Learning and Teaching

Course 3
Learning & Teaching

Course Code: 803
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 100

(External: 80, Internal: 20)
NOTE FOR PAPER SETTERS:
i) Paper setters will set 9 questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt 5 questions.
ii) Q. No. 1 will be compulsory and carries 16 marks. There will be 4 short-answer type notes of 4 marks each to be selected from
the entire syllabus.
iii) Two long answer type questions will be set from each of the four units, out of which the students will be required to attempt one
question from each unit. Long-answer type questions will carry 16 marks each.
iv) All questions will carry equal marks.
COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT-I
1) Understanding Learning
• Learning : Concept, Nature, types of learning & factors influencing learning.
• Leaning strategies : Co-operative learning, collaborative learning, peer-tutoring & group leaning;
• Role of Teacher & School in relation to learning strategies
• Individual Differences: Concepts, Types, Causes & Educational implications
UNIT-II
2) Learning Paradigm
• Theories of Learning:
- Connectionism theory (Trial & Error : Thorndike), concept, laws of learning & Educational Implications
- Conditioning theories : Classical conditioning (Pavlov) & Operant Conditioning (Skinner) : Concept, characteristics
and educational implications
- Social constructivist theory (Vygotsky & Bandura): Concept, nature & educational implications
UNIT-III
3) Understanding Teaching
• Teaching: Concept, characteristics, features and levels of teaching
• Related concepts of Teaching (Training, conditioning, instruction & indoctrination)
• Variables in the Teaching Process: The learning task (Instructional Objectives), learning behavior (Entry behaviours
& learner’s characteristics) Teacher Behaviour: (competence, personality, teaching style).
• Social – constructivist approach in teaching (Applications of Bruner, Ausuble and Vygotsky’s ideas in teaching)
UNIT-IV
4) Phase and models of teaching
• Phase of teaching: Pre-active, interactive and post active.
• Models of teaching: meaning, need and elements, basic teaching model (Glaser), concept attainment model
(Bruner)
• Teaching Strategies: Brain storming, simulation, role playing, gaming, remedial teaching & enrichment
programme
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LONG NOTES (3-4 Pgs) (16 MARKS) & SHORT NOTES (4 MARKS) (150-200 words/ around 2 Pgs.)
UNIT-I
Ques..what is learing ? Explain its features?(2019)2021

OR
Ques: Discuss the nature and characteristics of Learning?
1. Concept & Nature of Learning:

Introduction: Man is a rational animal. He has the power of reasoning. This power of reasoning enables him to learn things
quickly. Learning plays very important role in determing the behaviour of an individual. All human behaviour can be traced back
to learning. Learning is the basis of success in life. The miracles of present day civilization are the result of learning. Learning
occupies very important place in the field of education.
Meaning and Definition of Learning:-
Learning is said to be equivalent to change, modification, development, imporvement and adjustment. It is not confined to school
learning, cycling, reading, writing or typing but it is a comprehensive term, which leaves permanent effects or impression on the
individual.
Learning came to be conceived in many ways:
- as the modification of behaviour through experience and training
-as the process of acquiring new knowledge, attitude and skills
-as problem solving behaviour
-as development of stimulus response bond
-as the ability of changing environment
-as the totality of experiences provided by the schools within and outside the class situations
Some of the definitions of learning are as follows:-
- According to Gates - "Learning is modification of behaviour through experience."
- Crow and Crow are of the view that learning involves the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.
- According to Garry and Kingsley- "Learning is a process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or
training."
On the basis of above discussion, following Characteristics/Nature ofLearning have been deduced:-
(i) Progressive change in behaviour: - Learning brings progressive change in behaviour as the individual reacts to the
situation and i.e. why learning is known as improvement.
(ii) Learning is motivated by adjustment: The individual has to adjust to new environment.
(iii) Learning is universal in nature:- All animals learn. Man is a rational animal and he learns more.
(iv) Learning is never ending growth:- We always inspire to learn more and more. One achievement leads to further
incentive, pursuit and effort.
(v) Learning is continuous and not restricted to childhood period but it goes with life. Death is its end.
(vi) Learning is goal-directed or purposive: -When the purpose or goal is clearer, vivid and explicit, the learning becomes
meaningful and effective to the learner.
(vii) Learning is active and creative i.e. learning largely depends upon the activities of the learner. It is said that no learning
can take place where there is no self-activity. Learning is, therefore said to be the result of activity and experience. It is creative
experience of all knowledge.
(viii) Learning is aroused by individual and social needs i.e. learning depends upon individual-his needs, problems, interests,
attitudes, ambitions, aspirations and needs of the society. In case of some individuals, learning may be quick and fast and in others,
it may be slow and steady. It should be remarked here that learning is affected by social environment. No learning can take place
in the absence of environment.
(ix) Learning is response of the whole individual to the total situation:- i.e. individual reacts to the total learning situation
as a whole.
(x) Learning is transferable:- i.e. transfer takes place in learning but amount of transfer may vary. Transfer occurs when
there is similarity of contents, techniques, ideals, procedures and attitudes. Transfer leads to economy in learning as it takes place
from one field of study to another and from classroom situation to life situation.
(xi) Learning is possible on cognitive, affective, and conative side: -Acquisition of knowledge is cognitive, modification of
emotions is affective and acquisition of skills and habits is conative.
(xii) Learning is process and not a product:- For a man in the street and product is seen as learning. For a psychologist
learning is a process that can be summed up in the following steps:-
(a) Motive or need:- First of all motive or need arises. Motive is force, which impinges, or compels the individual to behave or
to react or do a particular task.
(b) Goal: -If motive or need is there the goal is set up by the teacher or anybody else.
(c) Adjustment: -Thirdly, adjustment on the part of child begins.
(d) Changes: -Changes in the behaviour of the child take place.
(e) Fixation or stabilisation: - Lateron, those changes in the behaviour of the learner are stabilized.
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Conclusion: In short, we can say that learning is a fundamental process of life engaging, much of our waking hours, affecting all
forms of behaviour, skills, knowledge, attitudes, personality, motivation, fear, mannerism etc. It involves:- acquisition of new
experience, retention of new experience in the form of impression, development of experiences, step by step, modification of
experiences and creation of old and new experiences and organization, synthesis and integration of old and new experiences.
Ques: Write short notes on Cooperative learning? (2018, 2022)

OR
Ques: Define the concept of cooperative learning?
2. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
INTRODUCTION: cooperative learning (i.e. the learning in group by cooperating with one another) in place of the competitive
and individualstic approach (encouraging cut throat competition and immoral practices of getting ahead) prevalent in our
educational system. Co-operative learning is based on the fact that learning is an act of learning together. It takes care of the well-
known principle of co-operation each for all the each for all’. The learning group cannot be effective without the co-operation of
all its members.Every class room is destined to make the child learn co-operation and inter-dependence. Only that type of class
room situation is good which teachers the learners- ‘we are class fellows. We are to live together. We sink or swing together.
Cooperative learning as the name suggests stands for a process or learning strategy in which students are provided with the
opportunity to learn themselves in a group in cooperative way. They share all the information among themselves and help each other
in gaining required knowledge, understanding and application of one or the other aspect of the content material or course units in
their syllabus.Cooperative learning instructional approaches provide opportunities for a learner to interact with other learners in the
class, and thus this approach maximizes learner’s intrinsic interest in learning
DEFINITIONS:
• According to Foyle and Lynan - “Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy involving children’s participation in small group
learning activities that promote positive interaction.”
• According to Slavin – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work together in groups, “to master material
initially presented by the learner.”
• According to Woolfolk – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work in mixed ability groups and are
rewarded on the basis of the success of the groups.”
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
1. Cooperative Learning believes in making the teaching learning process Learner centered rather than teacher centered.
2. It advocates constructive ideology for the better teaching learning outcomes by encouraging the students to formulate their
own knowledge, ideas and strategies and ways of understanding the content material.
3. It believes in redefining the role of the teacher as distinct from a lecturer or expert of the subject matter. The teacher’s role
is that of a guide and facilitator who helps the students in learning cooperatively.
4. It advocates interactive teaching learning environment instead of mere lecturing and demonstration on part of teacher.
Here the responsibility for learning is shifted to the students.
5. It emphasizes social learning by assuming that learning takes place better in a social situation and group environment rather
than in isolation.
6. It assumes that children better in a non-competitive anxiety free environment, than in a competitive, stressful environment
available in traditional classrooms.
7. It believes in group efforts and cooperation among the learners in place of individual efforts and competition.
8. Children learn better in cooperative way from one another on account of their interdependence, equality, rapport.
9. It believes that the students’ achievements and performance may be evaluated better in terms of group achievement in
the less threatening group situations.
10. It believes that students learn best when they are totally involved in the learning process by cooperating with each other
for attaining their best.
11. It advocates two necessary elements: group goals and individual accountability should be used together for the evaluation
of group achievements in Cooperative Learning
Ques:write short notes on the role of the teacher in cooperative learning?
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

Following responsibilities are assumed for a teacher:
1. Curriculum Modification: Most teachers who teach in an inclusive classroom modify their curricula to meet the needs of their
special education students. Curriculum modifications can include the provision of an audio-taped text, shortened assignments
and summarized chapters of the textbook as well as tools such as graphic presentations and color-coded chapters to enhance a
student's level of comprehension.
2. Communication:
▪ It is important for inclusion teachers to advocate the needs of their special education students by ensuring that resources such
as peer tutoring, instructional assistants, team teaching and staff development opportunities are available along with consistent
policies that assess the individual student's progress.
▪ Teachers also should communicate regularly with the principal to make sure that she is aware of the specific learning needs of
the special education students and the academic resources that are necessary for them to experience success in the inclusive
classroom setting.
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3. Classroom Environment: According to the views and perspectives of teachers, successful inclusion classrooms are those that
are taught by teachers and school personnel who believe in the academic potential of their special needs children. It is also
important for teachers to create a safe classroom environment that allows special-needs children to learn alongside their peers
while experiencing positive socialization.
4. Managing Behaviour
▪ Although inclusive classrooms can promote positive peer interactions for special education students, behavioral issues can arise
that may require a different disciplinary approach than that used with mainstream students.
▪ Teachers may need to consider a developmentally appropriate method for managing the behavior of their special-needs
students. Common approaches often include a system that allows a student to self-regulate and manage his own behavior,
coupled with a reward system that reinforces the student's positive behaviors.
5. Professional Development
▪ Many inclusion teachers attend in-service training or professional development sessions to hone their skills in curriculum
modification, instructional techniques and collaborative teaching strategies that allow special education teachers, specialists
and mainstream teachers to team teach.
6. General Role of Teacher is summed up as follows:
▪ Planning lessons, activities and evaluation tool & techniques
▪ Grouping the students
▪ Physical placement of the students in group
▪ Presenting and explaining the tasks to the students
▪ Monitoring group activities and intervening when necessary.
▪ Helping student with social skills
▪ Evaluating the students
Ques..Explain in brief the barriers in implementing in cooperative learning?
BARRIERS IN IMPLEMENTING COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
Although cooperation is a very important ability for students to master, many of life’s activities are based on individual effort.
Therefore, students have to learn to be self-reliant as well as learn how to cooperate.
Some barriers in implementing Cooperative Learning are as follows:
a. Unwillingness of some students to work in groups: Some students do not like to learn cooperatively; they prefer to work
alone. These are Internals- students who prefer to apply their intelligence to things or ideas in isolation from other people. It is
important to realize that such students do not necessarily lack ability and that they are not necessarily trying to be disruptive
through their lack of cooperation. These learners may be anxious working in groups.
b. Varied socio-cultural backgrounds: The values and practices of cultural, socio-economic and educational worlds that some
students experienced prior to being involved in cooperative learning may create conflict.
c. Teachers not trained with this technique: Teachers themselves have not been taught through cooperative learning strategy.
They have not got any orientation to teach through this approach. They fear that they will give up control and authority on the
class.
d. Considers it waste of time: Teachers feel that students will waste their time in cooperative activities.
e. Preference to traditional methods of teaching: Students are in the habit of receiving knowledge through lecture method. So
they feel this is the best method and are not satisfied by cooperative strategies.
f. More dependence on teachers: Students are habituated seeing teacher in the authoritarian role presenting each and everything
before them. It becomes quite difficult for the students to feel their utmost individual responsibility for the group work.
Ques.What is collaborative learning?Explain its advantages and disadvantages of learning kuk 2021
Ans.. COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Introduction: Collaboration is coming together and working together of two or more than two persons or institutions on the bases
of mutual co-operation and mutual understanding. It is working with the help or guidance of others who may be supervisor, more
experienced, will to do etc. One is the associate of the other or others as the case may be they work with a specific goal in mind
which otherwise single handed is not possible. In collaboration, the two parties or persons have a shared agenda. Both sides work
through positive interactions, consultation and communication. The better the Interaction, Consultation and Communication the
better is the achievement of goal.
The adoption of the learning strategy characterized with collaborative and group learning, now a days may ne considered a natural
consequence of the wind flowing in the favor of social constructivist approach to teaching and learning in which the task of
knowledge construction or learning is considered essentially a social construct. The together and work for the realization of a
common goal.
Collaboration is also known as Co-teaching or Team Teaching. Collaboration/Co-teaching is a style of interaction professionals use
to undertake shared responsibilities. Collaboration/ Co-teaching refers to HOW professionals interact.
• One of the earliest definitions for co-teaching or collaboration by Friend & Cook is as follows, -“Co-Teaching or
Collaboration is a style for direct interaction between at least two parties voluntarily engaged in shared decision-making as they
work toward a common goal.”
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• According to Henry Ford-"It is well said that coming together is beginning. Keeping together is a progress, working together
is a success.
Hence, Collaboration/ Co- Teaching is viewed as-
- A workable model for teaching all types of students.
- As a dynamic framework for educational efforts, which endorses collegial, interdependent and co-equal styles of interaction
between at least two partners/teachers working together to achieve common goals in a decision making process that is influenced
by cultural and other factors.
NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF COLLABORATIVE TEACHING

1. Collaborative and group learning represents a learning scene or situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn
something together.
2. Learning is inherent social based and a thing on the part of children may be properly learned and acquired in the company and
guidance of the elders, teachers and knowledgeable peers.
3. Unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative and group learning capitalize on one another’s resources and skills
(asking one another for information, evaluating one another’s ideas, monitoring one another’s work, etc.).
4. Collaborative and group learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members
actively interact by sharing experiences and responsibilities for the knowledge construction task.
5. Collaborative and group learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task where
each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. These include both face-to-face and on line conversations.
6. Collaborative and group learning shifts the responsibility for learning to the student, in the role of “researcher’ and self-directed
learner. In order to work towards a collaborative learning approach, the teacher must fully understand their students’ preferred
learning styles and their own conceptions of learning. This can help the teacher decide where and how to start a group project.
7. For collaborative learning to be effective, there should be both “group goals” and “individual accountability” (Slavin, 1989).
This means that the collaborative learning task must ensure that every group member has learnt something. Ideally, a
collaborative learning task would allow for each member to be responsible for some concept necessary to complete the task.
This implies that every group member will learn their assigned concept and will be responsible for explaining/teaching this to
other members of the group.
8. Collaborative and group activities are most often based on four principles:-
(i) The learner or student is the primary focus of instruction.
(ii) Interaction and “doing” are of primary importance.
(iii) Working in groups is an important mode of learning and
(iv) Structured approaches to developing solutions to real-world problems should be incorporated into learning.
9. In practice more often, collaborative and group learning is used as an umbrella term for a variety of approaches in the field of
teaching and learning that involve joint cooperative effort by students or students and teachers for the realization of common
teaching-learning objectives.
10. The learning strategy involving the principle of coming together and working together is addressed with a number of terms and
names such as cooperative.
ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING:

The following are the advantages of collaboration:-
1. For the betterment of all stakeholders:The teachers of the institutions from where the teachers come learn how to help each
other for their own betterment, betterment of the students, betterment of the institution and thus the improvement of the society.
2. Students feel secure and confident: The students of the institution feel secure and confident because all problems being faced
by them are remedied.
3. Collaboration being a joint venture helps all concerned in multiple ways. The reason being, there is union between two groups
i.e. have’s and have not’s.
4. In this age of competitions, the institution is in a position to achieve desired goals and comeupto the expectations of the
community, the society.
5. Collaboration being coming closer to each other by the two different institutions or the personnels, gives them new type of
experiences facing the problems and solving the problems through combined efforts.
6. It improves the mutual co-operation and mutual understanding by the teachers and by the students through peer collaboration.
7. When there is collaboration between a superior party with the junior, the result is good.
8. There is standard performance and thus there is improvement in value system.
9. It is progressive type. It helps in the development of positive attitude.
10. Learners, besides general classroom teaching, can get individualized instruction in the academic or behavioural areas.\it
facilitates general classroom teaching, children learning experiences become smooth and useful as they get the solution of their
problems/hurdles there and then.
11. Teaching-learning becomes a sharing activity in the same school environment both for teachers and learners.
12. Professionals in the team have specialized skills and expertise, they make concrete and specific contribution to improve the
students’ educational experience.
LIMITATIONS OF COLLABORATION
There are a few shortcomings of collaboration, which are as under:-
1. There may not be good understanding between the two parties.
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2. One may remain in superiority complex and the other may continue with inferiority complex.
3. It may or may not be broad minded. To some extent, there may be narrow mindedness.
4. It may not be fully rational and maybe it is rational to some extent only.
5. It may create the feeling of jealousy and the ideal one may not deliver the goods honestly.
6. The age of jealousy and the time being competition oriented, the desired goals may be missed.
CONCLUSION: It can be said that for collaboration/team of teachers to be successful, teachers must learn how to communicate
clearly and effectively, how to share teaching responsibilities, and how to resolve conflicts in teaching styles and approaches. For
teams to work collaboratively and productively, they must – establish trust; develop common beliefs and attitudes; empower team
members to make decisions; learn to manage meetings effectively; and become skilled in providing feedback about team
functioning. Each of these skills can be learned (and taught), and each is essential for creating successful partnerships.
Ques.What is group learning?what are its advantages and disadvantages of group learning?How group learning can be
made effective? 2020,2021
Ans. Group learning
Introduction:Group learning goes by many different names (e.g., group work, cooperative learning, team learning, peer instruction,
etc.) and spans the spectrum from two students solving a problem to a team working on a semester long project. For group learning
to be effective, the students need to practice team building skills and learn to be accountable to their group as well as themselves.
Meaning:
A collection of persons who are emotionally, intellectually, and aesthetically engaged in solving problems, creating products, and
making meaning—an assemblage in which each person learns autonomously and through the ways of learning of others.
By group, we refer both to the learning of individuals that is fostered by being in a group and to a more distributed kind of learning
that does not reside inside the head of any one individual. Rather than focusing only on what the individual knows, the goal is to
build a collective body of knowledge; learning groups strive to create publicly shared understandings.
By learning, we refer to the learning processes and outcomes involved in solving problems and creating products that are considered
meaningful in a culture (Gardner, 1983). Rather than focusing on discrete bits of information that can be produced via simple-
answer questions, this type of learning is situated in real-world problem solving and engages students cognitively, emotionally, and
aesthetically.
In the present day over crowded room situations, the best remedy is that first of all there should be class teaching also called choral
teaching and thereafter for certain subjects and also to give the students more practice, group learning may be carried on. In class
room learning, we notice that generally it is teacher oriented work. If at all, the students participate in the teaching learning process,
it is very limited. Of course, in the case of special teachers there is involvement of more students. Comparatively, when group
work is in progress, there is more involvement of students and sometimes in certain situations, there is percent involvement of the
students.
For Example, in case of teaching Maths, the teacher may teach one topic in the class. Then the students may work in groups and
practice for that by solving a number of questions. This type of learning in Maths by the students in groups will be much better.
Suppose the English teacher has taught ‘Active and Passive Voice’ to VIII class consisting of 50 students. Then the students can
have practice of the same topic in groups each completes passive voice of say 10 sentences. Every student in the group can have
practice of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
➢ Examples of group learning : Groups of students engaged in group projects, joint problems solving, debate, study teams and
other activities.
➢ A group of students discussing a lecture proceeding delivered by the class or subject teacher, guest speaker or expert.
➢ Students from different school working together over the internet on a shared project or assignment.
➢ A group of students of the same class or section working together for doing their homework, assignment and projects.
FOUR FEATURES OF GROUP LEARNING

1. The members of learning groups include adults as well as children.
2. Documenting children’s learning processes helps to make learning visible and shapes the learning that takes place.
3. Members of learning groups are engaged in the emotional and aesthetic as well as the intellectual dimensions of learning.
4. The focus of learning in learning groups extends beyond the learning of individuals to create a collective body of knowledge.
Steps for executing a group learning
Students in group may follow the following steps:
1) Choosing a group activity or task.
2) Planning for the execution of the chosen task or activity.
3) Distribution of role and responsibility among the group members.
4) Execution of the task or activity.
5) Monitoring and coordination of the group activity.
6) Drawing necessary education benefits the executed activity.
MAKING GROUP WORK/GROUP LEARNING SUCCESSFUL- HOW?

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The following points should be kept in mind while organizing group work:-
1. As far as possible, the different groups should be equalin ability with brilliant, average and slow pupils in each. It will not work
well if all the superior students are put in separate groups and inferior students in other groups.
2. Division of the class into groups should be made once for all for the whole year. If it is not done, the teacher will have to form
groups at different times and thus it may lead to confusion and wastage of time.
3. Sometimes the students go or wish to go into groups according to their own likes or dislikes. But teacher should not allow it to
happen. He should not encourage it otherwise a number of problems will crop up.
4. Suitable names should be assigned to all the groups. For example, the names may be A,B.C. or Red, Greed, Blue etc. or they
can be after the names of great personalities of the world.
5. The size of each group should be kept as small as possible. The number of students in each group should not be more than 10
or 12.
6. For group learning, the children should sit or stand in circles or semi-circles as the case may be.
7. When the students work in groups, there should be some space between the different groups so that they may not be disturbed
by one another.
8. Some good students should be selected as group leaders. Thus one group leader is essential for every group but he or she need
not always be the same person.
9. If the class is very big, it may be divided into teams instead of groups. Thus there can be three teams-left side, middle and right
side. If the students are sitting in four rows, that way there can be four teams or groups.
10. All the groups work at the same time but within each group, the pupils work individually.
11. The teacher should prepare different exercises for the different groups. For example, there is an exercise ‘Change the Voice’,
for this, the teacher should prepare separate exercises containing different sentences through the same style or method. Those
exercises are done in the groups and afterwards they are exchanged.
12. The leader of the group reads each sentence of the given exercise one by one and asks the members of the group to do as
directed.
13. The groups should be seated in such a way that the teacher may easily come there, help them or guide them and then may go to
other group without any sort of disturbance.
14. The teacher must see that each group understands exactly what they have to do. For this, the teacher explains everything to the
class and then they are required to work in groups. In order to make things very sure, he calls out the leaders of the groups,
explains to them what is to be done and sends them back to their respective groups.
15. What is all the more important here is that at the time when group work is in progress, the teacher should be present there for
supervision and guidance. He will be visiting the groups one by one.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP LEARNING

Group learning is an off shoot of class learning. It is supportive to class teaching. In no case, group learning should be allowed
detachment form class work. It has the following advantages:-
1. ADVANTAGES TO THE LEARNER
• In the group, every student feels relaxed and is ready to learn. This is true in the case of many students who otherwise feel
afraid of the teacher.
• The students are able to learn from one another. Surely here there is a sort of peer tutoring also.
• It makes the average and below average type of students learn. They are able to solve their problems with the help of class
mates.
• It helps all the students in shedding off their hesitation, or shyness etc. gradually they are able to gain more and more confidence.
• Some students in the different groups are able to get training of leadership.
• Some group leaders may develop love for teaching and may be, one or two or some may adopt teaching as a profession in their
future career.
2. ADVANTAGES FOR THE TEACHERS
• Group learning helps the teachers to have some relaxation. They are otherwise too busy and have tight schedule thus finds
some relief.
• Through group work, the teachers are able to do more practice for the learners.
• It helps the teachers solve many problems related to weak and average students of the class. The teacher is able to see to their
problems in the groups and naturally better individual attention is possible.
LIMITATIONS OF GROUP LEARNING
Group learning is, no doubt, good but it has some disadvantages also which are briefly given here below:-
1. The purpose of group learning will be defeated if the class teacher is shirk worker. Such a teacher avoids teaching and would
like to keep the students busy in group work.
2. There are some teachers in the school who are always too busy, may be due to some administrative work/duty assigned to them
or due to their personal daily life routine work. In their hands also, group work will fail miserably.
3. Some students who otherwise are shirk workers or are not serious about studies, may remain at a loss in studies. They may
also create hurdles in the study programme of the groups.
4. A little freedom given to the groups by the teacher due to any reason will spoil the whole show and may fail to yield the desired
results.
5. The brilliant and the outstanding students may find group work as wastage of their time and energy.
6. There are always individual differences among the students. Some are able to do more work in less time and some students are
able to do less work in more time. This will create problems like dissatisfaction.
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Conclusion:Two widely accepted principles about learning—learners construct their own knowledge and learning is an inherently
social phenomenon—support the use of group learning. Working in small groups provides learners with opportunities to articulate
ideas and understandings, uncover assumptions and misconceptions, and negotiate with others to create products or reach consensus.
Group activities enable students to discover deeper meaning in the content and improve thinking skills. The most effective use of
group work is that which engages students with higher-level content that is thought provoking, difficult to understand, or has
multiple interpretations.
Ques.Briefly explain the learning stretegies and role of teacher in relation to learning stretgies.(2018,2019,2021) OR
Discuss in detail the role of teachers and schools in the implementation of learning stretegies in school?
6. LEARNING STRATEGIES: ROLE OF TEACHER ANDSCHOOL IN RELATION TO LEARNING STRATEGIES
INTRODUCTION: Constructivism is a psychological theory of knowledge, which argues that human, generate knowledge and
meaning from their own experiences. Because teaching through constructive approach is beneficial in achieving desirable
educational goals for the students especially in inclusive setup.
Human beings need help at different stages of their development task. Group work practice or cooperative learning dictates provision
of such help. With the increasing inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education classroom, the diversity of abilities
has never been greater.
To be successful in this challenging environment, school and teachers must use research-proven techniques/strategies such as
coopertaive learning, team teaching, collaborative learning, team teaching, group learning, buddy system, peer tutoring etc to
improve educational outcomes for all students.
Meaning of Learning Strategy: Learning strategy is an individual's approach to complete a task. More specifically, a learning
strategy is an individual's way of organizing and using a particular set of skills in order to learn content or accomplish other tasks
more effectively and efficiently in school as well as in nonacademic settings. Therefore, teachers who teach learning strategies teach
students how to learn, rather than teaching them specific curriculum content or specific skills.
Learning strategies are steps taken by learners to enhance their learning. An active use of language learning strategies helps learners
in control of their own learning by developing language skills, increasing confidence and motivation in learning process.
Strategy instructions enhance learners’ independent learning and autonomous learning and help learners to take responsibility for
their own learning. The more strategies a learner uses, the more the learner feels confident, motivated and self-efficacious. Teachers
are encouraged to choose appropriate teaching techniques and learning strategies for students and teach them how to understand
learning strategies to enhance levels of self-directed learning.
Definitions of Learning Strategy:
• Oxford (1989) defines language learning strategies as “the often-conscious steps of behaviors used by language learners to
enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information”.
• Cohen (1998) defines language learning strategies as: "Those processes which are consciously selected by learners and which
may result in action taken to enhance the learning or use of a second or foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall,
and application of information about that language."
Pam (2016)- "Learning strategy used primarily during the process of learning such as forming a mental image of a process."
On the basis of above definitions, following key features learning strategies have been concluded:
• Contribute to the main goal,
• communicative competence;
• Allow learners to become more self-directed;
• Expand the role of the teachers;
• Are problem-oriented;
• Are specific actions taken by the learners;
• Involve many aspects of the learner,
• not just the cognitive;
• Support learning both directly and indirectly;
• Are not always observable;
• Are often conscious;
• Can be taught;
• Are flexible;
• Are influenced by a variety of factors.
•
ROLE OF THE TEACHER AND SCHOOL IN RELATION TO LEARNING STRATEGIES:
1. Curriculum Modification: The school personnel and teachers make an effort to modify the curricula to meet the needs of all
types of students. Curriculum modifications can include the provision of an audio-taped text, shortened assignments and summarized
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chapters of the textbook as well as tools such as graphic presentations and color-coded chapters to enhance a student's level of
comprehension.
2. Communication:
• It is important for school and teachers to advocate the needs of their students by ensuring that resources such as peer tutoring,
instructional assistants, team teaching and staff development opportunities are available along with consistent policies that
assess the individual student's progress.
• Teachers and School Principal make sure that they are aware of the learning needs of the students and the academic resources
that are necessary for them to experience success in the classroom setting.
3. Classroom Environment: According to the views and perspectives of teachers and school, successful classrooms are those that
are taught by teachers and school personnel who believe in the academic potential of their children. It is also important for
teachers to create a safe classroom environment that allows children to learn with each other while experiencing positive
socialization.
▪ School and Teachers may need to consider a developmentally appropriate method for managing the behaviour of their students.
Common approaches often include a system that allows a student to self-regulate and manage his own behaviour, coupled with
a reward system that reinforces the student's positive behaviours.
▪ Many school personnel and teachers attend in-service training or professional development sessions to hone their skills in
curriculum modification, instructional techniques and collaborative teaching-learning strategies that allow teachers, specialists
6. To promote learner autonomy: Teachers and school personnel have recognized the importance of training learners in effective
learning strategy to promote learner autonomy. They are encouraged to choose learning strategies suitable for students and
teach them how to understand learning strategies. It is also maintained that teachers needed to use the most appropriate methods,
procedures, and activities to promote learner autonomy by “modelling for students strategies which they can use in self-directed
learning.
7. Knowledge of latest trends: The school and teachers must have needed knowledge and information regarding the latest trends,
knowledge, applicable skills and significance of various learning strategies.
8. They should arrange for the needed facilities to the teachers for getting trained in the employment of learning strategies. Teachers
should be asked and provided due incentives for attending, in-service programs, seminars and workshops related to the
application and use of learning strategies. The teachers must try to orient their students about the need, significance and ways
of utilizing one or the other learning strategies suitable in a particular teaching-learning context.
9. The school should take all pains in providing needed infrastructures, resources etc needed for the successful utilization of one
or the other learning strategies employed by teacher and students in their teaching and learning. The teachers should help to
select one or the other individual or group learning strategies according to the need of teaching-learning situations.
10. The school should try to hold seminar and workshops, arrange for the lectures and exposition from the experts for getting
acquainted their teachers and students with the use and applications of learning strategies in the teaching learning of various
school subjects by the teachers for development of the students in general.
11. Reasonable freedom and autonomy should be provided by school to the teachers and the teachers therein help the students for
the utilization of individual or group learning strategies. However, in all cases the school and teachers should always stand with
their students for guiding, helping and assisting them in carrying out various activities related to the utilization of learning
strategies.\
12. The school and teachers should help and assist the students in the planning, execution and follow up of the activities and tasks
related to group learning-cooperative and collaborative. They should help them in the proper selection of the activities,
distribution of duties and responsibilities, fixing the group learning goals and execution, monitoring and evaluation of activities
related to their group.
Conclusions Appropriate language learning strategies result in greater motivation and confidence. Strategy instructions can enhance
learners’ self-efficacy and autonomous learning and help learners to take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers need to
provide learners access to methodological resources and appropriate learning strategies, modeling strategies, and guidance to help
learners make progress and achieve academic success.
Ques: Write a short notes on Individual Differences?(2019)
MEANING:Individuals can be easily distinguished from one another by their gestures, their ways of talking, acting, walking and
their appearance. And these changes cause every man to be himself and nobody else. Identical twins coming from the same single
cell are two quite different persons. In the same way there are no individuals of identical mentality. The richer the personality the
greater the individual differences.
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Thus, it is an established fact that the individuals differ in mental abilities as well as in physical abilities and personality traits. The
individuals not only differ from one another, but also each individual differs from one ability to another within his own self. Thus,
there are variations not amongst individuals, but there are variations within the same individual among his own abilities. The problem
of individual differences, therefore can be viewed from two sides-
(a) Differences in abilities form individual to individual.

(b) Differences in abilities within the same individual.
So whatever lies around us in the form of non-living or living beings differ from each other in many aspects. These differences and
variations become more intense and remarkable as we draw our attention closer and closer to human beings as one of the ultimate
creation of the almighty in the history of evolution.
EXAMPLES: We, as human beings quite distinctly differ in size, shape, appearance, speed of reaction and innumerable other
aspects of our personality make up and behaviour. Among us some are healthy and enthusiastic, while others are weak and irritable.
Some are blue eyed and black haired while others have black eyes and grey hair. Some are known as girls or women while others
are named as boys or men. Some learn quickly and others slowly, some remember well while others forget, some respond quickly
and some others slowly. In this way no one among us is just the same as another. The sons and daughters of the same parents or
even identical twins are not exactly the same as their counterparts. Every one of us is a typical human being in oneself.
Being alike in some aspects we are definitely different in many ways. We, inspite of belonging to a common species known as
human beings have our own individuality which contributes for the variance and differences found among ourselves. These
differences in human beings, are referred to as “individual differences” in the languages of sociology and psychology.
Definitions of Individual Differences:-

• Dictionary of Education by Carter B.Good (1959):
1. Individual differences stand fir “the variaions or deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or a number
of characteristics”.
2. Individual differences stand for “those differences which in their totality, distinguish one individual from another”.
• According to Drever James:“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or physical
characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.”
• According C.E. Skinner: “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.”
On the basis of above discussion, following conclusions/features/characteristics/nature have been drawn regarding the
concept of individual differences:
1. Individual differences helps to understand not only what makes humans similar to one another, but also what makes them
different. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, one can best understand the full range of human
behaviour.
2. Children develop at different rates. This, in turn, creates variations among individuals (i.e., individual differences). Again, these
differences can be either qualitative or quantitative.
3. In general, understanding of the various developmental levels is enhanced by familiarity with the concept of individual
differences.
4. Individual differences highlight that each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development, social
maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests and potential.
5. There are other factors underlying student differences. These include innate differences in intelligence, differences in social and
economic background, variations in past learning experiences, etc.
6. Individual differences help the teachers in understanding the students and also plan the learning activities accordingly and also
make efforts in finding appropriate ways to help them learn better.
Ques. Write short notes on Educational Implication of individual Difference.

