ECH5514 Chap2 21102016 Student

Chapter 2:
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
ERGONOMIC ASPECTS
ECH5514/datindrctaslina 1
Chapter 2: PHYSIOLOGICAL
AND ERGONOMIC ASPECTS
IN-CLASS ASSESMENT
What does ERGONOMICS mean?
What Does Ergonomics Mean?

 Designing jobs, equipment, and work tasks to fit
human physical characteristics and energy limitations.
 It considers body dimensions, mobility, and the body’s
stress behavior.
 “Make the work fit the person, not the person fit the
work”.
 Ergonomics is the study of people at work.
 The field got its name in the summer of 1949

when a group of interested individuals
assembled in Oxford, England to discuss the
topic of human performance. The group
consisted of anatomists, physiologist,
psychologists, design engineers, architects and
anyone whose work concerned some aspect of
human performance.
 A proposal was put which couples ergos, the

Greek work for work, with the word nomos,
meaning natural laws. Then the group decided
to call themselves the Ergonomics Research
Society. Later, they change to Ergonomics
Society. Sometime later, the term human factor
was coined in the United States.
2 Main Domains of Ergonomics

 Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical and
anthropometric as they relate to physical activity.
 Relevant topics include working postures, materials handling and
repetitive movements.
 Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as

memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions
among humans and other elements of a system.
 Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, human-
computer interaction, human reliability and work stress as these may
relate to human-system design.
Work Risk Factor
 Certain characteristics of the work setting have been

associated with injury. These work characteristics are called
risk factors and include:
 Physical task characteristics (primarily interaction between

the worker and the work setting)
 Posture, force, repetition
 Environmental characteristics (primarily interaction

between the worker and the work environment)
 Heat stress, cold stress, lighting, noise
Benefits of Ergonomics Include:
 safer jobs with fewer injuries

 increased efficiency and productivity
 improved quality and fewer errors
 improved morale
Ergonomic Goals
 Finding ways to make strenuous, often repetitive work,
less likely to cause muscle and joint injuries and still
get the job done.
 Keeping young bodies from wearing out prematurely,
and mature bodies from giving out early.
 The objective of combination of ergonomics and human

factors engineering as designing machines to fit human
operators and operators to machines and more accurate,
then, to describe the study of human-machine systems
with an emphasis on the human aspect.
 Several year ago, Paul Fitts described human performance

as a function of five factors – LIMET.
Learning
Individual
LIMET differences
Motivation
Environment
Task
What can you see from the picture?
Mechanical
Chemical
Falling
Dusts
Impact
Gases
Fume
Electrical
Electrostatic
Physical
Direct contact
Noise
Radiation
Temperature Psychosocial
Lighting Shifts
Stress
Biological Job scope
Bacteria
Ergonomic
Viruses
Repetitive work
Moulds
Load lifting
Fungi
Standing
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13
What is Ergonomic Design?
 Ergonomists study people and how they operates

equipment in the home, factories, and in governmental
activities.
 They also design job and specifically, design methods

and tools for performing tasks, machine-tool interfaces,
workplace layouts, inspection stations and etc.
Provisions of OSHA 1994

 Section 4c:
“To promote an occupational environment for persons at work which is
adapted to their physiological and psychological needs”
The third object intends to promote a suitable work environment that fulfills the
needs of persons at work. It is intended to fit the process and workstation to the
physiological and psychological needs of the employees. The work environment
should be conducive to human physiology e.g. working in hot environment would
require appropriate rest-work regime; trolley to assist carrying of heavy weights
above individuals capacity. It should also meet psychological needs of the
employees e.g. employee should not be overwork or underwork; an appropriate
level of stressor that maximize productivity but not resulting an employee who is
stressed. Sexual harassment can be considered as a psychosocial hazard in the work
place.
FMA 1967 and It’s

Regulations
 Section 10 – provision relating to safety
 Safe access
“such means as are reasonably practicable shall be provided,
maintained, and used so as to ensure safe access to any place at
which any person has at any time to work”
 Section 12
 No person shall be employed to lift load so heavy so as to
cause bodily injury to him
FMA 1967 and It’s

