels of certainty:

1. The ultimate truth—the conclusive answer:

We determine evidence-based truths about the situations and systems that surround us.
2. The probable answer: the answer that stands the best chance of being true or
accurate, given the most we can know at this particular time. Probable answers are subject to revision
in light of new information. This is especially the case with emergent science, such as gene therapy,
certain kinds of new cancer treatments, or discoveries made in outer space.
3. The inconclusive answer: the realization that the truth of the matter is more elusive,
ambiguous, or complex than we expected.

Examine the Underlying Assumptions

Assumptions are notions we take for granted, ideas we often accept without proof. The research
process rests on assumptions such as these: a sample group accurately repre- sents a larger target
group, survey respondents remember facts accurately, and mice and humans share many biological
similarities. For a study to be valid, the underlying assumptions have to be accurate.

Be Alert for Personal Bias

To support a particular version of the truth, our own bias might cause us to overesti- mate (or deny) the
certainty of our findings.
Personal bias is often unconscious until we examine our attitudes long held but never analyzed, assumptions
we’ve inherited from our backgrounds, and so on. The confir- mation bias makes the situation even more
complicated; when presented with solid evidence that disproves their beliefs, people will often cling even more
tightly to what they want to be true. Recognizing our own biases and being willing to listen to new evidence is
a crucial first step in managing personal bias.

Consider Other Possible Interpretations

Settling on a final meaning can be difficult—and sometimes impossible.

Avoid Distorted or Unethical Reasoning

8.4 Recognize common errors in reasoning and statistical analysis
Finding the truth, especially in a complex issue or problem, often is a process of elimi- nation, of ruling out or
avoiding errors in reasoning. As we interpret, we make infer- ences: We derive conclusions about what we don’t
know by reasoning from what we do know (Hayakawa 37).

Consider, for example, the numerous times we hear about a crisis of some sort—a natural disaster, a
missing airplane, a terrible accident—and all we know initially is based on limited news reports,
random Twitter posts, and cell phone videos that go viral. Based only on this information, people
will often make general claims and jump to conclusions that later prove to be false after more
evidence is uncovered.

Faulty Causal Reasoning

Causal reasoning tries to explain why something happened or what will happen, often in very complex
situations. Sometimes a definite cause is apparent (“The engine’s overheating is caused by a faulty radiator cap”).
We reason about definite causes when we explain why the combustion in a car engine causes the wheels to
move, or why the moon’s orbit makes the tides rise and fall. However, causal reasoning often explores causes
that are not so obvious, but only possible or probable. In these cases, much analysis is needed to isolate a specific
cause.

Here are common errors that distort or oversimplify cause–effect relationships: Investment builds
wealth; running improves health; right after buying a rabbit’s foot.

Faulty Statistical Analysis

The purpose of statistical analysis is to determine the meaning of a collected set of numbers. In primary
research, our surveys and questionnaires often lead to some kind of numerical interpretation (“What
percentage of respondents prefer X?” “How often does Y happen?”). In secondary research, we rely on
numbers collected by survey researchers.
THE SANITIZED STATISTIC. Numbers can be manipulated (or “cleaned up”) to obscure the facts.

THE MEANINGLESS STATISTIC. Exact numbers can be used to quantify something so inexact or vaguely
defined that it should only be approximated (Huff 247; Lavin 278): “Boston has 3,247,561 rats.” “Super brand
detergent makes laundry 10 percent brighter.”
THE UNDEFINED AVERAGE. The mean, median, and mode can be confused in rep- resenting an
“average” (Huff 244; Lavin 279): (1) The mean is the result of adding up the values of items in a set of
numbers, and then dividing that total by the number of items in the set. (2) The median is the result of
ranking all the values from high to low, then identifying the middle value (or the 50th percentile, as
in calculating SAT scores).
(3) The mode is the value that occurs most often in a set of numbers.

THE DISTORTED PERCENTAGE FIGURE. Percentages are often reported without explanation of the original
numbers used in the calculation (Adams and Schvaneveldt 359; Lavin 280): “Seventy-five percent of
respondents prefer our brand over the competing brand”—without mention that, say, only four people were
surveyed.

THE BOGUS RANKING. This distortion occurs when items are compared on the basis of ill-defined criteria
 (Adams and Schvaneveldt 212; Lavin 284).

CONFUSION OF CORRELATION WITH CAUSATION. Correlation is a numerical measure of the strength

of the relationship between two variables (say smoking and increased lung cancer risk, or education and
income).

THE BIASED META-ANALYSIS. In a meta-analysis, researchers examine a whole range of studies that
have been done on one topic (say, high-fat diets and cancer risk). The purpose of this “study of studies”
is to decide the overall meaning of the collected findings.

THE FALLIBLE COMPUTER MODEL. Computer models process complex assump- tions (see “Examine the
Underlying Assumptions” in this chapter) to predict or estimate costs, benefits, risks, and probable
outcomes. But answers produced by any computer model depend on the assumptions (and data)
programmed in. Assumptions might be influenced by researcher bias or the sponsors’ agenda.

MISLEADING TERMINOLOGY. The terms used to interpret statistics sometimes hide their real meaning.