Educational Implications of Individual Differences:
Individual differences n the children faced daily by the school teachers in their classrooms have never lost sight of the reality and
importance of individuality. Not surprisingly they are less concerned about mental and motor abilities, although positive, is so low
that superiority in one sphere does not betoken superiority in the other. A child who is average or backward mentally may equal or
surpass brighter children in many motor activities. This fact has practical significance for education, for, in a rounded educational
programme schooling or learning experience for every learner according to his individuality is not a simple task. However, the
following suggestions can be helpful for any teacher.
1. Proper knowledge of the individual’s potentialities:- The forst step in making provisions for individual differences is to
know the abilities, capacities, interests, aptitudes and other personality traits of individual pupils. For this purpose, frequent
assessment in the form of intelligence tests, cumulative record card, interest inventories, attitude scales, aptitude tests and
measures for assessing personality traits shall be carried out.
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2. Ability grouping:- In the light of the results derived from various tests of knowing individual differences in terms of individual
potentialities in various dimensions, the students in a class or area of activity can be divided into homogenous groups. Such
division can prove beneficial in adjusting the method of instruction to varying individual differences.
3. Adjusting the curriculum:- To meet the requirement of varying individual differences among the pupils the curriculum should
be as flexible and differentiated as possible. It should have the provision for a number of diversified courses and cocurricular
experiences so that the pupils may get opportunity to study and work in the areas of their own interests and abilities. It should
provide adjustment to suit the local requirements and potentialities of students of different groups.
4. Adjusting the methods of teaching:- Considering the varying individual differences, adjustment with regrd to the adaptation
of methods of teaching is very effective. Every teacher should be somewhat free to formulate his own plan and strategy and
adopt different instructional procedures which he finds most suited to different pupils. He should follow different procedures
or methods of instruction to suit the requirements of varying ability groups of his pupils.
5. Adopting special programmes or methods for individualizing instruction:- Schools may also adopt some special
programme or methods of teaching like Dalton plan, the Winnekta plan, the project Method or use programmed learning
material for enabling the students to learn at their own individual pace.
6. Other measures of individualizing instruction:- For the purpose of individualizing instruction a few practical measures can
also prove beneficial.
1. The student strength of the class or section should be made as small as possible.
2. The teacher should try to pay individual attention to the group under instruction.
3. The teacher should keep in view the individual difference of his students while engaging them in drill or practice work in
the class-room or assigning home-task.
4. In case where ability grouping is not possible and more specifically under the prevalent system of class teaching, special
coaching and guidance programme for both the dull and the gifted childrem are helpful.
7. Education according to various age-level:- Educationally, individual differences mean that a pupil’s choronological age is
an unreliable criterion upon which to base his educational programme. As the individuals differ from one another, so not the
same at all the stages of development and that he differs greatly with respect to his abilities at different stages and age-levels,
so education should also differ accordingly at various age-levels. In other words, human variability should be given due regard
in the content and methods of education.
8. Effective guidance and differentiated curricula:- By the time children enter the first grade, differences in abilities are already
marked and absolute variations become more pronounced as they progress. Whatever the reasons be, for these diversities, the
fact is that the school should deal with them by means of differentiated curricula and individualized instructions as far as it is
feasible.
A thorough knowledge of the individual differences is essential because they serve as the foundation upon which effective
pupil guidance and good teaching can be built. They are often the source of one’s most pronounced achievements, fullest
self-realisation and greatest usefulness. They are evidences that distinguish individuals from one another.
9. Homogeneous Grouping:- Individual differences compel to think in terms of homogeneous grouping of classes according to
the level of ability and not age. This is also known as “ability-grouping.”
10. Adjustment to special Interests:- Individuals differ from one another as regards their interests. A great principle of learning
is that education should take notice of the interests of the boys at all stages of development. This fact may be utilized in the
adjustment of teaching to the special interests of the boys of various stages of development.
11. Individualization:- “Individualization” in the words of Courtis “as a method of teaching or as a philosophy of education
refers primarily to the attempt to adjust education to the nature of the individual.” Individualization emphasizes the marked
individual differences of human nature.
CONCLUSION:-Thus, the problem of individual differences can be tackled with multi-dimensional tasks. The teacher, school
authorities, the parents and the Government as well as voluntary agencies—all should join hands to meet the individual requirements
of children who possess tremendous individual differences.
LONG QUESTIONS (16 MARKS) (6 PGS)
Ques. What is learning? Discuss the types/stages of learning? (2019, 2022)

Ans Introduction: Man is a rational animal. He has the power of reasoning. This power of reasoning enables him to learn
things quickly. Learning plays very important role in determing the behaviour of an individual. All human behaviour can be traced
back to learning. Learning is the basis of success in life. The miracles of present day civilization are the result of learning. Learning
individual.
11

training."
On the basis of above discussion, following Characteristics/Nature of Learning have been deduced:-
(vi) Learning is goal-directed or purposive: - When the purpose or goal is clearer, vivid and explicit, the learning becomes
as a whole.
(xi) Learning is possible on cognitive, affective, and conative side: - Acquisition of knowledge is cognitive, modification of
(f) Motive or need:- First of all motive or need arises. Motive is force, which impinges, or compels the individual to behave or
(g) Goal: - If motive or need is there the goal is set up by the teacher or anybody else.
(h) Adjustment: - Thirdly, adjustment on the part of child begins.
(i) Changes: - Changes in the behaviour of the child take place.
(j) Fixation or stabilisation: - Later on, those changes in the behaviour of the learner are stabilized.
STAGES/TYPES OF LEARNING
There are different types of learning which could be classified such as
a) Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge
b) Depending on the number of individuals, and
c) Depending on the types of activity involved
a) Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge: Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge, learning could be classified
further as :
i. Formal Learning: It states objectives in an organised and structures form and hence it is always intentional, the objective
emphasizes to gain knowlegde, skills and/or competencies. For example, learning in a formal setting school or workplace.
ii. Informal Learning: this type of learning happens through experiences like talking, observing, training etc. It is a natural way
to learn. This learning through experiences may happen at any place at any time and hence incidental. For example, learning one's
mother tongue, culture, or religion etc.
iii. Non-formal Learning:this type of learning is intentional which states the objectives and could be in an organised form. Non-
formal learning is flexible and includes intermediate concepts of formal and informal learning. For example, vocational education.
b) Depending on the number of individuals: The number of individuals involved in the learning process distinguishes learning as
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i. Individual Learning: Individual learning or self-learning involves individualised training and instruction. The learner plays active
role to cater the needs of his/her own learning. For example, Distance Learning, Computer Learning etc.
ii. Group Learning: Group Learning Learning or Cooperative learning involves grouyp of people either with similar or different
age, intellectual ability or competencies form together to achieve the objectives of learning. It requires trainer to facilitate learning
in a way to make progress in learning. For example, Classroom Learning.
c) Depending on the types of activity involved: The third classification is based on the types of activities like
i.Verbal Learning: This type of learning involves the use of words, language we speak and write and the communication
devices we use. Learning the verbal behaviour through rote memorization and retention of acquired list of words enables
linguistics intelligence in an individual. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, voices etc. are employed by the
individual as an essential instrument for engaging him in the process of verbal learning.
ii. Sensory Learning:This form or kind of learning is the simplest form of behavioural modification, under which the child
acquires various kinds of skills, such as cycling, typing, making paintings, etc. Sensory learning is included in this kind of
learning. In routine life, the child learns many things by imitation. For instance, in the beginning he hears the word ‘mother’,
learns to speak it and then repeats it incessantly to be able to pronounce it properly. As maturation increases, the number of
objects with which the child comes into contact also increases rapidly. The evaluation of this kind of learning is done through
nonsense syllables.When the child is young and his mental capacities are not so developed, he learns the motor activity such as
eye-hand coordination, walking, running, language etc. It is a sort of imitation learning.
iii. Motor Learning: Most of our activities involve with motor skills, in our day-to-day life, which an individual has to learn
them in order to maintain his regular life. This learning enables in acquiring skills to perform all our activities related to muscular
co-ordination in an efficient way. Learning how to swim, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, playing a piano, hitting a
moving target, drawing a geometrical deign, adding and multiplying long digits, performing experiments and handling various
instruments are the examples of such learning.
iv. Perceptual Learning:Along with the development of the mind, the child’s various sense organs also continue to develop.
Consequently, the child clearly understands the meaning of every objects he makes use of, and this marks the beginning of his
perceptual learning.As the mind develops the child has his percepts. He gets sensations through the different sense organs and
gives meaning to them. It means that objects around him are meaningful to him and he perceives them. He learns the names
of different objects in order to differentiate them. The child now begins to learn by concepts. Blind imitation is avoided. The
child uses his mind to solve problems by insight.
v. Conceptual Learning:- A concept in the form of a mental image denotes a generalized idea about the things, persons or
events. For example, our concept of "tree" is a mental image that brings to us the similarities or common properties of all the
different trees we know. We call a thing tree when it has some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already
acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception or rich imagination. The formation of such concepts on
account of previous experience, training or cognitive processes is called concept learning. Conceptual learning takes place only
when the individual’s mental functions become mature. Learning of this kind means the development of logical thought,
imagination, reflection, etc. Conceptual Learning involves-
a. Associative Learning:- Conceptual learning progresses with the help of associative learning. New thoughts or concepts
become effective only when earlier concepts are strengthened through association.
b. Appreciational Learning:- When concepts begin to progress towards knowledge, the child acquired the ability to evaluate
the acquired knowledge or experience and discover its qualities and defects, etc.
Appreciational learning is on affective side while conceptual learning is on cognitive side. A child uses his aesthetic sense
from the very beginning.
c. Attitudinal Learning:-In the process of acquiring various patterns of behaviour, the child absorbs many different attitudes
also. He forms specific attitudes towards particular objects, ideas, activities and persons, and these attitudes determine its
behaviour towards them. The child learns or develops certain attitudes like an attitude of affection towards his parents, an
attitude of belongingness towards his family and an attitude of respect towards the teacher.
vi. Cognition learning or Intellectual Learning:- Higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence,
generalization etc. are involved in this type of learning. It includes learning of concepts, principles, problem solving. This
cognition initiates the processes called abstraction and generalization which enhances the ability of recognizing and identifying
things. For example, a child is able to identify a thing or picture with four legs as an animal.
Conclusion: All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental activities. They may be simple
mental activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may be very simple involving
one or two activities of mind or complex which involve higher mental activities.
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Ques. What is learning? Discuss in detail the various factors affecting/influencing learning. (2017,2018,2020)
Ans Introduction: Man is a rational animal. He has the power of reasoning. This power of reasoning enables him to learn
things quickly. Learning plays very important role in determing the behaviour of an individual. All human behaviour can be traced
back to learning. Learning is the basis of success in life. The miracles of present day civilization are the result of learning. Learning
individual.

training."
On the basis of above discussion, following Characteristics/Nature of Learning have been deduced:-
(vi) Learning is goal-directed or purposive: - When the purpose or goal is clearer, vivid and explicit, the learning becomes
as a whole.
(xi) Learning is possible on cognitive, affective, and conative side: - Acquisition of knowledge is cognitive, modification of
(k) Motive or need:- First of all motive or need arises. Motive is force, which impinges, or compels the individual to behave or
(l) Goal: - If motive or need is there the goal is set up by the teacher or anybody else.
(m) Adjustment: - Thirdly, adjustment on the part of child begins.
(n) Changes: - Changes in the behaviour of the child take place.
(o) Fixation or stabilisation: - Later on, those changes in the behaviour of the learner are stabilized.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Learning can be defined as a process of bringing relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of the learner through experience
or practice. An examination of this definition may reveal that learning process is centeredon three elements:-
1. The learner whose behaviour is to be changed or modified.
2. The type of experience or training required for modification in the learner’s behaviour.
3. The men and material resources needed for providing desired experiences and training.
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Therefore, the success or failure in the task of learning in terms of introducing desired modification in the behaviour of a learner
will automatically depend upon the quality as well as control and management of the factors associated with the above-cited
main elements. Let us discuss briefly these factors.
A. Factors Associated With Learner:-
Learner is the key figure in any learning task. He has to learn or bring desired modification in his behaviour. How he will learn or
what he will achieve, through a particular learning act depends heavily upon his own characteristics and ways of learning. Such
things or factors associated with this can be described as follows:-
1. Learner’s physical and mental health:- Learning is greatly affected by the learner’s physical and mental health maintained
by him particularly, at the time of learning. A simple headache or a stomachache can play havoc with the process and products
of learning. A child who does not maintain satisfactory physical health, have to suffer adversely in terms of gains in learning.
Similarly, the mental state and the health of a learner at the time of learning become potent factors in deciding the outcome of
his learning. A tense, emotionally and mentally disturbed learner cannot show satisfactory results in learning.
2. The basic potential of the learner:- The results achieved by the learner through a process of learning depend heavily upon
his basic potential to undergo such learning. Such potential may consist of the things given ahead:-
(a) Learner’s innate abilities and capacities for learning a thing.
(b) Learner’s basic potential in terms of general intelligence and specific knowledge, understanding and skills related to a particular
learning area.
(c) Learner’s basic interests, aptitudes and attitudes related to the learning of a particular thing or area.
3. The level of aspiration and achievement motivation:-Learning is greatly influenced by the level of aspiration and nature of
achievement motivation possesses by a learner. How can we expect learner to achieve a thing for which he has no aspiration?
Also, too much of aspirations make it impossible for an individual to achieve this. A person has to maintain the level of his
aspiration and achievement motivation a reasonable level. That is to say, his aspirations should be neither too high which will
result in non-achievement of any of his goals, nor too low as not to try to achieve goals which he is quite capable.
4. Goals of life:-The philosophy of immediate as well as ultimate goals of one’s life affect the process and product of learning.
His mode and ways of looking towards things, his inclination towards learning a particular subject and patience and persistence
in pursuing his learning despite the heavy odds—all depend up on his goals and philosophy of life.
5. Readiness and will power:- A learner’s readiness and power to learn is a great deciding factor of his results in learning. No
power on earth can help a learner if he is not ready to learn. Certainly, if he has a will to learn a thing, then automatically, he
will himself find ways for effective learning.
B. Factors Associated with the Type of Learning Experiences

The type of changes or modifications found in learner’s behaviour depends much on the type of learning experience and training
received by him for this purpose. This task involves a variety of factors like those given below:-
1. Nature of learning experience:- Learning is influenced by the nature of the subject matter and the learning experiences
presented to a learner such as the following”-
(a) Whether the nature of learning experience is formal or informal, incidental or well-planned, direct or indirect and the like.
(b) Whether learning experiences are suitably selected on the basis of the principle of child-centeredness, principle of activity,
criterion of activity, age, grade and experiences of a learner.
(c) Whether learning experiences are suitably organized for the attainment of desired educational objections or not.
2. Methodology of learning:-Learning depends upon the methods, techniques and approaches employed for the teaching and
learning of the selected contents. Let us weigh the truth of this statement fresh from various angles.
(a) Linking the recent learnings with those of the past:. The quality of result in learning, depends much on the abilities of a
teacher and a learner to link the present new learning with the past experiences of the learner. Past experiences help the learner
to assimilate and understand the new learning.
(b) Correlating learning in one area with that of another: Correlation facilitates the task of learning as it allows maximum
transfer of training or learning from one area to another. Accordingly, one can expect good results in learning, if learning
experiences are given in view of seeking correlation (a) among the different subjects or areas, (b) within the branches or
experiences of the same area ad (c) with real life happenings and situations.
(c) Utilization of maximum number of sense: Senses are said to be the gateway of knowledge and consequently the results in
learning are very much influenced by the nature and type of utilization of one’s senses in the acquisition of learning
experiences. A learner who learns through utilization of his maximum senses like sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste,
and also tries to learn by doing things for himself, always has an advantageous edge over others.
(d) Revision and practice:- Review and practice always brings good results in the achievements of learning. A learner who
makes use of sufficient drill work, practice work, revision and review of his learning can be expected to harvest a good yield
in terms of his good retention, reproduction and utilization at the proper time.
(e) Provision of proper feedback and reinforcement:- Learning yields are dependent upon the nature and quality of the
reinforcement provided to the learner in his learning task. One must be acquainted with the progress of his learning in terms
of his strength and weaknesses and remedial action if needed, may be taken at the proper time. Knowledge of the results and
the progress may work for providing immediate reinforcement to the learner. In addition to it, learning process can be suitably
designed if we take due care to make planning of proper reinforcement schedules. The results are unmatchable so much so as
simple reinforcement techniques in the shapes of approval of the learning response, nodding of the head, smiling, saying good-
bye and similar other things bring a magic in terms of a learner’s interests and achievements.
(f) The selection of the suitable learning methods and teaching:There are sufficient methods and a mumber of good techniques
available for the teaching and learning of different subjects and areas of experiences. The results of learning are always
15
influenced by the nature and quality of the methods and techniques employed for the teaching and learning of a particular
content, subject matter or learning experiences like those given in the following:-
(i) Whether or not methods and techniques are helpful in learning by memory or by understanding or reflective level.
(ii) Whether or not these are teacher-dominated, learner-centred or, allow useful teacher-pupil interaction.
(iii) Is it possible to proceed on the path of self-learning through them?
C. Factors Associated with the Men and Material Resources

A learner is helped by the available resources (men and material) for bringing desirable changes in his behaviour. How effectively
such changes will take place in his behaviour depend much on the quality and management of these resources. Certain factors,
which affect learning, may be listed in the following manner:-
1. Quality of the teacher in terms of his mastery over the subject matter, teaching skills, rich experiences and teacher like qualities
and behaviour.
2. Socio-emotional climate available in the institution in the form of teacher-pupil relationships, pupil-pupil relationships and
school-staff relationships and the like.
3. Availability of appropriate learning material and facilities like teaching-learning aids, text books, library and laboratory
facilities, project works.
4. Availability of proper conducive environment and learning situations like:-
• Proper seating arrangement.
• Calm and peaceful environment.
• Management and control of the factors leading to distraction.
• Cooperative and competitive group situations.
• Provision of proper change, rest and recreation.
• Provision of opportunity for creativity and self-expression.
Conclusion: it is clear from the description of above mentioned factors that learning can be effective only when these conditions
are favourable. In favourable circumstances, the learning process becomes stronger and effective.
Ques: what do you mean by cooperative learning? Explain its assumptions and features and also explain essential elements
of cooperative learning? (16 marks)(2018)
OR
What is cooperative learning? Discuss its advantages and barriers and also explain the role of the teacher in cooperative
learning?
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
INTRODUCTION: Constructivism is a psychological theory of knowledge, which argues that human, generate knowledge and
meaning from their own experiences. Because teaching through constructive approach is beneficial in achieving desirable
educational goals for the students Here students are tempted to learn more and more in order to gain good grades, divisions,
certificates, appreciation or attractive prize etc by excelling their own peers or reaching the set target of excellence. Cooperative
learning says no to such practices. It advocates cooperative learning (i.e. the learning in group by cooperating with one another) in
palace of the competitive and individualstic approach (encouraging cut throat competition and immoral practices of getting ahead)
prevalent in our educational system. Co-operative learning is based on the fact that learning is an act of learning together. It takes
care of the well-known principle of co-operation each for all the each for all’. The learning group cannot be effective without the
co-operation of all its members.
Every class room is destined to make the child learn co-operation and inter-dependence. Only that type of class room
situation is good which teachers the learners- ‘we are class fellows. We are to live together. We sink or swing together.’ Human
beings need help at different stages of their development task. Group work practice or cooperative learning dictates provision of
such help. With the increasing inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education classroom, the diversity of abilities
has never been greater. To be successful in this challenging environment, teachers must use research-proven techniques to improve
educational outcomes for all students. One such practice is cooperative learning (CL). CL is a powerful instructional technique that
employs small, heterogeneous groups of students working together for a common purpose or goal and who explicitly help one
another acquire and evaluate learning. CL is an effective medium to teach academic skills, while promoting positive student
interactions and enhanced attitudes toward learning.
CONCEPT OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

Cooperative learning as the name suggests stands for a process or learning strategy in which students are provided with the
opportunity to learn themselves in a group in cooperative way. They share all the information among themselves and help each other
in gaining required knowledge, understanding and application of one or the other aspect of the content material or course units in
their syllabus.
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Cooperative learning instructional approaches provide opportunities for a learner to interact with other learners in the class, and thus
this approach maximizes learner’s intrinsic interest in learning. It cater to the needs of the learners having different mental abilities
by organizing the activities of the students to work together in small groups so that students learn to maximize their and other’s
learning while working in the groups.
In classroom, cooperative group must have a sense of individual accountability that means that all students need to know the material
for the whole group to be successful, whether a student is gifted or average.
DEFINITIONS:
• According to Foyle and Lynan - “Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy involving children’s participation in small group
learning activities that promote positive interaction.”
• According to Slavin – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work together in groups, “to master material
initially presented by the learner.”
• According to Woolfolk – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work in mixed ability groups and are
rewarded on the basis of the success of the groups.”
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
12. Cooperative Learning believes in making the teaching learning process Learner centered rather than teacher centered.
13. It advocates constructive ideology for the better teaching learning outcomes by encouraging the students to formulate their
own knowledge, ideas and strategies and ways of understanding the content material.
14. It believes in redefining the role of the teacher as distinct from a lecturer or expert of the subject matter. The teacher’s role
is that of a guide and facilitator who helps the students in learning cooperatively.
15. It advocates interactive teaching learning environment instead of mere lecturing and demonstration on part of teacher.
Here the responsibility for learning is shifted to the students.
16. It emphasizes social learning by assuming that learning takes place better in a social situation and group environment rather
than in isolation.
17. It assumes that children better in a non-competitive anxiety free environment, than in a competitive, stressful environment
available in traditional classrooms.
18. It believes in group efforts and cooperation among the learners in place of individual efforts and competition.
19. Children learn better in cooperative way from one another on account of their interdependence, equality, rapport.
20. It believes that the students’ achievements and performance may be evaluated better in terms of group achievement in
the less threatening group situations.
21. It believes that students learn best when they are totally involved in the learning process by cooperating with each other
for attaining their best.
22. It advocates two necessary elements: group goals and individual accountability should be used together for the evaluation
of group achievements in Cooperative Learning.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

The Cooperative Learning as a healthy, efficient and effective classroom practice in inclusive set up comprises of following essential
elements:
(i) Team formation: Cooperative learning groups should be heterogeneous in gender, race, economic status, and ability in order
to take advantage of the benefits associated with group diversity. So it emphasizes to
• Start with pairs because they are simpler to manage;
• Facilitate enhanced communication, maximum participation and more possibility for practicing social skills; and
• Enable transition effortlessly into larger groups.
(ii) Positive interdependence / Group goals occurs when each group member learns to depend on the rest of the group as they all
work together to complete a task. This is one of the key reasons that cooperative learning works well in an inclusive classroom
This refers to
• Clearly define roles of group members;
• Ensure that all group members participate so that everybody can contribute to learning process; and
• Make everybody feels valued, even those who need to develop their interpersonal skills.
(iii) Individual accountability because individual student learning is a desired result of cooperative learning. It is essential that
individual students demonstrate what they have learned as a result of participating in cooperative activities.
(iv) Face to face promotive interaction is characterized by individual’s providing each other with efficient and effective help and
assistance and exchanging needed resources for mutual benefits. It emphasizes on
• Teachers need to verbalize, model and reinforce the social skills needed to achieve a goal; and
• Listen Provide feedback Resolve conflict Encourage others Take turns Express enjoyment in success.
(v) Group processing: The purpose of group processing is to clarify the effectiveness of the members in contributing to the
cooperative and collaborative efforts to achieve one’s goals. It refers to
• The time allotted, after a learning task, to discuss whether members are achieving goals and maintaining successful
working relationships;
• Students can express themselves;
• Teacher can provide relevant and specific feedback; and
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• Helps ensure accountability.
•
TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
FORMAL CL INFORMAL CL
Students work together for students work to achieve
Several weeks to achieve learning goals in
shared learning goals temporary adhoc groups
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
Following responsibilities are assumed for a teacher:

7. Curriculum Modification: Most teachers who teach in an inclusive classroom modify their curricula to meet the needs of their
special education students. Curriculum modifications can include the provision of an audio-taped text, shortened assignments
and summarized chapters of the textbook as well as tools such as graphic presentations and color-coded chapters to enhance a
student's level of comprehension.
8. Communication:
▪ It is important for inclusion teachers to advocate the needs of their special education students by ensuring that resources such
as peer tutoring, instructional assistants, team teaching and staff development opportunities are available along with consistent
policies that assess the individual student's progress.
▪ Teachers also should communicate regularly with the principal to make sure that she is aware of the specific learning needs of
the special education students and the academic resources that are necessary for them to experience success in the inclusive
classroom setting.
9. Classroom Environment: According to the views and perspectives of teachers, successful inclusion classrooms are those that
are taught by teachers and school personnel who believe in the academic potential of their special needs children. It is also
important for teachers to create a safe classroom environment that allows special-needs children to learn alongside their peers
while experiencing positive socialization.

▪ Although inclusive classrooms can promote positive peer interactions for special education students, behavioral issues can arise
that may require a different disciplinary approach than that used with mainstream students.
▪ Teachers may need to consider a developmentally appropriate method for managing the behavior of their special-needs
students. Common approaches often include a system that allows a student to self-regulate and manage his own behavior,
coupled with a reward system that reinforces the student's positive behaviors.
▪ Many inclusion teachers attend in-service training or professional development sessions to hone their skills in curriculum
modification, instructional techniques and collaborative teaching strategies that allow special education teachers, specialists
12. General Role of Teacher is summed up as follows:
▪ Planning lessons, activities and evaluation tool & techniques
▪ Grouping the students
▪ Physical placement of the students in group
▪ Presenting and explaining the tasks to the students
▪ Monitoring group activities and intervening when necessary.
▪ Helping student with social skills
▪ Evaluating the students
BENEFITS/ UTILITY/ EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

i. Cooperative learning can change students’ views about learning: It helps them to move from seeing learning as individual
memorization of facts to seeing it as a collective construction of understanding. By encouraging students to explore and discuss
their understandings, cooperative learning helps them develop a deep understanding of course content.
ii. It makes students responsible for their learning: It encourages students to think about their learning processes, identify the
limitations of their knowledge and learn to seek. It is particularly suited to large problem-solving tasks and projects in which
there is more work to be carried out than one person can reasonably be expected to do in the available time.
iii. Makes students independent learners: Cooperation teaches students to be less reliant on the teacher and more reliant on their
own ability to think, to seek information from other sources and to learn from other students. Thus it makes the teaching learning
process learner-centered rather than teacher-centered.
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iv. Students remain involved in teaching learning process: When compared with lecture and discussion activities, cooperative
learning can lead to students being frustrated less often, getting confused less often, feeling more intellectually challenged,
feeling more actively involved in learning and looking forward to class more often .
v. Cooperative learning emphasizes democratic thought and practice as a desirable way for people to interact. Therefore, the
students get opportunities for deeper understanding and insight into the subject matter as a result of discussion and practice.
vi. Cooperative learning ensures that all students are socially integrated into networks of positive peer relationships. This can
lead to reductions in antisocial behaviour such as bullying. Hence, the students learn better in cooperative environment, which
keeps them away from anxiety and competition.
vii. Develops a sense of Cooperation and Compassion among learners for each other: It helps in developing higher order
thinking skills, critical thinking and oral communication skills. When students work cooperatively, their language becomes
more inclusive and assistive toward one another, behavioural problems are reduced, and they become more involved in one
another’s learning and achievement.
viii. Achievement: Cooperative learning as compared with individualistic and competitive learning increases the academic
achievement and social acceptance of students with disabilities. Minority students can make consistently favourable
achievements in cooperative classes. It helps the weaker students in improving their performance when grouped with high
achieving learners.
ix. Helps in developing various skills: It helps the students in learning various tasks like manipulation, demonstrative skills,
initiation, social skills, leadership skills etc. Cooperative learning for students with moderate and severe disabilities is also
positive with greater academic gains comparable to competitive and individualistic situations, greater interpersonal attraction,
and higher levels of socially interactive behaviours. .
x. Social skill development: Cooperative learning provides an ideal context for social skill development. It is through
interpersonal interactions that students observe, perform, and receive feedback on social behaviours, which makes cooperative
learning particularly beneficial for students with learning and behaviour problems.
xi. Selecting challenging, multilevel tasks that promote learning and growth at different levels is a key to success in cooperative
learning and inclusive education. Cooperative tasks provide opportunities for all students to work at their own levels while still
pursuing a common goal.
xii. Caters to individual differences: It provides opportunities for learners to see that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued and respected, and can be accommodated in learning tasks and contexts. It
helps students to learn respect for one another’s strength and limitations and to accept these differences. This is very important
in culturally diverse classrooms and in classrooms that include students with disabilities. Hence, it boosts the self-esteem and
self-confidence of the learners.
Other Benefits:
• Teaching and classroom management become easier for the teacher, as team is guided by active and capable member.
• It helps in providing interactive model for the classroom in place of one sided teacher dominated class.
• It helps in improving classroom results by making the students more involved actively.
• It helps in improving the learning environment of a classroom.
• It helps the teacher to become free and capable of guiding and supervising the learning activities of the students as groups
are easily supervised.
• A teacher can make good contact with the learners when handled in groups.
• The teacher feels less stressed.
• It promotes students’ learning and achievement.
• It enhances students’ satisfaction with their learning experiences.
• It enhances oral communication skills.
•
HINDRANCE/PROBLEMS IN THE PATH OF INTRODUCTING COOPERATIVE LEARNING
As discussed above cooperative learning offers a plateform as wel as teaching-learning strategy to bring a desirable reform
in the present day teaching-learning system of strategy adopted in our traditional class room settings. It is aimed to provide more
responsibilities on the part of the learners for carrying out their learning business by themselves wihle cooperating and working
together in small or large group as per demands of their learning situation for the satisfactory accomplishment of the learning
objectives of a course related to any subject or grade. In reality it suits the very nature and purposes of the learners belonging to a
free and democratic society and as such it needs to be adopted as one of the good teaching-learning strategies at all levels of school
or college teaching. However, inspite of so may benefits derived from its introducting, it has not yet taken any shape in the system
of our school and college education. Let us see, what are the different factors that are coming in the way of its acceptance and
introduction as a teaching-learning strategy in our system of education. We can summarize of list these factors or attributes as
under.
A RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF TEACHERS
Teachers themselves do not favour the introduction of cooperative learning in their teaching-learning on account of the
reason gives below:-
1. They, themselves have not been taught through cooperative learning, strategy at their school or college level.
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2. They have not got any orientation and training for the use of cooperative learning strategy in their teacher preparation
courses, D.Ed. or B.Ed. etc. they have also not bee exposed to its orientation and training through in service programmes.
As a result most of the teachers do not know how or where to start using cooperative learning techniques in their classrooms.
3. Teachers fear that they will give up control of the class and their authority if they give more responsibility to the students
for their learning as it bound to happen in a cooperative learning set up. In fact they fear to accept their role as mere
facilitator instead of all and all in the present educational system.
4. Teachers lack in self-confidence for trying methods and innovative practices earning that is may expose them to potentially
different situation. They infact suffer from the well known principle of inertia i.e. resisting any new change or practices.
5. Teachers feel that student will be wasting their time in a cooperative learning set up. There will be a chaotic situation
upsurging in the class room environment with serious disciplinary problems for which they themselves be blamed by
authorities and parents.
6. In the present set up, teachers are supposed to finish the prescribed syllabus of a subject in a fixed duration and days of
the session. It is feared by the teachers that is could not be possible by adopting cooperative learning techniques.
7. Teachers feel that the required teaching-learing as well as curricular material for the successful use of cooperative learning
is not be available to them. They themselves have no knowledge, skills as well as abilities to develop worksheets, project
descriptions and other set of handouts helpful as support or base material for cooperative learning. Textbooks are also not
written in view of the requirment of cooperative learning. In such circumstances, teachers feel hesitation to switch over to
cooperative learning.
8. The use of cooperative learning requires an altogether different assessment techniques it terms of assessing group efforts
and assigning grades to groups on one hand and evaluating individual’s role and efforts in such group venture on the other.
Their unfamiliarity to such innovative assessment techniques persuades them to oppose cooperative learning on the
assumption that the system will fail in the absence of the assessment of individual accountability of the learners.
RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF STUDENTS
Students may also be seen to oppose the introduction of cooperative learning as a teaching-learning strategy mainly for the
reasons given below:-
1. They are habitual in seeing the teacher in his authoritatian expert role presenting each and every type of information and
skill before them. They feel much more uncomfortable in making their own attempts for the acquisition of information and
skills and hence oppose the introduction of cooperative learning.
2. Students feel that lecture method is a proper method of teacher’s teaching and they can also learn easily through its use by
remaining quite passive in the teaching-learning process. Therefore, they resent any type of responsibility handed over to
them in terms of interactive and cooperative learning.
3. Students think that a teacher resorts to cooperative learning simply for saving his own labour and energy otherwise required
for classroom teaching. They therefore begin to criticize the role of the teacher as a mere facilitator instead of expert
information presenter.
4. Students are not subjected to any training or experience to cooperate in an academic environment. They are habitual to the
spirit of maximum competition for excelling one another in the race of gaining grades and recognition. Therefore they try
to resent or become fearful when asked to share information and study techniques or to help their peers in the cooperative
learning processes.
5. It becomes quite difficult for the students to feel their utmost individual responsibilities for the greater cause of group work
and cooperative learning. They feel, that the peers in their team may not provide due cooperation or may play the role of
a shirker.
A. RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF AUTHORITIES
Authorities put hurdles to the introduction of cooperative learning on account of the following reasons.
1. They fear that teachers will not be doing their teaching duties and may play the role of shirkers as an excuse for introducing
this system.
2. It will be difficult to evaluate the teachers’ effectiveness and output in the absence of the evaluation of students individual
performance and accountability.
3. Authorities and administrators themselves have no proper knowledge about the philosophy and methodology of cooperative
learning.
4. They fear that an altogether new infrastructure needs to be developed for the introduction of this innovative practice.
B. RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF PARENTS
Parents also oppose the introduction of cooperative learning chiefly on the grounds mentioned below:-
1. They themselves have not been taught or exposed to the philosophy and methodology of cooperative learning.
2. Parents fear that this system will hamper the proper individual development of their children and they will become unfit
for competition in this world of cut throat competition and high speed advancement.
3. Parents of the bright and upper student fear that their children will be used as tutors or will be wasting their time and energy
in carrying the load of their team mates in the name of cooperative learning.
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4. Parents take it as an excuse on the part of teachers for getting rid of the load of their teaching assignments and think it
better to get their children educated through distance or on line education mode instead of wasting their time in cooperative
learning.
In this way, we may notice a number of hurdles, fears and resentments standing in the way of introducing cooperative learning
in our educational system. However, as may be, analysed and concluded easily, all these fears and resentment are absolutely
erroneous and baseless. The ignorance regarding the philosophy, methodology and fruitful results of the cooperative learning
seems to be the only cause working against the introduction of this noble/and effective teaching-learning strategy. Surely and
certainly, the lead should be taken by the teacher education institutions for nurturing the clear picture and methodology of
cooperative learning in the minds of the would be teacher, so that they may share the desired responsibility of tis introduction
in the schools, happen to serve in the future.
CONCLUSION:
Thus there are a number of hurdles, fears and resentment standing in the way of introducing Cooperative Learning in the educational
system. However all these resentments and fears are baseless. It promotes students better learning and makes students’ active and
self-confident. It promotes positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal participation and simultaneous interaction.
Thus by creating a community that is cooperative and inclusive, children’s acceptance and success in general classroom environment
will be greatly enhanced. So it provides generous support for learning, connecting and caring to all teachers and all students and
therefore, it should be promoted to achieve social and educational effectiveness of the learners. Q: PEER TUTORING
What is Peer Tutoring? What are its objectives ? How can it be made more effective? 2021
Ans The word ‘peer’ means an equal in rank, quality or worth. That is the meaning of the word as per Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English. Thus two or three students belonging to the same school class say VI are peers. The word Tutoring comes
from the word ‘Tuto’ which means as per Longman Dictionary ‘A teacher who gives private instruction to a single pupil or a very
small class and who sometimes lives with the family of his pupil. Peer tutoring involves one to one instruction. Here we have one
student being taught by another student-who is in the same class by he/she is a better student. There can be a senior student
belonging to some high class or even at teacher. So peer tutoring can work well in Indian schools where there is shortage of teachers.
In universalisation of elementary we face the problem of teachers by that can be overcome with the help of peer tutoring.
In certain special type of situations and circumstances when we fall to have adequate number of teachers for class room
teaching, peer tutoring can help.
In this regard the famous Russian Psychologist Lav Vygotsky has tried to convey through the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal
development’ (ZPD) that a child can be helped well in getting instruction from the peers who are near to him in respect of the
possession of desired knowledge and experience. They can enjoy more rapport, nearness and trust between them and it results in
appropriate instruction and cooperation much helpful for the success in instructional process. It is why the peer tutoring proves a
better alternative from many of the students in their instruction and training n comparison to the help rendered by parents, teachers
and experts in this regard.
In practice in peer tutoring, a fellow student is seen to help one or more of his fellow students in their lerning and
development. It is quite natural for a peer tutor to have more rapport, nearness and simplicity in relationship with his fellow students
on account of their being of the same age and grade. There is no much difference in their status in respect of experience, abilities
and educational status.
Such type of peer tutoring , a fellow student is seen to help one or more of his fellow students in thier learning and
development. It is quite natural for a peer tutor to have more rapport, nearness and simplicity in relationship with his fellow student
on account of their being of the same age and grade.
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Such type of peer tutoring may also prove quite beneficial to the slow learners, backward and differently abled or disabled
students in their proper education and adjustment. In an inclusive education setup where there is a need of the students characterized
with too much diversity and differences the peer tutoring system may help well in a fruitful way.
In the school setup peer tutors can play a quite significant role in carrying out the teaching learning activity. The adoption
of peer tutorial system can help well in realizing the dreams of individualized instruction in a better way. In many of the elementary
schools of our country where only one teacher is available for teaching all the subjects and activities of school curriculum and the
schools where there is paucity of subject.
OBJECTIVES OF PEER TUTORING
The main objectives behind peer tutoring are as under:-
(i) To enable the student think and work independently.

(ii) To help the student have more and more confidence.
(iii) To help the individuals, grown ups or small, form the habit of consulting each other and solve the problems.
(iv) To make the community better through co-operative working
(v) To make the individuals generous and have helping attitude.
MAKING PEER TUTORING A SUCCESS
Peer Tutoring where ever carried out need be handled properly. It also to be well planned and systematic. For this, the
following guideline is suggested:-
1. The Head of the school , the Managing Committee and the teaching staff should plan in advance for this. For this, they
can think of the subjects where peer tutoring is needed.
2. The students who need help and guidance should be selected on the bases of their performance in the tests, exams. Or day
to day class room teaching-lerning.
3. Those students should be selected who are really very good subject wise, and can work and are also willing to work. They
may be from the same class or they can also be selected from the senior class.
4. Group meetings of the week students should be held under the guidance of the teacher. General guidance should be given
to them so that they are able to learn really.
5. Those who are to be used for tutoring, they should be given training of teaching. Demonstrations must be given to them by
the teachers.
6. As far as possible, efforts should be made to make it a social service programme and not money based teaching-learning.
And in case, the school authorities feel that tutoring person in financially week and he needs help and also the learner if
he is in a position to pay, then only it can be done that way.
7. During the course of peer tutoring, the teacher incharge will see to the functioning of the programme from a to z.
8. The learner and the person engaged for tutoring should give report to the teacher in charge about every thing that was done
on a particular day and every day.
9. Peer tutoring should not be held every day. It can be done once or twice a week depending upon it need.
10. It should be carried out after school hours or before school as per its suitability to the concerned persons.
Advantages of peer tutoring
Let us try to understand the advantages of peer tutoring. We know that peer tutoring is concerned with students who needs
tutoring , student who can give guidance/teaching , under the guidance of the teachers in the campus of the school which is headed
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by the Principal/Headmaster and governed by the Managing Committee. Naturally then, all the above said are benefited by the
programme of peer tutoring.
1. ADVANTAGES OF PEER TUTORING

(a) The students who need tutoring feel encouraged because they are given special consideration by the school. Their
problems in studies are solved.
(b) They are able to discuss the problems easily with the fellow students and thus their problems at root levels are solved.
(c) Without facing any financial constraints, their problems in studies are remedied.
(d) While having guidance from the peer, they respect that person, try to imitate him/him and excel in studies like him/her.
2. ADVANTAGES TO THE STUDENTS WHO COME FORWARD FOR TUTORING
(i) The students who do the job of tutoring feel lot of confidence. They also feel encouraged.
(ii) They are able to get training of teaching and that too, under the guidance of their class teacher. It prepares them for
their better future.
(iii) Just possible some of these students may develop interest in teaching and they may adopt teaching as a profession in
their future career.
(iv) They are able to better relations with their teachers. They needy in studies. It will develop in the students healthy
attitude of doing social service in the community/society.
ADVANTAGES TO THE TEACHER/TEACHERS
(A) Peer tutoring will go on in some subjects. That will help in the over all improvement in studies and the results of the
teachers will be effected positively.
(B) Load of work on the part of the teacher by way of helping individual students solve their problems will be lessened.
(C) In peer tutoring, individual attention and personal guidance are available to the week students. Ultimately, credit for this
goes to the class teachers. The reason being virtually, it is the teacher who has made all these arrangements.
4. ADVANTAGES TO THE SCHOOL, PRINCIPAL & THE MANAGEMENT
(a) When problems of the weak students are solved well, results of the school improves. Credit for this goes to the Principal
and the management.
(b) Academic environment of the school improves and over all impression of the school increases. All this improves the image
of the school and better future prospects.
LIMITATIONS OF PEER TUTORING
No doubt, there are many advantages of peer tutoring, but it has some drawbacks too which are briefly given here below:-
(a) In each class and In each subject, there are these days large number of students who need special care and guidance. Will
the schools be able to solve the problem rightly. It is very much doubtful.
(b) The success of peer tutoring depends upon mostly on the teacher and the peer tutor. In this age of materialism when every
body is too busy with one thing or the other, it is difficult to find out tutors who will be able to spare time for social service
of this type.
(c) It is very difficult to arrange and manage large number of groups of children which end guidance.
(d) Shall the schools be able to give training to the tutors? Perhaps not. I seems to be a challenging job these days.
(e) Many a time it is seen that there is conflict between the tutor and the learner who needs guidance. It will result too complete
failure of peer tutoring.
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Ques: What do you understand by Individual differences? What are the causes of individual difference and what are the
types of individual difference? Highlight the educational significance of Individual differences.2019,2021,2022
Ans INTRODUCTION:There seems to be no end to the variations, deviations and differences present among the creations of
the Ali-mighty in the form of living or non-living. We can see different types of soils, rocks, stones around us on this very earth.
The quality and characteristics of the water we drink, get variations from place to place and region to region. Apart from non-living,
such variations and differences are equally found among the living beings. We can see countless varieties of plants, insects, birds
and animals on the earth. Some are named as fruits, some as vegetables, some as pulses or some as grains, depending upon their
common or varying characteristics.
However, with such classification or grouping, it should not be assumed that members of the same species are alike in all
aspects. Apparently all cows, buffaloes, parrots and peacocks may seem to be alike on account of their common resemblance as
well as qualities and characteristics peculiar to their species.
MEANING:Individuals can be easily distinguished from one another by their gestures, their ways of talking, acting, walking and
their appearance. And these changes cause every man to be himself and nobody else. Identical twins coming from the same single
cell are two quite different persons. In the same way there are no individuals of identical mentality. The richer the personality the
greater the individual differences.
Thus, it is an established fact that the individuals differ in mental abilities as well as in physical abilities and personality traits. The
individuals not only differ from one another, but also each individual differs from one ability to another within his own self. Thus,
there are variations not amongst individuals, but there are variations within the same individual among his own abilities. The problem
of individual differences, therefore can be viewed from two sides-
(c) Differences in abilities form individual to individual.