Regulations
 Section 24 – Personal Protective Clothing
“Provide suitable and adequate personal protective
clothing and appliances including where necessary goggles,
gloves, leggings, caps, foot-wear and protective ointment or
lotion.”
Human Factors and Ergonomic

Hazards
 Human Factors Defined
 Science combining research and application of human data
 Human Factors in Action

 Examples how the science fits into the systems design process
 Pre-designed analysis – conduct research
 What factors, best way, how to overcome?
 Preliminary design – study machine and human capabilities
 Which tasks should be done manually, automated?
 Detail design and development – define the

environment required.
 For operator safety, enhanced performance, prevention of
stress and fatigue
 Test and evaluation – test actual humans in using
prototype equipment or system.
Ergonomics Need in a Workplace
 Physical work environment

 Thermal comfort
 Noise and vibration control
 Adequate and proper lighting
 Chemical environment
 Control of pollution
 General and exhaust ventilation
 Work physiology
 Control excessive physical load
 Avoid physical and muscular fatigue
 Adequate rest pauses
 Arrangement of static and dynamic work
 Anthropometry (body sizes)

 Design to fit body sizes of users
 Appropriate working levels
 Adequate work space
 Avoid overcrowding of machines and workers
 Occupational biomechanics
 Appropriate work postures (sitting, standing)
 Safe load lifting and carrying techniques
 Adopt proper techniques in manual materials
handling
 Psychological aspects
 Avoid perceptual and mental loads and
fatigue
 Appropriate design of displays and control
 Appropriate conditions for vigilance tasks
 Avoid human error and stress
 Job motivation and satisfaction
 Social psychology
 Practice good relationship among employees
and between employer and employee
 Macro ergonomics
 Suitable working hours, intervals, holidays, leave
 Appropriate shift schedules
 Welfare facilities
 Job rotation and incentives schemes
 Fair salary structure, good administrative structure
 Good work organization schemes
 Fringe benefits (housing, transport, sports)
 Labour union facilities
 Training and education
 Promotional aspects
 Safety and ergonomics

 Good housekeeping
 Performance feedback
 Systems ergonomics
 Systems groups in problem solving and
development work
 Participative ergonomics
 User centered designs
What two elements are at work?

 Static work: musculoskeletal effort required to hold a certain
position, even a comfortable one.
 Example: sit & work at computers; keeping head and torso
upright requires small or great amounts of static work depending
on the efficiency of the body positions we chose.
 Force: amount of tension our muscles generate

 Example: tilting your head forward or backward from a neutral,
vertical position quadruples the amount of force acting on your
lower neck vertebrae
 Increased force is d/t increase in muscular tension needed to

support head in a tilted position
Work-Related
Musculoskeletal
Disorders (WMSDs) are
occupational disorders that
involve soft tissues such
as muscles, tendons,
ligaments, joints, blood
vessels and nerves
WMSDs are:
 Daily stress to anatomical structures that may occur when a
person is exposed to certain high risk activities
 If the accumulating stress exceeds the body ’ s normal
recuperative ability, inflammation of the tissue can follow
 Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are a group
of painful disorders of muscles, tendons, and nerves. Carpal
tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, thoracic outlet syndrome, and
tension neck syndrome are examples. Work activities which are
frequent and repetitive, or activities with awkward postures
cause these disorders which may be painful during work or at
rest.
 Chronic inflammation may lead to the development of

WMSDs
 May require weeks, months or years for development - and for
recovery
 Almost all work requires the use of the arms and hands.
Therefore, most WMSD affect the hands, wrists, elbows, neck,
and shoulders. Work using the legs can lead to WMSD of the
legs, hips, ankles, and feet. Some back problems also result
from repetitive activities.
Are there other names for WMSDs?

WMSDs are very difficult to define within traditional disease classifications. These
disorders have received many names, such as:
 Repetitive motion injuries
 Repetitive strain injuries
 Cumulative trauma disorders
 Occupational cervicobrachial disorders
 Overuse syndrome
 Regional musculoskeletal disorders
 Soft tissue disorders
Most of the names do not accurately describe the disorders. For example, the term "repetitive
strain injuries" suggests that repetition causes these disorders, but awkward postures also
contribute. These terms are used synonymously, and in the absence of agreement, WMSD is
used in this document.
What is The Musculoskeletal System?