Acknowledge the Limits of Research

8.5 Understand that even careful research can be limited and imperfect
Legitimate researchers live with uncertainty. They expect to be wrong far more often than right.
Following is a brief list of items that go wrong with research and interpretation

Obstacles to Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability determine the dependability of any research (Adams and Schvaneveldt 79–97;
Crossen 22–24). Valid research produces correct findings. A survey, for example, is valid when (1) it
measures what you want it to measure, (2) it measures accurately and precisely, and (3) its findings
can be generalized to the target popula- tion. Valid survey questions enable each respondent to
interpret each question exactly as the researcher intended; valid questions also ask for information
respondents are qualified to provide.
Flaws in Research Studies
Although some types of studies are more reliable than others, each type has limita- tions (Cohn 106;
Harris 170–72; Lang and Secic 8–9; Murphy 143):

• Epidemiological studies.
• Laboratory studies.
• Human exposure studies (clinical trials).

Chapter 9
 Summarizing Research
Findings and Other
Information
Considering Audience and Purpose
9.1 Describe the audience and purpose of summaries in the workplace
Chapter 7 shows how abstracts (a type of summary) aid our research by providing an encapsulated
glimpse of an article or other long document (see Chapter 7, “Reference Works”). Also, as we record
our research findings, we summarize to capture the main ideas in a compressed form. In addition to
this dual role as a research aid, summa- rized information is vital in day-to-day workplace
transactions.
On the job, you have to write concisely about your work. You might report on meetings or
conferences, describe your progress on a project, or propose a money- saving idea. A routine
assignment for many new employees is to provide superiors (decision makers) with summaries of
the latest developments in their field.
Formal reports and proposals (discussed in Chapters 21 and 22) and other long documents are
typically submitted to busy people: researchers, developers, manag- ers, vice presidents, customers,
and so on. For readers who must act quickly or who only need to know the “big picture,” reading
an entire long report may not only be too time-consuming but also irrelevant. As a result, most long
reports, proposals, and other complex documents are commonly preceded by a summary.

What Readers Expect from a Summary

9.2 Identify the elements of a usable summary
Whether you summarize your own documents (like the sample abstract page of Figure 21.3) or
someone else’s, readers will have these expectations:
• Accuracy:
• Completeness:
• Conciseness:
• Nontechnical style:

How to Create a Summary

9.3 Follow the step-by-step process for creating a summary
• Step 1: Read the Original Document.
• Step 2: Reread and Mark Essential Material.
• Step 3: Cut and Paste the Key Information.
 • Step 4: Redraft the Information into Your Own Organizational Pattern and Words.
• Step 5: Edit Your Draft.
• Step 6: Compare Your Version with the Original Document.

Special Types of Summaries

9.4 Differentiate among four special types of summaries
In preparing a report, proposal, or other document, you might summarize works of others as part of
your presentation. But you will often summarize your own material as well. For instance, depending
on its length, purpose, and audience, your document might include different forms of summarized
information, in different locations, with different levels of detail (Vaughan). These four special types
of summaries include the closing summary, informative abstract, descriptive abstract, and executive
abstract. Figure 9.5 illustrates each of these types of summaries, their placement, and their purpose.

Closing Summary
A closing summary appears at the beginning of a long report’s conclusion section. It helps readers
review and remember the preceding major findings. This look back at “the big picture” also helps
readers appreciate the conclusions and recommendations that typically follow the closing summary.

Informative Abstract (“Summary”)

Readers often appreciate condensed versions of long reports or proposals. Some read- ers like to see
a capsule version before reading the complete document; others simply want to know the basics
without having to read the whole document.
To meet reader needs, the informative abstract appears just after the title page. This type of summary
encapsulates what the full version says: It identifies the need or issue that prompted the report; it
describes the research methods used; it reviews the main facts and findings; and it condenses the
conclusions and recommendations.

Descriptive Abstract (“Abstract”)

A descriptive abstract (usually one to three sentences on a report’s title page) is another, more
compressed form of summarized information. This type of abstract merely de- scribes a report; it
doesn’t give the report’s main points. Such an abstract helps people decide whether to read the report.
Thus a descriptive abstract conveys only the nature and extent of a document. It presents the broadest
view and offers no major facts from the original.

Executive Abstract
A special type of informative abstract, the executive abstract (also called an executive summary)
essentially falls at the beginning and “replaces” the entire report. Aimed at decision makers rather than
technical audiences, an executive abstract generally has more of a persuasive emphasis: Its purpose is to
motivate readers to act on the infor- mation. Executive abstracts are crucial in cases where readers have
no time to read the entire original document and they expect the writer to help guide their thinking

Summarizing Information for Social Media

9.5 Exercise caution when summarizing for social media
Information in summary format is increasingly attractive to today’s readers, who often feel
bombarded by more content than they can handle. Consider, for example, the numerous tweets,
Facebook posts, LinkedIn announcements, email digests, and other summary formats that people
receive on a daily basis. These short formats al- low people to read a summary and, if an item is of
interest, click on a link to read the longer form article, report, or news story. In this way, such
summaries help people explore a wide range of new information, including recent research,
technical updates, news stories, and medical innovations.