(d) Differences in abilities within the same individual.
So whatever lies around us in the form of non-living or living beings differ from each other in many aspects. These differences and
variations become more intense and remarkable as we draw our attention closer and closer to human beings as one of the ultimate
creation of the almighty in the history of evolution.
EXAMPLES: We, as human beings quite distinctly differ in size, shape, appearance, speed of reaction and innumerable other
aspects of our personality make up and behaviour. Among us some are healthy and enthusiastic, while others are weak and irritable.
Some are blue eyed and black haired while others have black eyes and grey hair. Some are known as girls or women while others
are named as boys or men. Some learn quickly and others slowly, some remember well while others forget, some respond quickly
and some others slowly. In this way no one among us is just the same as another. The sons and daughters of the same parents or
even identical twins are not exactly the same as their counterparts. Every one of us is a typical human being in oneself.
Being alike in some aspects we are definitely different in many ways. We, inspite of belonging to a common species known as
human beings have our own individuality which contributes for the variance and differences found among ourselves. These
differences in human beings, are referred to as “individual differences” in the languages of sociology and psychology.
Definitions of Individual Differences:-

• Dictionary of Education by Carter B.Good (1959):
3. Individual differences stand fir “the variaions or deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or a number
of characteristics”.
4. Individual differences stand for “those differences which in their totality, distinguish one individual from another”.
• According to Drever James:“Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or physical
characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.”
• According C.E. Skinner: “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.”
On the basis of above discussion, following conclusions/features/characteristics/nature have been drawn regarding the
concept of individual differences:
1. Individual differences helps to understand not only what makes humans similar to one another, but also what makes them
different. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, one can best understand the full range of human
behaviour.
2. Children develop at different rates. This, in turn, creates variations among individuals (i.e., individual differences). Again, these
differences can be either qualitative or quantitative.
3. In general, understanding of the various developmental levels is enhanced by familiarity with the concept of individual
differences.
4. Individual differences highlight that each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development, social
maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests and potential.
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5. There are other factors underlying student differences. These include innate differences in intelligence, differences in social and
economic background, variations in past learning experiences, etc.
6. Individual differences help the teachers in understanding the students and also plan the learning activities accordingly and also
make efforts in finding appropriate ways to help them learn better.
CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:-

There is no definite measure of the extent of the Individual Differences. It has been found that there is a continuous graduation
from one extreme to the other. Freeman of Cornell University holds that the “nature and extent of individual differences in a
particular trait or complex of traits is represented by the unimodal curve which portrays the range of human potentialities for
development in that trait under conditions as they, now are.” We can not, therefore, say that all persons fall naturally into two
distinct types such as athletic or unathletic, unintelligent or intelligent etc. the only thing that we can definitely discover is the
average (mean) deviation. This can reveal to us the extent of differences.
Thorndike discusses the causes of individual differences under five main heads. These are—
1. Sex.
2. Race or Remote ancestry.
3. Maturity.
4. Heredity.
5. Environment.
6. Influence of caste, race and maturity
7. Age and intelligence
8. Temprament and emotional stability
9. Economic condition and education
The description is as follows:

1. Sex:- As regards sex, it has been discovered that girls are superior ot the boys in tests of memory. Superiority of females over
males has been found in linguistic ability. Small differences have been found in favour of males in reasoning, computation,
arithmetical ability and number concepts. Males are found to be superior in manual performance and mechanical
ability.However, there are also found great over-lapping between the sexes. According to these differences, there have been
found marked differences in interests, habits, preferences, educational and vocational emphasis.
2. Race or Remote Ancestry:- We generally enter into our common talk the observations like-Do individuals differ because they
belong to different racial, national or cultural groups? “Russians are tall and stout,” “Ceylonese are short and slim,” “Germans
have no sense of humors,” “Yellow race are cruel and revengeful”, “Americans are hearty and frank,” “Indians are timid and
peace-loving,” and the myth of racial, national or cultural differences. Many studies have been conducted in the field of
Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology to see whether there are some significant inborn differences in mental abilities among
the several racial, national groups. But, the investigations have not given any clear indication. There is no evidence of any
national superiority in mental abilities. Similar studies have been made with white and non-white children. The fact should be
subjected to the general principle that the degree and form of mental development is the result of interaction between inherited
abilities and the environmental influences. In fact, racial or national groups are compared by group averages and these cannot
be more significant psychologically and educationally than are differences among individuals.
3. Maturity—As regards maturation, individual differences of mental growth are found in infancy. The rate of growth is not the
same at all the stages. If differes from stage to stage. Not only the rate but the character of growth differs from one age level
to another as maturation marches on. Yet, the children tend to maintain their relative positions of mediocrity, superiority or
inferiority.
Late in life, persons suffer from a decline in mental abilities. The decline proceeds gradually at first, then increases with age,
especially after sixty. But, the relative position is maintained even now.
4. Heredity— The importance of heredity is not fairly accepted. An individual’s height, the size of his bones, the colour and
texture of his hair, the colour of his eyes, the shape of his face, nose, mouth, hands and feet, the nature of is entire physical
structure, and in fact all that he is physically, and mentally is determined largely by his inheritance. The general principle of
Heredity is that children resemble their parents and that “like tends to beget like.” Children resemble both their parents but
even within the same family children differ because they do not develop out of the same combination of genes. That is why
even in large families complete correspondence of abilities is absent.
Further, children of bright parents tend to be less bright and the children of very inferior parents are often less inferior. Heredity
is said to move towards the average. This is called regression and traits when passing from parents to children tend to move
towards the average. The genius son of a genius father is a very rare thing. Again, there is a tendency among the off-spring to
be
higher in the trains in which their parents are low and lower in which their parents are high. They move towards the average,
that
is, they regress.
The Heredity of a child is not solely determined by his immediate parents. He inherits from all his ancestors and ancestors also
or from the same stock their parents have inherited. It is said that one-half of inheritance is from the parents, one fourth from
grandparents, one-eighth from great grandparents and one sixteenth and soon from gradually further removed ancestors.
Thus, Heredity unquestionable has a considerable influence on individual differences.
25
5. Environment—The nature of the human being is shaped through the interaction which take place between the human organism
and the environment. Our environment is our habitation in the fullest sense. Not only our physical surroundings but also the
people around us, social customs and traditions, culture, education and training, all constitute our environment. What we call
our social heritage, ideas, and ideals is a part of our environment. A number of studies have been conducted to see the influence
of the environment on the individuals. These are—
A study was conducted to compare the intellectual status of children coming from different occupational and social groups.
The occupational status of the father was treated as a general index of the mental abilities of the child. It was revealed by the
study that (a) The I.Q.s of the fathers correspond to their occupational status and that (b) The intelligence of the children would
correspond to the occupations of the fathers.
In an another study conducted on canal-born children and gypsy children it was found that their environment was very poor,
they were isolated from the world, cut off from school and society, and lived and worked under the most humdrum conditions.
The most striking fact revealed by this study was that with increase in age their I.Q. was depressed.
A detailed study was conducted to see the effect of environment on foster or adopted children. Their I.Q.s progress in schools,
behaviour was asessed. As the foster parents are not the true parents and the hereditary relation does not exist, the influence
of superior borne environment can be better evaluated. It was revealed that intelligence as well as development of the children
was remarkably better in richer and more stimulating home environment.
A similar study was conducted on indentical twins placed in different and similar environments. Study revealed that in latter
case there was high correlation between their physical traits, mental capacities, educational abilities and in former case, in same
twins, there was less difference but in other different environments did make a difference in educational achievement and I.Q.
On behalf of above studies, one can easily hold that environment unquestionably has a considerable influence on individual
differences.
6. Influence of caste,race and maturity: The influence of caste,race and maturity also give some impact on human being. People
belongs to different caste, their culture,their religion have impact on their appearance ,their language.
7. Age and intelligence: people belongs to different age have different physical appearance,their gesture,their way of
talking,acting,walking. Intellectual levelof people are different as some are intelligent,some are gifted ,some are creative, some
are mentally retarted .IQ level of different people are different.
8. Temprament and Emotional stability: some person are emotionally stable,the mature,while other are emotionally unstable
and immature due to some hormonal imbalances.There exits wide emotional difference among individuals,due to heredity and
environment reasons.
9. Economic condition and Education: children belongs to different socio –economic status have different attitude ,capability
,aptitude, potentialities.Education play an important role in development of a child, educated parents give good education to
their child,but uneducated parents having financial problem.
Types/Kinds/Varieties of Individual difference:-
What differences or variations exist among the human beings, may be generally grouped or classified into two broad
categories, namely: (i) Physical or physiological differences, and (ii) Psychological differences.
1. Physical differences:Individuals differ in height, weight, colour of skin, colour of eyes and hair, size of hands and heads, arms,
feet, mouth and nose, length of waistline, structure and functioning of internal organs, facial expression, differ in their
intelligence, attitudes, and interest. No two individuals in this world are same. Each one of them differs from one another.
On the other hand, intra differences deals with the differences within an individual. These differences are existed within
individual. A person may have variability in intelligence, interest, attitude etc. It may be possible that he has high intelligence
but other traits are lower than that.
2. Physical and Physiological Difference-Some individuals, according to the structure of the body, may be found differing in
regards of height weight, physique and colour etc. but physiological differences indicate differences which refers biological
functioning like blood pressure, ANS, CNS and other functions of the body apparatus.
3. Inter and Intra Differences—Inter difference re connected with the difference between two individuals. It may be possible
that two persons mannerisms of speech and walk, hair style and other such native or acquired physical characteristics.
4. Mental differences:- People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and thinking, power of imagination,
creative expression, concentration etc. in the field of general intelligences also we find tremendous difference between
individuals. On the basis of these differences they are usually classified as idiot, imbecile, moron, border line, normal, bright,
very superior and genius.
5. Differences in motor ability:- There exist a wide difference in motor abilities such as reacting time, speed of action, steadiness,
rate of muscular moment, manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue etc.
6. Differences in achievement:- Differences exist in achievement and in knowledge even among individuals who have almost
the same amount of intelligence and have been subjected to equal amount of schooling and experience.
7. Emotional differences:- In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and amusement and the like are prominent
whereas, in some, negative emotions are more powerful. Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions.
Some are emotionally stable the mature, while others are emotionally unstable and immature. In this way there exist wide
emotional differences among individuals.
8. Differences in interests and aptitudes:- Variations occur among the individuals in relation to the specific tastes and interests.
Some take interest in meeting people, attending social functions and are very fond of picnics and group excursions; other feel
happy in solitude, avoid social gatherings and are interested in meditation or enjoy company of books. In a similar way, people
26
are found to have diferent aptitudes. Some have mechanical aptitude, while the others have scholastic, musical or artistic
aptitudes.
9. Difference in attitudes, beliefs and opininons:- Individuals are foud to possess varying attitudes towards different people,
groups, objects and ideas. Their attitudes may be positive, anegative or of somewhat indifferent nature. Similarly they differ
in respect of beliefs, opinions, and ideas. Some believe in one thing, others in another. Some are conservative and rigid while
the others are progressive, liberal and dynamic.
10. Learning differences:- Individual differences are found in the field of learingin also. Some learn more easily and are able to
make use of their learning more comfortably than others. For some, one method of learning or memorization is more suitable,
while for others, a different method suits. In the same way suitability of learning environment also depends upon the individual
nature of the learner. Thus there are wide individual differences in relation to learning.
11. Differences in social and moral development:- Individuals differ in respect of their social and moral development. Some
are found to be adjusted properly in the social situations and lead a happy social life while others are socially handicapped,
unsocial or antisociat. Similarly, people are found to differ in respect of ethical and moral sense.
12. Differences in Ability—This has become an established fact that individuals differ widely as regards their I.Q’s. the
distribution of intelligence quotients obtained by examining first grade children with the stanford revision of the Binet Test had
a range from 60 to 160 with 100 as its mean. Other tests of intelligence are used with groups at all levels and ages. The results
so obtained go to assert that individuals vary greatly on the scale of mental ability. Heredity and Environment are two great
factors that cause individual differences in mental ability.
13. Differences in Aptitudes-- When we speak of a person’s aptitudes, we refer to his potentialities. They may be high or low,
different in different fields. They vary from individual to individual. Aptitude of a person is one’s ability to carry on a task to
maximum success. It refers to one’s special abilities. Scholastic aptitude pertains to potential learning ability. It is determined
by one’s intelligence. It is also called general aptitude.
Special aptitudes refer to the relative fitness of the individual for special types of work. But, this “fitness” calls forth the
requisite amount of various special abilities involved in the activity. But as individuals differ from one another in the amount
and degree of these abilities possesed by them, differences in their special aptitudes, too, appear.
14. Differences in Personality—Personality is not one single entity. It is a blend of a number of traits and abilities. But these
traits and abilities and their integration and the process of their blending differ greatly from one individual to another. Therefore,
we find differences in individual personalities. The individuals differ greatly as regards the physiological and biological
conditions of their organs, their psychological development and mental functioning. All these individual differences find a
clear manifestation in the total differences in the individual personalities. When there are differences in the component parts
of patterns, there will be differences in the whole patterns, too. Individual differences in intelligence, morality, sociality,
temperament etc, result into differences in individual.
CONCLUSION:-
All the above-mentioned varieties of individual differences lead us to conclude that as a whole the personality of an
individual is unique in itself. In all the dimensions and aspects of behaviour and personality traits the individuals differ from each
other and thus no one can be said to be exactly similar to another.
UNIT-II
Ques: Give an account of Thorndike’s Law of Learning along with their educational Implications.
Ans:
Laws (Principles) of Learning and their Educational Implications/ Utility(2017-18),2019,2021,2022 16 Marks
Thorndike formulated various laws of learning on the basis of various experiments. All these laws are divided under two heads –
(A) Primary and (B) Secondary Laws of Learning.
A. Primary Laws of Learning:

1) Law of readiness: This law is also known as law of motivation. Woodworth calls it law of mental set. According
to this law, when we are ready to learn more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than when we are
not ready to learn. So, for learning any activity or task, the learner must be mentally set or ready.
2) Law of Exercise: This law is also known as Law of Practice or Law of Use and Disuse. ‘Practice makes a man
perfect’ is a well known proverb.
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a. Law of use: “When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and a response, that
connection’s strength is, other things being equal, increased.”
b. Law of disuse: “When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and a response over a
length of time, that connection’s strength, other things being equal, decreases.”
In brief, if any activity is repeated again and again, it is learnt effectively, and lack of repetition
causes forgetfulness.
3) Law of effect: It is also called the Law of Pleasure and Pain or Law of Satisfaction and Annoyance. Every activity
has its effective tone. Some activities end in pleasure and other end in pain. The activities which are associated
with pleasure or satisfaction tend to be repeated again and again and the learning becomes more effective.
Activities which are associated with pain, punishment or annoyance are not repeated and their strength is
decreased. Thorndike defines this law as follows:
“When a modifiable connection between a situation and response is made and is accompanied by a
satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased, but when made and accompanied by an annoying
state of affairs its strength is decreased.”
Educational Implications:
1. Good attitudes and habits can be formed in children by associating them with reward, satisfaction or praise.
Wrong and undesirable attitudes and habits can be eradicated by associated them with punishment, dissatisfaction
or blame.
2. Emotion of anger and jealousy can be removed with the help of this law by associated anger or jealousy with
state of dissatisfaction or annoyance.
3. Theory or reward and punishment is based on this law. Reward should be given for desirable behavior and
punishment should be associated with undesirable behavior.
4. This law is helpful in forming and developing the desirable sentiments in the pupils. Positive sentiments should
be associated with satisfying state of affairs.
5. Problem behavior and delinquent behavior can be improved by associating it with annoying state of affairs
(punishment).
6. Interest is directly related to this law. Interest causes satisfaction and satisfaction promotes learning and better
learning gives higher satisfaction. In the selection of subjects, books, hobbies, games and curricular activities
pupils prefer which is interesting to them.
7. Memory is also connected with the law of effect. Pleasant things are generally remembered better than unpleasant
things.
Limitations of Law of Effect:
a) Sometimes punishment is more effective than reward.

b) Sometimes unpleasant experiences are remembered better than the pleasant experiences.
B. Secondary or Minor Laws of Learning:

1. Law of varied response or multiple response: The individual makes varied or multiple response to the same
situation. Thorndike’s cat made various multiple responses while trying to get out of the cage.
2. Law of previous beliefs, attitudes and opinions: It determines whether response of the individual will be
satisfying or annoying. According to Thorndike a well fed cat goes to sleep in cage whereas a hungry one tries to
get out of it.
3. Law of partial activity: According to this law, the learner has the capacity to select the important from the
irrelevant element in order to determine appropriate responses.
4. Law of response analogy or assimilation: The learner responds to the new situation as he did in the previous
similar situation. Thus the new situations must be similar.
5. Law of associative shifting: This law is also known as the conditioned response. A response may be shifted from
one situation to another which is presented at the same time.
A few more laws of learning are:
a) Law of recency: According to this law recent things are remembered better. Hence, students should
revise their courses just before the examination.
b) Law of primary: “First impression is the last impression” is a normal saying. It seems the experiences
that are acquired by the child at the primary stage have lasting effect. Hence, the students and the teachers
should be most serious even from the first day.
c) Law of belongingness: The law states that if a response belongs to the situation, connection is more
easily leaned. In other words, if the connection between stimulus and response is natural, the learning
will be more effective. Hence, the teacher should create natural atmosphere in the classroom and appeal
to the natural tendencies of the child.
d) Law of intensity of stimulus: According to this law, if a stimulus is strong the response will be strong
and vice-versa. Examinations present an intense stimulus to study and hence bear a positive effect on
learning.
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THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Learning Theories may be classified in two main categories:
1. Connectionist Theories or Behavioural Associationist Theories: These theories are known as Stimulus Response
Theories. Within this group, we shall include the following theories:
2. Cognitive Organisational Theories:
These theories are also known as Organismic Theories of Gestalt Theories, Cognitive Field Theories or Purposive Theories
Classification of Leaning Theories
(1) (2)
Connectionist Theories of Learning Cognitive Theories
(a) (b) (f) (g)

(d) (e)
(c)
Trial and ErrorClassical Watson’s Guthrie’s
Miler’s Hull’s
Theory (1)Conditioning Operant Theory Theory
Theory Theory
Thorn- or Conditioning
(a) (b)
dike’sTheory Theory
Association (1) Skinner’s Gestalt or Insight Field
(1) Pavlov’s Theory Theory by Theory by
Theory (1) Kohler Kurt Lewin
(2) Koffka
Q: Discuss Thorndike’trial and Error learning theory or connectionism theory with reference to its concepts ,laws of
learning and educational implication?(2019),2021 (3) Wertheimer
Ans:- TRIAL AND ERROR THEORY (CONNECTIONISM)
This theory is also known as Pleasure – Plan Theory, Stimulus Response Theory and Bond Theory of Learning. This theory
was expounded by American psychologist Thorndike in 1898. He conducted many experiments on cats, dogs and fish and concluded
that we learn each and everything by making mistakes and errors. When we begin to learn anything there may be many errors. But
as the number of trials goes on increasing, the errors go on decreasing. Thus we learn from mistakes or experience.
Learning takes place through a process of approximation and correction. A person makes a number of trials. Some
responses do not give satisfaction to the individual, he goes on making further trial till he gets satisfactory responses. Thus, learning
takes place gradually and not suddenly.
As for example, a swimmer learns to swim through various trials, a cyclist learns to cycle through various falls. The theory
says that learning is like a situation where you are required to select a right key from the keyring to open a lock and you attempt
various trials with various keys and finally select the right one.
Different names of Throndike’s Trial and Error Theory:
S-R Theory
Stimulus – Response Theory
Different names for Pleasure – Pain Theory
Throndike’s Trial &
Error 29
Bond Theory of Learning
Experiments:
Puzzle Box Cat experiment by Thorndike: E.L. Thorndike studied the character of trial and error learning in a number of
experiments on cats. He put a cat in a puzzle box with iron bars on the sides. On the floor of the box, was fixed a wooden slat which
when pressed opened the door. A cat was placed inside the box and food was placed outside the box. The cat was kept hungry for
24 hours. The door of the puzzle box was closed. The cat could get food only if she learnt to press the slat which opened the door.
The cat made several unsuccessful attempts of biting the iron bars, striking head against these, and finally it was successful in
opening the door by pressing the slat. The same experiment was repeated several times and it was found that the cat in each
successive attempt took less in pressing the slat and opening the door.
Diagramatic view of Throndike’s cat Experiment
Features or Essentials of Trial and Error Learning:
1. Motivation: Motivation plays an important role in all types of learning. No trial and error learning can take place without
motivation. Motivation may appear in the form of need, desire, purpose or goal. Trial and error learning like any other type
of learning is oriented to goal.
2. Block or barrier: There should be some block or barrier. If there is no blockage, there is no need of trial and error. Efforts
must be made to remove the block.
3. Random responses: Random responses are made in trial and error learning. By random responses, we mean the
meaningless actions which do not solve the problem. But these responses are helpful to us as they help in knowing that
such and such activities are not to be repeated. In the words of Prof. Dashiell, “Random responses help us in an indirect
manner.”
4. Elimination of wrong responses: There is progressive elimination of the superfluous, unsuccessful or wrong form of
activity or responses.
5. Chance success: As a result of random movements, success comes by chance.
6. Establishment of right responses: In trial and error learning, there is integration and establishment of right responses by
which goal is achieved. It is a stage of errorless performance.
7. Achieving the goal: Achievement of goal or attaining some sort of satisfaction is a last step in trial and error learning.
Achievement of goal or attaining satisfaction is very important for learning anything.
Process of Learning: The experiment, discussed above, can be summed up in the following stages:
Drive 30
Hunger for Cat
Goal To get food (Fish)
Block Closed doors of Puzzle box
Random Movements Clawing, bitting, dashing, pushing nose

etc.
Chance Success Manipulation of latch accidently
Process of Learning Correct techniques selection
Fixation Repeating the correct technique

Throndike’s Law of Learning
Getting
Throndike discovered primary and secondary law’s of learning
Achieving the Goal theexperimental
after his Fish studies.
Laws of Learning
Secondary Laws
Primary Laws
1. Law of Readiness 4. Law or Analogy or Comparison

2. Law of Exercise 5. Law of Associative Shifting
3. Law of Effect 6 Law of Multiple Response
7. Law or Mental set or Attitude
8. Law of Belongingness
9. Law of partial Activity
Primary laws are:
1. Law of Readiness: This law states that an individual learns best when he is ready to adapt himself to new situation. A
teacher is advised to introduce a difficult lesson or concept to students, when the learner would be well prepared to learn
the same.
2. Law of Exercise: This law emphasis drill and practice. A teacher should know the value of drill in memorization of
multiplication tables, poems and lessons. Each trial not only enabled us to learn but to polish our performance.
3. Law of Effect: This law emphasis the system of rewards and punishment. It says that pleasant experiences have a lasting
influence while unpleasant leads to blocking of learning.
Secondary laws:
1.law of Belongingness: For elaborating the painful experiences which was forgotten by law of effect, Throndike formulated this
law. He stated that things are recalled not in isolation but in association with others.
2 Law of Analogy or comparison: This law states that an individual respond to a situation by making comparison to the past
situations.
31
3 Law of Associative Shifting: It says that the responses which are possible can be evoked with associating it with any stimulus.
As for example, in one of the experiment, Throndike taught the cat to learn ‘stand up’ act by associating it with fish.
4 Law of Multiple Responses: According to this law, an individual reacts to a problem in number of ways before arriving
at a correct response.
5 Law of Mental set or Attitude: It implies that even the difficult tasks can be learnt with ease if attitude or mental set is
positive towards it.
6 Law of Partial Activity: It implies that the individual solves the whole problem in parts rather than whole.
Educational Implications of Trial and Error Theory of Learning:
1. Importance of readiness: Thorndike believes that readiness is preparation for action. It is essential for learning. If the
pupil is ready to learn, he learns more quickly and effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is not ready to learn.
He warns us not to make the child learn till he is ready to learn and allow not to miss any opportunity of providing learning
if the pupil is already prepared to learn.
2. Importance of motivation: Thorndike emphasised the importance of motivation in learning which was totally neglected
before his time. Arousal of motivation makes the students ready for learning. Students must be properly motivated before
they are taught.
3. Importance of experience: The theory recognises the importance of previous experiences. Understanding grows due to
previous experiences. The best way to develop understanding is to develop a body of connections appropriate to that of
understanding.
4. Strengthening of bonds: An important task of the teacher is to see what theories, principles and generalisations, etc. he
likes to be remembered or forgotten by the students. Consequently, he must try to strengthen the bonds or connections
between the stimuli and the responses which are to be remembered. This could be done through drill, repetition, practice
and reward. For forgetting, he should make attempts to weaken the connections through disuse and annoying students.
5. Importance of repitition: For effective learnin, more repititions should be made. Students should follow the rule that
“practice makes a man perfect”. Forgetting takes place because of the law of disuse.
6. Role of reward and punishment: The theory (law of effect) recognises the role of rewards and punishments in learning.
Getting reward as a result of some learning motivates and encourages the child to proceed on the same path with more
intensity and enthusiasm while the punishment of any type discourages him and creates distaste and distraction towards
that learning. Thus the theory implies that:
i. Mere repitition is of no use. Repetition becomes useful when the response is rewarded. In that case repetition
strengthens the connection.
ii. Rewards have more strengthening effect than the corresponding weakening effect of punishments.
7. Grading of the task: Theory contributes the grading of the task from simple to complex. So teacher should proceed from
simple to complex, known to unknown, concrete to abstract.
8. Use of experiments: Thorndike placed much emphasis on experimental verification. So the teacher should make use of
experiments and learning by doing wherever possible for better and effective learning.
9. Learnings of skills: Various skills sitting, standing, walking, running, cycling are learnt by trial and error.
10. Scientific invention: Many scientific inventions, machines and improvements are the results of trial and error.
11. Formation of habits and sentiments: Habit formation is based on trial and error. Teachers and parents can form good
habits and sentiments in the students on the basis of trial and error.
12. Use in insightful learning: Even in insightful learning, trial and error is involved.
13. Transfer of learning: Transfer in learning takes place because of identical elements in the two situations.
14. Aids to improve learning: Thorndike advocated the following aids of learning:
i. Attentiveness
ii. Interest in work.
iii. Interest in improvement of work.
iv. Problem solving attitude.
Limitations of Trial and Error Theory
1. Energy consuming: The theory requires a good deal of energy because transfer of learning is minimum under trial and
error.
2. Random efforts: It is not desirable to do random efforts because doing anything without insight is meaningless. The theory
ignores the role of understanding, experience, discrimination and insight in learning.
3. Emphasis on rote learning: The theory over-emphasises the role of rote learning.
4. Not much useful for bright students: The theory may be useful for less intelligent and backward students but not much
useful for bright and intelligent students.
5. Not much useful for higher classes: The theory is useful in case of students of lower classes, but for students of higher
classes, the theory does not provide much guidance.
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Ques: What is conditioning? Discuss the theory of classical conditioning along with its educational implications.(2019),2021
Ans:CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Classical conditioning theory was put forward by Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). There are various names of this
theory:
1. Pavlovian Conditioning Theory

2. Conditioned Reflex Theory.
3. Conditioned Response Theory.
4. Substitution of Response Theory.
5. Respondent Conditioning
6. S-type conditioning
7. S-R Associationistic Theory.
This theory was put forward by Pavlov and Watson. According to this theory learning takes place by conditioning.
Conditioning implies the attachment or association of original response with the new artificial stimuli. In other words conditioning
means modification of innate or natural response.
This theory emphasis on association between the Stimulus (Artificial) and Response (Natural). We, the human
beings, generally have a tendency to link or connect one event with another as a result of experiences or sequential learning. The
list of sequential learning is endless in our lives. As for example, we always anticipate that lightening precedes thunder, rain follows
black clouds, fire- extinguishing engines make a particular bell-sound, and ambulance van has a different horn sound. Thus, we
learn by associating one event with another and we are not born with this prior associative learning. Pavlov through his theory
explain the phenomena of associative learning which bring conditioning in responses.
Experiments on Conditioning:
1. Pavlov’s Experiment on Dog: Pavlov conducted an experiment on the dog. He used to ring the bell before giving food
to the dog. He repeated this activity for several days under the similar conditions. When the food was placed before the
dog and the bell was rung, the saliva would secrete in the mouth of the dog. After some days, it was observed that only
the bell was rung, the food was not placed, but the saliva started secreting. It means that natural response saliva was
obtained by artificial stimulus (bell) instead of giving food. Pavlov named it as the theory of conditioning, theory of
learning by Conditioned Reflex/Conditioned Response.
Diagrammatic view of the Experiment conducted by Pavlov.
Natural or unconditional Natural or conditional