The Musculoskeletal System includes the following:
1. Bones – The load-bearing structure of the body
2. Muscles- Tissue that contract to create movement
3. Tendons – Tissues that connect muscles to bones
4. Ligaments – Tissues that connect bones to bones
5. Cartilage – Tissue that provides cushioning and reduces friction between bones
6. Nerves – Communication system that links muscles, tendons and other tissue
with the brain
7. Blood Vessels – Tubes that circulate nutrients throughout the body
What Are Examples of WMSDs?

1. Sprain – Overstretching or overexertion of a ligament that
results in a tear or rupture of the ligament.
2. Strain – Overstretching or overexertion of a muscle or tendon.
3. Tendonitis – Inflammation of the tendon inside the sheath.
4. Tenosynovitis – Inflammation of the sheath around the

tendon.
5. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – Compression of the median nerve

as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the heel of the hand.
What are Examples of WMSDs?

6. Tennis elbow or Golfer’s elbow – Medical term is
Epicondylitis – inflammation of the tendons at the elbow.
7. Trigger Finger – Common term for tendonitis or tenosynovitis
that causes painful locking of the finger(s) while flexing.
8. Pitcher’s Shoulder – Rotator cuff tendonitis – inflammation of
one or more tendons at the shoulder.
9. White Finger – Medical term is Reynaud’s Phenomenon –
constriction of the blood vessels in the hands and fingers.
10. Digital Neuritis – Compression of the nerves along the sides of
the fingers or thumbs.
What causes nerve compression or entrapment?
1) Repeated motions
2) Tight muscles
3) Inflammation of surrounding tissues
4) Misalignment of the nerve
Injury in the
making...
Ditto...
Ergonomic Problem-Solving Strategies
Seated repetitive work with light parts

 Back, neck, shoulder, lower leg pain
 Fixed work position + repetitive motion
 Improvement strategies:
 Break the monotony of repetition – include other work tasks
 Job rotation –rotate from different jobs
 Adjust height / position of work surface
 Use adjustable chair + hand, wrist , arm supports
Seated work with larger parts

 e.g. assembly and welding jobs
 Problems: posture, illumination, reach and lifting
 Improvements:
 Use technology for easy access
 Use supplemental lighting
 Use adjustable chairs and work surfaces
Seated control work

 Seated + use wheels, levers, knobs, handles, buttons to
control process / system / piece of equipment
 Stress: excessive vibration, bending, twisting
 Improvements:
 Comfortable & convenient locations for control
devices
 Adjustable swivel chair
 Ladder if workstation > 14 inches above ground
 Finger control systems < 5N; hand levers < 20N
 Control seat with a clear line of sight
Standing work
 Handling medium – heavy materials, nonrepetitive
 e.g. machine operator’s job i.e. mill, drill, punch, saw
 Leg, arm, side and back strains
 Improvements:
 Adjustable machines and work surfaces or portable
platforms
 Machines with recess at the bottom for feet –
operator can stand close to machine
 Machines with easily accessible controls
 Ample free space around machines for moving
material + easy to service
Work with hands above the chest

 Standing or seating, may or may not
involve material handling
 Neck, upper body, heart strain – heart
needs to work harder to pump blood to the
elevated areas
 Improvements:
 Eliminate manual lifting by raising the work
floor using lifts
 Use extension arms or poles
 Machines with controls below the
horizontal plane of a worker’s shoulders
Standing for heavy lifting and carrying

 Heavy lifting + moving material
 Back and muscle strains, from improper lifting
 Improvements:
 Use proper lifting techniques
 Eliminate manual lifting as possible using lifting and hoisting
technologies
 Sufficient room around objects to lift w/out twisting
 PPE e.g. sure-grip shoes and gloves
 Keep floors clean and dry
 No carrying upstairs, increases physical stress and potential of
injury
Work with hand tools

 Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), muscle strains of lower arm, hands and wrist
 Must improve hand positions, enhance worker’s grip on tools, minimize

twisting involved
 Improvements:
 Select tools with thick handles (0.8-1.2 in)
 Tools with enhanced gripping surfaces on handles
 Eliminate twisting – tools with direction of movement is the same as the direction in
which force is applied / use technology (power screwdriver)
 Select handles with oval shaped cross section
 Handles that will not absorb toxic liquids
 Tools that keep hands in rest position (palm down, gently curved, thumb
outstretched, knuckle of the index finger higher that little finger)
Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)