Stimulus (presentation response (salivation)
Of food)
Association S R
of Natural
and artificial
stimulus
S 33 R
1
Artificial or conditional (General1alertness)
stimulus (Ringing of the bell)
His experiment can also be understood through following schematic presentation.
Before conditioning:
Stimulus 1 (S1) Response 1 (R1)
(Food) (Saliva)
S2 R2
(Bell) (General Alertness or Turning the ears)
During conditioning: After several repetitions
S1 + S2 R1
(Food) + (Bell) (Saliva)
After conditioning:
S2 R1
(Bell) (Saliva)
ILLUSTRATION: A mother goes to the doctor’s clinic for the treatment of his child who is suffering from high fever. After a
thorough check of the child, the doctor advises the mother to get him injected. During injection, as the child feels the prick of the
needle, he starts crying due to pain. The doctor advises the mother to come next day for another check-up of the day. This time
also doctor injects the child and again the child cries due to pain. This process is repeated for a few days more. A day comes when
the child starts crying merely at the sight of the doctor or at the sight of the clinic or even one day the use of word ‘doctor’ at home
may be sufficient to make the child cry. Thus the response of fear towards doctor develops in the baby.
In the above illustration two stimuli have affected the behavior of the child:
(i) Prick of the injection needle: It is the stronger stimulus.It becomes the natural stimulus.
(ii) Doctor: Doctor is considered as the weaker stimulus.It becomes the artificial or the neutral stimulus.
When the child develops fear towards the doctor, it means that the response of the stronger stimulus has been substituted by the
artificial or mental stimulus. Thus conditioning means modification of natural response. It means attachment or association of
original response with the new stimuli.
John Watson (1878-1958), the father of behaviorism supported pavlov’s ideas on conditioned responses. Through his experiments
Watson tried to demonstrate the role of conditioning in producing as well as eliminating emotional responses such as fear. His
Rabbit Baby was experiment is famous.
Watson, Rabbit –Baby Experiment: The experiment was made on a baby of 11 months. The baby was given a rabbit to play.
The rabbit fur gave pleasure to the baby while he touched it. During the experiment, a loud noise to frighten the baby was produced
the moment he touched the rabbit. The baby was frightened. This was repeated several times, till the baby got frightened by the
rabbit, even without the frightening noise.
Properties of Conditioned Response:
1. Specific : Conditioned response is specific i.e., it can be evoked only with which it is conditioned. Other stimulus will
not have any effect on it.
2. Temporary: Conditioned response is temporary and unstable i.e., it is not permanent activity. Its influence decreases after
some time.
3. Summation: Conditioned response is based on summation i.e., if C.R. is conditioned with many stimuli and when all are
presented simultaneously then the strength of conditioned response will increase.
4. Dies through disuse: Conditioned response dies through disuse.
5. Age : Conditioned response can be established more easily in case of children than in case of adults.
6. Extinction : If conditioned response is established with many stimuli then the extinction of any one will not make any
effect on conditioned response.
Principles of Conditioning:
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1. Presentation of two stimuli: In classical conditioning two stimuli are presented in quick succession i.e., one followed by
the other immediately i.e., conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.
2. Presentation of unconditioned stimulus: Unconditioned stimulus must be presented after the conditioned stimulus
otherwise there will be no conditioning.
3. Strength of unconditioned stimulus: Unconditioned stimulus must be stronger than the artificial stimulus.
4. Repetition of the stimuli: Both conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be presented many times in order
to establish conditioning.
5. Relevant consistency: There should be relevant consistency between the presentation of conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus i.e., they must be given at the uniform rate.
6. Reinforcement of unconditioned stimulus: The natural (unconditioned) stimulus must be reinforced after a certain times
i.e., if conditioning is established and for some trails unconditioned stimulus is not given, the strength of the conditioned
stimulus will decrease.
7. Extinction of CR : After conditioning , if ringing the bell is not followed by presentation of meat (food) on several
occasions, the dog may stop salivating. Pavlov named this process as ‘extinction of CR’ (conditioned response). Extinction
may be defined as temporary forgetting of conditioned response.
8. Spontaneous generalization:Pavlov discovered that if the dog is conditioned to one particular sound of bell, it would also
give the response of salivation more or less to all sorts of bells. A child who develops a conditioned fear response in the
school to a particular teacher may generalize this fear response towards other teachers also.
9. Spontaneous recovery: Pavlov brought the dog out of the experimental laboratory after extinction. After a gap of a few
days, he again put the dog in the same experimental laboratory. Surprisingly, Pavlov found that there was spontaneous
recovery of the extinguished response i.e. the dog once again salivated to the ringing of the bell.
10. Stimulus differentiation: If the dog is presented food (meat) after a particular sound of bell and is not presented food
(meat) to other sounds of bell, the dog may develop stimulus differentiation i.e., it may salivate to a particular sound but
will not salivate to other sounds of bell. Both stimulus generalization and stimulus differentiation are contrary to each other.
11. Intelligence: Less intelligent children can be easily conditioned in comparison to more intelligent children. Pavlov
advocated that intelligence and conditioning never go side by side. If intelligence works, conditioning will not take place
and if conditioning takes place, intelligence will not work.
12. Sex: Conditioning takes place easily in case of girls in comparison to boys.
13. Age: Conditioning takes place easily in case of children in comparison to adults.
Factors influencing Conditioning (Conditioned Reflex or Response)
1. Motivation: Conditioning (Conditioning reflex or response) is highly influenced by motivation. If the subject is motivated
for conditioning, he will be conditioned easily. All learning is motivated learning. Hence motivation is essential for all
types of learning. In Pavlov’s experiment of dog, food is motivation for the dog. If the dog is not kept hungry, he will not
bother for the bell and even much for the food. Hence the individual should be properly motivated for learning.
2. Repetition: In the words of Prof. Dashiell, “Repetition is essential for the establishment of the conditioned response”. If
there are more repetitions of the conditioning process, there will be better conditioning. In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell is
rung again and again before giving food to the dog so that he may understand the necessary relationship between the bell
and the food. If the bell is rung only once then the dog may not understand the relationship between the bell and the food.
Moreover, the process of ringing the bell and giving food to the dog was repeated several time.
3. Immediacy: Conditioning is influenced by immediacy. In the words of Prof. Murphy, “Immediacy is necessary between
the natural and artificial stimulus.” In Pavlov’s experiment the food is the natural stimulus and the bell is artificial stimulus.
Food is given immediately after ringing the bell. If the time interval between the bell and the food is too much then the dog
may not understand the relationship between the bell and food. Hence there may be no conditioning. Hence if artificial and
natural stimuli is not given simultaneously, the conditioning may not take place.
4. Age: Children may be conditioned easily than adults.
5. Mental health and intelligence: Good mental health and high level of intelligence help in conditioned response or
conditioning.
6. External barriers: Conditioning or the conditioned response will be delayed if there are external barriers (e.g. noise).
7. Extinction: Just as repetition of the pairing of the conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned stimuli strengthens the
connections, similarly the presentation of the conditioned stimulus without its being followed by the unconditioned
stimulus results in progressive diminution of the response. The dog no longer salivates at the sound of bell after the bell
has been rung a certain number of times without being followed by food.
Deconditioning (Extinction of Conditioned Reflex or Response):
Deconditioning means removing conditioned reflex or response. With the help of deconditioning, many irrational fears can be
removed from the minds of children. The following points should be noted for the extinction of conditioned reflex or response
(Deconditioned):
1. Lack of motivation: If there is no motivation, there will be no learning by conditioning. If no food is given to the dog after
ringing the bell, then the dog will not care for ringing the bell.
2. Lack of repetition: Conditioned response dies through disuse or lack or repetition. Lack of repetition causes
deconditioning.
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3. Increase the time interval: Conditioning will be removed if the time interval between the natural and the artificial stimulus
is increased. In Pavlov’s experiment, if the food is given after a long interval of ringing the bell, the dog may not establish
link between ringing bell and getting food.
4. Removal of natural stimulus: If natural stimulus (say food) is not given after the artificial stimulus (say ringing of the
bell) then the strength of conditioned stimulus will decrease and there may be no conditioning.
Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning Theory:
1. Language learning and concept of formation: Language can be learnt with the help of conditioning. Concept formation,
during the early childhood period takes place as a result of conditioning. The techniques of using dolls, balls, cubes, pictures
posters, flash cards, etc. for language learning and concept formation are based on conditioning. A picture of an elephant
or a camel is presented before the learner and the teacher speaks out the word. But the child comes to recognize birds,
animals, vegetables and fruits by their names on the basis of concept formation and learning.
2. Theory of reward and punishment: Theory of reward and punishment is based on conditioning i.e. bad deed should be
associated with punishment and good one with relevant reward or praise. Rewards strengthen the behavior and punishment
weakens the behavior. The desired behaviours of the learners should always be associated with the rewards and their
undesired behavior should be associated with the punishment. Moreover, reward or punishment, should be given at the
right time i.e. immediately after the desired or undesired behavior.
3. Formation of attitudes and sentiments: Positive attitudes, sentiments, values and beliefs can be formed and developed
with the help of conditioning. Most of the conditioning takes place in social environment. Therefore, parents and teachers
should create healthy and favourable situations so that the children may develop positive and favourable attitudes and
sentiments towards them and society.
4. Formation of good habits: Good habits can be formed with the help of conditioning. Habits of industriousness,
punctuality, obedience, co-operation, sincerity, respect for elders and self-discipline etc. can be developed among children
by using the procedure of conditioning.
5. Elimination of negative attitudes and bad habits: Unhealthy attitudes and bad habits like drinking, smoking, gambling
can be broken with the help of ‘Deconditioning’.
6. Superstitions and phobias: Superstitions and phobias can be deconditioned. For example, a child has developed
superstition that by conditioning that when he sees a cat crossing the street, he gets punishment. Such superstitions can be
removed through further conditioning (deconditioning). Let the child get no punishment on a number of times when a cat
is made to cross his path. Thus superstitions, fears, phobias, anxiety, nervousness among children can be removed or
minimized with the help of deconditioning.
7. Liking and disliking for teacher and subject: An individual may like or dislike an object or a person, if it associated
with good or bad effects. A teacher with unpsychological method of teaching or authoritative (harsh) behavior may be
disliked by the students. Students may develop a feeling of hatred towards the teacher as well as the subject due to
conditioning. On the other hand, a teacher with effective and psychological methods of teaching and affectionate and
friendly behavior may be liked by the student. The students will develop a feeling of love, affection and liking towards the
teacher.
8. Principles of association: Laws of association (contiguity or nearness, similarly and contrast, etc.) get practical application
in the process of conditioning.
9. Repetition (practice): Repetition helps in conditioning. Had the food not been repeated no learning would have taken
place. Learning of physical sciences, biological sciences, social sciences, mathematics, language and skills need repetition
or practice. Therefore, students must be given ample opportunities to revise and repeat their lessons.
10. Use of audio-visual aids: Conditioning emphasizes the use of audio-visual aids in the teaching-learning process. The use
of audio-visual aids can be made effective through conditioning. For example, if a word ‘crow’ is to be taught to the
children in the class, then the picture of the ‘crow’ must be shown to them along with the word written on the blackboard.
Children will speak that word after looking the picture. Then the picture is removed and the children will repeat only the
written word. Thus the children could learn to speak the word ‘crow’ as a result of conditioning.
11. Treatment of delinquent, problem and maladjusted children: The theory also helps in the treatment of delinquent,
problem and many other types of maladjusted children. This theory helps the teachers and psychologists to study the
conditioned response of fear, phobia, anxiety or emotionally unstable children. Thus, the teacher can prepare a case and
understand the morbid actions of the child.
12. Useful in mental hospital: The mental cases and emotionally unstable children can best be treated with the process of
conditioning. Conditioning plays an important role in the treatment of mental patients. Moos Ward Atmosphere Scale is
pioneer in this regard. It states that on account of love, affection and good treatment many complexes and fears can be
removed from the minds of such patients and such type of conditioning helps in their early recovery.
13. Useful in adjustment: Conditioning method is very useful for helping the children in making adjustment with the
environment. The beginning of this takes place with the adjustment of the child in classroom conditions and school
circumstances. Later on, he applies all this to make adjustment in real life challenging situations. It is the conditioning only
that enables the child to make way in difficult and odd circumstances.
This theory is very useful for the progress of culture and civilization. With the help of this theory, the child is able
to learn many things in his early age.
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Ques: What is Operant conditioning? How does it differ from Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning?(2018),2020,2022
Or
Discuss the theory of operant conditioning along with its educational implications.(2018)
Ans:
SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Introduction
B.F. Skinner, an American Psychologist formulated theory of learning as Operant Conditioning Theory. This theory is also
known as Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning, R-Type Theory, S-R Theory with reinforcement, contingency theory of
reinforcement. In classical conditioning theory stimulus is more important as compare to Response. Organism is passive, it must
wait for something to happen for it to respond. The presence of a stimulus is essential to evoke a response e.g. the child expresses
fear only when he hears a loud noise, the dog waits for food to arrive before salivating.
But Skinner revolt classical conditioning theory, he said in practical situations in our life, we cannot always wait for things
to happen in the environment. Man is not a victim of the environment. So it is not essential that there must be some known stimuli
or cause for evoking a response.
The organism itself initiates the behavior. A dog, a child, or an individual ‘does’ something, ‘behaves’ in some manner,
and ‘operates’ on the environment which in turn responds to the activity. The environment is responding to the activity, rewarding
or otherwise largely determines whether the behavior will be repeated, maintained or avoided.
A question which may be asked at this stage is, from where did Skinner get the cure for such ideas? Definitely, it was from
the studies and observations of an earlier psychologist named Edward Lee Thorndike. Based on the findings of his experiments, he
concluded that “behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results”.
The occurrence of such behavior was named operant behavior and the process of learning, that plays a part in learning such behavior,
was termed by him as operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning may be represented as follows:
Response Reinforcement Repetition
Instrumental Conditioning
Skinner’s Operant Experiment:
1. Experiment on rat: Skinner developed his own method and apparatus to study operant conditioning. He developed a
simple apparatus commonly known as Skinner Box. It is a simple box with a lever at one end. The pressing of the lever
activates a food delivery mechanism. A hungry rat is placed inside the box. Initially the food pellets are delivered to the rat
by pressing a lever from the outside by the experimenter. This step is necessary for the food reinforcement to be effective.
Next the experimenter stops releasing food pellets. Rat is left alone in the box, it becomes hungry and begins to explore
the box, accidently presses the lever, a pellet of food is released and the rat eats it. The rat continues exploring, presses the
lever and gets the pellet. Usually after the fourth or fifth press the rat begins to press the lever more rapidly and the operant
behavior is in full swing. Operant Conditioning involves shaping. When the rat has habituated to the box, shaping of
pressing response would begin. Whenever the rat moved near the lever, the experimenter would press a switch releasing
food pellet, thus reinforcing this behavior. Then the rat would be required to move a little closer to the desired response of
pressing the lever. It would be then reinforced for putting his paw on the bar/lever, and finally again it would be reinforced
for pressing the lever. In this way the behavior of the rat is shaped.
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Rat in Skinner Box
2. Experiment on pigeon: Skinner put a hungry pigeon in an other specific apparatus called Pigeon Box. The pigeon had to
raise his head to a particular height and peck at a particular spot in order to get his food (gram) which is automatically
released on pecking. The process of operant conditioning is the change in frequency with which the head is lifted to a given
height. The reinforce is food and the reinforcement is the process of food presentation, when the response is emitted and
when the head is raised to a particular height, a particular spot is pecked. The operant is the behavior upon which the
reinforcement is contigent i.e., the height to which the head must be raised.
In operant conditioning, the important stimulus is the one immediately following the response, not the one
preceding it. Any emitted response which leads to reinforcement is thereby strengthened.
Some Concept of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
1. Respondent and Operant Behaviour: As we have seen, the earlier theories of learning assumed the existence of a known
stimulus as a necessary pre-requistic for evoking a response. Skinner, at first, put forward the idea that most of the responses
could not be attributed to the known stimuli. He defined two types of responses – one “elicited’ by known stimuli which
he called “respondent behavior” and the other “emitted” by the unknown stimuli which he called “operant behavior”.
Examples of respondent behavior may include all reflexes such as jerking one’s hand when jabbed with a pin and the
constriction of the pupils on account of bright light or salivation in the presence of food.
Some common examples of such behavior may include the arbitrary movement of one’s hands, arms or legs, a
child abandoning one toy in favour of another, eating a meal, writing a letter, standing up and walking about and similar
other every day activities.
2. Operant: Skinner considers an operant as an act which constitutes an organism’s doing something e.g. raising the head,
walking about, pushing a lever etc.
3. Positive and negative reinforce: Skinner recognizes two kinds of reinforcers – positive and negative.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus such as food, water, sexual contact, etc. the introduction or presentation of
which increases the likelihood of a particular behavior. In the educational context, praise, grades, medals, and other prizes
awarded to students are examples of positive reinforcers.
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A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which increases the likelihood of a particular
behavior. An electric shock, a loud noise, etc. are said to be negative reinforcers. In the educational context, one example
may be a teacher’s saying to the students that whoever does drill work properly in the class would be exempted from
homework.
4. Instrumental conditioning: means the activities of the subject becomes instrumental to effect the final response.
5. R-S Formula: According to R.S. Formula, when a desired response is emitted, a reinforcing stimulus is presented. Thus a
response is conditioned by constantly reinforcing it. The reinforcement must come after the response has been made and
not before it. If the response is not reinforced, it result in the extinction of the response (operant). Thus, Skinner was against
“No” stimulus No Response Theory”.
Operations in Operant Conditioning:
1. Shaping: Shaping of behavior is an important, activity in operant conditioning. It includes shaping of behavior through
appropriate reinforcement. In this process behavior is shaped in same manner as an artist moulds soil for making pots. Eg.
For teaching a child table manners chocolate is given at each correct step. For teaching pigeon dance, grain is given at each
correct movement.
2. Extinction: It means the appropriate response occurs but reinforcement not given for the response. Suppose if in the skinner
box the rat presses the lever but it does not get food pellet and if this would had happened continuously for some time, the
bar pressing behavior of the rat would have been extinguished.
3. Recovery: It means that if an organism is removed from the situation for a while and is presented with it again after some
time, his performance would be better than would be predicted from his performance at the end of preceding extinction.
Suppose if a teacher gives, a student a positive remark say excellent for good handwriting and keeps on giving for 2nd, 3rd
time but stops it on 4th, 5th and 6th time; then the student will work much harder to get the same remark next time.
4. Reinforcement: Reinforcement is based on Response (R) rather than on stimulus (S). Only after response, reinforcement
is provided. It is identical to presentation of reward.
5. Reinforcer: A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response reoccurance.
In other words, reinforcers are events that raise the rate of responding.
Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning was developed by Russian 1. Operant Conditioning was developed by B.F.
Psychologist Pavlov and is called Pavlovian Skinner and is called Skinnerian or operant
respondent learning. It helps in the learning of learning. It helps in the learning of operant
respondent behavior. It is also known as Classical behavior.
Respondent Conditioning.
2. It called Type S conditioning to emphasize the 2. It is called Type R conditioning because of the
importance of the stimulus in eliciting desired emphasis on the response.
response.
3. Beginning is made with the help of specific stimuli 3. Beginning is made with the responses as they
that bring certain responses. occur naturally or unnaturally, shaping them into
existence.
4. There is a definite connection between the stimulus 4. The conditioned response cannot be correlated
and the response. It is the stimulus which elicits a with any known stimulus. It is emitted by the
particular response. organism.
5. In it reinforcement is provided by the unconditioned 5. In it the response causes conditioned
stimulus. reinforcement to appear. Reinforcement cannot
follow unless the conditioned response is given.
So in operant conditioning reinforcement is
contingent upon conditioned response.
6. In it the C.R. and U.R. are the same. 6. In it the C.R. and U.R. are different (pressing the
lever is different from eating food).
7. It measures respondent behavior or involuntary 7. It measures operant behavior or voluntary
behavior of the autonomic nervous system. behavior of the central nervous system.
8. In it the environment acts upon the organism. 8. In it the organism acts upon the environment.
Respondent behavior depends upon contiguity or Operant behavior depends upon the
stimulus conditions at the start of training. The consequences. Thus association between
association between stimulus and response (S - R) stimulus and response (S-R) is on the basis of
is on the basis of law of contiguity. Hence classifical law of effect. Hence operant conditioning is
conditioning is governed by law of contiguity. governed by law of effect.
9. There is pairing of Unconditioned Stimulus (U.C.S) 9. There is no pairing of Unconditioned Stimulus
and Conditioned Stimulus (C.S) and Conditioned Stimulus, but pairing of a
39
response and the reinforcing stimulus which
follows.
10. Bond between specific U.C.S. and C.S. is 10. Tendency to respond in a specific manner is
established. developed.
11. The essence of learning is stimulus substitution. 11. The essence of learning is response
modification.
12. It is stimulus oriented. 12. It is response oriented.
13. It focuses on the single stimulus response bondage. 13. It is concerned with sequence of responses. A
chain of responses is formed which leads to the
desired goal.
14. Unconditioned stimulus is presented regardless of 14. The stimulus is presented only if the organism
whether the conditioned response occurs. makes the desired response.
15. The classically conditioned reflexes may have zero 15. The operant cannot have zero strength because it
strength initially. has to occur at least once before it can be
reinforced.
16. Reinforcement comes first as in Pavlov’s 16. Reinforcement is provided after the response is
experiment food is presented first to elicit the made by the organism.
response.
17. In it, the occurance of conditioned response is 17. In it, the response is more voluntary and
reflexively forced by unconditioned stimulus. spontaneous.
18. Classical conditioning presents different pictures of 18. The operant conditioning situation describes the
behavior and learning in which an arbitrary stimulus differentiation and discrimination of a response
is associated with a highly specific, elicitable out of a mass behavior emitted in response to a
response. complex stimulus field.
19. Respondent behavior is internal and has a secret, 19. Operant behavior is external behavior. It is the
personal quality about it. behavior with which the organism operates on
the environment.
20. Strength of conditioning is usually determined by 20. Strength of conditioning is shown by the
the magnitude of the conditioned response i.e., the response rate i.e. the rate with which an operant
amount of saliva (as in the case of Pavlov’s classical response occurs as a result of reinforcement.
experiment with dog.)
Educational Implications of Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
1. Behavior modification: The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in behavior modification. We
have to find something which is rewarding for the individual whose behavior we wish to modify, wait until the desired
behavior occurs, and immediately reward him when it does. When this is done, the frequency with which the desired
response occurs goes up. When the behavior next occurs, it is again rewarded.
2. Useful for mentally retarded children: The theory is useful for mental patients, mentally retarded and problematic
children. The desirable behavior of these can be reinforced in the form of reward.
3. Useful for avoiding undesirable behavior: It suggests the best way to get rid of an undesirable behavior i.e. to ignore it
and reward the appropriate behavior.
4. Helpful in programmed learning: The most significant contribution of operant conditioning lies in its role towards the
development of programmed instruction material and systematic individualized approach to teaching through teaching
machines and computer assisted instructions.
5. Useful for behavior modification: With the help of this theory a teacher can give the desirable shape and direction to the
behavior of the students.
6. Learner centered: Through this approach the child learns at its own pace.
7. Emphasis on avoidance of punishment: The theory is against punishment and suggests that it makes the child rebellion
and revolutionary which hinder learning.
8. External approach to motivation: The theory states that the secondary reinforcers such as praise, good scores, prizes,
medals etc. also contribute to the motivation of the student.
9. Useful for training: For training an organism to learn a particular behavior or task the theory proves useful.
10. Eliminating negative behavior through extinction: When a learned response is repeated without reinforcement, the
strength of the tendency to perform that response undergoes a progressive decrease. Extinction procedures can be
successfully used by the classroom teacher in eliminating negative behavior of students.
11. Basis for programmed instruction: The theory provides the basis for programmed instruction. Programmed instruction
is a kind of leaning experience in which a programme takes the place of tutor for the students and leads him through a set
of specific behaviours. The principles originating from operant conditioning have revolutionized the training and learning
programmes. Consequently, mechanical leaning in the form of teaching machines and computer-assisted instructions have
replaced usual class-room instructions. The use of programmed material in the form of a book or machine makes provision
for immediate reinforcement.
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12. Behavior therapy: Operant Conditioning has also been used as a form of behavior therapy. Behavior therapy attempts to
treat behavior disorders by reinforcing socially adaptive behavior and extinguishing maladaptive behavior.
Ques: Discuss Bandura’s Social Learning Theory along with its educational implications.(2017-18,2019,2021,2022- 4
MARKS)
OR
Discuss the nature of Bandura’s social constructivist theory.
Ans:Social Learning Theory
Introduction:
Social Learning Theory proposed by Albert – Bandura has become the most influential theory of learning and development. This
theory is also known as ‘Social Cognitive Theory’. It has also been called a bridge between behaviourist and Cognitive Learning
Theories because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation.
The Basic Concept/Meaning:
According to Bandura direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning as proposed by other learning
theories. He added that a ‘social element’ is also necessary in people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other
people, known as observation learning (Modeling) & imitation.
For ex: if elder sister is rewarded for doing her homework in time, her younger brother imitates her and completes his
homework in time and is rewarded.
Thus a child keenly observes the behaviours of others, specially the nearest relations. Which is known as observational learning.
Acc to Albert Bandura 1977: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on
the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.”
Stages of Social Learning:
Social learning occurs through four main stages:
1. Close contact
2. Imitation of superiors
3. Understanding of concepts
4. Role model behavior
Experiment:
Bandura’s “Bobodoll Experiment” :- In 1961 Bandura through his experiment studied patterns of behavior associated with
aggression.
In his experiment, he made a film in which a woman was shown beating up a bobo doll with a stick and shouting aggressive words.
The film was then shown to three groups of children, with a different ending.
Group A Group B Group C
Saw only the doll Saw the adult being Saw adult being
Being hit praised and rewarded punished for
for hitting the doll. hitting the dog.
Afterwards, the children were allowed to play in a room that had a similar bobo doll they had seen in the film. It was observed that
Group A & Group B – Imitated aggressive Behaviour
Group C – Were less aggressive
Thus the children received no encouragement or incentives to beat up the doll, they were simply imitating the behavior they had
observed.
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Conclusions drawn from the Experiment:
1. People learn through observing other’s behavior, attitudes and outcomes of those behaviours.
“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling. From observing others, one forms an idea
of how new behaviours are performed and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for the actions of
human being in the environment.”
2. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioural and environmental influences.
3.
al
Behavioural
Cognitive
Social
Learning
Environment
Basic Concepts/Principles of Social Learning Theory:-
Observational Intrinsic The Modeling
Learning Reinforcement Process
Based of Three Models

Necessary
Factors/Conditions
Live Model Verbal Symbolic Attention
Process
Instructiional Model Retention
Model
Reproduction
(Performance)
motivation
1. Observational Learning: One learns through observation in environment, which depends upon three models.
• A Live Model : It involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
• A verbal Instructional Model: It involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
• A symbolic Model: It involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in books, films, television,
programmes etc.
2. Intrinsic Reinforcement: Mental states are also important to learning as the learning and behavior is not only
influenced by external environmental reinforcement. Sometimes inner reinforcement such as internal reward, sense
of pride and satisfaction in accomplishing any task acts as reinforcement for the learners.
3. Modeling Process: Bandura said that not all observed behaviours are effectively learnt. Model (The Presentor) and
the learner plays a significant role in successful social learning. For this certain steps are to be foll owed:
1. Attention : Attention plays a significant role in social learning. Distraction of attention leads to negative effect
on learning. Interesting model or novel aspect in the situation leads to full attention to learning by the organism.
2. Retention : Retention means the ability to store information, what learner learns from observation gets fixed up
in his memory (coded information). Retention can be affected by number of factors; but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
3. Reproduction/Performances: After paying attention to the observed behavior/Model, the learner retains the
information. Further the time comes when the organism actually performs the observed behavior. This stage is
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also called the action stage. Further practice to this action leads to improvement and skill advancement. For that
good guidance, systematic training and adequate practice helps a lot.
4. Motivation: Modeled behavior if motivated leads to the success of observational learning. Reinforcement play
an important role in motivation, motivators can be highly effective.
For Ex: if child see another student rewarded with extra credit for being on time in class, then he might also start to
show the same behavior.
Features of Social Learning Theory:
1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of others and the outcomes of those behaviours.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a
permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through
observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not
result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive
in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can
have a major effect on the behaviours that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and
cognitive learning theories.
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning:
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the
actual imitation of what has been learned.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in
learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future
behaviours are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring
punishment. The learner needs to be aware however, of the response reinforcements and response
punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person.
In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on
each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, and actual person demonstrating the
behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other
medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.
Educational implications of social learning theory:(2018)
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is
operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To
promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention,
retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate
behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break
down traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Thus it is very important to develop
a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having students receive
confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on their own.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments.
8. Self regulation techniques provide and effective method for improving student behavior.
(1) Helpful in learning positive behaviours: Generally, child learns through observing and
imitating others. If a positive behavior is modeled before them they may try to imitate it. Teachers and parents
should take due care and must model appropriate behaviours in front of the child.
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(2) Helpful in avoiding inappropriate behavior: Discussing the rewards and consequences of
particular behavior followed by others can effectively increase the appropriate behaviours and decrease
inappropriate ones.
(3) Faster and efficient mean for teaching new behavior: Modeling provides a faster and
efficient means for teaching new behavior to the students. A teacher should make sure that four essential
conditions of modeling i.e. attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation are fulfilled.
(4) Helpful in developing self-efficacy: Student are made to believe that they are capable of
accomplishing tasks themselves. Teachers can help in promoting such self-efficacy by giving confidence-
building messages, providing examples of successful persons and helping them to experience success on their
own.
(5) Helpful in enhancing learning skills: Through promoting desirable behavior, students can be
helped in enhancing learning skills.
(6) Helpful in sustaining attention: Through demonstration or modeling the teacher can make a
good attempt in capturing the attention of the students.
(7) Useful for immediate feedback: This theory of learning helps the teacher in giving immediate
feedback to the students and thus providing them reinforcement for strengthening positive behavior.
Ques: Discuss in detail the social constructivist theory of learning propagated by Vygostsky.(2018)
OR
What is social constructivism ? Discuss in detail the social constructivist theory of learning propagated by vygostky.
Ans:SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
INTRODUCTION:- According to this Theory learner should play an active role in the process of learning by constructing their
own knowledge on the basis of past experiences and their present Interaction with the environment. Learner should construct his
knowledge by himself individually or socially is thus the main focal point of the philosophy of constructism. He will construct
independently with his own efforts without seeking no outside assistance or social interaction.
HISTORY:-The main propagator of this type of constructivist approach is the famous swsis psychologist Jean piaget and others are
vygotsky, Bruner and Bandura
MAIN Contribution TO CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. David Ausubel – subsumption Theory

2. Jerome Bruner – Constructism
3. Jean Piaget – Genetic Epistemology
4. Lev Vygotsky social constructivist
5. Lave situated cognition
6. Albert Bandura social learning
All psychologist emphasizes that all learning is social it child learns and develops through the social interaction with his
parents, family members, peers, teachers and community members. He constructs the necessary knowledge as a part of his
learning in social company of the peers and guidance of the elders.
The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher or experts pour knowledge into passive students who wait like empty
vessels to be filled in. in a constructivist classroom the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of
learning.
THE KEY ASSUMPTIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH ARE:-
• The learner construct their own knowledge

• Learner play an active role, not involve in a passive process.
• The role of the teacher is to guide or support the learner in their construction of knowledge.
• Learning is a social process and it can be carried out best in a social environment.
• Social learning is important in learning.
• Despite having same learning experience, each learning will base his learning on the understanding and meaning personal
to him.
• Teaching must be designed to facilitate learning.
• The teacher or expert must act with responsibility.
• Learning or constructing meaning is an active and continuous process.
• Motivation play an important role.
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• Learner can learn only when he is able to construct their knowledge on the basic of past experience.
IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM FOR THE CLASSROOM
1. The teacher should keep in mind the previous knowledge and experiences of students.
2. The students should be made to construct their own knowledge through activity.
3. The teacher should provide assistance by link new knowledge with the old.
4. The teacher should be made flexible so as to permit development of student according to his capability.
5. The teacher must create meaningful situations where students can learn easily
6. The classroom activity must be interactive.
7. The student should learn through social interaction with teacher and peers.
8. The teaching must be related to the real world.
9. The teacher should provide support at the right time and right level.
10. The teacher must be planned in a way that knowledge is actively constructed and learning should be a process of discovery.
11. The activities like discussion, role-playing, gaming, brain-storming and simulation etc. should be used.
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
The major theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in learning and development of
cognition. This social interaction must be carried among the learners and the teacher to help them construct new knowledge based
on the old.
In this social interaction, the role of teacher or expert is very important as he provides assistance to the learner for
understanding the concept with his own experiences. Vygotsky called the person providing assistance as “More knowledgeable
other (MKO)” who is an expert and has more knowledge of the concerned field than the learner. But this more knowledgeable
person must not be necessarily a teacher, he can be a peer of that teacher also. The learner learns through social interaction with
other knowledgeable person.
The most important aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that potential for cognitive development depends upon the
“Zone of proximal development” (ZPD) : a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full
development of ZPD depends upon full social interaction. Zpd is based on the idea that development is defined both by what a child
can do Independently and by what the child can do when assisted by an adult or more competent peer.
Vyugotsky has also emphasized on the role of language and culture in the process of learning. Language is important as it
is the foundation on which the construction of knowledge can be done. And culture helps in the construction of knowledge by
relating new knowledge to the old.
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
Vygotsky’s theory is important for teachers and has great classroom application.
1. Vygotsky’s concept of (ZPD) zone of proximal development is based on the idea that development is defined both by what
the learner can do independently and by what he can do when assisted by an adult or more competent peer. The knowledge
of both levels of Vygotsky’s zone is very useful for the teachers, for these levels indicate where the child is at a given
moment as well as where the child or learner is going.
2. The idea of social interaction as important part of learning process has several implications for teaching in the classroom.
The teacher must plan activities that encourage interaction and activity of students. The students must be made to learn
with the help of others.
3. The role of language is important in learning. Thus the language must be taught at the early stages of learning to make a
strong foundation.
4. Use of scaffolding:- Scaffolding is the assistance or support provided by the teacher to the learners in the construction of
their knowledge. The teacher must use Scaffolding when children need help in the learning activities, Scaffolding is used
to help children move to a higher level of knowledge. The amount of help must be decided by the teacher keeping in mind
the level of the learner.
5. Use of more Skilled Peers as Teachers:- Vygotsky’s learning process is based on social interaction where teacher as well
as peers play an important role. The students must be made to benefit from the support of other more skilled children in
the classroom. The more skilled children can be made to act as teachers for their peers.
6. Assessment of Child’s ZPD and not I.Q.:- Vygotsky’s was against the use of intelligence tests to assess the I.Q. And he
advocated that focus should be on determining the ZPD of students. The more skilled helper can present the child with the
tasks of varying difficulty to determine the best level at which to begin instruction. The ZPD is a measure of learning
potential. I.Q. also measures learning potential but is personal to the learner where as ZPD is interpersonal.
7. Developing a Classroom with Vygotskian ideas:- The regular classroom can be transformed into a classroom with
Vygotskian ideas where learning activities take place in groups. The teacher acts as a help providing support to the students
using scaffolding. The teacher must have knowledge of ZPD of every learner and provides help accordingly. The teacher
plans activities where children participate more actively and are more attentive in classroom
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UNIT-III (UnderstandingTeaching )
Q:Write in brief the Related Concept of Teaching.(2022)
Ans:- Modes or kinds of Teaching(Teaching as Continuum):- There are four modes of teaching:-
(i) Conditioning:- Conditioning is a kind (mode) of teaching which refers to shaping behavior and habits. It referes to
teaching some one to do. It seems to be related with the concept of training.
(ii) Training :- Training is a mode of teaching which refers to shaping conduct and skills. It implies the manifestation of
intelligence. Persons of low intelligence are trainable. Teaching implies the high degree of intelligence. Training is
related to conditioning.
(iii) Instruction:- Instruction is a mode of teaching which refers to communication of knowledge. It is more concerned
with imparting knowledge and information. Training may be pre-requeste for instruction. Instruction is a good
example of teaching. It requires thanking, reasoning and generalization. It is a higher level of teaching.
(iv) Indoctrination:- Indoctrination is a kind of teaching which refers to formation or shaping of beliefs. It requires
higher levels of intelligence i.e., reasoning with feelings. T is concerned with transmission of doctrine:-
Modes of Teaching
Conditioning Training Instruction Indoctrination
Shaping behavior Shaping conduct Communication Formation of
And habits and skills of knowledge beliefs.
The table indicates that teaching has four modes of operations or behaviour (conditioning, training, instruction
and indoctrination). It means that teaching is a continuum for developing behavior to the formation of beliefs thus teaching
is a continuum for conditioning to indoctrination. Teaching starts from conditioning and reaches upto indoctrination.
Points Conditioning Training Instruction Indoctrination

1. Purpose Shaping behavior. Shaping behavior. Transmitting Shaping beliefs.
knowledge.
2. Teaching Some one to do. Some one to do. Some one that so Some one that so
and so. and so.
3. Objective Formation of habit. Formation of Formation of Formation of
skills. knowledge. values, attitudes
and beliefs.
4. Area Psychomotor. Psychomotor. Cognitive. Affective.
5. Learning Signal learning. Chain learning. Concept learning. Principle learning.
6. Level Thoughtless level. Thoughtless level. Thoughtful level. Thoughtful level.
7. Nature Memorization. Performance. Understanding Thoughtful level.
level.
8. Examples Teaching Developing skills. Teaching concepts, Developing
alphabets. theories, attitudes, feelings
principles, facts. and beliefs.
9. Application Small children. Training for Teaching higher Higher level
certain acts. level. teaching.
10. Outcome Behavior. Conduct. Knowledge. Beliefs and values.
Q; write short notes on the followings:
Training:-
Training is concerned with a little more raised level of teaching e.g. A worker may be trained to perform certain tasks requiring
very specific skills. He may do a number of jobs on some machine skillfully without knowing its basic structure and operation as in
circus, elephants have trained to perform certain skills.
So, Training is that process which is related with the development of some efficiency or skill in the individual. It is that
process which is related with the development of some efficiency or skill in the individual. In it the child is given practice to do a
special work so that he may obtain efficiency in doing that special work.
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Training is only a part of education. Training means to attain skill or proficiency in a special field.
Analysis of Training:-
1. Meaning: Training is a mode of teaching which refers to shaping conduct and skill. It is given formally under supervision
according to definite rules and principles.
2. Scope: The scope of training is limited. It is only a part of education. It implies development and perfection of skills and
competencies of the learners. It is primarily concerned with developing tricks of the trade and professional competencies;
the psychomotor dimension of individual’s personality.
3. Period: Period of training is fixed. It may be for a few days, a few months, a year or a few years.
4. Aim: The aim of training is the development of one or more specific vocational or professional skills.
5. Places: Training is imparted in specific training institutions like school, college, hospital, workshop, factory, office or any
other training centre.
6. Agencies: Training is imparted only by formal agencies of education.
7. Approach: Training has rigid and systematic approach. It is given in a systematic manner in certain framework of rules
and regulations.
8. Aspect: In training, more emphasis is placed on practical work.
9. Curriculum: The curriculum of training is usually fixed or determined in conformity with the skills to be learnt.
10. Methods: In training, limited and fixed methods are used. Methods change only from one skill to another.
11. Discipline: In training, discipline is usually strict and authoritarian. Training may not socialize an individual. Many
intellectually trained persons are not social.
12. Teachers: There are fixed teachers or instructors. Teacher or instructor works as a trainer.
13. Evaluation: In training proficiency in the skill of field or profession is tested. Means of evaluation are direct. Certificate
or degree is given on the successful completion of training.
14. Inspiration: Economic aspect is the source of inspiration in training.
Summary of Training
1. (a) The scope of training is limited. Training is confined to teaching only. Training is only a part of education.
(b) Training implies development and perfection of skills and competencies of the learner. It is primarily concerned with
developing tricks of the trade and professional competencies; the psycho-motor dimension of man’s personality.
2. Period of training is fixed. It may be for a few days, a few months, a year or a few years.
3. The aim of training is the development of one or more specific skills.
4. Training is imparted in training institutions like school, college, hospital, workshop, factory, office or any other training
centre.
5. Training is provided only by formal agencies of education.
6. Training has rigid and systematic approach. It is given in a systematic manner in a certain framework of rules and
regulations.
7. In training, more emphasis is placed on practical aspect.
8. The curriculum of training is usually fixed or determined in conformity with the skill to be learnt.
9. In training, limited and fixed methods are used. Methods change only from one skill to another.
10. In training, discipline is usually strict and authoritarian. Training may not socialize an individual. Many intellectually
trained persons are not social.
11. There are fixed teachers or instructors.
12. In training, proficiency in the skill of the profession or field is tested. Means of evaluation are direct. Certificate or degree
is given on the successful completion of training.
13. Economic aspect is the source of inspiration in training.
EDUCATION AND INDOCTRINATION (2018, 2022)
Philosophical Analysis of Indoctrination:
1. Meaning: Indoctrination is a kind of teaching which refers to the formation or shaping of beliefs and values. It requires
higher level of intelligence i.e. reasoning with feelings. It is concerned with transmission of doctrine. It means education
by authority, imposition, strict discipline and obedience to the rule. It is also called a brain-washing process.
2. Scope: The scope of indoctrination is limited and narrow. Indoctrination is considered as a part of education. It is used for
developing in the students a particular set of beliefs, values and moral principles.
3. Period: The period of indoctrination is fixed. Childhood is the best period because the mind of the child is not developed
for the arguments. Indoctrination is successful on the persons with lower level of intelligence. Indoctrination is much
needed in junior classes because at this stage the mind of the child is not mature and he receives dogmas without arguments.
As the brain of the child develops, he starts reasoning.
4. Aspects: Indoctrination is pre-dominantly forma. There is extreme formality in indoctrination.
5. Environment: Environment in indoctrination is artificial and dominated by authority.
6. Slogan: ‘Do and die’ and never ask ‘why’ is the slogan of indoctrination.
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7. Aim: Indoctrination aims at changing some beliefs and attitudes and developing in the student a particular set of values
and principles. It is belief-centred i.e. ideas, beliefs and values are given prime importance. Indoctrination aims at emotional
development of the child.
8. Curriculum: Curriculum is confined to beliefs, ideas, values and dogmas – religious, political, social and moral. It is
authoritative.
9. Methods: Lecture method is emphasized in indoctrination. Poetical recitation and music are also used.
10. Authority: There is no freedom to the child to learn by himself. Students are induced to have blind faith. Everything
including aims and objectives, curriculum, programmes and activities are directed by authority. Indoctrination suppresses
logical thinking.
11. Teachers: professional teachers impart knowledge. Indoctrination is teacher-dominated.
The basis of word indoctrination is the word ‘doctrine’ which implies, ‘a principle’ or ‘thought’ or ‘a point of
view’. The word indoctrination means efforts made by a person or persons to make another person or a group of persons ‘blind
followers’ of some principle. It is the highest form of education/teaching. It is complete brain wash.
Indoctrination stands for instilling, in the students, a particular set of values and moral principles. According to
indoctrination students or young men are encouraged to forget their own rational values and are encouraged to have certain
set and fixed values and moral principles according to a certain set political philosophy. Contnunism is one such example.
Another example is fundamentalism. Brain washing of persons is also an example off indoctrination.
Hence, indoctrination is an education with some narrowest possible meanings and objectives. Reasoning and
rationality have no place in indoctrination. There is very little freedom for the child and he leads an artificial life. The interests
and needs of the child are ignored. The state selects and implements all the objectives of education. All educational activities
are controlled by the state.
Instruction
Sometimes, the term ‘education’ is equated with the term ‘instruction’. Instruction implies the day-to-day teaching of
lessons in different subjects in the classrooms. The process of imparting knowledge and skills in the classroom or laboratory may
be called instruction, but not education. Instruction is purely one way traffic, whereas education is three dimensional process.
Instruction is only one part of education. Instruction can end but education is a life long process. According to Robinson “Instruction
ends in the classroom and education ends only with life”.
In instruction, only the knowledge aspect of personality develops. In education, all the three aspects of personality-
cognitive (Knowledge) conative (Doing) and affective (Feeling) – are developed. Change in behavior is brought about by instruction.
There is conversation in the process of instruction in which argument is put forward. In it, validity of proofs is told, explanation is
done and conclusion is drawn at the end.
The process of instruction is at the higher level that of conditioning and training. In instructions, there is better level of the
use of intellectual powers of the instructee. No face to face contact between a teacher and pupil is required. In instruction, the teacher
can be replaced by a computer or a teaching machine. Accordingly, instruction can be taken as a part of modes of teaching.
A detailed description is given below:-
Instruction 2021
➢ Narrow Field: The field of instruction is narrow. Only a fixed doze of knowledge is given.
➢ Teacher Important: Here the teacher dominates the whole process. The position of the child is secondary.
➢ Child Ignored: Here the needs and interests of the child are ignored. Knowledge is forced upon him/her. Instruction does
not prepare the child for self-learning. The child forgets the things because of rote memory.
➢ Narrow Aim: Instruction has a very narrow. It may be simply to cross a hurdle or pass an examination. The aspect of
instruction is only formality.
Instruction is that process which is seen in the class and in which the teacher and pupil are related.
The period of instruction is limited. The child gets education so long as the process of instruction continues. More
stress is laid on theoretical knowledge.
In instruction the topics are fixed. The teacher is to teach the topics according to the time fixed for them.
Curriculum is fixed.
Here more emphasis is laid on lecture method so that the syllabus may be completed in time.
The teacher is a mature person who is professionally trained for giving instruction in a particular subject. The
teacher tests the theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the student before calling him a good student. Degree or
certificate is given to the student after the successful completion of the course.
Conditioning
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➢ Conditioning is of two types – Classical and Operant. In Classical Conditioning, the reinforcer determines the kind of
behavior, while in Operant Conditioning the occurrence of a response determines the kind of reinforcement an organism
will get.
➢ Classical Conditioning is not compared with Teaching because in this type of conditioning an organism comes to elicit a
response (naturally) and is not taught to do that!
➢ Normally, it is Operant Conditioning which is compared with Teaching because it simply seems to be a systematic form
of training and hence teaching.
➢ Common school practices such as giving rewards for good behavior can be described as setting up a situation in which a
reinforcer (reward) depends upon the occurrence of a response (good behavior) [and that is the procedure for Operant
Conditioning].
➢ This description of the situation implies nothing about how the stimulus (particular circumstances) brings about the
response (good behavior) or why the frequency of the child’s behavior increases (except that it was given reward).
➢ It seems possible, then, that a child’s behavior could be altered through conditioning without the child’s being consciously
aware of the change or having any notion of why behaving in this way might be appropriate in the particular circumstances.
➢ This makes it clear that the child in the above situation, does not behave because of any judgments she/he has made about
what she/he ought to do. The child acts simply because of her/his conditioning.
➢ The process of Conditioning, therefore, seems to by-pass human rationality and is generally held to be unacceptable in a
programme of education.
➢ On the other hand, it has been argued that processes such as a person’s learning some fact by reading or hearing statements
in its favor and evaluating the evidence (rational process) can be described as a process of Operant Conditioning.
➢ If this is so, then educative teaching would not be incompatible with conditioning students but only with some ways of
doing so. Thus ‘Conditioning’ (Operant) can be thought of as a possible cousin of ‘Teaching’.
Q Explain the detail concept of Teaching and its features/characteristics.OR
What is teaching?Discuss in brief the nature and characteristics of teaching.(2018, 2022)
Ans (1) Concept of Teaching:-
Traditional Concept:- Teaching is the act of imparting instructions to the learners in the classroom situation. It is
traditional classroom teaching. In traditional classroom teaching the teacher gives information to students, or one of the students
reads from a textbook, while the other students silently follow him in their own textbooks. This traditional concept of teaching is
not acceptable to modern educators. Now teaching is not merely imparting knowledge or information to students. While imparting
knowledge teacher should keep in mind the child as well as the orderly presentation of subject-matter.
Modern Concept:- Teaching is to cause the pupil to learn and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and also desirable
ways of living in the society. It is a process in which learner, teacher, curriculum and other variables are organized in a systematic
and psychological way to attain some pre-determined goals.
Some Expert Views about Concept of Teaching:-
1. Ryburn’s view:- “Teaching is a relationship which keeps the child to develop all his powers.”
2. Burton’s View:- “Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.”
3. Smith’s View:- In words of B.O.Smith, “Teaching is a system of actions intended to produce learning.”
4. Morrison’s View:- According to H.C.Morrison, “Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature
personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the education of learner.”
The Concept Of Teaching
1. Tri-polar process:- Teaching is a tri-polar process. In a triangular process of teaching three inter-connected poles are: (1)
The teacher, (2) The pupil and (3) The subject-matter. The teacher, the pupil and the subject-matter constitute the three
focal points in teaching. Teaching is a process in which the teacher, the pupil and the curriculum (subject-matter) are
organized in systematic way to attain some pre-determined goal.
2. Interactive process: Teaching is not a one way traffic. It is an interactive process. There is interaction between the
teacher and the pupils. It is an interactive process carried out for the attainment of some specific purposes and objectives.
3. Multiple phases: Teaching can be divided into various phases like pre-active, inter-active and post-active.
4. Multiple levels:- There are multiple levels of teaching such as memory level, understanding level and reflective level.
Each level is a complicated process in itself.
5. Planned: Teaching is planned activity. It is an organized and systematic process.
6. Intentional:- Teaching is intentional behavior to speed up changes in the behavior of others.
7. Communication:-Teaching is a communication between two or more persons who influence each other by their ideas nd
learn something in the process of interaction. Various communication skills dominate the process of teaching. The better
the communication, the better is the process of teaching.
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8. Information, knowledge and skills:- Teaching is to fill in the mind of the learner by information, knowledge of facts and
skills for future use.
9. Motivation to learn:- Teaching is to cause motivation to learn. Burton considers teaching as the stimulation, guidance,
direction and encouragement to learning. Smith regards teaching as a system of action intended to produce learning. It is
a matter of helping the child to respond to his environment in an effective manner. It is a means of helping the pupils in a
selected environment to adjust themselves to environment to the world in which they live.
10. Guidance:- Teaching is also guidance. Pupils must be guided to learn the right things, in the right manner and at the right
time. It is through guidance that right attitudes of mind and habits, right knowedge and skills, method of critical thinking
and evaluation will be acquired by the pupils.
11. Professional activity:- Teaching is a professional activity involving the teacher and the pupil and result in the development
of the student.
12. Art as well as science:- Teaching is both art as well as science. It is an art as it calls for exercise of talent and activity. It
is a science as it involves a repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills that can be systematically studied, observed,
described, assessed, supervised and improved. Teachers can be prepared by a special type of training. In this teaching-
learning process, the use of reinforcement and feedback can prove effective. Hence, the teaching is being recognized as a
science.
FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING
Characteristics of teaching(good teaching) will highlight the nature of teaching:-
1. Matter of drawing out:- Good teaching is a matter of drawing out rather than a matter of putting in anything from his
side. It provides suitable environment and activities for the development of natural capacities of the pupils.
2. Matter of adjustment:- Good teaching is helping the child to adjust himself to his environment in an effective manner.
In words of Yoakam and Simpson, “Teaching is the means whereby society trains the young in a selected environment as
quickly as possible to adjust themselves to the world in which they live.”
3. Causing to learn:- Good teaching means helping the pupil to learn and to do things himself. The teacher is thus the
instrument to establish the relationship between the pupil and the subject. He facilitates and promotes learning.
4. Training of the emotions:- They must have right feelings. Through teaching they should be provided with appropriate
outlets for their emotions and means of channelizing and sublimating them through activities like drama, singing, dancing,
games, painting and craft work. Good teaching should help children to develop emotional stability.
5. Preparation for life:- Good teaching prepares the children for life. The immature child is to be developed physically,
intellectually, emotionally and spiritually to enable him to participate in the life of the community. Teaching has to secure
this preparation. To quote Ryburn, “Teaching is a means of preparation and in helping the boy to live fully his life at a
particular stage, it is also helping him to prepare for the future. Thus, teaching will always have this preoperational side
to it.”
6. Professional activity:- Teaching is a professional activity involving the teaching and the pupils and results in the
development of the pupils.
7. Giving guidance:- Good teaching is giving guidance. It has the effect of turning the learner’s mental gaze to the light
instead of keeping it for ever towards the shadow. Guidance is the core of teaching. The teacher guides the pupil to the
right path. As Burton rightly remarked, “Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.”
8. Organization of learning”- Mursell in his book ‘Successful Teaching’ defines teaching as organization of learning. All
the activities of the teacher and the taught should become one. Under this come all the activities of the teacher and taught,
their individual differences, teaching methods, subjects questions and answers, arguments etc.
9. Establishing relationship:- Teaching is a tri-polar process comprising the teacher, the pupils and the subject. Hence the
teacher has to know (1) the nature of pupils their individual differences in terms of abilities, aptitudes, interests,
achievements, emotional development, environment and opportunities etc., (2) himself i.e., his feelings for pupils,
knowledge and method, and (3) the subject and its orderly presentation to enable the pupil to quickly grasp it.
10. Aims of teaching:- Good teaching conforms to the aims of teaching. The methods adopted in the classroom should be in
tune with progressive trends in education. Autocratic method of teaching is not in tune with modern democratic aims of
education.
11. Social needs:- Good teaching satisfies social needs. While teaching, the teacher must keep in mind social background of
the pupils and prepare them accordingly. If the teacher fails to satisfy the social needs of the pupils, education would be
incomplete.
12. Sympathetic and kind:- Good teaching is sympathetic and kind. It is the duty of a good teacher to provide situations in
which every pupil is treated sympathetically and kindly and in which there is no room for scolding. Every pupil should
get opportunities to develop according to his capacities.
13. Co-operative:- Good teaching is co-operative. There should be active co-operation between the teacher and the bought.
14. Creative and recreational:- Good teaching proves to be a source of creativeness and recreation. It awakens in the learners
a desire to be creative and engages them in activity which is a source of pleasure to them. In the words of Silverman, “A
good teacher, like a great doctor, is one who adds creativity and inspiration to the basic repertoire” of techniques,
procedures and skills.
15. Diagnostic and remedial:- Good teaching is both diagnostic and remedial. In good teaching the teacher knows the
difficulties and problems of the students with a view to remove them.
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16. Stimulating and progressive:- Good teaching is stimulating and progressive. It inspires and stimulates the pupils for
independent study, self-development and self-advancement. It develops love for knowledge and learning. It looks forward
for improvement.
17. Democratic:- Good teaching is democratic. Good teacher creates democratic environment in the class and provides
opportunities for democratic training for the pupils.
18. Planned and systematic:- Good teaching is planned and systematic. Planning involves careful selection, division and
revision of the subject-matter.
Q Explain the difficult levels of Teaching in detail i.e., Memory, Understanding and reflective level.(2019,20,21)
OR
What do you understand by the term “Levels of Teaching” ?Name the levels of teaching and discuss their features.
Ans LEVEL OF TEACHING
Teaching is a purposeful process which influences learning. Teaching and learning are closely related. In the modern age
teaching-learning are accepted as one concept. Both teaching and learning in the instructional technology aim towards the same
goal i.e. to bring desirable changes in the behavior of the learner. Teaching-learning task can be performed at three levels, ranging
from last thoughtful to most thoughtful behavior or mode of action. In the words of Marris L.Bigge, “Teaching –learning situations
may be classified on a continuum which ranges from thoughtless to thoughtful modes of operation.”
The continuum of operations helps in achieving the objectives from knowledge to evaluation’ and in creating the conditions
of learning from stimulus-response to problem solving.’ Total range of teaching-learning operation can be divided into three broad
levels:-
1. Memory Level: Thoughtless teaching.