 Definition
 Caused by forceful or awkward movements repeated frequently
over time
 Caused by poor posture, improperly designed workstation, poor
tool design, job stress
 Occur to the muscles, nerves, tendons of hands, arms, shoulders,
neck
 Classification
 Muscles and tendon disorders
 Cervical radiculopathy
 Tunnel syndromes
 Nerve and circulation disorders
Anatomy of Tendon
Tendonitis
 Tendon function:
 Transmit force from muscle to bone
 Micro tears of tendon occur daily
 Typically repair themselves
 With repeated loading repair is not adequate
 Pain / Inflammation
 Tendons are connective tissue that attach muscle to

bone; have little stretch or rebound
 Tendon overuse, static or prolonged
position=inflammation or tendonitis
 Tendons of wrist & hand very small; @ high risk
for injury w/ overuse
 “Tennis elbow” or lateral epicondylitis affects finger
extensor tendons outside of elbow
 “Golfer’s elbow” or medical epicondylitis affects
finger flexor tendons inside of elbow
Tendons consist of numerous bundles

of fibres that attach muscles to bones.
Tendon disorders related to repetitive or
frequent work activities and awkward
postures occur in two major categories -
-tendons with sheaths (Fig. next), found
mainly in the hand and wrist; and
tendons without sheaths (Fig. below),
generally found around the shoulder,
elbow, and forearm.The tendons of the
hand are encased in sheaths through
which the tendon slides.
The inner walls of the sheaths contain
cells that produce a slippery fluid to
lubricate the tendon. With repetitive or
excessive movement of the hand, the
lubrication system may malfunction. It
may not produce enough fluid, or it may
produce a fluid with poor lubricating
qualities. Failure of the lubricating
system creates friction between the
tendon and its sheath, causing
inflammation and swelling of the tendon
area. Repeated episodes of inflammation
cause fibrous tissue to form. The fibrous
tissue thickens the tendon sheath, and
hinders tendon movement. Inflammation
of the tendon sheath is known as
tenosynovitis.
 When inflamed, a tendon sheath may swell up with lubricating

fluid and cause a bump under the skin. This is referred to as a
ganglion cyst.
 Tendons without sheaths are vulnerable to repetitive motions and

awkward postures. In fact, when a tendon is repeatedly tensed,
some of its fibres can tear apart. The tendon becomes thickened
and bumpy, causing inflammation. Tendonitis is the general term
indicating inflammation of the tendon. In some cases, such as in
the shoulder, tendons pass through a narrow space between bones.
A sac called the bursa filled with lubricating fluid is inserted
between the tendons and the bones as an anti-friction device. As
the tendons become increasingly thickened and bumpy, the bursa
is subject to a lot of friction and becomes inflamed. Inflammation
of the bursa is known as bursitis.
Anantomy of
Dequervain’s
Tendonitis
What causes DEQUERVAIN’s?
 Wringing washcloths, clothes
 Typing on the computer keyboard
 Cutting with scissors
 Sewing or pinching
 Stirring food for a long period of time
 Opening jars
Carpal Tunnel
 Carpal tunnel syndrome: compression of median nerve

at level of carpal tunnel.
 Where is carpal tunnel? Formed @ wrist by ligament
over the carpal bones in hand.
 S/Sx: numbness or tingling in thumb, index, or middle
finger & ½ of ring finger; often awakened @ night by
hand “falling asleep”.
 Sx increased by driving or attempting to hold objects;
dropping objects is a common complaint.
 Best known MSD

 Compression of the
median nerve at the wrist.
 Tunnel made up of nine
flexor tendons and one
peripheral nerve.
 Numbness and tingling on
the thumb side of the
hand.
Nerves carry signals from the brain to

control activities of muscles. They
also carry information about
temperature, pain and touch from the
body to the brain, and control bodily
functions such as sweating and
salivation. Nerves are surrounded by
muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
With repetitive motions and awkward
postures, the tissues surrounding
nerves become swollen, and squeeze
or compress nerves.
Compression of a nerve
causes muscle weakness,
sensations of "pins and
needles" and numbness.
Dryness of skin, and
poor circulation to the
extremities, may also
occur.
Other common nerve injuries

 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome: brachial plexus compression d/t
muscle tightness side of neck from poor head position or
slumped posture.
 S/Sx: numbness/tingling in hand, made worse w/overhead
activities or cradling phone b/w ear and shoulder.
 Radial tunnel syndrome: compressed radial nerve @ outside

of elbow d/t repetitive wrist & finger extension or turning of
forearm.
 S/Sx: Sensations from elbow to base of thumb w/ wrist
weakness a common Sx.
 Cubital tunnel syndrome: ulnar nerve compression

inside of the elbow d/t repetitive bending of elbow or
resting your elbow on a hard surface.
 S/Sx: numbness or tingling and inside of arm w/
tingling to ring & little fingers
WORK-RELATED
MUSCULOSKELETAL
DISORDERS
Surgical
Release of
Tunnel
Tennis Elbow
Syndrome
Micro-tearing at the Elbow
Overhead Lifting
Anatomy of the Shoulder
Reynaud’s
Phenomenon or
“White Finger”
Caused by operating vibrating
machinery – especially in cold,
damp weather.
Discuss these pictures, if the case for

more than 2 hours work in a day.
What? Why? How?
Neck or Back Bent

Forward More than
30
For more than 2 hours per
day
Neck or Back Bent

Forward More than
30º
For more than 2
hours per day
Squatting
For more
than 2 hours
per day
Kneeling
For more than 2
hours per day
High Hand Force

More than 2 hours
per day of :
Pinching 2 or more
pounds weight or
4 or more pounds
force
High Hand Force

More than 2 hours per day of:
Gripping 10 or more pounds weight

or force
Highly Repetitive Motion

Workers repeat same motion every few seconds for
more than 2 hours per day with:
 neck
 shoulders
 elbows
 wrists
 hands

Intensive keying for more than 4 hours per day
Repeated Impact
Using hands or knees as a
hammer
 more than 10 times per hour
 more than 2 hours per day
Repeated Impact
Using hands or knees as a
hammer
 more than 10 times per hour
 more than 2 hours per day
Heavy, Frequent, or Awkward Lifting
Heavy, Frequent, or Awkward Lifting
Moderate to High Hand-Arm Vibration
Moderate Level
 more than 2 hours/day
Moderate to High Hand-Arm Vibration
High Level
 More than 30
min/day
What To Do?
PREVENT, PREVENT, PREVENT !!!
 Warm up & stretch before activities that are repetitive, static or

prolonged
 Take frequent breaks from ANY sustained posture every 20-30
minutes
 Respect pain- positions or stop painful activity
 Recognize early signs of inflammatory process, & tx early
Maintain Neutral Posture

 Maintain erect position of back & neck w/ shoulders relaxed.
 Position equipment & work directly in front of and close to your

major tasks.
 Keep upper arms close to the body, elbows 90-100 degrees.
 Keep feet flat on floor, upper body weight resting on “sits bones”.
 Wrists as neutral as possible; safe zone for wrist movement is 15

degrees in all directions.

 Avoid bending neck forward for

prolonged periods of time (*remember
quadruple the force); use a copy holder.
 Avoid static positions for prolonged

time; muscles fatigue---MOVE to
circulation!
How to modify tasks?

 Alternate activities frequently; rotate heavy &/or
repetitive tasks w/ lighter less repetitive ones.
 If sx become worse REASSESS task setup & look for
alternative methods.
 Avoid repetitive or prolonged grip activities.
 Avoid pinching w/ wrist in flexion or wrist deviation
(bending to side).
 Take frequent breaks to stretch & rest hands.
Body Mechanics
 Use the largest joints & muscles to do the job.
 Use 2 hands to lift rather than one, even with light
objects and tasks.
 Avoid lifting w/ the forearm in full pronation (palm
down) or supination (palm up).
 Slide or push & pull objects instead of lifting.
 Keep reaching to a minimum.
 Carry objects close to body at waist level.
OSHA General Duty Clause
Each employer “shall furnish to each of his employees

employment and a place of employment which are
free from recognized hazards that are causing or are
likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his
employees”
If the Employer Has