2. Understanding Level: Thoughtful teaching.
3. Reflective Level: Most thoughtful teaching.
Reflective
(Most thoughtful)
Understanding Level
(Thoughtful)
Memory Level
(Thoughtless Teaching)
Fig:- order of the levels of Teaching-Learning.
Memory level falls at the bottom. It is the most thoughtless behavior. Reflective level is at the top. It is the most thoughtful
bahaviour and needs the involvement of higher cognitive abilities. The understanding level falls in between memory level and
reflective level. It requires the involvement of thoughtful behavior in a moderate reasonable amount.
It should be noted that memory and understanding levels are the pre-requisites for reflective level of teaching-learning. It
means that the reflective level of teaching-learning can be organized when the students have been exposed to memory and
understanding levels of teaching-learning. The same content can be taught at memory and also at the reflective level of teaching.
It is unfortunate that our teaching even at college or university level may not go beyond memory level. The products of
understanding and reflective levels are : Insight + Increased ability of the teacher.
(1) MEMORY LEVEL OF TEACHING-LEARNING (2022)

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Meaning and Definition:-
1. Herbet is Thought less Teaching:- Herbert is considered the exponent of memory level teaching-learning. Teaching-
learning at memory level is simply commiting factual material to memory. In the words of Morris L.Bigge, memory level teaching-
learning can be defined as the teaching-learning task “which supposedly embraces committing factual materials to memory and
nothing else.” It is possible to memoriseany type of material, even the non-sensical or meaningless material. However, it is easier
to learn and retain the meaningful material.
2. Factual Information Provided:- Thus teaching-learning at memory level is governed and dominated by the use of
memory. Here teaching consists of factual information before the learner and learning involves memorization of factual information
without caring to know its meaning and application. The limited use of cognitive abilities is made and it is confined to the use of
memory.
3. Greater Amt of Memorization , Longer retention & timely reproduction:- Teaching skills at memory level of
teaching-learning consist of presenting the subject material before the students in such a way as to facilitate greater amount of
memorization, longer retention and timely reproduction of the memorized facts. Memory level of teaching-learning represents the
involvement of the least thoughtful behavour on the part of the teacher and student. It is considered as the lowest in terms of the
application of cognitive abilities for providing the desired learning experience to the students. Power like thinking, reasoning,
observation, discrimination, analysis and critical evaluation etc. are not used at the memory level teaching-learning. E.g for
examples symbols table, sequence , Historical events etc memorized.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORY LEVEL OF TEACHING LEARNING:-
1. UNDERLYING Psychological theories and ideas:- Memory level of teaching-learning is influenced by the following
psychological theories and ideas:-
(i) Faculty theory:- In the spirit of mental faculty or mental discipline theory the task of teaching-learning at
memory level aims to discipline or train the faculties of the mind particularly the faculty of memorization through
exercise and repetition of the learned material.
(ii) Apperception theory:- In the spirit of Herbartian theory of apperception, teaching learning task at the memory
level consists of inculcating in the minds of the learners a great mass of factual information merely through the
mechanical process of memorization.
(iii) Connectionism theory:- In the spirit of Thorndike’s connectionism, teaching-learning at memory level emphasis
establishment of stimulus response connections through the process of mechanical memorization.
(iv) Conditioning theory:- In the spirit of Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory and Skinner’s operant conditioning
theory teaching-learning task at the memory level converts itself into a task at the memory level converts itself
into a task of habit formation through repetition of the association between S and R (stimulus and response).
2. Objectives:- The main objective to be achieved through the memory level of teaching-learning is the knowledge objective.
Here the learner has to acquire the knowledge of the desired facts and information through mechanical memorization (i.e.
rote learning). The teaching at memory level aims at causing learning that may enable the student:-
(i) To train the mental discipline.
(ii) To acquire factual information.
(iii) To retain the learnt material for longer time.
(iv) To recall or produce and recognize the learned material.
3. Nature of subject-matter and its presentation:-Memory level of teaching-learning is predominantly subject-centred. Its
main objective is the effective memorization of the presented material. The subject-matter utilized for achieving
knowledge objective is quite structured and organized. It is presented in such a way as to facilitate the rote learning, its
retention and easy recall. It is to be presented in a systematic, definite and fixed order. New ideas of knowledge may be
linked with earlier knowledge of students. The kind of presentation in teaching-learning has three characteristics:-
(i) Definiteness,
(ii) Predictability, and
(iii) Observable specified knowledge structure.
4. The active role of teacher:-The teacher plays a very authoritarian and dominant role in the memory level of teaching-
learning. He is the sole academic authority that directs, instructs, controls and evaluates. As every activity is knit around
teacher, he is the learning resource and manager of the class-room activities. He is very active and his job is to structure
and present the content systematically and logically in the class. He is to present the content through his own initiative,
make the students to listen or read, plan exercises for its repetition and drill work and to help the students to memorise the
presented factual material, retain it and reproduce when asked to do so. Thus right from the selection of the teaching-
learning contents to its presentation and making the students for its memorization, the key of the teaching-learning process
leis with the teacher.
5. The Passive role of the learner:- As teacher has an authoritarian and dominant role to play, the learner remains quite
passive in the memory level teaching-learning. The learner is like passive listener in the class-room. The activities of the
students are directed by the teacher. The students have to carry out instructions of the teacher and they cannot initiate in
the class-room. The teacher is to pour the desired knowledge and the learners have to receive it through process. They are
supposed to model themselves according to the teacher’s views.
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6. Nature of motivation:- At the memory level of teaching-learning the form of motivation is purely extrinsic. There is no
initiative and no spontaneous inclination towards learning on the part of the learner. He engages in the task of rote learning
on the part of the learner. He punishment, praise, getting favour of the teacher, passing out a test or getting promotion in
the next class, etc.
7. The methods used:- The methods used at the memory level of teaching-learning are exclusively teacher-centred, subject-
centred and unpsychological in nature. They give way to one-way traffic in the shape of presenting factual information to
the learner for the mechanical memorization. The content is mainly presented in an expository way. The lectures followed
by discussion are the most preferred methods of communication. Teaching is planned, governed and controlled through
verbal communication. The content is exposed in a graded sequence, systematically. The methods used for memory level
teaching-learning are:-
(i) Lecture method, (ii) Narration method, (iii) Textbook method, (iv) Deductive method, (v) Lecture-cum-
blackboard method.
Audio-visual aids may be used to involve more sense and make the content interesting for learner. The content
should be presented in a specified and observable form.
8. Class-room environment:- In memory level teaching-learning the teacher exposes and the students receive. Usually
teachers are masters and the sole active agents, and students are by and large passive recipients of the content. The class-
room environment becomes teacher-dominated, dull and uninteresting.
9. Evaluation system:- The evaluation is an indispensable aspect of teaching-learning because it produces evidences about
the realiation of goals of the teaching model. Usually oral tests re given to measure the retention of learned material. The
objective test of recall and recognition type are administered to evaluate the knowledge of results at the memory level of
teaching-learning. Short answer, multiply choice, completion type and alternate response type test items are most
appropriate at this level.
MERITS OF TEACHING-LEARNING AT MEMORY LEVEL:-
1. Suitable for small children:- Teaching-learning at memory level is suitable for the nature of small children to certain
extent as their memory in the early period is rote memory. It may also suit the nature of their cognitive development as
they are not in a position to comprehend, compare, analyse, synthesise and generalize.
2. Acquisition of facts:- Teaching-learning at memory level may help the students to acquire many facts and information
without making use of their higher cognitive abilities and thought processes.
3. Basis for understanding and reflective level:- Teaching-learning at memory level equips the learner with the art and
teachniques of learning by heart so many essential facts, generalized rules and results. These memorized pieces of
knowledge help the student at the teaching-learning tasks carried out at the understanding and reflective levels. Thus
memory level teaching-learning provides solid base for building the higher structure of teaching-learning at the
understanding and reflective levels.
4. Maximum information:- Memory level teaching-learning gives full freedom to the teacher for realizing his goal i.e. to
furnish maximum information of his subject in a systematic and planned manner in the minimum duration of time with the
employment of least possible resources and teaching-learning facilities.
DEMERITS (DEFECTS) OF MEMORY LEVEL TEACHING-LEARNING:-
1. No development of cognitive abilities:- Memory level teaching-learning is carried out at the lowest level of the pupil’s
thought process. Thus it does not help in the development of pupil’s cognitive abilities like thinking, understanding and
reasoning powers of discrimination, problem solving and generalization, etc.
2. No understanding and application:- Memory level teaching-learning emphasizes acquisition of factual knowledge
imparted by the teacher through rote learning and mechanical memorization. It does not help in the proper understanding
and application of the learner facts.
3. Forgetfulness:- In memory level teaching-learning the information gained and facts memorized are easily forgotten.
Many times students are found to cut a sorry figure at the need of the hour particularly in the examination. Thus even the
limited purpose of mechanical memorization is not achieved in memory level teaching-learning.
4. No interaction:- Memory level teaching-learning is too much teacher dominated. Therefore, it provides almost no scope
for the lovely class-room interaction and activities between the teacher and the pupil. There is little or no scope for the
healthy personality development of the pupils.
5. No initiation and self-learning:-The students are quite passive and without their involvement class-room environment is
quite, dull, uninteresting, unsuitable and unchallenging for any initiation and self-learning on the part of students.
6. Problem of class-control:- In memory level teaching-learning it is difficult for securing attention of the students as there
is one way flow of communication. It poses a problem of class-control.
7. Extrinsic motivation:- Motivating students on the basis of fear of punishment, praise, getting favour of the teacher,
passing out a test or getting promotion in the next class and other extrinsic objects is an other weakness, Consequently the
real charm of purposeful and self-learning is missing.
8. Not suitable for higher class:- At the higher classes when the span of knowledge is to be widened and the students are
required to learn so many things, it is neither feasible nor suitable to rely on memory level teaching-learning. This advanced
stage of learning requires the need of switching over the other advanced levels like understanding and reflective level.
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Implications of Memory Level Teaching-Learning for Class-room Teaching(Suggestions for Memory Level Teaching-
Learning):-
Memory level teaching-learning may work effectively under the following conditions:-
1. Rhythmical repetition:- Repetition of the subject-matter should be rhythmical.

2. Frequent recall:- The frequent recall or reproduction of content should be performed.
3. Definite materials:- The material should have definite structure.
4. Meaningful content:- The teaching content should be meaningful.
5. Integrated content:- All parts of the content should be integrated and well sequenced.
6. Systematic content:- The content should be represented systematically.
7. Whole to part method:- Whole to part method should be used.
8. Practice:- The retention of students can be increased by practice or drill.
9. Continuous reinforcement:- The continuous reinforcement should be provided to the learners. The teacher must remain
constantly on his toes to attract the attention of the learners.
10. Avoiding fatigue:- The factor of fatigue should be avoided in presentation. There should be no teaching when the students
are tired.
11. Effective consolidation:- The teacher should know the process of attaining effective consolidation.
12. Testing:- Essay type as well as objective type questions form the basis of testing. Question should be framed in such a
way so as to measure the process of recall and recognition.
(2) UNDERSTANDING LEVEL OF TEACHING-LEARNING
Meaning of Understanding:-
1. Dictionary Meaning:- Understanding means:-

(i) To perceive the meaning, grasp the idea, to comprehend the meaning.
(ii) To be thoroughly familiar with, apprehend clearly the character or nature of a term of concept.
(iii) To comprehend by knowing the meaning of the word employed, as a language.
(iv) To grasp clearly as a fact.
Meaning and Defintion of understanding Level of Teaching-Learning:-
Memory level teaching-learning is a pre-requesition for understanding level teaching-learning. Understanding level teaching-
learning takes place at a more advanced cognitive level than the memory level teaching-learning. It is not merely confined to the
use of memory but also makes use of thought processes and other cognitive abilities in the form of power of thinking, reasoning,
imagination, ananlysis, synthesis, comparison, application, generalization and drawing inferences etc. at the memory level teaching-
learning, a person can memorise a number of facts, formulas, symbols etc. without understanding their meaning and application.
BIGGE’S DEFINITION:-
In his book ‘learning Theory for Teachers’ Morris L.Bigge defines understanding level teaching learning as the one ‘that
seeks to acquaint students with the relationships between a generalization and the particulars-between principles and solitary facts-
and which shows the use to which the principles may be applied.’
We can define understanding level teaching-learning as the teaching-learning carried out at that cognitive level which can help
the learners not only in the acquisition of facts but goes beyond it in terms of their complete understanding by being able to
(i) Identify relationships between the particular facts.

(ii) Make generalizations or rules.
(iii) Use the generalized facts or principles as a tool in the acquisition of new facts or application in practical life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDERSTANDING LEVEL TEACHING-LEARNING:-
1. Underlying psychological theories and ideas:- Understanding level of teaching-learning involves the following
psychological theories and ideas:-
(a) Apperception theory:- In spirit of Herbartian theory of apperception and its well known five steps of teaching-
learning , the teaching-learning at understanding level requires a systematic presentation of the subject-matter relating
it well with the previous knowledge of the students. Under-standing level teaching-learning was emphasized by
Herbart through his five steps of teaching-learning:-
(i) Previous Knowledge:- Previous knowledge of students was explored and new learning was felt through his
first step.
(ii) Presentation:- In the second step, the systematic presentation of the subject-matter or ideas new emphasized
by relating them with the old ones.
(iii) And (iv) Comparison and genralisation:- In the third and fourth steps, comparison and generalization,
pupils are supposed to identify common elements in the presented material (factual information) and make
generalization in the form of generalized statement, rule or principle.
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(iv) Application:- In this step, pupils are supposed to make use of the generalized principle by applying it in a
particular new situation.
(v) Application:- In this step, pupils are supposed to make use of the generlised principle by applying it in a
particular new situation.
2. Insight theory:- In the spirit of insight or gestalt theory, under-standing level teaching-learning requires.
(i) To perceive the situation i.e, the presented factual information, as a whole.
(ii) To identify relationship i.e., common facts or difference between the presented body of facts, the new ideas and
the old ones.
(iii) To gain generalized insight which can be applied in problematic situation both in and outside the school.
2. Objectives:- Understanding level teaching-learning aims to achieve the following objectives:-
(i) knowledge objective:- Acquisition of body of facts (factul information).
(ii) Understanding objective. It includes the following:-
(a) To see relationship between the acquired facts (factual information).
(b) To comprehend the meaning of acquired facts.
(c) To identify the similarities and dissimilarities between the acquired facts.
(d) To seek generalization out of the specific facts.
(e) To apply the generalized fact, rule or principle for learning new facts or in practical life situations.
3. Nature of the subject-matter and its presentation:-The subjectmatter for the understanding level teaching-learning is
quite structured. It is planned, organized and presented in such a manner so as to result in meaningful learning. It needs
to be linked with the
(i) Previous knowledge of the students.
(ii) Utilization for acquiring new facts.
(iii) Application to practical life.
4. The role of the teacher:- The teacher is a key figure. Like memory level teaching-learning he plays a quite dominant and
authoritarian role at the understanding level of teaching-learning. This type of teaching-learning is also too much subject-
centred. The teacher has an additional responsibility of making the subject-matter quite understandable and meaningful
besides its mere acquisition by the learners. He has to see that the pupils gain. Complete mastery over the subject-matter
in terms of its full understanding and generalized insight rather that its mere memorization.
For understanding level of teaching, teacher decides the content, determines the sequence and the mode of instruction. He
plans the lessons and implements the plans. He inspires, stimulates, guides and controls the learners. He provides a model
of authority and knowledge where the learners can mentally depend and take him to be an authority in all cognitive fields.
5. The role of the learners:- The learners here do not remain passire listeners as happens in the case of memory level
teaching-learning. The actively participate into the process by exercising their mind, comprehending their illustration,
connecting and interrelating various experiences. Thus they have to apply their cognitive abilities for the discrimination,
generalization and application of the generalized insight needed at the understanding level of teaching-learning. However,
the initiation and control over the teaching-learning process lies with the teacher and the students have to act and interact
within the framework setup by the teacher for realizing the set objectives of teaching.
6. Nature of motivation:- Like memory level teaching-learning, the nature of motivation at the understanding level
teaching-learning is extrinsic but here the meaning and purposes of the teaching-learning task at hand remain quite clear
to the students. It should be noted that the source of motivation at understanding level teaching-learning is not only extrinsic
but also intrinsic. There is personal involvement of a teacher. Teacher. Teacher’s job is to create a need among the
students to acquire understanding of new concepts. He is to encourage the students with verbal praise and approval of their
correct responses. He can raise the level of aspiration f the students as well as the class as a whole.
7. The methods employed:- The approaches and techniques (methods) employed at the understanding level of teaching-
learning are such which can help the students for the proper comprehension, understanding and application of the acquired
facts. Some of such useful methods at the understanding level of teaching-learning are:-
(i) Inductive-deductive method.
(ii) Analytic-synthetic method.
(iii) Lecture-cum-demonstration method.
(iv) Narration-cum-question answer method.
8. Class-room environment:-At understanding level teaching-learning class-room environment does not remain dull and
uninteresting as prevailed at memory level. The meaning attached to information makes them quite purposeful and
interesting as students like to take inereest in the teaching-learing process. There is disciplined but released environment
of the class. There is willing and lively interaction between the teacher and students. Students follow directions not due to
fear of punishment but due to the fear of deprivation from the joy of learning and enlightenment. Students enjoy full
freedom of expression within the parameters of institutional norms. They feel secure as they get used to the conventions
and norms of the school which equally favour or disfavor each student. However, understanding level teaching-learning
is not as pupil centred and free as happens in the case of reflective level teaching-learning.
9. Evaluation system (Testing devices used):- Evaluation programme at understanding level teaching-learning is to be more
comprehensive than the memory level teaching-learning. Here the testing devices are not merely designed to test the
memorizing ability of students as happens at the memory level teaching-learning. The ability to comprehend, grasp,
discriminate, analyse, synthesise, generalize and application of the generalized insight are to be tested at this level with the
help of well planned.
(i) Oral examinations,
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(ii) Practical examination,
(iii) Written examinations.
In written examinations, the questions must pertain to comprehension and application aspects of principles and
processes which require students to deduce new facts from principles which presumably they understand. In the
written tests, suitable short answer type questions are preferred for evaluating the objectives. The multiple and
matching type formats and the essay formata can also be use.
Morrison on Understanding Level of teaching-Learning:-
The model of understanding level teaching-learning was indoctrinated by Morrison. According to Morrison, understanding leads
to generalization. The outcome of all learning is mastery not mere memorization of facts. Mastery is reached only when the
thorough understanding of the subject-matter is done through planned learning.
(3) TEACHING-LEARNING AT REFLECTIVE LEVEL
In comparison to teaching-learning at memory and understanding level, thereflective level teaching-learning represents the highest
level of the teaching-learning act. It is carried out at the most thoughtful modes of operation involving higher cognitive abilities. It
provides the desirable quality of teaching-learning situation and experiences to the learner for utilizing and developing their
cognitive abilities to the maximum. Reflective level of teaching-learning includes both understanding and memory level teaching.
It does not succeed if the teaching-learning of memory and under-standing levels has not taken place. Hence the emenagement of
teaching-learning at memory and understanding levels must have taken place before reflective level teaching-learning starts.
Meaning and Definition:-
1. Dictionary meaning:- According to the dictionary meaning, the word ‘reflection’ stands for ‘the art of reflection’
(turning back), ‘contemplating’ or ‘paying serious consideration’ etc. therefore, teaching-learning at reflective level
centres round the concept reflection i.e. turning back something for deriving fresh conclusions.
In short, teaching-learning at reflective level is nothing but a problem-solving or discovery approach towards
teaching-learning. The learner is engaged in original, imaginative and critical approach to the subject and does
deep or serious kind of thinking. He examines facts and generalizes and seeks out new one. Memory and
understanding levels of teaching-learning are the pre-requisites for this level.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING-LEARNING AT REFLECTIVE LEVEL:-
1. UNDERLYING Psychological Theory and Ideas

(i) Cognitive field theory of learning:- Reflective level teaching-learning has its roots in the cognitive field theory
of learning which is also known as goal insight theory. It emphasizes purposeful, goal-directed and insightful
approach to learning and advocates that the student should learn the act and skill of the problem-solving behavior
in a scientific manner. In the spirit of this theory, the reflective level teaching-learning emphasizes on the learning
of generalized insight, ways of discovering the facts and developing the skill of problem-solving.
2. Objectives:- Reflective level teaching-learning has the following three objectives:-
(i) To develop problem-solving competency among the students.
(ii) To develop critical and creative thinking among the students.
(iii) To develop independent and original thinking among the students.
3. Nature of the subject matter and its presentation:- Subject-matter presented for reflective level teaching-learning is
almost unstructured and open-ended in the form of problem-raising and problem-solving. The subject-matter is not
available in a systematic and organized way but is planned and developed according to the needs of the situation. The
subject-matter and its presentation also revolve round the two main issues namely problem-raising and problem-solving.
The beginning of reflective level teaching-learning is to be made with the opportunities of facing a problem. After this the
attempts are made to help the students finding out the solution of the raised difficulties and problems quite independently
by following all the necessary system steps of the problem-solving procedure.
The reflective level teacher-learning is designed in the following four steps, keeping in mind the individual and social
nature:-
(i) Creating problematic situation:- The teacher creates a problematic situation before the students.
(ii) Formulating hypotheses:- In the second step, students formulate hypotheses for testing. More than one
hypotheses may be formulated for the solution of a problem.
(iii) Verifying the hypotheses:- In the third step, to verify the hypotheses, students collect data. On the bases of
collected data, it is decided whether these hypotheses may help the solution of the problem or not.
(iv) Testing the hypotheses:- In the fourth steps hypotheses are tested. Results are derived on the bases of these tests
which are original ideas of the students.
4. Role of the teacher:-At the reflective level of teaching-learning, the teacher does not play dominant and authoritarian role
like memory or understanding level teaching-learning. He has to play a quite responsible, democratic and co-operative
role. Here instead of telling the facts of generalization, he has to guide and help the students to discover facts and re-
examining them and generalized insight for modifying them. He is to help the students in learning and discovering by
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raising problems, initiating mutual discussions and interactions, welcoming critical reactions and engaging them in
discovering the solution of the problem in an independent manner. Thus at the reflective level teaching-learning the teacher
has the following main functions:-
(i) To present some problems before the students.
(ii) To encourage initiation, mutual discussions and interactions among the students.
(iii) To welcome critical reactions of the students and engage them in discovering the solution of the problem.
(iv) To raise the level of aspiration of the students. All the students become active ad sensitive for solving the problem.
Hence at this level, both self-motivation of the pupil and the social motivation has their importance.
5. Role of the learner:-At the reflective level teaching-learning, the learner occupies primary place and the teacher’s place
is secondary. The learner has to make use of his cognitive abilities. He has to remain quite active in terms of taking all
initiative and lead in the process of problem-raising and problem-solving involved at this level of teaching-learning. The
solutions are obtained with his own efforts. Thus teaching-learning at this level remains almost learner-centred rather than
teacher or subject-centred.
6. The nature of motivation:- The nature of motivation that prevails at the reflective level teaching-learning is quite intrinsic
rather than being extrinsic as happens at the memory and understanding level. The learners remain engaged in learning on
account of their felf need in finding the solution of a problem. At other times they are busy in re-examining a discovered
fact and generalized insight because they feel a sort of psychological tension and intense curiosity for doing so. Thus there
remains a spontaneous and genuine interest of the learners in keeping them busy in their independent pursuits at reflective-
level teaching-learning. The self-motivation and level of aspiration are the sources of motivation at this level of teaching-
learning.
7. The methods employed:- The methods and teachniques employed at the reflective level teaching-learning are more
learner-centred than the teacher or subject-centred. Here the emphasis is placed on the raising, developing and solving the
problems. Consequently, the following problem-centred and discovery-oriented methods are useful at the reflective level
of teaching:-
(i) Analytic method.
(ii) Discovery method,
(iii) Problem-solving method,
(iv) Project method,
(v) Assignment method.
8. The class-room environment:- The class-room environment at the reflective level teaching-learning is quite open,
independent, friendly and democractic in terms of healthy interactions. It is more alive, existing, critical, penetrating and
more open to original and independent thinking needed at this level.
9. Evaluation system (Testing devices used):- Evaluation at reflective level teaching-learning should test the abilities of
the students in terms of independent problem-solving, originality, open-mindedness, ingenuity and creativity etc. therefore,
the proper evaluation of the students’ competenties can be done correctly by the use of essay or open-end type tests. The
other techniques should be used to measure the involvement in the problems, attitudes, adjustment and critical thinking of
the students. While examining reflective level.
(i) The attitudes and beliefs of the students should be evaluated.
(ii) Their involvement in learning activities should be evaluated.
(iii) Development of critical and creative competencies should be evaluated.
MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF REFLECTIVE LEVEL TEACHING-LEARNING:-
1. Child-centred approach:- Reflective level teaching-learning adopts learned-centred approach towards teaching-learning.
The learner himself sets his goal and discovers the path of reaching the goal.
2. Development of mental abilities:- The process of teaching-learning act is carried out at the more advanced thoughtful
modes of operation that are at the memory or understanding level. It helps in the proper development of mental abilities
of children especially those involved in higher cognitive functions. It develops creative, original and independent thinking
among students.
3. Solution of problems:- Reflective level teaching-learning equips the students with problem-solving ability and skills of
facing the problems in and outside the walls of their schools.
4. Democratic and existing environment:- Reflective level teaching-learning helps in making the teaching-learning
environment quite democratic, friendly, healthy, lively and exciting in terms of self-learning, and free and useful interaction
between the teachers and the students. The teacher helps the students in the independent pursuit of knowledge. The task
of problem-raising and problem-solving is performed in a very thoughtful, open and democratic environment.
5. Development of enhanced abilities:- In addition to the desired understanding and meaningful learning of various facts,
principles, rules, laws, theories, concepts and generalizations reflective level teaching-learning helps the students in
developing enhanced abilities of discovering new relationships, insights and solving problems at their own.
6. Discovery-oriented:- Reflective level teaching-learning is helpful in providing discovery-oriented, problem-centred and
creativity fostered teaching-learning which is most needed at the present day fast developing age.
7. Transfer of training:- Teaching-learning at reflective level makes possible maximum transfer of learning which is
missing at the memory and understanding level. The techniques of a felf problem can be transferred in any real life situation
(educational, vocational or personal situation).
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8. Applicable to all school subjects:- Teaching-learning at reflective level can be employed for the teaching-learning of all
school subjects.
9. Maximum flexibility and freedom:- Teaching-learning at reflective level provides maximum flexibility and freedom in
terms of the organization of the course, methods and techniques and organization set-up. According to Bigge, “Teaching-
learning at reflective level provides freedom from the rigorous and rigid organization of course material as it grows more
from unique relationship between teacher and students than from any different nature of formal course material.”
DEMERITS (LIMITATIONS) OF REFLECTIVE LEVEL TEACHING-LEARNING:-
1. Not suitable for lower classes:- Reflective level teaching-learning may work well with the mature students of higher
school , college and university classes having more developed cognitive abilities needed for problem-solving and reflective
thinking. But it does not work well with the small children and lower classes, on account of the fact that it requires
developed cognitive abilities for the effective implementation.
2. No systematization:- Teaching-learning situation and course material presented at reflective level teaching-learning are
quite unstructured and flexible. No definite programme is followed. It does not help in the systematic acquisition f the
organized knowledge of the subject-mater pertaining to school subject.
3. Possibility of going astray:- Because of freedom and flexibility in the unstructured learning situations students may be
drifted from the learning path. Due to lack of maturity and experience, the students may waste their efforts and energy in
the discovery of the fact, raising irrelevant questions, doing meaningless investigations and re-examining the facts and
principles. They may arrive at wrong conclusions and wrong answers to their problems.
4. Not restricted to curriculum and text-books:- Reflective level teaching-learning cannot be restricted only to the
curriculum, contents and text-books. It is problem-centred. It cannot be used under the present time schedule, subject-
centred curriculum and examination controlled system of education.
5. Inadequate applicability:- Despite the wider claims of its application the use of reflective level teaching-learning is quite
to the subject and topics requiring discovering level teaching-learning is quite to the subject and topics requiring or
problem-solving approach.
6. Slow and time consuming:- Teaching-learning at reflective level is very slow and time consuming. With present syllabus
and result-oriented approach of administration, the quality learning which reflective teaching emphasizes is not much
valued.
7. Heavy responsibility on teachers:- Reflective level teaching-learning puts heavy responsibilities on the already
overloaded shoulders of the school teachers. Moreover, it is not so simple to carry out the teaching-learning at the reflective
level. It requires special abilities, experience and bent of mind in the absence of which no fruitful results can be expected
from such type of teaching-learning.
IMPLICATION OF REFLECTIVE LEVEL OF TEACHING-LEARNING FOR CLASS-ROOM TEACHING (SUGGESTIONS

FOR REFLECTIVE LEVEL OF TEACHING-LEARNING)
1. Entry:- The teacher should allow those pupils’ entry into the reflective level of teaching-learning who have passed the
memory and understanding level tests.
2. Scientific steps:- The teacher should follow the scientific steps of reflective level of teaching-learning systematically
with great precautions.
3. Creating need of the problem:-the learner should be sensitive to the problem. Teacher should create the need of the
problem.
4. Raising the level of aspiration:- The teacher should raise the level of aspiration of the pupils to make reflective level
teaching-learning a success.
5. Reeling the problem:- Teacher should create problematic situations which may develop the original and creative thinking
of the pupils.
6. Feeling the problem:- The pupils should feel about the problem so that they may formulate the hypotheses of the problem.
7. Objectivity:- The pupils should be objective in collecting the evidences for the problem and drawing the conclusions.
8. Free environment:- At the time of teaching-learning there should be free and open environment so that the pupils may
participate actively in discussion in order to solve the problem.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF TEACHING-LEARNING:-
Characteristics Memory level Understanding level Reflective level