“Caution Zone” Jobs, They Should:
 Begin an employee awareness education program
 Analyze the workplace for hazards
 Reduce any hazards they find
Ergonomics Awareness Education

Should:
 Show the types, symptoms and impacts of WMSDs.
 Show the importance of early reporting of symptoms.
 Provide information on all “caution zone” risk factors.
 Identify the hazards and measures to reduce them.
Analyzing Caution Zone

Jobs for Hazards
 Use a systematic method to look at:
 -physical demands
 -layout of work area
 -size, shape, and weight of objects handled.
 The results will help to determine controls.
Hazard Zone
Risk factors become hazardous when:
-there is a longer duration of exposure
-there is greater intensity
-there is a combination of risk factors
HAZARD ZONE JOBS
The ERGONOMIC
TRIANGLE
FORCE FREQUENCY
POSTURE
THE GOAL IS TO ELIMINATE AT LEAST ONE FROM EVERY TASK
Awkward Postures
Shoulders:
Hands above
Head
Elbows above
shoulders
For more than 4
hrs/day
Shoulders:
Awkward Postures  Repetitive : raising
>once/minute
 For more thsn 4 hrs/day
Awkward Positions
Neck:
 Bent >45° without support or
ability to vary posture.
 More than 4 hrs/day
Awkward Positions
Back:
 Bent forward >30° Without
support or ability to vary
posture
 Bent forward >45° Without

support or ability to vary
posture
Awkward Positions
Knees: Squatting
More than 4 hrs/day
Awkward Positions
Knees: kneeling
More than 4 hrs/day
High Hand Force

Arms, Wrists, Hands:
 Pinching unsupported object 2 or
more pounds/hand
Or
 Pinching with force of 4 or more
pounds/hand (1/2 ream of paper)
+
 Highly repetitive motion
High Hand Force

 Pinching unsupported object 2 or
more pounds/hand
Or
 Pinching with force of 4 or more
+
 Wrists bent in flexion 30° or
more, or in extension 45° or more,
or in ulnar deviation 30° or more
High Hand Force

–Pinching unsupported object 2 or
more pounds/hand
Or
–Pinching with force of 4 or more
+
–No other risk factors
More than 4 hrs/day
High Hand Force Arms, Wrists, Hands:
 Gripping an unsupported object 10
lbs or > per hand
Or
 Gripping with force of 10 lbs or >
per hand (clamping light duty jumper
cables onto battery)
+
 Highly repetitive motion
 Gripping an unsupported
object 10 lbs or > per hand
Or
 Gripping with force of 10
lbs or > per hand (clamping
light duty jumper cables
onto battery)
+
 Wrists bent in flexion 30° or
more, or in extension 45° or
more, or in ulnar deviation
30° or more
High Hand Force  More than 3 hrs/day
High Hand Force Arms, Wrists, Hands
 Gripping an unsupported
object 10 lbs or > per hand
Or
 Gripping with force of 10
lbs or > per hand (clamping
light duty jumper cables
onto battery)
+
 No other Risk Factors
Extension
Wrists Bent
Ulnar Deviation
Flexion
Tendonitis Risk
Factors
 Repetition
 Forceful exertion
 Awkward / sustained
postures
 Mechanical Stress
Awkward /
Sustained Postures
 Neutral posture is the goal
 Built-up handles
 Avoid wrist deviation

 flexion / extension
 radial/ulnar deviation
Mechanical Stress

Neck, Shoulders, Elbows, Wrists,
Hands
 Same motion every few
seconds with little variation
 (Except Keying)
+
 No Other Risk Factors

 Neck, Shoulders, Elbows, Wrists, Hands
 Same motion every few seconds with
little variation
 (Except Keying)
+
 Wrists bent in flexion 30° or more, or in
extension 45° or more, or in ulnar
deviation 30° or more AND
 High, forceful exertions with the hands

Intensive Keying
Awkward posture, including
wrists bent in flexion 30 or
more, or in extension 45 or
more, or in ulnar deviation
30° or more.
More than 4 hrs/day