1. Exponent: Herbart Morrison Hunt
2. Models of Most Thoughtful Most
operation thoughtless. thoughtful.
3. Underlying (i) Faculty or (i) Herbartian (i) Cognitive
psychological mental steps of field Theory
theories and discipline teaching of Learning
ideas: theory. learning
(ii) Herbart’s (apperception
apperception. theory)
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(iii) Thorndike’s (ii) Insight
connectionism. theory or
(iv) Skinner’ Gestalt Field
operant theory.
conditioning
theory.
4. Main objective: (i) Cognitive or Understanding and Understanding and
knowledge application objective:- To creative objective : To
objective :- To acquire the knowledge understand, analyse,
acquire the with full understanding synthesise and evaluate
knowledge of and generalized insights. the acquired facts with
facts and increased ability to
information. reflect and discover new
insights leading to
independent problem
solving.
5. Nature of the Pre-planned, structured Proplanned, structured Unstructured and open-
subject-matter. and organized. and organized. ended.
6. Presentation of Systematic presentation of Meaningful and sequential Presented in the form of
subject-matter. the factual material for material leading to problem raising and
effective memorization. generalization and problem-solving
application. (problem-centred
presentation).
7. Role of the Dominant and Dominant and Democratic and co-
teacher:- authoritarian:- Telling authoritarian:- Providing operative:- Helping
every thing for mechanical knowledge with students in the task of
memorization. meaningful reflective thinking and
understanding. problem-solving.
8. Role of learner:- Quite passive, limited to the Passive but eager to learn Quite active, taking
task of memorizing the facts with understanding initiative for self-learning
presented material. and generalized insights. and problem-solving.
9. Nature of Extrinsic. Extrinsic. Intrinsic.
motivation:-
10. Methods Subject-centred and Subject-centred Learning-centred
employed:- teacher-dominatated emphasizing meaningful emphasizing problem-
emphasizing the rote learning. solving and discovery
learning. approach.
11. Strategies: Lecture. Question-answer. Discussion and
consultation
12. Class-room Quite dull and uniteresting Moderate in terms of Quite interesting, alive,
environment:- having no interaction and interaction providing healthy and existing
pupil’s activities. control in the hands of the providing opportunity
teacher. for reflective thinking
and problem-solving.
13. Testing devices Oral and written; use of Oral, written and Oral, written and
used:- objective type format practical; use of short practical; essay type or
specially recall and answer type format for openend type questions
recognition type tests for testing the understanding for testing reflective
testing the memorization. and comprehension. thinking i.e. originality,
creativity and problem-
solving abilities.
ADVANTAGES OF LEVELS OF TEACHING-LEARNING:-
1. Awareness:- The concept of levels of teaching-learning provides an awareness to the student and teacher that teaching is
a continuous process (continuum) from thoughtless to thoughtful modes of operation.
2. Realization of objectives:- The same content is taught at different levels. The content helps in realizing different types
of objectives.
3. Performance of teaching activities:- Teaching activities can be performed in relation to these levels of teaching.
4. Relating learning to testing:- The organization of teaching in terms of these levels helps in relating learning to testing.
5. Developing a theory of teaching:- The knowledge of teaching variable and operations to levels of teaching-learning
provide nature of teaching. It proves useful in developing a theory of teaching.
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6. Helpful in organizing teaching:- It provides the scientific basis to organize teaching from primary to university classes
and developing a curriculum for teaching courses.
7. Helpful in effective teaching:- Knowledge of levels of teaching-learning helps in effective teaching. The in-service
teachers can also develop skills by the awareness of teaching
Que: What is teaching? Discuss in detail the variables of teaching.(2018,2019,2021 OR
Name the different variables in the teaching process and discuss any one of them in detail.(2017-18) imp.
ANS. INTRODUCTION: SAME FROM TEACHING LEARNING QUESTION
CONCEPT OF TEACHING: SAME FROM TEACHING QUES.
CONCEPT OF VARIABLES OF TEACHING:
MEANING OF VARIABLES:
A variable has been defined as ‘Any response or behaviour which can take different degrees’. For example, effect of various amounts
of study on school performance.
In the process of teaching generally there are three variables:
- Independent Variable who happens to be a teacher because he/she has to plan, organize, lead and control the process of
teaching so that desirable changes can be brought in the behaviour of dependent variable i.e. the student.
- Dependent Variable refers to the student who is subjected to changes and development through the efforts of independent
variable i.e. the teacher.
- Intervening Variables such as the content of teaching, methods and techniques of teaching, tactics and strategies of teaching,
management of instructional material, teaching environment etc. These variables play an important role for bringing desirable
interaction between independent and dependent variables for the achievement of the goals of teaching.
In more specific terms and being the specialized task, the specific variables of teaching are classified and discusses as under:
Variables of Teaching
Are categorized in to three
The Learning Task Learner Behaviour Teacher Behaviour
Instructional Objectives
Teacher Teaching Teacher Teacher

Entry Terminal
Personality style Expectations Competence
Behaviour Behaviour
Cognitive Conative Affective

Domain Domain Domain
The Learning Task(Instructional Objectives)
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Variables
of
Teaching
The details of these variables are as follows:
1. The Learning Task:

It includes laying down of Instructional Objectives. As stated in simple terms, Instructional Objectives are intended learning
outcomes-the type of performance students are expected to demonstrate at the end of instruction to show that they have
learned what was expected of them.
Bloom’s taxonomy:- Dr. Benjamin S. Bloom with his associates in the University of Chicago in 1956 set to improve Examination
System at all levels and developed a taxonomy or classification of educational objectives which include the 3 domains as
shown below:-
Cognitive domain
Conative or
Affective
Psychomotor
domain
domain
❖ Cognitive:- Related to mental activities(E.g. Remembering, Reasoning etc.)

❖ Conative or Psychomotor: - Related to the motor skills.(E.g., Writing, walking etc.)
❖ Affective:- Related to feelings(E.g., Emotional Response, Feelings etc.)
A. The Cognitive Domain / Objectives:
There are Six basic education objectives in Bloom’s Taxonomy under the Cognitive domain and in the field of Education, we
consider these objectives as a hierarchy, each skill building on those below but this is not entirely accurate. First three objectives
are considered as Lower Level Objectives and Last three are considered as Higher Level Objectives. The Hierarchy of these
objectives is shown in the Figure below:
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Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application (Generalisation)
Comprehension (Translation extrapolation)

(Understanding)
Knowledge
Lower level
a) Knowledge: - It deals with the recall and recognition of the things without understanding or using. For example, memorizing
a mathematical table.
b) Comprehension: - It deals with the understanding of the various facts, principles, theories, phenomenon. For example,
understanding of meaning of trade.
c) Application: - It includes the application of the things learned to some concrete situations. For example, Application of
addition/subtraction/multiplication/division in real life.
Higher level
d) Analysis: - It includes breaking down of facts, principles, theories, phenomenon into parts.
e) Synthesis: - It deals with creating something new by combining different ideas. For example, after learning a lot about a topic
concluding writing a note on it.
f) Evaluation: - Evaluation means judging the things in both quantitative and qualitative aspect as they might be applied in a
particular situation.
B. The Conative Or Psychomotor Domain/Objectives:-

The Conative or Psychomotor Domain objectives are a matter of interest for a wide range of educators because there are subjects
which require specialized movements of the limbs of the body and well-developed hand & eyes coordination. The Conative
Objectives as delineated by Blooms are as follows:
a) Perception: - Related to the senses. It means working of the senses while learning something.
b) Set: - Set means the ability to adjust itself to the various situations.
c) Guided response: - Making response under the guidance of external guidance or force.
d) Mechanism: - Its objective is to develop the practical skills among the students to solve the questions.
e) Complex overt response: - Till this stage full efficiency in skills is acquired by the students and they are ready to face any
situation.
C. The Affective Domain/Objectives: The Objectives of Affective Domain run from least committed to most committed. At the
lowest level, a student would simply pay attention to a certain idea. At the highest level, the student would adopt an idea or a
value and act consistently with that idea or value. There are five following basic objectives in this domain:
1. Receiving: - Receiving also related to the feeling and interest of the students means readiness to receive the knowledge.
2. Responding: - Responding is the feelings of the students to make a response to something or not.
3. Value: - Value judgment is placed by the student to the contents according his own likings.
4. Organization: - Organization means giving a definite structure to the value placed on the contents.
5. Characterization: - Categorizing the things into different categories.
2. LEARNER BEHAVIOUR:
Learner behaviour comprises collective activities displayed by the learner. Learner behaviour is different at the point of time they
begin to participate in the teaching-learning process, it varies during the process and finally, at the end of the process. For educational
purposes, the teacher’s main concern is with entry and terminal behaviour.
The details of both the behaviours, to be assessed by the teacher, are as follows:
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(a) Entry Behaviour comprises the activities/responses of the learners prior to the teaching-learning process. The prior knowledge
of learners personal details (Name, age, sex, grade etc.), their knowledge of subject, their strengths & weaknesses, their needs,
level of attention, motivation, readiness, anxieties, interests, attitudes, abilities etc. make up the entry behaviour of students.
(b) Terminal Behaviour comprises the activities /responses displayed by learners after the completion of the teaching-learning
process. Thus the change in behaviour i.e. increase in their level of achievement, enhancement in subject knowledge,
development of skills, acquiring new interests, attitudes, values, competence, etc. after the teaching-learning process will make
up the terminal behaviour.
3. TEACHER BEHAVIOUR:
According to Gagne-“The essential task of the teacher is to arrange the conditions of the learner’s environment so that the processes
of learning will be activated, supported, enhanced and maintained.
Teacher behaviour will vary from teacher to teacher and from one learning situation to another. This variable can be broken down
into various components and some of these are as follows:
(a) Teacher Personality: Allport has defined the personality in most comprehensive way- “Personality is the dynamic
organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment.”
A teacher’s personality can be said to have two aspects:
(i) Characteristics which influence the learners and the essential characteristics of teacher’s personality should be
- Dynamic - Attractive - Explaining - Disciplined - Encouraging and motivating
- Counselling - Demonstrating - Democratic - Defining - Concluding
- Inferring - Comparing - Evaluating - Planning - Good Character
- Interacting with students (both within and outside learning situations)
- Good Communication (Verbal and Non-Verbal) –Knowledgeable and thrust for Knowledge
- Effective methods of teaching - Command over content - Praising & Rewarding
- Sympathetic & Kind - Patience - Co-operative - Creative - Diagnostic
(ii) Impact/Influence on the Learner i.e. the manner in which a learner responds to the teacher and therefore the teacher can
positively influence the learner in the following manner:
- Changing attitude
- Increases participation in class outside
- Increased achievement
- Increased self-esteem
- Increased interest
- Increased attention
- Strong sense of perception
- Readiness to learn
- Proper adjustment to self, others and environment
- Increased innovation
- Confidence
(b) Teaching Style: All teachers have a personal style of teaching which they carry from one learning situation to another and they
also moderate their style to suit the content being transacted, for instance, teaching style in the laboratory will be different from
that in the traditional classroom.
Teaching style is affected and developed by instructors in themselves based on their beliefs about what constitutes good teaching,
personal preferences, their abilities, the norms of their particular discipline etc.
The various styles of teaching can be classified into the following broad categories:
i. Authoritarian Teaching Behaviour which is based on classical theory of organization task-centred. It has an assumption
that members of an organization are primarily passive instrument, capable of performing work and accepting direction but not
initiating actions. The main features of this style of behaviour are as follows:
- The teacher exercises a firm centralized control because he/she has primary place and regarded as more mature personality and
the student has the secondary for having immature personality to be modified & developed by the mature one.
- The teacher directs every action of his students.
- The teacher does all the planning for the class and gives all the directions.
- The teacher tells the students what to think as well as what to do.
- The teacher is regarded as the active agent in teaching and he considers students as passive listeners of instruction and
information.
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- The teacher is considered as ideal person whom the student ha to imitate.
- This type of teaching confines to memory level and there is no place for developing feeling and attitudes of the students.
- There is no scope of criticism in this type of teaching.
ii. Democratic Teaching Behaviour which is based on ‘Human relations theory of organization-relationship.’ The main
assumption of this theory is that embers bring to their organization attitudes, values and goals; that they have to be motivated to
participate in the system of organization behaviour. The attitudes and morale of the workers are important in the explanation of the
organization behaviour. The main features of this style of behaviour are as follows:
- Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving classroom specific talk which takes place between teacher and pupils
and occurs during definable activities such as lecturing, explaining, demonstrating, illustrating etc.
- It is a interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential of another person.
- The role of a teacher is that of a group leader.
- The main aim of teacher is t lead his students in the study of significant problems in the area in which he is teaching.
- There is always a scope in such a classroom for interchange of ideas, evidences and insights, give and take, and respect for one
another’s ideas.
- The teaching activities in this model recognized here are: motivating, planning, counseling and evaluation.
iii. Laissez-faire Teaching Behaviour which is based on ‘Modern Theory of Organization: Task and relationship centered.
It has an assumption that members of the organization are decision-makers and problem solvers and that perception and processes
are central to the explanation of behaviour of organization. The main features of this style of behaviour are as follows:
- The students are more active than the teacher. Teacher’s job is to create the situation for the learner.
- The teacher leaves the students ‘on their own’. Here students but not the teacher decide what they want to do and how they will
do it.
- This type of teaching is organized at reflective level.
(c) Teacher Expectation: According to Cooper and Goody- “Teacher Expectations refer to inferences that teachers make about
the future academic achievement of students…teachers respond on the basis of their existing expectations for students rather
than to changes in student performance caused by sources other than the teacher.
There are two kinds of expectation that can occur in classrooms:
i. “Pygmation Effect” or Self-fulfilling Prophecy: It is a groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been
expected. This is an exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student is also called
‘Pygmation Effect’, in named for mythological king who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life.
ii. Sustaining Expectation Effect: This effect occurs when teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of student’s
abilities and respond to students appropriately. There is nothing wrong in it with forming and acting on accurate estimate
of student’s ability. But when students show some improvement still teachers do not alter their expectations to take account
of the improvement. This is called sustaining expectation effect because the teacher’s unchanging expectation sustains the
student’s achievement at the expected level.
(d) Teacher Competence comprises of :

i. Professional Knowledge and Understanding: A teacher should have
- Detailed knowledge and understanding of areas of pre-school, primary, secondary and senior secondary curriculum.
- Sufficient knowledge and understanding of their social responsibilities of making country literate.
- Knowledge and understanding of health education.
- Knowledge of ICT.
- Critical knowledge and understanding of educational principles, policies and practices.
- Understanding of their professional responsibilities.
- Research based knowledge relating to learning and teaching.
ii. Professional Skills and Abilities: A teacher should have
- Knowledge of planning coherent and progressive teaching programmer, according to pupil’s needs and abilities.
- Ability of clear communication (verbal and non-verbal) abilities.
- Productive interaction (ability) with pupils.
- Ability and skill of using variety of media.
- Ability to use wide variety of strategies and resource which match the curriculum requirement.
- Ability to work cooperatively with other professionals and adults.
- Ability to organize and manage classes and resources.
- Ability to manage pupil behaviour and classroom incidents fairly, sensitively and consistently.
- Ability to use rewards and sanctions sensibly.
- Ability to evaluate, record and report students effectively.
- Ability to use result of evaluation to improve teaching-learning practices.
iii. Professional Values and Personal Commitment: A teacher should

- Have commitment to improve their professional practices and to contribute to their own professional development.
- Have commitment to do fair justice to pupil.
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- Have to benefit to society.
- Have commitment to act ethically and morally.
- Have to contribute to add something to existing body of knowledge through researches.
- Value, respect and are active partners in the communities in which they work.
CONCLUSION: In this way it can be safely concluded that a good and successful teaching is the ultimate result of the co-operative
efforts of all who are associated and active functioning of all the variables in one way or the other and proceed further with one aim
that is to bring desirable changes in all domains and aspects of behaviour of the learner for his harmonious and holistic development
Q: Explain application of Bruner’s theory in teaching in social constructivist approach?.(4 marks)2021
APPLICATION OF BRUNER’S THEORY IN TEACHING
1. Planning of instruction:- The instruction must be planned keeping in mind the level of learners. The teacher must be
aware of students’ stage. The three stages according to Bruner are-
The first stage is ‘Enactive’ when a person about the world through actions. In the second stage called ‘Iconic’ where
learning can be obtained through using models and pictures. The third stage ‘symbolic’ in which the learner develops the
capacity to think in abstract terms.
2. Sequencing of Subject-Matter:- The subject-matter must be presented in a sequence giving the learners an opportunity
to construct their own knowledge and transform and transfer learning.
3. Motivation:- Bruner was in favour of intrinsic motivation. According to him, the teacher should provide feedback that is
directed towards intrinsic motivation. Grades and competition are not helpful in the learning process. Success and failure
must not experience as reward and punishment but as information.
4. Spiral Curriculum:- The teachers must revisit the material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught ideas to grasp
the full understanding of concept is important according to Bruner. This is what Bruner calls ‘Spiral Curriculum’.
5. Relating New with Old:- The new information must be related to the old in order to make learning easy. The teacher
must use the previous experiences of the students to introduce new concepts.
6. Categorization:- The teacher should categorize the subject matter and help the students understand new information and
help them see similarities and differences’ between things.
7. Role of the teacher:- Role of teacher is very important in learning. According to Bruner, teacher should assist the learners
in building their knowledge. The assistance should fade away as it becomes unnecessary.
Q:Dicuss in detail Bruner’s constructivist approach and throw light on its application in teaching?(16 marks)2021
Bruner’s constructivist Approach and Ideas in Teaching
INTRODUCTION:
Jerome Bruner, the American Cognitive psychologist is credited to propagate quite important ideas and views related to
constructivism. He was equally influenced with constructivist outlook and viewpoints propagated by his contempories Jean Piaget
and Lev Vygotsky who are best known for their strong opinion towards individual and social constructivism. As a constructivist he
picked up a middle path and that is why his constructivism is a blend of both individual and social constructivism. Let us try have
a glimpse about his views and approach related to constructivism and constructivist teaching.
Different feature of Bruner’s constructivist Approach
1 .Discovery learning theory/Self learning theory
In his approach Bruner asserts that a child can acquire useful knowledge only when he is provided with the opportunities
of constructing or discovering it by himself through his independent interaction with the environment or assisted by some guided
attention and attempt on the part of some elders. He named this type of learning as discovery learning
2Active role of the learner: In such type of knowledge construction process or self-learning according to Bruner, the learner must
be active, he must go ahead for identifying key principles for himself by playing the role of an independent enquirer and discover
of the knowledge. He should refrain himself from accepting what is being told, presented and explained by the teacher unless he
makes himself convinced about the truth and existence of such knowledge.
3 Guided by knowledgeable person
Emphasizing for his learner a key role of constructing and discovering the knowledge, Bruner does not at all forget the role of
parents, teachers and elders in assisting the learner in his mission. According to him learner is not always alone in the knowledge
construction task. He may be usefully assisted and guided by those who are knowledgeable.
4.Examples given by teacher

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In his discovery learning and concept attainment model, Bruner expects from the teacher to present examples and the student to
work with the examples until students are able to discover meaning from the presented facts or gain useful concepts. Bruner also
points out that in the knowledge construction or discovery task the students may work in two different ways. In one, they work on
their own to very great extent by interacting with their environment and manipulating the things by themselves (a sort of individual
approach to constructivitism ) and the other named as guided discovery in which he is helped and guided by his teacher or elders in
his mission.
6. Social interaction, social –experience play important role

Actually while propagating his views about discovery lerning (the process of constructing or discovering knowledge) by child,
Bruner anticipated and realized a host of obstacles and difficulties felt on the part of learner in his self discovery path specially
in learning new and complex tasks or concepts. Moreover, unlike Piaget, he realized well the importance of social interaction,
social experiences and cultural influences on the knowledge construction task undertaken by an individual learner. He has
highlighted such impact well in his book. “The Culture of Education” by emphasizing that
“Culture shapes the mind, and it provides us with a tool kit by which we construct not only our worlds, but our very conceptions of
ourselves and our powers”. (Bruner, 1996p.x).
6 . Culture role
Advancing further his conviction about the role of culture in assisting one in his learning or knowledge construction process, he felt
that the information processing view of the mind(for the construction of knowledge) was inadequate to explain how the mind works.
Consequently, he viewed the nature of the mind in cultural terms by pleading that although the meanings of the things
or events are in our mind, the origins as well as their meanings are infact lie in the culture and social experiences. We can very well
realize that how Bruner’s such ideas are speaking about the fundamental ideas and principles related to social constructivism.
Actually as Bruner realizes the knowledge constructed or discovered by a learner Is meant for him. He has to struggle for its
acquiring. He can be more successful in terms of its useful gaining, if he understands its meaning well for its grasping and
application. It can be better accomplished in case he activity engages in knowledge getting process. He can be helped in this task
indirectly or indirectly by social and cultural forces/tools existing in his environment. For example, the language, and guidance
provided by the teachers and elders may prove quite valuable to him in his knowledge construction or learning task. In this way,
although the learning or knowledge construction task is individual phenomenon, yet it can be usefully organized and helped in the
mission of knowledge construction task by the social and cultural experiences, influences and guidance provided by the teachers
and elders. The essence of constructiveness thus lies in arranging the social and cultural forces for helping the individual minds to
remain usefully engaging in the knowledge construction task for their desired individual development and welfare of the society
and a teacher should take it into his consideration while planning and organizing his teaching.
Applications of Bruner’s ideas in Teaching:
Bruner’s ideas related to his theory and philosophy may be utilized or applied in teaching in the way discussed below:
a. Teaching – learning process should be converted from a teacher-centered approach to learner –centered approach.
b. Instead of telling, showing or delivering the contents of the subject matter, students should be made to know and
discover the facts by themselves through an approach and method known as discovery method or learning.
c. Since, it may be difficult in some situation to have self-study, experimentation and discovering the things by their
own for the students, they must be helped is knowing and discovering the facts through guided discovery, teaching
or instruction.
d. Socio-cultural influences play a great role in making the children learn and guide their path related to knowledge
construction and hence children should be given enough opportunities for social interaction and gaining useful
social and cultural experiences from their real life situations as well as co-curricular activities organized in the
school.
e. Whenever a concept is taught, teacher must search out his students’ understanding and prior experiences about
the concept for the necessary planning of its learning (by constructing knowledge related to this concept) on the
part of the students. First, the students should be made to grasp the understanding of the concept on the basis of
their prior learning or experiences about the concept, after then, the task of its understanding must be put before
them as the challenge. They must be provided essential environment for the needed understanding and reflection
on the materials and experiences available for their reading or doing. In no case teacher should be in hurry to
communicate his understanding or conclusion about the concept. Whether it is an independent effort of the
individual learner or cooperative venture in cooperative learning, in all cases, the students should be helped for
knowing and discovering the meanings by themselves.
f. For leading the students on the path of the acquisition of new learning, solving difficult and complex problem or
discovering the facts related to a concept, it is quite advantageous to put students in situations that might challenge
their previous conceptions and creating contradictions to encourage them on discovery path for their individual
efforts or engage in discussion with their peers, teacher or elders.
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g. While interacting with the students for helping them in the construction of knowledge and deriving the meanings
from the presented content material or demonstrated practical activities and experiments, the teacher should have
enough patience in dealing with the students. He must try to inspire and motivate them for playing their role in
this direction as an active and independent enquirer or discoverer of knowledge. For this purpose, it is advisable
to (i) wait long enough after posing a question so that the students have time to think about their responses and be
able to respond thoughtfully by deriving their own or to construct their own knowledge and understanding when
learning something new.
h. The learning experiences and activities, while adopting constructivism approach should be so planned and
developed as to help in making use of the methods like discovery method, inquiry training, concept attainment
model, investigation method, problem solving method, project method, assignment method , discussion method,
dialogue method(also called Socratarian method), cooperative and constructivism learning
Q: Explain Ausuble’s constructivist approach in teaching ?(4 MARKS) 2020

Ans. Ausubel’s Construction Approach and Ideas in Teaching:
David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist who made most significant contribution in the field of educational
psychology, cognitive science and science education. He was the one among the contributors to constructivism.
Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he
believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The most important single factor influencing learning
is what the learner already knows. This led Ausubel to develop an interesting theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers
learning theory.
Ausubel believed that learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known. That is construction of knowledge
begins with our observation and recognition of events and objects through concepts already known. One learns by constructing a
network of concepts and additing to them
Asusbel also stresses the importance of reception rather than discovery learning, and meaningful learning than rote
learning. He declares that his theory applies only to reception learning in school settings. Ausubel believed that understanding
concepts and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning.
Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget’s ideas of conceptual schemas, Ausubel related
it to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge. The key concept for Ausubel is the cognitive structure. He sees this as the
sum of all the knowledge we have acquired as well as the relationships among the facts, concepts and principles that make up that
knowledge. He defined learning as bringing something new into one’s cognitive structure and attaching it to his/her existing
knowledge that is located there. This is how one’s derives meaning, and constructs his one knowledge and this was the focus of his
work. The theory of meaningful learning propagated by him is known as Ausubels Subsumption theory of learning
1. Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning:- Ausubel’s theory focuses on meaningful learning. According to his
theory, to learn meaningfully, new knowledge must be related to concepts already known. New knowledge must intract
with the learner’s knowledge structure. Ausubel contrasted meaningful learning with rote learning. According to him,
rote learning can also add new information to the pre-existing knowledge structure but without interaction. Rote memory
is used to recall the sequence of objects such as phone numbers. However, it is of no use to the learner in understanding
the relationships between objects. On the other hand, meaningful learning involves a recognition of links between concepts,
thus it is transferred to long term memory.
The most curcial element in meaningful learning is how new information is integrated into the old knowledge
structure. Ausubel believes that knowledge is hierarchically organized that eh new information is meaningful to
the extent that it can be related to what is already known.
2. Advance organizers learning Theory:- Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help link new
learning material with existing ideas. Ausubel claims that new concepts to be learned can be incorporated into more
inclusive concepts or ideas. These more inclusive concepts or ideas are advance organizers. Advance organizers can be
verbal phrases (the paragraph the learner is about to read), or a graphic. In a way, advance organizer is designed to provide
what cognitive psychologists call the mental scaffolding to learn new information.
Advance organizers are helpful in the way that they help the process of learning when difficult and complex material are
introduced. This is done through two conditions:-
1. The student must process and understand the information presented in the organizer – this increases the effectiveness
of the organizer itself.
2. The organizer must indicate relations among basic concepts and terms that will be used.
Ausubel’s Advance Organizers are of two types:-
(i) Comparative Organizers
(ii) Expository Organizers
1. Comparative Organizers:- The main work of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas. It is used both to
integrate as well as to discriminate. It integrates new ideas with similar concepts in cognitive structure and discriminates
between concepts that are different.
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2. Expository Organizers:- Expository organizers provide new knowledge that is needed to understand upcoming
information. These are used when the new learning material is unfamiliar to the learner. They try to relate the unfamiliar
material with what the learner already knows. This makes the unfamiliar material easy and plausible to the learner.
AUSUBEL LEARNING MODEL
On the basis of his theory, Ausubel gave a model of learning. Ausubel believed that learning proceeds in a top-down or
deductive manner. This model consists of three which can be used in teaching. The three phases are:-
(i) Phase One – Advance Organizer

(ii) Phase Two – Presentation of learning material
(iii) Phase Three- Strengthening Cognitive Organization
In the first phase, the teacher clarifies the aim of the lesson and organizes new material. The new material is related to advance
organizer. In the second phase, the lesson or material is presented in a logical order and learners are encouraged to actively
receive learning material. Then at the third phase, organizer is related to learner’s previous knowledge by providing examples
showing similarities and differences between concepts. For this students can also be engaged in meaningful learning activities.
SUBSUMPTION THEORY
Ausubel’s theory is also known as ‘subsumption theory’. It means to subsume or incorporate new material into one’s
cognitive structure. According to Ausubel, when information is subsumed into the learner’s cognitive structure, it is organized
hierarchically. The new material can be subsumed in two different ways. They are:-
1. Correlative subsumption – when new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already known.
2. Derivative subsumption – new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure. From this type of
subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge and previous concepts can be changed or expanded.
APPLICATION OF AUSUBEL’S THEORY IN TEACHING
1. Emphasis on Meaningful Learning:- Learning is useful to the learner only when it is meaningful. The learning must
be meaningful so that it serves some purpose to the learner. Moreover, meaningful learning is retained for long term as
compared to rote learning.
2. Relating New with Old:- The teacher should always related new information with the old or previous. It makeslearning
easy for the learner and becomes interesting.
3. Use of Deductive Reasoning:- The learner must be motivated to use deductive reasoning. According to Ausubel, learning
is based on deductive reasoning and one learns maximum with deductive reasoning. Thus in classroom, students must be
provided with opportunities of deductive thinking.
4. Advance Organizer:- Ausubel’s concept of advance organizer is very useful for the teachers. It can be used to teach
difficult concepts the teachers should make use of advance organizers to make their teaching effective. These act as a kind
of teaching aids for the teachers.
5. Ausubel’s Learning Model:- Ausubel’s learning model has three phases i.e. Advance Organizer, Presentation of material
and strengthening cognitive Organization. These three phases can be used in classroom teaching to make teaching learning
effective. These model can help the teachers in proper planning of their teaching.
6. Role of Teacher:- According to Ausubel’s theory, the teacher has an important role in the learning process. It is the
teacher who presents the learning material by relating it with the previous knowledge of the learner. Thus the teacher is
indispensable part of the learning process and has great responsibility in the planning of teaching.
UNIT-IV(phases and models of tewaching)

Ques: What are the different phases of teaching? Discuss the operations or activities carried out at these phases.(2019,2021,2022)
Ans: PHASES OF TEACHING
PRE-ACTIVE, INTER-ACTIVE AND POST-ACTIVE PHASES OF TEACHING
Teaching is not a simple task. It is a quite complex, social, cultural and ethical process, designed in a social or cultural
context. Therefore, to make this job and successful, a systematic planning is essential. Teaching has to be done in steps. The
different steps constituting the process is called the phases of teaching. Each phase has some operations of teaching which are most
important, because these create the situation for learning.
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Before engaging in the actual task of teaching, a teacher performs a number of activities that are preparatory to teaching.
Philop W.Jackson thinks if we are to obtain a complete description of the teaching activity, we must consider what the teacher does
before and after class also. He divided the teaching act into three phases-stages-pre-active, interactive and post-active phases.
The first phase refers to planning, the second to the conduct and management of teaching and finally, the third phase to the
follow up and consolidation. Different phases involve different operations of teaching.
PRE-ACTIVE PHASE OF TEACHING
It is the phase of planning for teaching. A good planning makes the task of teacher smooth, functionable and successful.
There are two major steps involved in this phase:-
There are two major steps involved in this phase:-
(i) Establishment of some kind of goals or objectives, and

(ii) Discovering ways and means to achieve these objectives.
OPERATIONS OF TEACHING AT THE PRE-ACTIVE PHASE
Before actual classroom teaching or what Jackson calls “calm” part of teaching, a teacher has to perform many tasks. In
this stage, the following tasks/activities/operations/sub-stages are involved:-
1. Formulation or Fixing-up of Goal:- The teacher formulates in detail the instructional or teaching objectives in
behavioural terms by using Taxonomy of Educational objectives. These objectives are of two types-Entering behvaiour of
learners and terminal behavior of learners.
The instructional objectives are determined, at one hand from the overall aims of education in National perspective, the
general objectives of subject teaching and on the other, the account of the content matter. These should also based on
psychology of the students as well as the needs of the society
2. Making decision About the Subject-Matter:- Following the specification of objectives, the amount of the subject-matter
is determined-what information, what concepts and what skills etc. are to be imparted. The structure of the content is
decided. These decisions are based upon the following considerations:-
(i) Demand of the syllabus.
(ii) The entry behavior of the accepted learners.
(iii) Level of motivation of the learners.
(iv) Teacher’s preference for assessment related to the content.
3. Arrangement of Ideas and Style of Teaching:-The selected content points are arranged and sequenced in such a way that
it should function empirically. The appropriate style of instruction for each point are thought of. Some aspects may be
developed better through lectures, others through group discussion or through the self-instructional material. These styles
are sequenced and the strategies for each style are decided. It means that decisions about what aspects are developed
through one approach and what through the other are taken.
4. Decision making about the Strategies of Teaching:- The teacher ahs to select appropriate strategies and tactics of
teaching, keeping in view, nature and structure of the content and objectives of teaching. This operation is very important
in teacher-education programme.
5. Development of Teaching Strategies:- The teacher should decide before hand, about strategies and tricks. Which he has
to use during the course of his classroom teaching. When and what device of teaching be used, when the teaching aids will
be used, and when recapitulation or evaluation etc., will be done. These activities must be clearly decided by the teacher
at this stage for successful teaching.
6. Deciding the duration, place and management of classroom teaching.
7. Decision about the evaluation tools and techniques.
In short, at this stage, a teacher has to chalk out the details of his journey, which he wants to perform in the classroom,
along with his students. Pre-active behavior is more or less deliberative. Here, teacher hypothesizes about the possible
outcome of his action.
INTER-ACTIVE PHASE OF TEACHING
This is actual classroom teaching. At this stage, the teacher uses a number of strategies for achieving the goal already set. According
to Jackson, in the interactive phase, “the teacher provides pupils verbal stimulations of various kinds, makes explanations, asks
questions, listens to students responses and provide guidance.”
OPERATIONS OF TEACHING AT INTERACTIVE PHASE
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The interactive hase of teaching includes all those behavior activities which a teacher uses after entering the classroom. In
this phase, actual teaching is done. In this face to face encounter, the teacher uses a number of techniques, aids and material planned
in the first phase for achieving the relevant goal/objective already set. Here following operations are undertaken by the teacher:-
1. Sizing up of the Class:- It refers to the activity of perceiving of the size of the class, getting the feel of the moods of the
learners. It is being aware of how many in the group are looking attentive, how are negligent and disinterested, who are
the sharper ones and who are the trouble makers or slow at learning, etc.
2. Diagnosis of the Learners:- The teacher try to diagnose the level of their achievement in his studies in there areas –
Abilities: Attitude and Interest; and academic background. It is done with the help o the direct questions on the content.
3. To weight himself, his abilities and pre-planning for teaching-against the class group.
4. Presenting information in the form of narration, reading instruction material of writing on the B.B., drawing sketches,
diagrams or presenting through projected aids.
5. Asking questions and responding to student’s questions and requests.
6. Reading, which may be with a view to maintain, extend or terminate the levels of participation.
7. Structuring of presentation which includes the method of pausing and directions of various sorts.
The interactive phase of teaching refers to classroom interaction between teacher and students. The interaction may be
verbal or Non-Verbal. The verbal interaction is most important at this stage. This is performed by the interchange between
teacher and student by initiation or response operations. The non-verbal interaction is equally important in teaching and
helps in creative conducive environment for learning.
In the interactive setting, the behavior of the teacher is more or less spontaneous Research suggests that things
happen quickly during teaching session. For example, the elementary teacher may change the focus of attention as many
as 1000 times daily. Amid all this hustle and bustle, the teacher often has little time to think.
So, the interactive phase of teaching generates the climate in the classroom which influence teaching-learning in the
classroom. It establishes appropriate verbal and non-verbal classroom interaction between the teacher and the students by
arranging suitable teaching-learning activities and an equally suitable and controlled classroom environment.
Post-active phase of teaching(2018)

It is the evaluation phase of teaching. It arises when the teacher has left the class and tries to have a look back into what
happened in the class. So, it is a phase of evaluation and follow-up of the operations at the pre-active and inter-active phases. It
includes the teacher performance and student performance. The behavior change of students are assessed at the end of teaching.
The oral or written questions are asked at the third phase of teaching.
OPERATIONS AT THE POST-ACTIVE PHASE
Following operations are included in this phase of teaching:-
1. Determining the Exact Dimensions of the Behaviour Changes: The teacher evaluates the expected behavioural changes
with their actual behavioural changes- during his teaching.
2. Using the appropriate testing devices and techniques to measure the various dimensions of behavior. The tests should be
reliable, valid and objective in nature.
3. Keeping the record of classroom events.
4. Finding out significant reactions.
5. Collecting student’s observations.
6. Assessing in terms of attainment of instructional objectives.
7. Changing the strategies of testing: The student’s testing result is also used for evaluating the effectiveness of instructions
and teaching strategies. It should provide a basis for improving his teaching by reorienting his teaching and changing
strategies of teaching.
So, the post-active stage of teaching has the activities concerning evaluation of the teaching acts and helps in bringing desirable
improvement in the performance by providing necessary corrective feedback.
IMPORTANCE OF THE OPERATIONS IN DIFFERENT PHASES OF TEACHING
1. It focuses on bringing the desirable behavior changes among the students.