Intensive Keying
–No Other Factors

More than 7 hrs/day
Repeated Impact
Hands
Using Hand (heel/base of palm) as
a Hammer more than once per
minute
More than 2 hrs /day
Repeated Impact
Knees
Using Knee as Hammer more
than once per minute
More than 2 hrs /day
Heavy, Frequent,
Awkward
Lifting
MANUAL HANDLING  Lifting
Manual handling is transporting  Carrying

or supporting a load by hands or
bodily force - This includes:  Putting down
 Pushing
 Pulling
 Moving
 Supporting
Hand-Arm Vibration
Hand-Arm Vibration
Step 1: Find the vibration value for the tool or measure it
yourself. The vibration value will be in units of meters per
second squared (m/s²) - Using a hand-arm vibration graph
find the point on the left side that is equal to the vibration
value.
Step 2: Find out how many total hours per day the employee
is using the tool and find that point on the bottom of the
graph
Step 3: Trace a line in from each of these two points until they
cross
50
Vibration value (in m/s2)
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example: Time (in hours)
An impact wrench
with a vibration
value of 12 m/s2 is
used for 2½ hours
total per day.
Note: The caution limit curve (bottom) is based on an 8-hour vibration value of 2.5
m/s². The hazard limit curve (top) is based on an 8-hour vibration value of 5
m/s²
Hand-Arm Vibration
Step 4: If that point lies in the crosshatched “Hazard” area
above the upper curve, then the vibration hazard should be
reduced below the hazard level or to the degree
technologically and economically feasible
If the point lies between the two curves in the “Caution”

area, then the job remains a “Caution Job”
If it falls in the “OK” area below the bottom curve, then no

further steps are necessary
Reducing Identified Hazards
Employers should reduce hazards to below hazard level,

or to a degree technologically and economically feasible
through:
• Engineering and administrative controls (preferred)
and/or
• Individual work practices and PPE
Employers might also consider reducing employee

hours performing a particular task to lower the hazard
of the job
READY FOR QUIZ

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Chapter 2:

What Does Ergonomics Mean?

 The field got its name in the summer of 1949

 A proposal was put which couples ergos, the

2 Main Domains of Ergonomics

 Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as

Work Risk Factor

 Certain characteristics of the work setting have been

 Physical task characteristics (primarily interaction between

 Environmental characteristics (primarily interaction

Benefits of Ergonomics Include:

 safer jobs with fewer injuries

 The objective of combination of ergonomics and human

 Several year ago, Paul Fitts described human performance

What can you see from the picture?

What is Ergonomic Design?

 Ergonomists study people and how they operates

 They also design job and specifically, design methods

Provisions of OSHA 1994

FMA 1967 and It’s

FMA 1967 and It’s

Human Factors and Ergonomic

 Human Factors in Action

 Detail design and development – define the

Ergonomics Need in a Workplace

 Physical work environment

 Anthropometry (body sizes)

 Safety and ergonomics

What two elements are at work?

 Force: amount of tension our muscles generate

 Increased force is d/t increase in muscular tension needed to

 Chronic inflammation may lead to the development of

Are there other names for WMSDs?

What is The Musculoskeletal System?

What Are Examples of WMSDs?

2. Strain – Overstretching or overexertion of a muscle or tendon.

3. Tendonitis – Inflammation of the tendon inside the sheath.

4. Tenosynovitis – Inflammation of the sheath around the

5. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – Compression of the median nerve

What are Examples of WMSDs?

What causes nerve compression or entrapment?

3) Inflammation of surrounding tissues

4) Misalignment of the nerve

Ergonomic Problem-Solving Strategies

Seated repetitive work with light parts

Seated work with larger parts

 Problems: posture, illumination, reach and lifting

Seated control work

 Stress: excessive vibration, bending, twisting

 e.g. machine operator’s job i.e. mill, drill, punch, saw

 Leg, arm, side and back strains

Work with hands above the chest

Standing for heavy lifting and carrying

Work with hand tools

 Must improve hand positions, enhance worker’s grip on tools, minimize

Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)

 Tendons are connective tissue that attach muscle to

Tendons consist of numerous bundles

 When inflamed, a tendon sheath may swell up with lubricating

 Tendons without sheaths are vulnerable to repetitive motions and

What causes DEQUERVAIN’s?

 Wringing washcloths, clothes