2. Its knowledge is more useful for teaching-education to develop the teaching skills among student-teachers.
3. It provide the scientific basis for developing effective instructions of the teaching.
4. The classroom teaching and interaction can be made effective with this background.
5. In service teachers can also make use of this awareness for improving their classroom teaching competency.
6. Teaching can be organized affectively at different levels by employing appropriate teaching activities.
CONCLUSION:- So the process of teaching does not confine itself with mere classroom interaction or presentation of the content
material or learning experience. Actually it begins even before the teacher enters the classroom for actual teaching. It continues after
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the Interactive phase n the form of evaluation, feedback and similar other post-active activities, even after the teacher has left the
room.
Q… Explain in brief the teaching variable?
Teaching is an important art of the process of education. Its special function is to impart knowledge, develop understanding and
skills. Teaching is usually associated with 3 R’s i.e. Reading, Writing and Arithmatic. Individually, it is a social and cultural
process. Which is planned in order to enable an individual to learn something in his life. It is also a professional activity which
helps the teacher in bringing about progress and development of his students.
TEACHING VARIABLES
All those factors and situations upon which teaching process depends are called teaching variables. Through these teaching
variables it is easy to explain the concept of teaching.
A variable may be a quantity, for example, the length, that can be measured and can take different values. Furthers, a
variable may be a characteristic, as in interest, which can be assessed and varies from person to person. A variable may also be a
concept, for example, marriage, which varies from culture to culture.
Structure of teaching consists of three variables which operates in the process of teaching and create learning conditions or
situations.
These are –Independent, dependent and Intervening variables:-
1. Independent Variables:- The process of teaching centre round the teacher, the student and the teaching-learning
situations. The teacher holds a very important place in the process of teaching. He acts as a planner, organizer, leader and
controller. He has the freedom to perform the activities for providing the learning experiences to his students. According
to Education Commission (1964-66), “Of all the different factors which influence the quality of education and its
contribution to national development, the quality, competence and character of teacher are undoubtedly the most
significant.”
The teacher is the pivot, the most significant one, on which the whole teaching-learning process revolves. He
carries out the responsibility of keeping the whole teaching process under control and brings about the required
changes in the behavior of the students. In this capacity, he does his work in a completely independent position.
Hence, the teacher is an independent variable in the teaching process. As an independent variable, he not only
keeps the student busy in desirable activities, but also keeps control over all the intervening variables, in order to
achieve the aims and objectives of teaching, in the best possible way.
In this way, the teacher is an independent variable in the process of teaching, who always thinks of rendering
greatest help to the dependent variable in the process of teaching i.e. the student.
2. Dependent Variable:- In the process of teaching, the student is the dependent variable, because he has to act according
to the planning and organization of the teacher. The students learn to be disciplined and well mannered, because the teacher
guides to do so.
The factors which undergo a change in behavior during the process of teaching are the students and their behavior.
The change is brought about as a result of teaching process and the efforts of the teacher. The nature of change
in the behavior of the students depend largely upon the nature of teaching and the efforts of the teacher. The
students will hae to perform such activities and show such behavviour as has planned from time to time by the
teacher or th teaching process. It means that a student has to play the role of dependent variable in the process of
teaching.
3. Intervening Variable:- All those factors and situations, besides the teacher an students, who play their role in the teaching
process are called intervening variables. In teaching process curriculum, teaching methods, teaching aids, teaching
material, evaluation techniques and academic environment are called intervening variable.
The intervening variable splay a great role in the useful inter-action between the teacher and students. The teacher is
able to bring about the required change in the behavior of the students by keeping all the intervening variables under his
control and by making the best use of these variables. The intervening variables enjoy a sound position because the
independent and the dependent variables centre round it.
All the three types of teaching variables are inter linked and inter-related. Each one is important in its own way.
Each has its own unique significance. Each one refines the other and is itself refined in return there too.
FUNCTIONS OF TEACHING VARIABLES
As discussed above, only the teacher and the students function in an active way as independent and dependent variables in
the process of teaching. Intervening variables, though inactive and lifeless by themselves, play an important role in the process of
teaching by helping the teacher and the students in performing their responsibilities. As far as the teacher and the students are
concerned, their functions can be divided into the following three kinds:-
1. Diagnostic Functions
2. Prescriptive Functions
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3. Evaluative Functions
The detail of these function is given below:-
1. Diagnostic Functions:- The function of teacher in teaching process is like that of a doctor. He, like a doctor, has to
perform some diagnostic functions, in order to render the best help to his students. He is more active in his function.
The initial task in bringing about desired changes in the behavior of the students is to have a proper diagnosis of the existing
situation. Accordingly, a teacher has to perform the following diagnostic functions:-
Teacher Independent
Variables
Teaching Content & Methods
Diagnostic Function
Intervening Variables
Student Dependent
Structure of Teaching
Variables
(i) Diagnosing the entering behavior of students in terms of cognitive, conative and affective abilities.
(ii) Formulating specific educational objectives, the type and quality ofPrescriptive
behavioural changes
Function to be introduced in the
students, in the light of entering behavior and environmental conditions.
(iii) Analyzing the content, instructional behavior and environmental facilities available for carrying out the task.
(iv) Dignosing his own capabilities and potentialities and bringing about desirable changes in his own behavior for
achieving success in his mission of moulding the behavior of students under his charge.
Evaluative Function
Although the teacher is to play the dominant role in the teaching process as an independent variable, yet the students also have
to know exactly everything about himself, in order to get the maximum benefit out of teaching-learning process. Hence,
following are his (student) diagnostic functions:-
(i) To know all the good and weak points about his entering behavior.
(ii) To evaluate himself regarding learning means, such as language, power of understanding, motor abilities, power of
expression and emotional behaviour.
(iii) To know exactly about the behavior of the teacher, his teaching method, curriculum and teaching aids in order to
ensure his active role in the teaching-learning process.
2. Prescriptive Functions:-Just as the doctor performs prescriptive functions after correct diagnosis of the patient, similarly
the teaching has to perform prescriptive function after performing his diagnostic function. It is a very important and
powerful function of teaching process, in which there is need to an active interaction and co-ordination between the teacher
and the students.
Perspective function is based on the diagnosis for achieving the stipulated objectives. The prescription function involves:-
(i) Selecting appropriate contents and organizing them into proper structure.
(ii) Selecting proper teaching methods, media, strategies and feedback devices in view of the individual differences
of the students.
(iii) Seeking desirable co-operation from the students for purposeful interaction.
The teacher has to play a very important role in his prescriptive functions, which bring about desirable changes in the behavior
of the students. Like a doctor, the teacher has to make use of all the available resources in order to bring up the desired change
in the behavior of the students.
It is also expected of the students to give full co-operation to the teacher in order to derive the maximum benefit out of his
teaching. Just as it is essential for the patient to give full co-operation to the doctor in order to get the maximum benefit out of
his treatment, in the same way, it is essential for the students to give full co-operation to the teacher, in order to make his
teaching successful.
The prescriptive function of the student consist of his co-operation to the teacher, just as the prescriptive functions of the
patient consists in his co-operation with the doctor.
3. Evaluative Functions:- Evaluative functions contain all those activities through which evaluation is done of all the results
of formal teaching-learning process, in order to know how far it has succeeded in the achievement of the aims and objectives
of teaching. It is done in order to test the diagnostic and prescriptive functions of teaching.
If through evaluation, it is learnt that the aims and objectives of teaching have not been achieved, it should be ascertained
as to where the fault lies. The fault can lie in the wrong use of diagnostic functions as well as in the wrong use of prescriptive
functions of the teacher and non co-operation of students in the performance of those functions by the teacher.
Different evaluation techniques can be used for the evaluation of teaching-learning process, such as observation,
interview, rating-scale, questionnaire, oral, written and practical tests and projective techniques. Both the teacher and the
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students should take an active part in the use of all these evaluation techniques and methods. Students should try to give
immediate responses to be questions of the teacher.
If the evaluation is done in a successful way, both the teacher and the student derive great benefit out of it. The
teacher comes to know whether there is any need of changing the nature of his prescriptive functions and teaching methods
and the students come to know about the exact benefit they had derived from the teaching-learning process, in order to
ensure his progress and development in future also.
Q. Define the term model? Highlight the various types of model? Explain the essential steps or components in
detail?(2018),2021
Ans Introduction: - A term ’Model’ carries different meaning in one day to day life. A model may be exact replica of something
original. In layman language Model is a blue print. Thus, a model is the basis for finding out the correct path in order to attain some
desire end. Models, in original are miniatures that summarize some phenomenon or something.
Definitions of Teaching Models:-
In the words of Paul Eggan, “Teaching Models are teaching strategies design to accomplish particular teaching goals.”
According to Jaycee & Weil (1972), “Teaching Model is a pattern or plan which can be used to shape curriculum or course, to select
the instructional material & guide teacher’s action”.
In the words of Jaycee & Weil (1978), “A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational activities and
environment. It specify ways of teaching & learning that are intended to achieve certain kind of goals,”
Characteristics or Functions:-
1. It is the plan prepare in advance for successful teaching learning process.

2. They are different from general teaching strategies in the sense that they are designed to meet specific goals and objectives.
3. It provides guidelines or blue print in advance.
4. It creates a proper teaching learning environment.
5. It specifies the criteria of expectable performance expected from the learners.
6. It provides systematic procedure and organized efforts for behavior modification of both teachers & learners.
7. It specifies the teaching learning outcomes in behavioral terms.
8. It helps the teacher in his task and helps him to move step by step.
9. It saves energy, time and efforts of teaching and learning.
10. It gives specific instructional design for particular types of instructions.
Fundamental Elements of Teaching Models:-

1. Focus: - Focus refers to the point of reference it is the central idea of a teaching model. It includes the objectives of teaching in
relation to the environment of the teaching.
2. Syntax:-Syntax or phrasing of the model refers to the description of model in action. It includes the sequence of steps involved in
the organization of the complete teaching program. The syntax covers the presentation aspect of teaching.
3. Social System: - It refers to the relationship between students and teachers. It describes the various roles of the students, teacher &
inter-relationship within the class and outside. The role of the teacher differs from models to model.
4. Principle of Reactions: - This part includes the reaction of the teacher to the responses of the students. Some Models provide the
teacher, the principles to guide his reaction against the student activity. These principles help to makes healthy interaction between
student and the teacher.
5. Support System:-It refers to facilities for teachers & students to implement the teaching strategies. This component is used to
describe the supporting conditions or materials require attaining the goal. It describes the additional requirement beyond the basic
human skills, capacities etc. Support system contributes to the success of a model by creating desirable conditions.
6. Application:-In every teaching Model the application in an important element because in its absence teaching may not remain
effective. This part describe the application aspects that is, the learner is able to apply situations.
Types of Teaching Model:-
On the broad basis teaching models are of four types:-
1. Information Processing Model: - These models provide knowledge & understandings to about new information and new
facts. They create appropriate environment for the students. Information processing Model refers to the way, people handle stimuli
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from environment, general concept and find solutions of the problem. These are concerned with intellectual development rather than
emotional or social development. For example- Concept attainment Model, Inductive thinking Model.
2. Social Interaction Model:-These are help in arising social interaction. They aim to bring social efficiency among the peoples.
These Models gives priority for the improvement of social abilities & qualities. They emphases’ on development of society
and the relationship between the learner and the society. For example- social, Inquiry Model, group investigation Model.
3. Personal Development Model:-Personal development Models helps an Individual in the maximum development in the
environment so that the learner should be able to accomplish the goals. For e.g. – class room meeting teaching model, Non-
directive Model.
4. Behavior Modification Model:-These Models are related to behavior Modification theories. Operant conditioning has given
birth to most of the models of this category some examples are: - self control through operant conditioning Model, stress
reduction model.
Q. Explain the Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model with its essential steps or components in detail?(2017,2018-19,2020,2022)
Ans. Introduction: - Basic Teaching Model mainly belongs to the psychological aspects of teaching. It was developed by “Robert
Glaser” in 1962. On the basis of Psychological principles it provides simple but sufficient information about teaching process. This
model is not implemented in some particular situations only but it can be used to attain a variety of objectives.
Assumption of Basic Teaching Model: - It is based on the assumption that every lesson assumes some knowledge on the part of
the learner. Through instructional procedure the teacher guides the learner from every behavior to terminal behavior.
COMPONENTS OF BASIC TEACHING MODEL:

Glaser’s teaching model is called, “ Basic” because it attempts to explain the entire teaching process in to four basic component or
parts, namely:\
1. Instructional Objectives ( A)
2. Entering Behavior (B)
3. Insructional Procedures (C)
4. Performance Assessment(D)
These Parts are digramatticaly represesnts as :
Instructional Enterimg Instructional Performance

Objective Behaviour Procedure Assessment
Feedback Loop
Instructional Objectives: Instructional objectives are those objectives which the students are expected to achieve upon completion
of a part of instruction. Instructional objectives are formulated in behavior terms. The behavior are specified in terms of students
performance. With these objectives in view teaching is carried on. Ultimately there is modification of behavior of the learner and
the learner is able to acquire those objectives.
Entering Behavior: entering behavior implies the intial behavior of the students i.e. before the beginning of instruction. It is the
knowledge which is assumed of the part of students before the instructions starts. Entering behavior include previous knowledge,
intellectual ability, learing ability, learning style and motivational state. This requires understanding of background of the students,
there previous knowledge and characteristics. The entering behavior is the starting point. For example for a lesson in multiplication,
the entering behavior is a elementary problem of addition of integers. It is the basis for selecting instruction objective.
Instructional Procedure: This represent the method of teaching, strategies and the teacher-student interaction. The decision about
the detail of the instructional sequence i.e. lecture, description, question,illustration, examples and teaching aids etc. are presented
at this step. The management of these component result in the change in the behavior known as instructional objectives. Instructional
procedures to be used by teacher depend upon the objectives and the entering behavior. Instructional procedure will be different for
teaching different subjects like language, skills, principles, problem solving.
Performance Assessment: it is related to the task of assessing the performance of the students it consist of the test and the
observation used to ascertain how well the student has achieved the instructional objectives. At this step questions are asked to
assess the students learning. These questions provide feedback to the learners by pointing out their learning deficiencies and
performance. It also provides feedback to the teacher by giving them the general level of student attainment.
All these four basic components of Glaser’s basic model of teaching are interconnected. They interact and influence each other. One
paves the way for other; it ensures success of the teaching process.
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Fundamental Elements of Glaser’s Teaching Model:-
1. Focus: - Glaser’s basic teaching model attempts to pin-point the four basic elements, functions, processes and activities comprising
the entire teaching learning process. These are :-
a) Instructional Objectives. b) Entering behavior.
c) Instructional procedures & d) Performance assessment.
The model also brings into light the sequence to be followed in the instructional process.
2. Syntax:-
Syntax of the model describes the model in action. Structure of the model is described as under:
(i) Fixing the objectives:- The objectives and goals which are to be achieved by using the model are fixed up.
(ii) Determining the entire behaviour:- The entering behaviours showing the understanding & background of the student is
determined.
(iii) Carrying out instructional work:- The instructional work is carried out to achieve the objectives keeping in view the entering
behaviour.
(iv) Determing the ultimate behavior: the ultimate behavior of the learner is using different types of test and observations.
3. Principle of reaction:-This element of model refers to how to teacher will react to the
different responses of the students in different situations. The main principles of reaction are as follow:
(i) Principle of interdependence:- The student’s response are to e understood that dealt with in the light of interdependence &
interaction of all the four stages i.e a) Instructional objectives. b) Entering behaviour c) Instructional procedure d)
Performance assessment.
(ii) Principle of active involvement:-The Model requires the active involvement of the teacher from the beginning to the end.
At every stage he is expected to develop proper understanding & difficulties of his students for achieving objectives.
(iii) Principle of follow up:- An assumption is made after the teaching. In case the results
are not in accordance with set objectives, gaps and deficiencies are found out by the teacher.
4. Social System:-The model describes a teacher- dominated classroom climate. The teacher formulates objectives, decides about
the instructional strategy and techniques of evaluation and implements them. Students are receptive & appreciative of the
teacher’s activities, as the learners are identified in accordance with their levels.
5. Support System:- The model for its success needs additional support in terms of :-
1) Availability of adequate in-service and pre-service facilities to the teachers to acquire needed competencies & Skills.
2) Availability of desirable teaching-learning environment & situation for the use of suitable teaching strategies.
3) Availability of appropriate evaluation devices for the assessment of entry & terminal behavior of the learners. It should be
kept in mind that terminal behaviour includes all those responses and behaviours which are helpful for achieving desired
objectives.
6. Application:- Being quite systematic and structured, this model is applicable to all types of teaching-learning situations. It
is applicable in a wide variety of subjects & all levels of students. They can develop technology of instructional suitable to the students
in hand and & thus all round improvement can be planned and reached. It provides a lot of scope for the research workers. They can
develop technology of instructions suitable to the students in hand and thus all round improvement can be planned. Moreover the
performance assessment provides to each component and thus overall improvement is possible.
Conclusion: Glaser’s basic model of teaching indicates that teaching includes a wide range of decision and practice & much of
which requires little or no personal contact between the teacher & student.
Q. Explain the Concept Attainment Model with its essential steps or components in detail?(2018)
Ans. Introduction: This model was developed by “Jerome Bruner” in the year 1956 Research & thinking is the basic elements of
this model. It is an information processing model. This model is very useful in teaching concept to the students. It enables the
students to understand similarities and differences among various things present in the all round environment.
Assumptions of Concept Attainment Model:-

1) Capacity of Concept formation: - Humans are capable of classify the diverse things it would be impossible for us to adjust
if we are not having the capacity to formulate.
2) Reducing Complexities:- Categorizing the things into groups reduces the complexities of surrounding environment
3) Elements of a Concept: - There are three main elements of a concept according to this model: - 1) Examples 2) Attributes
and 3) Attribute value.
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i) Examples: examples may be positive or negative. In concept formation example of a concept are grouped together. In
concept attainment, the positive and negative examples are tested and searched for their features. Each example can be
described in terms of its basic characteristics are called attributes.
ii) Attributes: Each attributes has an attribute value. To have clear understanding of these terms let’s have an illustration. If
the concept is ‘mango’ then each fruit is an example. Here apples and bananas are negative mangoes are positive
examples. The color may be an attribute and yellow or red may be an attribute values.
4) Same strategies: In categorizing or concept formation, although the content of categories may differ from culture to culture,
yet all sets of concepts or categories are more or less the same.
5) Two main Components:-The different things are categorized on the basis of attribute. This category has two components.
i). Concept formation Or Category Formationii). Concept Attainment model formation.
6) Determining the Concept:-In Concept attainment the concept is formed in advance then the efforts are made to determine
its attributes and attribute values.
7) Concept formation & Concept Attainment:-Concept formation and concept attainment differ significantly in terms of
thinking process. Consequently, they require different teaching strategies. Hilda Taba’s Inductive Thinking Model is an example of
concept formation. The concept attainment model are concern with the process of concept attainment.
8) Reception and Selection: In identifying the strategies used to attain concepts, a distinction should be make between two
learning conditions of selection and reception. In reception conditions the teacher present the example in a pre arranged order,
labeling them ‘yes’ or ‘no’. In selection conditions, the examples are not marked ‘yes’ or ‘no’ but form a group of unmarked
examples, the students is required to select one and to inquire whether it is ‘yes’ or ‘no’..
Elements of Concept Attainment Model
1) Focus: - The main focus of this model is to develop inductive reasoning of the students. Students become able to
discriminate the attribute of the things, persons, events, places, etc. and are able to categorize them. The students are able to taught
about the concept which is of great use to them. In order to live successfully in different life situations.
2) Syntax: -
i.) Presentation of the data:- Firstly the data is presented on the form of positive and negative examples and all kinds of instructions
related to the matter is provided by the teacher. Then the students are asked to think of similar type of examples & the common
attribute.
ii.) Analysis of Hypothesis:-In second phase, students analyse their strategies for attaining concept in one phase. This phase
has sub phases:
a) Formulation of Hypothesis:-Different students form hypothesis or solutions or examples in their mind.
b) Teacher’s reaction:- The teacher immediately react that whether the answer given is positive or negative.
c) Rejection or Confirmation of hypothesis: If it is wrong the hypothesis of students stand rejected and whatever examples
they have in their mind stand cancelled. The correct response of positive and negative examples of a student confirm his
hypothesis.
d) More examples: the student si able to think of a few more positive and negative examples based on a same hypothesis.
Other students of the class who are thinking on the same lines having similar types of hypothesis feel encouraged and thus
are able to think more examples.
iii) Closure:-This phase provides unorganized data. When the entire hypothesis but one are rejected by the teacher, the
students have before them many positive and negative examples of the concept. Then the students are asked to identify
their attributes and define them explicitly.This phrase includes the final judgment regarding the concept. At this step the
common attributes are justify.
iv) Practice: - This phase gives the opportunity to practice the students, apply the different rules, and learn by the concept.
They are also given other positive and negative examples to clarify the concept.
3.) Principle of reaction:- During the process of teaching that the teacher has to react to the responses of the students at every
step. Immediate checked of wrong answer and acceptance of right answer is must. For wrong answer, the teacher should
immediately inform the students that it is wrong. But the teacher has to encourage the students. He is to make all efforts
for having the natural and possible interaction between the teacher and the students. The teacher is to ensure that neither
the students nor he himself slacks in any situation.
4.) Social System: - The teacher has to control all the actions of the classroom but reasonable freedom is given for discussion
to the students at every phase of the teaching. The teacher has to motivate the students to participate in the task of different
phases the teacher must be sure that the students are clear about the task. Proper interaction between the teacher and the
students and also the interaction of the students with one another makes the system socially efficient.
5.) Support System:-The nature of examples should be such that students should able to understand and identify the concept
clearly. The lessons require concepts which can be arranged so that concept may be drawn from the material. The material
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should be presented in both negative as well as positive way. The positive and negative examples given by the teacher
should clearly help the students to form hypothesis in their mind. For presenting the positive and negative examples, the
use of blackboard, flashcards displayed on flannel board would become a support for the success of the model. The students
should know sources of data or material.
6.) Application:-Concept attainment Model is very useful in teaching the concept through inductive reasoning different
subjects or contents can be learnt easily by the learner will be the use of this model for e.g. for teaching English grammar,
Science, Math etc.
Merits of concept attainment model:
1. Development of reasoning: The model develops power of reasoning of the students.

2. Development of Imagination: It develops the imagination abilities of the students.
3. Intellectual development: The model helps the students in intellectual development.
4. Observation: It helps the students in making good observers.
5. Analytical abilities: The model develops the analytical ablitites of the students. The students learn to analyse
things systematically.
6. Active participation:Students remain actively engaged during the teaching learning process.
Demerits of concept attainment model:
1) Absent minded: some students remain absent minded. They do not concentrate on teaching learning.
2) Wrong thinking: students may have wrong hypothesis for some time. He may gone thinking in the wrong direction.
3) Non participation: some students may not take part in the teaching learning process in the class. They may not find
opportunity to participate in the class.
Suggestions:
1) Small group: teaching should be carried in a small groups. So that more students may find opportunities to take active in
the learning process
2) Instruction and examples: the teacher should give instructions to positive and negative examples of the concepts in the
class.
3) Encourage participation: students of each group should be encouraged to take active part in the class.
4) Formation of groups: a fewgroups may be formed with one monitor for each group. The students may sit outside in circle
or semi-circle, groupwise under the charge of monitor nominated by the teacher.
5) Generalization and conclusions: In the end, All the students may sit together in a big group. Genralisation and conclusion
should be drawn.
Examples of Bruner’s concept attainment model:
Suppose the teacher wants to teach the concept of ‘proper nouns’. He teach the concept as under:
1) First step: the teacher says that he has a concept in his mind. He gives one positive and one negative example of it.
1. Chandigarh YES
2. Beautiful NO
2) Second step: The students are ask to think of the possible categories into which the positive example ‘Chandigarh’ can fit
in.
3) Third step: Students forms some hypothesis. They are asked to write down the hypothesis.
1. The teacher wants to teach about the capital of Punjab.
2. The teacher wants to teach about the some places.
3. The teacher wants to teach words formed with ten letters (CHANDIGARH).
4. The teacher is to teach about Union Territories.
5. The teacher is to teach about capitals of different states of India.
4) Forth step: Now the students are asked to speak one positive example and one negative example. One student speaks:
1. Positive Example Ludhiana
2. Negative Example Dirty
Another student says:
1. Bombay positive example

2. Beautiful city negative example
Still another studentspeaks:
1. Chaura Bazaar Positive example

2. Narrow Negative example
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In this way with the help of more examples some hypothesis will be rejected by the students and some will still remain in the
minds.
More examples will be given by the students. There will be a stage when students have only one hypothesis in their mind. Now
students will be able to analyse the whole data and they will be in a position to generalize and conclude about proper noun.
Ques: Explain the concept of teaching strategies and discuss its specific features.(16 marks)
Ans: TEACHING STRATEGIES
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Meaning of the Term Teaching Strategies

• Special features of Teaching Strategies
• Simulation
• Brain storming
• Role-playing
• Gaming
• Remedial Teaching
• Enrichment Programme
• Study Question
MEANING OF THE TEAM “TEACHING STRATEGIES”
The term teaching strategy in its simple meaning stands for the type of strategy used by the teacher in carrying out his
teaching or instructional work. The word strategy in its etymological derivation owes its origin from a Greek word ‘strategia’ and
may be defined as plans and specific ways devised and employed for the realization of a goal. Strategy as a term is quite in vogue
in Military Science and warfare. Here it stands well for the effective plans, means and ways derived and employed for realization
of a goal. Strategy as a term is quite in vogue in Military Science and warfare. Here it stands well for the effective plans, means
and ways derived and employed for winning a war. A chess player may also be said to employ effective strategies for winning his
game. In the same way, a teacher may also need the use of strategies for carrying out his task of teaching as effectively as possible.
Now what is teaching ? the term teaching as defined and understood in the chapter two of this text stands for a purposeful activity
performed by the teacher for guiding, directing, and showing the right path to the learners in their pursuit for the realization of the
set teaching-learning objectives.
Thinking in this way, we may be now in a position to view the term teaching strategy n the words given below.
Teaching strategies may well stand for the plans, means and specific ways especially devised and employed by the teachers
for guiding, directing and showing path to the learners for the realization of the set instructional or teaching-learning objectives.
A similar meaning for the term teaching strategies has also been attributed by the famous writers, E. Stones and S.Morris
(1972) in their book, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives.
They write “Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired learner behavior in terms
of goals of instruction and an outline, of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.”
SPECIAL FEATURES OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
Based upon the discussion on the meaning of the term teaching strategies, we can draw following conclusions about the
special features, characteristics and nature of teaching strategies.
• Teaching strategy stands for a generalized plan, ways and means for carrying out the task of teaching i.e., more specifically
for teaching a particular lesson.
• Teaching work/the lesson is directed towards the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.
• Teaching strategy is devised and employed for helping the learners in the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.
• Teaching strategy brings out a scheme, programme or teaching-learning structure, which if followed may help in the better
realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.
• Teaching strategy requires a number of well planed tactics for its effective implementation. In other words, teaching tactics
are the essential components of a teaching strategy.
A teaching strategy is devised and employed for enabling the learner to realize the set teaching-learning objectives.
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(i) A teaching strategy is always devised and employed in the light of the needs, interests and abilities of the learner, the
facilities and learning environment available to the learner for carrying out his efforts for learning and the prefixed
learning objectives.
(ii) Teaching strategy remain open for further modification and improvement in the light of the feedback received from
the learner.
(iii) Teaching-learning objectives, make central point and goal of the teaching learning structure. These also are dynamic
and not static, we can bring desirable modification in the objectives in the light of the feedback received from the
learners, teaching-learning environment, and teaching strategies.
DISTINGUISHING TEACHING STRATEGIES FROM TEACHING METHODS
We all are familiar with the term teaching method as we make use of different methods like lecture method, demonstration
method, inductive method, deductive method, heuristic method, problem solving method, project method, etc., in our presentation
of the subject-matter to the students of our class. Any method which we use is always selected and directed to serve our purpose of
presenting the subject material as effectively as possible. Any method, thus we use, reflects a particular mode of presentation of
some specific contents of a curricular subject. Strategy on the contrary, is selected and employed not only for the effective
presentation of some specific subject material but also for the realization of the pre-determined teaching-learning objectives. In this
way, strategy as a term is more comprehensive in its scope as well as structure in comparison to a method. The distinction between
them can be summarized as below:-
Teaching Method Teaching Strategy

1. A teaching method stands for the effective 1. A teaching strategy stands for the creation of
presentation of the specific contents of a subject appropriate teaching-learning environment
in such a way as may be properly grasped and leading to help the students in the realization of
understood by the students. the set teaching-learning objectives.
2. The term method, relatively an old term, is 2. The term strategy is relatively a new term
related with pedagogy. belonging to military to military science’ and
3. The nature of the subject-matter decides the educational technology.
selection of a method for carrying out teaching 3. Nature of the teaching-learning objectives is the
task. deciding factor for the selection of a suitable
4. A teaching method is based on the assumption teaching strategy.
that teaching is an art. 4. A teaching strategy assumes that teaching is
5. The effectiveness of a teaching method is science and quite technical in nature.
evaluated in terms of mastery over the subject- 5. The effectiveness of a teaching strategy is
matter by using achievement tests. evaluated in terms of the realization of the set
6. In a teaching method emphasis is laid over the objectives by using criterion referenced tests.
teaching steps taken for the proper presentation 6. In teaching strategy emphasis is laid over
of the subject-matter. teaching activities for the proper organization of
7. The steps taken in teaching methods are quite teaching-learning environment.
rigid and fixed. Generally, it is quite difficult to 7. Teaching strategy is quite flexible in its
bring changes in the style and steps represented application. It is always subjected to
by a method. modification in the interest of the best realization
8. A teaching method may make use of teaching of the set objectives in the present circumstance.
techniques and aid-material for its effective 8. In this regard a teaching strategy is more
implementation. comprehensive as it may make use of different
methods, techniques, aids and equipments,
tactics, etc., for organizing the teaching-learning
activities and environment in an effective way.
The distinction made between these two terms sometimes get quite narrower as both serve as the means and tools for
carrying out the task of teaching as effectively as possible. That is why we have so many common names included in both the
categories like lecture, demonstration, question-answer, problem solving, heuristic, project, etc. however, the line of demarcation
is quite clear. All of these may be referred as strategies when utilized as a means for the realization of the well defined objectives.
Ques: What do you mean by term simulation? Discuss its meaning, uses/advantages and importance in detail.2020
Ans: SIMULATION
Simulation in its dictionary meaning stands for the act or process of pretending or role playing. It is a kind of an assumption
or limitation of a particular appearance or form. When a male child puts the beard and moustaches on his face and the little girl
serves the dishes to him they are said to simulate i.e. imitate the acts of their parents. Through such simulated playful acts the
children get the opportunity of training them for future life. When Chandra Gupta was first located by Chanakya in his simulated
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act i.e. playing the role of a king with his playing mates he was not only pretending or imitating the king but also actually trying to
solve the problems and disputes faced by his mates. Thereby simulation as a task involves both role playing as well as problem
solving and thus may be defined as a process of learning or training techniques aimed to increase the potential of one’s problem
solving behavior through role playing.
USE OF SIMULATION:- Use of simulation as a learning or training technique is as primitive as the creation of life on earth.
Human beings including birds and animals have been using this technique to train themselves as well as their youngsters to adjust
and face the real life problesm. For training soldiers in the strategy of warfare, personnels in the management affairs and artists in
the preparation of valuable pieces of art, the simulation technique has been in vogue since the time immemorial. With the passage
of time its use is now gathering momentum day by day and in general it is now recommended for every type of training in all walks
of life. For illustration we may have its use in the following situations:-
1. soldiers may be engaged in simulating the war strategies, mock fighting for providing them essential knowledge,
experience, skills and attitude for fighting later on in the actual military warfare.
2. Pilots, navigators and drivers may be given all types of necessary experiences for flying and driving through simulation on
the models in the laboratory like conditions.
3. An orator, an actor, a salesman and a lawyer may be trained through the simulated technique by giving them essential
experiences by arranging artificial situation and mock trails.
4. Engineering students and technical persons may be trained with simulated technique by suing maps, models and arranging
the artificial mock working conditions and projects.
5. Doctors and the personnel’s connected with medical profession may be trained in looking after the treating patients through
simulation. In order to perform operations in real medical settings, they are made to learn the operation techniques by experimenting
on frogs, rats and other animals including dead human body.
6. Teachers of all categories may be trained through simulation by making use of a mechanism known as simulated teaching
before allowing them to teach their students in real teaching-learning situations.
7. Simulation may be used in the teaching or training of the children at all levels. With the help of the role playing in a
particular project mock play, drama etc. they may learn so many things connected with their formal or informal education.
In a nutshell, thus, we can say that simulation as a learning or training technique is applicable and useful for all types of
learners and trainees at all levels of training and learning.
WHAT IS SIMULATED TEACHING?
Literally, simulated teaching means the teaching performed through simulation. In this sense it conveys the use of
simulation technique in the field of education and may be defined as below.
Simulated teaching is a learning or training technique for helping the learner to bring desirable changes in his behavior
through some systematic and organized learning experiences in simulated i.e., artificial laboratory like conditions.
IMPORTANCE AND USE OF SIMULATION IN TRAINING OF TEACHERS

The belief that teachers are born and one who has good knowledge of his subject can teach well without going through any prescribed
course of teachers’ training do not hold much ground. Teaching is a serious activity, a highly specialized and technical job that
needs proper pre-preparation, training and sufficient practice in the form of acquiring necessary knowledge, skills, interests and
attitudes. One has to learn the art of teaching and therefore, the efforts for bringing desirable modifications in the behavior of the
teacher trainees are very much essential for helping them to become effective teachers. The teacher teaching courses at all levels
cater to this need. Apart from imparting theoretical knowledge there is a provision of practical experiences to the student teachers
in the form of demonstration lesson, discussion lessons and practice teaching.
In demonstration lessons, teacher educators are required to demonstrate before the trainees the art of teaching by selecting
some suitable lesson from the prescribed school curriculum. In discussion lessons, this responsibility of teaching falls on the
shoulders of teacher trainees who try to teach (play the role of a teach) on the lines as demonstrated by the teachers. Where
demonstration lessons exhibit models of teaching before the trainees to imitate. Discussion lesson are held to suggest improvement
in the performance of individual student teachers who actually engage in role playing before their teacher and fellow teacher trainees.
These two practices-giving demonstration lessons and arranging discussion lesson in a group, constitute the basic pre-preparation
of the trainees before sending them to various schools for practicing their teaching skills.
In general, all these three practices related without teachers training programe suffer from the following limitations and
drawbacks:-
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1. Dependence on schools:- These practices are dependent on schools in terms of material as well as human resources. While
arranging for demonstration lessons and discussion lessons, the schools children are required to be taught by the teacher
educators and trainees for playing the role of the school teachers. During teaching practice, not only the schools children
but the total resources of the schools are called for playing the roles of school teachers by the trainess.
2. Injustice to the schools children:- School children are made scape-goats in the name of the training of the student teachers.
Much of their valuable time is wasted with little or no learning gains on account of the lack of necessary skills and desirable
attitudes on the part of the student teachers. Student teachers, not only cut a sorry figure in terms of playing the role of
teachers but may also drift the school to utter confusion and indiscipline causing great harm to the process of modification
of the behavior of the school children.
3. Insufficient provision of training:- The question arises whether or not the traditional teacher education programme provides
sufficient opportunities to the teacher trainees through its demonstration discussion and practice teaching programmes ?
The answer lies in negative. Acquisition of teaching skill is by all means a serious task. It needs repetition, revision and
practice of all the minute component of the different teaching skills. This means that there is a need of sufficient
experiementation at will which is neigher possible nor desirable with the school children. While giving demonstration
lesson a teacher educator may like to discuss or throw more light on some or the other aspects of his teaching connected
with contents, methods, techniques, class management. But on account of the presence of the school children, he is forced
to adopt the beaten track of confining himself to the teaching of the particular topic. Similarly, during discussion lesson,
the freedom needed for bringing modification in the trainee’s behavior is snatched on account of the presence of school
children. As a result trainees find a very little scope for practicing different teaching skills and showing any novelty or
originality in terms of the teaching or class room interaction. In such circumstances, when the trainees are forced to go
through practice teaching programme in real school conditions. They find themselves nowhere on account of their ill-
equipped teaching potentiality. They teach classes half-heartedly with little confidence and no much enthusiasm for
learning or practicing the art of teaching.
a. The remedy for the above pointed dismal picture lies in some appropriate alternate arrangement where we can
train the student teacher in some artificial laboratory like conditions. Simulated teaching, in this way may emerge
as most suitable technique for the training of teachers. This arrangement may be compared with the provision
made for the professional pre-preparation of the compounders, nurses and doctors. No doctors is allowed to
operate a living human being before experimenting upon some non-living or animal objects. In the same way
student teachers may not be directly allowed to use school children for practicing their teaching skills and
modifying their teacher behaviours. They may first acquire the necessary teaching experiences through simulated
teaching i.e., playing the role of teachers in the non-stressful conditions of their own institution within their own
group of fellow teacher trainees, then and only then they should face the real class room teaching situations.
MECHANISM OF SIMULATED TEACHING
The mechanism of simulated teaching revolves round the role playing and problem solving behavior of the three namely,
teacher, pupil and observer under the supervision of a trainer (teacher educator in the case of teacher training). Here attempts are
made to create artificial teaching learning situations (as much as resembling the real class room settings) within the environment of
the training institute and the student teachers are required to play the role of teacher, pupils and supervisors one by one within their
limited groups for a limited time on a specific topic in order to learn or practice particular teaching behvaiours or teaching skills.
The specific steps or procedure involved may be summarized as below:-
1. ORIENTATION:- In the beginning, the student teachers should be given necessary theoretical
background for the adoption of simulated teaching by bringing into light the following important aspects:-
➢ Concept of simulation.
➢ Use of simulation as a training technique.
➢ Concept of simulated teaching.
➢ Significance and rationale of using simulated teaching for their training.
➢ The mechanism and procedure followed in its use.
➢ The role of student teachers in simulated teaching.
➢ Requirements and setting for adopting simulated teaching technique.
2. SELECTION OF THE THEME FOR TEACHING:-
What is to be practiced through simulated teaching should be decided well in time. What are the specific teaching skills or
technique used should be planned in advance for becoming specific and objective in the task of simulated teaching.
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3. DEMONSTRATION LESSON:
Example is always better than precept. Keeping this thing in mind, the teacher educator should try to give demonstration of a
good teaching for the practice of the skill selected, topic to be dealt with the methodology to be employed by the student
teachers.
4. FORMATION OF GROUPS:- The student teachers are divided into specific groups based on their
teaching subjects, teaching skills practiced, methods and techniques used, their total numbers and their
ability and interest etc.
5. ASSIGNMENT OF ROLES:- Simulated teaching requires the role playing. As pointed out earlier, there
are three different roles-teacher, pupil and observer, that is to be played by every pupil teacher in his
group. Therefore, a prior judgment is needed for deciding the order in which different student teachers
will play the role of the teacher, pupils or observers. However, it is always remembered that, irrespective
of the order, every one has to play all the three roles at one time or the other in the overall process of
simulation.
6. PLANNING:- The schedule of teaching, in every aspect, is now planned. Each trainee who is assigned
the role of a teacher is now – teacher is not helped in the selection of a suitable topic of his interest in view
of the skills to be prenticed. He is further helped in preparing mini or microlesson plan. The trainees
who will play the role of pupils are also helped in deciding and planning for the role of pupils. The
anticipated class room interactions also planned with respect to the role of the trainees as observers. The
procedure and technique of observation is also decided and planned in advance. The decision regarding
the use of these observations in providing feed-back to the teacher actors is also taken in advance.
7. EXECUTION OF THE FIRST PRACTICE SESSION:-The student teachers who are to play the roles
of teachers are then asked to deliver their lesson one by one to their peers who play the role of pupils.
Those playing the role of observers/supervisors engage themselves in noting down all the good and weak
points of teaching concerning class room interaction, teacher behaviours, content taught, skills practiced
and methodology used, etc. after delivering the lessons, free and frank discussions are help purely to
provide feed-back for modification and improvement I teacher behavior, classroom interaction and overall
art of teaching. The role of pupils and supervisors is also discussed in order to bring desirable
modification. In view of such discussions, the whole mechanism of simulated teaching is then subjected
to necessary alteration in terms of the roles played by the teachers, pupils and supervisors.
8. FOLLOW-UP DURING SUBSEQUENT PRACTICE SESSIONS:- What is decided in terms of
modification and alterations in the first session is being practiced in the second and subsequent sessions
till the goals of practicing one or the other teaching skills and acquisition of sufficient art of teaching is
not achieved. The roles of the student teachers are also gradually altered as to provide opportunity for
playing different roles. In this way, all student teachers in the group are given full opportunity to practice
their teaching skills, modify their teacher behaviours and acquire an overall art of teaching with the help
of their fellow student teachers under the guidance of the teacher educator.
The steps laid down above do not stand for any rigidity in carrying out the task of simulated teaching. One is free to adopt
his own system and procedure as found most workable in one’s circumstance. The important factor is the initiation,
motivation and enthusiasm of the teacher educator and the practicipating student teachers to engage in active research and
experimentation under simulated conditions for finding the ways and means of providing best training technique to learn
the art of teaching of usual class room teaching. They can concentrate on the improvement of one or the other skills of
may hava a full dress rehearsal of a class teacher. For example, in one situation, they may practice to learn the art of
‘introducing the lesson’ by picking up a particular lesson. Turn-wise they may play the roles of a teacher, pupil and
observer and thus may get adequate feedback as well as opportunity for practicing and bringing desirable modification in
their own technique and skill of introducing a lesson. In other situation they may learn or practice the art of class
management or asking questions etc. and finally they may rehearse for playing the role of full-fledged classroom teacher
and they offer themselves to be placed for practice teaching in the real class room setting of the practicing schools.
Ques: what is brain storming? What are the specific rules that need to be followed by making use of brainstorming as a method
or strategy? Discuss. (2019,2017-18,2021)
Or
Define the term brainstorming strategy and discuss it advantages, demerits and limitations.
Ans: BRAINSTORMING?
Brainstorming, as the name suggests, implies storming of the brain, i.e., to evolve or geerate a number of ideas and the
thought lines as quickly as possible like a storm without paying consideration about their validity and appropriateness. As a method
or strategy helpful in getting useful ideas for solving a problem, creating something new or having discussion over an issue in a
proper democratic environment, it was popularized at the hands of a famous scholar A.F. Osborn (1963), through his writing Applied
imagination according to him as a method or strategy, brainstorming, can be used with a group to explore a number of ideas related
to a situation or solution of a problem without evaluating them or passing any judgement or getting them censured. In this way, as
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Osborn (1963) claims “the basic tenet ofbrainstorming is to separate the process of creating ideas from the process of evaluating
them because evaluation often inhibits creativity and originality.” He has further emphasized that use of brainstorming as a
technique, method or strategy can prove quite helpful in the development of higher order thinking skills and cognitive abilities like
reflective thinking, creative imagination and problem solving. Besides this, it has also demonstrated its capability of helping in the
attainment of the instructional objectives related to the affective domain. One can feel and express oneself freely when one is asked
to engage in the act of brainstorming during a group discussion or brainstorming session.
RULES TO MAKE USE OF BRAINSTORMING AS A METHOD OR STRATEGY
Brainstorming, in all its aspects and shapes, emphasizes on the part of all those who take part in a brainstorming session to
put their ideas freely without any inhibition. While they are doing so, attempt are seriously made to postpone any sort of evaluation,
discussion and criticism of their ideas until all possible suggestions have been made. For the proper organization of such a
brainstorming session, john Bacr (1977 p. 43) has suggested the following rules to be followed by the participants and the organizers.
(I.e. students and the teacher in a small group discussion):-
1. Defer judgement.
2. Avoid ownership of ideas. When people feel that an idea is “theirs”, egos sometimes get in the way of creative thinking.
They are likely to be more defensive later when ideas are critiqued, and they are less willing to allow their ideas to be
modified.
3. Feel free to “hitchhike” on other ideas. This means that it’s Okay to borrow elements from ideas already on the table, or
to make slight modifications of ideas already suggested.
4. Envourage wild ideas. Impossible, totally unworkable ideas. It’s easier to take a wildly imaginative bad ideas and tone it
down to fit the constraints of reality than to take a boring bad idea and make it interesting enough to be worth thinking
about.
The rules like above may prove quite beneficial for engaging in a brainstorming session to the individuals or group for
generating new and noble ideas to create some thing new, helping in finding out the solution of faced problems or getting
new ideas and information for the learning of the topic inhand.
THE ORGANIZATION PROCEDURE
The procedure for using brainstorming as a teaching strategy may be outlined as follows:-
1. To start with, a small group of students (say 10 to 15) is formed. They are asked to sit in a group and provided with a
focus, e.g. a particular problem like “student unrest” , “growing unemployment in India” or “how to check truancy in our
school”, etc.
2. Teacher, as a leader of the group, then asks the group members to think about the solution of the problem and give their
ideas one by as rapidly as possible. They are advised to attach the faced problem without any inhibition from many angles;
in fact, literally storming it with all possible ideas and solutions. For providing these ideas, they may be instructed as
follows:
(a) You are faced with this problem now; think about the possible solution or solutions as you may think proper.
(b) Come out with as many ideas or solutions as possible. Don’t care for the criticism. Provide your suggestions and ideas
without any hesitation even if they seem to you quite noble, unusual and unorthodox.
(c) Don’t criticize others’ ideas, but you are free to make alteration, enlargement and synthesis in the ideas or solutions
given by others.
(d) You are also free to alter or improve your own ideas and solutions given by you earlier in this session.
3. In this way, students are encouraged and inspired for giving many ideas or solutions as possible. The group members
and the leader are supposed to receive these responses in the light of the following precautionary measures or norms:-
(a) All ideas are to be encouraged and appreciated; therefore, no criticism is allowed during the brainstorming session.
(b) Ideas are to be listened and accepted patiently, without passing any judgement or comment of any sort until the session
is over.
(c) Members are not restricted to new ideas but are also encouraged to enlarge upon ideas put forward by other fellow
students.
(d) All the ideas and alterations are to be recorded properly (preferably written on the blackboard or displayed on the
screen).
4. At the end of the brainstorming session, all the solutions and ideas received from the members are discussed in a free and
frank democratic environment. Out of this discussion (wisely guided by the group leader) the most viable ideas are
accepted for the solution of the problem in hand.
ADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING STRATEGY
Brainstorming strategy is credited with the following advantages:-
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1. It discourage spoon feeding and information given tendency or rule on the part of the teachers. Students become active
and independent enquirer and discoverer of the knowledge instead of remaining passive partners in the teaching-learning
process.
2. It provides opportunity to think, reason, analyze and synthesize and thus it proves helpful in the development of higher
cognitive abilities among the students.
3. The main advantage of this strategy is to help students in the development of their creative and constructive potentialities.
The originality and novelty of the ideas, the varied responses marked with divergent thinking, the removal of fear of being
ridiculed or criticized, may always encourage and inspire the students for developing their creative imagination and
problem solving ability.
4. It encourages the group activities on the part of students for finding out the solution of a problem of common interest. It
makes them cooperative and teaches them to have respect for other ideas and points of view.
DEMERITS AND LIMITATIONS
Brainstorming strategy may suffer from the following limitations and drawbacks:
1. All the members of the group may not be interested equally in the solution of the problem.
2. The group may not be homogeneous with respect to general mental level or knowledge and skills required for the solution
of the problem.
3. The group members may not come forward for putting up their ideas.
4. The brainstorming session may not yield into convincing solutions. The members may clash with each other and indulge
in verbal conflicts.
5. The concluding session may not result into useful conclusion or solution of the problem.
6. The members may waste their time and energy without getting opportunity for the realization of cognitive or affective
objectives.
However, we must not get discouraged by the above cited limitations and drawbacks of the brainstorming strategy. These
are very poor barriers and, if proper care is to be taken by the teacher in making use of the brainstorming as a strategy, he
may be able to achieve the desired purposes and advantages served by this strategy.
Ques: What is role playing? How can it be used as an effective technique for the teaching learning in the given situation? (2017-
2018)
Or
Discuss the merits and demerits of role playing as a technique of teaching learning.
Ans: ROLE PLAYING
CONCEPT AND MEANING
Role playing may be considered a kind of an assumption or initiation of a particular appearance or form. When a male
child puts the beard and moustaches on his face and the little girl serves the dishes to him they are said to be engaged in role playing.
i.e., imitate the acts of their parents and elders. Through such role playing, the children get the opportunity of learning or training
themselves for the activities of future life. For the players, the essence of role playing is the personal experiencing of emotions and
perceptions by assuming a role in a defined situation and action out its relevant behvaiour.
In the class-room situations, we may consider the role playing as a teaching-learning technique or strategy in which a well
planned situation is dramatized by a group of students by playing specific roles, under the direction of a teacher for deriving useful
educational experiences. For example, the students for learning the working of a parliament or legislative assembly may dramatize
the scene of the parliament or assembly by playing specific roles of speaker, ministers, ruling and opposition parties M.P.s or
M.L.A.s, Marahals, etc. similarly for acquainting students with the problems and ill effects of over affection, and protection given
to a male child by his parents, the situation may be enacted by the students by playing the roles of parents, brothers and sisters,
child and other family members and companions, etc. the role-playing strategy thus represents a spontaneous, unrehearsed life like
presentation of some situation for gaining insight into a specific problem or deriving useful educative experiences.
However, role-playing as a sociadramatic educational strategy in the classroom differs from the role playing which often
occurs spontaneously in socialization and from the role-playing used as a therapeutic techniques, as in psychodrama. In
psychodrama the actor generally portrays himself and relives his own role in dramatic incidents in his past. The direction of this
type of role-playing calls for a therapeutic background which most educators do not have. Sociadrama, on the other hand, deals
with generalized roles and situations in which the actor is not called upon to represent himself. It is this distinction which allows
the teacher without therapeutic skills to assume responsibility for directing a role-playing sequence.
For making role playing strategy in the classroom distinct from the role playing strategy in the classroom distinct from the
role playing through socialization, we may cite the examples of the development socialization of early childhood of the nature “I
will be the daddy, and you be the mommy.” However, in the classroom situation, the students will be playing these roles of daddy
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and mommy with greater sophistication “if you were the parents of these two children how would you have reacted and told
them…….”
For making role-play strategy to attain its desired objectives, it is essential to meet the following conditions:-
(i) The students who engage in role-playing must understand clearly the situation and the roles to be played by them for
depicting the scene of that situation.
(ii) The roles must be portrayed or played with quality.
(iii) The role or situation must have a real life quality.
(iv) All the members of the group should closely and actively be attached to the role-playing either as role players or
observers.
PHASES OR STEPS INVOLVED IN ROLE-PLAYING
The role-playing strategy, according to Joyce and Weil (1980) may follow the nine specific phases or steps in any classroom
situation. These are:-
1. Warming up stage:- Concerning with the creation of a problematic situation or citing of a problematic experience.
2. Selection of the role-players:- Concerning with the selection of students for playing the specific roles as demanded by the
situation.
3. Setting of the stage for role-playing:- Concerning with making necessary environmental setting for role-playing activities.
4. Preparing of the observers:- Concerning with the assignment of the roles of Observers to the students who are not acting
as specific role-players.
5. Enacting the story, roles and situation:- Concerning with the actual role playing process, here the role players may be
asked to enact their specific roles as demanded in the situation.
6. Discussion and evaluation:- Concerning with free and frank discussion about the qualities of the roles.
7. Enacting again:- Concerning with re-enaction of the role playing activities in the light of the modification suggested in
the phase 6.
8. Deriving generalization:- Concerning with making relevant generalization and learning useful lesson applicable to real
life situations.
However, the steps given by joyce and weil for the use of role playing strategy in the, classroom situation are only
suggestive. These are not binding. A teacher in the capacity of the director of the role playing strategy may modify them
according to his convenience as well as the demands of the situation.
In case we follow the above nine steps given by joyce and Weil, the role playing may be illustrated through the
following example:-
1. Warming up stage (Selecting the situation or theme):- At the beginning stage, a teacher in his social studies class
may arrive at the following situation for the purpose of role playing.
“The process of election in a democratic society”. For providing instruction about this topic he may propose to
enact the situation by asking the students of a class to elect their class representative.
2. Selection of the role players:- In this role playing situation there may be two or three students wishing to be elected
as class representative. These may be assigned the role of candidates fighting election. For the election process, the
different roles like presiding officer, polling officer, and other officials helping in the election process, besides the role
of votering may be assigned to different students of the class.
3. Setting of the stage for role playing:- After assigning the roles, the necessary arrangement related with the voting
process will be made for creating a scene of election process as naturally as possible. There will be ballot box, ballot
papers, ink, stamp, furniture, list of the voters, etc., at their respective places as happens usually in an actual election
process.
4. Preparing of the observers:- Students who are not being assigned any specific role in the election process will asked
to watch closely the election process.
5. Enacting the story, roles and situation:- In this step, the role players as well as observers may be asked to enact their
respective roles as demanded in the election of the class representative.
6. Discussion and evaluation:- After enacting the process of election of the class representative, there will be a free and
frank discussion of the whole process of role playing with a view of critical judgement of the qualities of the roles
played, difficulties experienced and lesson drawn, etc.
7. Enacting again:- Since there have been many gaps and shortcomings regarding the stage, and role playing by the
students, these may be rectified by providing fresh opportunity for enacting the specific roles. Here the teacher may
point out the requirements essential for a free and fair election and the precautions to be taken for this purpose.
8. Re-discussion and evaluation:- The re-enacting of roles may further be discussed and evaluated in the light of the
final objectives to be realized for such role playing.
9. Deriving generalization:- After going through the above activities, the students may be made to derive useful
generalization about the process of election, the significance of a free and fair election, the essentials for holding a
democratic election and thus learning finally the way of electing their representative.
However, it is not at all essential in the all role playing situations to provide opportunities for re-enacting and re-discussion.
Therefore the steps involved in role playing may be reduced and condensed as below:-
1. Selecting the situation for role playing .
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2. Setting the stage and assigning the roles.
3. Preparing for action (Planning).
4. Enacting the roles (Execution).
5. Discussion and Evaluation.
6. Generalization.
The role playing strategy may be well utilized for providing training to the pupil teachers and thus modifying their
behavior for imbibing teacher-like skills and other traits. The utilization of role playing strategy in a simulated
(artificial teaching-learning set up) conditions for the training of teachers is known by a technical term simulated
teaching.
MECHANISM OF SIMULATED TEACHING (ROLE PLAYING BY STUDENT-TEACHERS)
The mechanism of simulated teaching revolves round the role playing behaviour of the three namely, teacher, pupil and
observer under the supervision of a trainer (teacher educator in the case of teacher training. ) here attempts are made to create
artificial teaching-learning situations (as much as resembling the real classroom settings) within the environment of the training
institute and the student-teachers are required to play the role of teachers, pupils and supervisors one by one within their limited
groups for a limited time on a specific topic in order to learn or practice particular teaching behaviours or teaching skills. The
specific steps or procedure involved may be summarized as below:-
1. Orientation (Warm-up Stage):- In the beginning, the student-teachers should be given necessary theoretical background
for the adoption of simulated teaching by bringing into light the following important aspects:-
(i) Concept of simulated teaching (role playing in artificial teaching learning setup).
(ii) Significance and rationale of using simulated teaching for their training.
(iii) The mechanism and procedure followed in its use.
(iv) The role of student-teachers in simulated teaching technique.
(v) Requirements and setting for adopting simulated teaching technique.
(vi) Selection of the theme(topic, methods or techniques) for teaching.
2. Giving Demonstration Lesson:- Example is always better than precept. Keeping this thing in mind, the teacher-educator
should try to give demonstration of a good teaching for the practice of the skill selected, topic to be dealt with the
methodology to be employed by the student-teachers.
3. Assignment of Roles:- Simulated teaching requires role playing. As pointed out earlier, there are three different roles-
teacher, pupil and observer, that are to be played by every pupil-teacher in his group. Therefore a prior judgement is needed
for deciding the order in which different student-teachers will play the role of the teacher, pupils or observers. However,
it is always remembered that, irrespective of the order, every one has to play all the three roles at one time or the other in
the overall process of simulation.
4. Planning:- The schedule of teaching, in every aspect, is now planned. Each trainee who is assigned the role of a teacher
is now helped in the selection of a suitable topic of his interest in view of the skills to be practiced. He is further helped in
preparing mini or micro-lesson plan. The trainees who will play the role of pupils are also helped in deciding and planning
for the role of pupils. The anticipated classroom interaction is also planned with respect to the role of the trainees as
observers. The procedure and technique of observation is also decided and planned in advance. The decision regarding the
use of these observations in providing feed-back to the teacher actors is also taken in advance.
5. Execution of the first practice session:- The student teachers who are to play the roles of teachers are then asked to
deliver their lessons one by one to their peers who play the role of pupils. Those playing the role of observers’supervisors
engage themselves in noting down all the good and weak points of teaching, concerning classroom interaction, teacher
behaviours, content taught, skills practiced and methodology used, etc. after delivering the lessons, free and frank
discussions are held purely to provide feed-back fr modification and improvement in teacher to improve behavior,
classroom interaction and overall art of teaching. The role of pupils and supervisors is also discussed in order to bring
desirable modification. In view of such discussions, the whole mechanism of simulated teaching is then subjected to
necessary alterations in terms of the roles played by the teachers, pupils and supervisors.
6. Follow-up during subsequent practice sessions:- What is decided in terms of modifications and alternations in the first
session is being practiced in the second and subsequent sessions till the goals of practicing one or the other teaching skills
and acquisition of sufficient art of teaching is not achieved. The roles of the student-teachers are also gradually altered as
to provide opportunity for playing different roles. In this way, all student teachers in the group are given full opportunity
to practice their teaching skills, modify their teacher behaviours and acquire an overall art of teaching with the help of their
fellow student-teachers under the guidance of the teacher-educator.
The steps laid down above do not stand for any rigidity in carrying out the task of simulated teaching. One is
free to adopt his own system and procedure as found most workable in one’s circumstances. The important factor
is the initiation, motivation and enthusiasm of the teacher-educatior and the participating student-teachers to
engage in active research and experimentation under simulated conditions for finding the ways and means of
providing best training techniques to learn the art of teaching. They are free to adopt and synthesize micro teaching
procedure with the practice of usual classroom teaching. They can concentrate on the improvement of one or the
other skills or may have a full dress rehearsal of a class teacher. For example, in one situation, they may practice
to learn the art of introducing the lesson’ by picking up a particular lesson. Turn-wise they may play the roles of
a teacher, pupil and observer and thus may get adequate feedback as well as opportunity for practicing and
bringing desirable modification in their own technique and skill of introducing a lesson. In other situation, they
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may learn or practice the art of class management or asking questions, etc., and finally they may rehearse for
playing the role of a full-fledged class-room teacher and then offer themselves to be placed for practice teaching
in the real classroom settings of the practicing schools.
ADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAYING
The role playing strategy carries the following advantages:-
1. It provides opportunities to the students to learn about a subject from the inside. It gives them to feel the intensity of the
situation by enacting it through role-playing.
2. It increases students’ interest, motivation and efforts for learning about a subject or phenomenon.
3. Students derive useful, real life like experiences through playing specific roles of the players or observers and it turn
prepares them for their future life activities.
4. It provide training in verbal and motor communication of the behavioural acts by expressing as spontaneously and freely
possible.
5. The students get opportunity to imbibe useful qualities for social participation and co-operation by giving due regard to
others’ feelings and points of view.
6. It can provide due insight into real life problems and develop problem solving abilities of the students.
7. It can be used for illustrating and explaining the various phenomena and incidents related to classroom teaching of various
subjects.
DEMERITS AND LIMITATIONS
The role playing strategy suffers from the following demerits and limitations:
1. The students may not understand the problems or the situation for playing the roles with needed effectiveness.
2. The role play strategy becomes effective only when the players and observers truly believe in the story or the situation to
be enacted. Usually the students do not believe in what they are doing with their roles as players or observers. In such a
situation, role playing strategy loses its impact and significance.
3. Students who may enact the assigned roles effectively, are not easily available for making the strategy a success.
4. The role-playing strategy expects too much from the teacher as he is one who has to create a life like problematic situation
or story plot, prepare and draft the role playing activities, select the role players, watch and direct the role playing activities
for some useful educative gains. There is quite dearth of such capable and trained teachers and in such a situation, we
cannot expect desired results with the use of role-playing strategy.
Ques: Define the term gaming. Explain simulate, non simulated gaming and computer gaming.
Ans: GAMING
DEFINING GAMING
Gaming as an instruction strategy may be defined as a specially designed strategy or teaching-learning situation in which
planned and organized playway activities and games are utilized for deriving useful educational purposes.
However, playway activities and games are generally known as “something enjoyable involving competition for specified
objectives and observing rules “ (Nesbitt, 1968, p.5). In this sense, the essential properties of a gaming act may be cited as
(i) A small fixed number of players.

(ii) A common goal to be achieved by the players.
(iii) The rules for playing the games.
Although all games are bound to share the above qualities. However, there may lie a great variation in terms of their structure
and compostion like relative amount of physical and mental activity or of skill and luck to win, the number of participants and
the degree of competition involved and the mode of designation a winner, etc. however, in all the play activities and games,
whatever nature and objectives they may possess, one thing is quite common that they have enough potential for providing
valuable learning experiments in a relaxed, spontaneous and evaluative situation.
SIMULATED AND NON-SIMULATED GAMING
Playing of games may involve both simulated and non-simulated situations. Simulated situations, as we have already an
idea about them may be defined as the selective representation of reality (desired artificial condition) for playing the player’s role
as desired by the situation.
In a simulated situation, the students try to simulate the real life situation through the playway activities and thus experience
the intensity of experiences related to a subject or area by themselves. Use of non-simulated games can also help in deriving many
educational benefits. There are so many such gaming techniques available for learning facts, principles and applications of these
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are related to almost all the curricular and non-curricular areas. Both verbal and non-verbal stimulus material may be used in such
technique. For instance in verbal transactionof ideas children may be engaged in :
(i) Quiz competition, (ii) puzzles and riddles competition, (iii) oral problem solving competition, (iv) exploring creative
ideas regarding thing, idea or a phenomenon.
In non-verbal transactions, they may be engaged in thinking, problem solving and role-playing games like:-
(i) Building a pattern with the help of given material.

(ii) Construction or completion of a picture or design.
(iii) Building and constructing something or anything out of the raw material given to them.
(iv) Constructing as many wordsas possible with the help of given alphabets.
These games may be played either individually or in a group. Group game strategy is always thought better because it
develops co-operative feelings. It also saves the students from frustration suffered on account of winning the games always
by a few more able students.
COMPUTER GAMING
Computer and teaching machines have almost revloutionalized the gaming strategy. These are in a position to provide
both simulated and non-situations for gaming. A student may now try out different alternative situations, ways and means by playing
a game with a set of players and rules. These can ask puzzles and quizzes, put up the problems in funny styles and situations for
answering individually or in group.
There is no dearth of software programmes providing computer educational games in the curricular and co-curricular fields.
Languages, mathematics, basic and applied science, arts and crafts can now be well conceptualized and taught through these games
in a quite interesting style. Series are available from nursery, kindergarten, grade I, grade 2 and onwards.
Games are also available for the development of thinking skills like logical thingking, creative thinking and constructive
thinking among the children.
Let us illustrate the role of a computer game in providing varying teaching-learning situations and experiences through a
well known classical computer game known as “sailing ships game” useful for the learning of many geographical concepts.
The game calls for skilful navigation around the oceans. They players has to choose a beginning and a finishing port from
the six ports, i.e. London, Rio-de Janeiro, Chile, Sydney, Captown and Shanghai for playing the game. The position of a ship at
one time or the other is indicated on a world map displayed on the monitor screen of the computer, which also records and line of
the ship’s voyage from the leaving port. As soon as tie player types the name of the starting port, the latitude and longitude of that
place are displayed on the monitor. It then asks the player to indicate the day and month of the intended voyage. The player has to
reach the destination port in the shortest period of time by skillfully sailing his voyage from all the odds like storm and drifts due to
wrong selection of a day and the month.
The experience gained through the computer game is helpful in providing rich educational experience, related to the
following knowledge and skill areas (i) basic facts about sailing ships (ii) direction of the compass (iii) latitude and longitude (iv)
knowledge and application of the world map (v) name and size of the oceans (vi) name and location of the various ports around the
world (vii) seasonal shifts and major monsoon winds (viii) the effects of the winds and seasons on navigation (ix) development of
proper reasoning and thinking skills.
Similarly many science linked games may help the children to learn useful facts, principles and applications related to
science-subject areas. They can provide rich thrilling experiences in developing labouratory and other applied science skills among
the children. Mathematical games are helpful in the learning concepts, skills and application of the body of mathematics. Similarly
the language learning and adventure games have enough potential to fire the imagination of children alongwith the development of
the necessary communication skills like listening, talking, reading and writing through a wide varieties of activities.
EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES OF GAMING
Gaming as a educational devices has many points on its credit side like below:-
1. There is a greater scope for generating greater motivation and interest, more focusing of attention and less withdrawal from
the learning situation in the gaming activities utilized for educational purposes.
2. Learning and retention of factual material is much greater from games than from textbooks, lectures and other traditional
modes. It happens because the effective games for a particular course are designed in view of the degree of success in the
game, related with the basic knowledge and skills involved in that course.
3. The gaming device makes the learner’s role an active one: He is bound to remain an active participant, independent and
active enquirer in the process of learning instead of a passive listener or motionless observer.
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4. Gaming activities are self disciplinary and self judging in nature. All must obey the rules if gaming is to continue. Similarly
the outcomes of the gaming are enough to indicate as who has won or lost. One can thus easily evaluate his role in respect
to his playing the games. i.e., acquiring the learning experiences. One can win or lose on account of his own actions and
this is enough to teach the children that their self efforts are the guiding factors in the acquisition of learning and success.
5. Gaming, as a model of actual processes, is helpful in linking the school world with the outside world. The children here
acquire very useful learning experiences for playing the related roles in their actual life. Moreover, games with simulated
environments or role playing have been found to possess tremendous capacity to provide the children valuable opportunities
to experience life situation, that for various reasons, cannot be provided to them quite directly.
In this way gaming, especially computer gaming of these days, has almost every possibility of being utilized as a potential tool
for providing curricular and co-curicular scope for utilizing as a tool for enhancing the knowledge, skills, application as well as
influencing and modifying the behvaiour of the learners simply on account of its greater appeal to the interest, motives and
nature of the learners irrespective of their age, grade, culture and society.
Ques: Discuss the meaning of the term remedial teaching. How will you organize remedial teaching programme?(2019,2021)
Ans: REMEDIAL TEACHING
The term remedial teaching as the name suggests, stands for the teaching or instructional work carried out to provide
remedial measures for helping the students (or an individual student) in getting rid of their common or specific weaknesses or
learning difficulties diagnosed through diagnostic testing or some other measures carried out for such diagnosis.
Diagnosis, thus, provides a solid base for hypothesizing the general and specific cause underlying the weaknesses or
learning difficulties of the students of a class/group for a particular student. It is thus true that both diagnosis and remedy are
necessary for the removal of the difficulty. Thus depending upon the general or specific nature of the weaknesses or learning
difficulties of the students, we have to take appropriate step for the organization of remedial teaching for the needy students.
ORGANIZATION OF REMEDIAL TEACHING
Remedial teaching in the subject can take various forms as follows:-
1. Class teaching
2. Group tutorial teaching
3. Individual tutorial teaching
4. Supervised tutorial teaching
5. Auto-instructional teaching
6. Informal teaching
Let us discuss all these forms and aspects of remedial teaching:
Class teaching:- In this system, or schedule of remedial teaching, the usual composition and structure of the class is not disturbed.
The teacher here teaches a particular lesson/unit, emphasizes a point again and again, repeats the work activities and experiments
or uses some specific teaching aid in order to remove the difficulties and deficiencies of the learners in terms of the acquisition of
the desired learning experiences. The class as a whole is benefited by such type of remedial teaching. It proves particularly useful
in the removal of the weaknesses and learning difficulties of the general nature.
Group tutorial teaching:- Here, the students of the class are divided into some homogeneous groups called tutorial groups on the
basis of their common learning difficulties and identical weaknesses or deficiencies. These groups are, then taught separately by
the same teacher or different teachers according to the nature of the difficulties and deficiencies. The tutor in charge of a tutorial
group then tries to solve the difficulties collectively on a group basis. The weak areas or aspects of the curriculum identified through
diagnostic testing are properly attended by the teacher according to the needs and requirements of the pupils of the group. In case,
it is related to a particular work, due care and proper attention is now paid by the teacher over his own demonstration work as well
as on the practical and project work done by the students in their respective groups.
The group tutorial teaching proves advantageous over the class teaching in many aspects. Here the students who have
common problems and difficulties in their learning are helped more in overcoming their difficulties and deficiencies. It makes the
task of teaching-learning quite interesting and goal oriented in class teaching, there remains a lot of chances that the time and energy
of many of the students who do not suffer with a certain learning deficiency or difficulty will go in vain by attending to the remedial,
teaching not at all needed by them. Moreover, the number of students in group tutorial teaching is comparatively reduced. It results
in making me task of teaching more convenient and effective for providing better coaching and practice in terms of the needed
remedial education.
Individual tutorial teaching:- In this schedule, every learner who feels learning difficulty of some nature in the subject
social studies is attended individually for overcoming his deficiencies or weaknesses. It is one-to-one coaching, help and guidance
that is rendered by the teacher to the learner as and when needed by him in order to actualize his potentialities to the maximum.
Therefore, in this type of remedial teaching, maximum consideration may be provided to the principle of individual-difference in
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the direction of the best results in the task of teaching and learning. Here, the student may progress according to their own pace,
abilities and capacities and get adequate help, individual attention and reinforcement for coping up with their deficiencies and
difficulties on the path of learning.
Supervised tutorial teaching:- In this schedule of remedial teaching, the responsibility of overcoming the learning
difficulties and removing deficiencies in some learning areas is handed ever to the learners themselves. They have to work at their
own for removing their difficulties and deficiencies. The role of the teacher is confined to observe and supervise the learning
activities and provide as much help as necessary in their path of self-learning and self-correction. This type of supervision can be
made on the individual as well as tutorial group levels. The students may opt to work individually or in the group for solving their
difficulties and overcoming their learning deficiencies.
Auto-instructional teaching:- This type of remedial teaching consist of auto-instructional programmes and activities.
Here, the learner is provided with basic auto-instructional learning material and equipment like programmed learning textbooks and
package, auto-learning modules, teaching machines, and computer assisted programmed instruction. This mechanism helps the
pupil to gain sufficient practice and drill work in the areas of his weakness and acquire necessary confidence in overcoming his
difficulties and deficiencies through an appropriately programmed self-instructional material.
Informal teaching:- Informal education and teaching, suitably planned and assimilated with the formal education of the
school, may go in a big way to act as a source and means of remedial education to the needy students. The activities connected with
such informal education in the form of excursions or trips, collecting material for the school subjects museum and improvising
apparatus, working on useful projects engaging in socially useful hobbies, establishing resource rooms, nature study corner in subject
a joyful event. These activities suit the diversified interests of the students and provide unique and special opportunities to learn
and practice the facts and principles of a school subject. The learning difficulties evolved out of the lack of interest, non-availability
of direct and first hand learning experiences, deficiencies in the methodology of teaching, psychological needs and problems of
learners and a host of other reasons may be easily overcome through the organization of useful non-formal activities of social and
scientific interest in the schools.
Thus, we have tried to outline and discuss the desired remedial measures for the pupils experiencing difficulties and
problems in the learning of some areas or aspects of school curriculum through a few organized formats of remedial teaching.
However, the discussed diagnostic and remedial measures for the learning deficiencies, difficulties and weaknesses of the students
in a school subject belong to the academic front or cognitive domain of their behavior. But it is an undeniable fact that a student of
may feel the diagnosed difficulties, weaknesses and deficiencies in a particular subject on account of some nonacademic factors or
problems arising in his conactive and affective domain of behavior. Such situations may be pointed out as follows:
1. A student’s difficulty or weakness in the subject may be the result poor physical health, ailments, or physical and mental
deficiencies.
2. A particular student or group of students may fall victim of the back wardness or learning problems in the subject on
account of the lack of proper educational opportunities and teaching-learning environment for the study of that subject.
3. A student may feel difficulty in the learning of a subject or account of some psychological causes, and social or emotional
maladjustment. Sometimes, due to some reasons, an event involving reproof, bitter criticism, scolding and rebuking of a
particular student on the part of the subject teacher may bring disaster to the future learning and progress of the student. It
may first drift the student too away from the teacher and then he begins to hate not only the teacher but also his teaching
and die subject taught by him. Many times such vicious circle involving emotional and psychological factors may play a
substantial role in the deficiencies and backwardness of the students in the subject. The root of all such emotional and
behavioural problems does not always-lie in the improper behavior by the subject teacher or other negative, factors present
in the school environment, but also in the unfavourable circumstances and uncongenial environment at home in the form
of defective and faulty upbringing and the injustice and improper behavior experienced by them at the hands of their parents
and elders.
In this way, it should now be clearly understood that the difficulties, weaknesses and deficiencies felt by the students in the
learning of a particular subject are not only caused by the factors lying in the field of academic or cognitive behavior of the
students, but these may also be result on account of some non-academic or health, physical and behavioral problems in their
conative and affective behavior. It is also true that some times these difficulties and deficiencies of the students may arise only
on account of a single factor and at other times these may emerge on account of multiplicity of causes. It is therefore, essential
on the part of a teacher to carefully examine the probable cause of these deficiencies and weaknesses of their students in the
learning of the subjects and then wisely plan for their remedy on the individual or collective basis, depending on the requirement
of the individual cause of diagnosed deficiency and weaknesses.
WHAT IS ENRICHMENT PROGRAMME
Enrichment as a technical term is used for enriching the already available opportunities of education basically it consists
in the selection and organization of learning experiences and activities appropriate to the child’s adequate development. In this way
the enrichment of the curriculum should be considered a need of all students. But in the case of gifted children it will definitely
imply an urgent need of giving them a great variety of experiences or tasks at a more advanced level. This enrichment programs in
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a particular subject has to bring additional learning opportunities for the gifted children in the subject. Through such programmes
the gifted children must find something new and challenging to their capacities.
In providing additional learning opportunities under the enrichment programmes for the students the following two
channels are suggested.
1. Provision of different curriculum.

2. Enrichment within the existing curriculum.
Under the former channel gifted children may be provided with different curriculum. This curriculum may contain more advanced
topics generally of the college level or include more analytic and heuristic approach to the subject or have additional topics selected
with other areas of experience and applied nature.
Under the latter scheme no separate curriculum is recommended to the gifted children. Here attempts are made to provide
additional educational opportunities to them for the learning within the existing curriculum. This provision, for example, may
include the following:-
(i) To ask the gifted children for solving more difficult problems.
(ii) To ask them for deep and intensive study of the topics.
(iii) To encourage the gifted children to ask questions for the satisfaction of their curiosity and thirst of knowledge.
(iv) To encourage them for the novelty and originality in their approach.
(v) To encourage them for becoming active independent enquires and discoverers of the knowledge.
(vi) To encourage them to seek association and correlation within topics, branches and subjects of the school curriculum.
(vii) To encourage them to carry the learning of mathematics to their daily life activities.
(viii) To ask them to work on some useful projects independently or in a group.
(ix) To hand over special assignments.
(x) To ask them for the construction of mathematical models, aid material and improvised apparatus.
(xi) To encourage them to write good essays and articles on the topics of a exhibitions.
(xii) To ask them to participate in panel discussion, seminar or contest and to prepare and produce its report.
(xiii) To ask them in the participation or organization of activities concerning different clubs.
The above list for enriched learning experiences to the gifted children should not be taken as complete in itself. The teacher
may plan some or the other learning experiences for the benefit of gifted children depending upon he available resources and
circumstances. Enrichment of the learning experiences or programmers provided within the existing framework of the
curriculum, in may opinion, is the most suitable plan for the education of the gifted children. It help involving a school
programme that is beneficial to both the average and the gifted. Both, of them can develop according to their own interests,
abilities and capacities without interfering with the development of others. It not only provides facilities for the full development
of special abilities and potentialities fo the child but also cares for his total personality’. Therefore, a teacher should strive hard
for the enrichment of learning experiences according to the needs and requirements of his gifted children.
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Course 3

Learning & Teaching

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 100

Ques..what is learing ? Explain its features?(2019)2021

1. Concept & Nature of Learning:

Ques: Write short notes on Cooperative learning? (2018, 2022)

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

Ques..Explain in brief the barriers in implementing in cooperative learning?

BARRIERS IN IMPLEMENTING COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF COLLABORATIVE TEACHING

ADVANTAGES OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING:

FOUR FEATURES OF GROUP LEARNING

MAKING GROUP WORK/GROUP LEARNING SUCCESSFUL- HOW?

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP LEARNING

6. LEARNING STRATEGIES: ROLE OF TEACHER ANDSCHOOL IN RELATION TO LEARNING STRATEGIES

Definitions of Learning Strategy:

Ques: Write a short notes on Individual Differences?(2019)

(a) Differences in abilities form individual to individual.

Definitions of Individual Differences:-

Ques. Write short notes on Educational Implication of individual Difference.

LONG QUESTIONS (16 MARKS) (6 PGS)

Ques. What is learning? Discuss the types/stages of learning? (2019, 2022)

Some of the definitions of learning are as follows:-

Some of the definitions of learning are as follows:-

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

B. Factors Associated with the Type of Learning Experiences

C. Factors Associated with the Men and Material Resources

CONCEPT OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

Following responsibilities are assumed for a teacher:

10. Managing Behaviour

BENEFITS/ UTILITY/ EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

A RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF TEACHERS

RESISTANCE ON THE PART OF STUDENTS

OBJECTIVES OF PEER TUTORING

The main objectives behind peer tutoring are as under:-

(i) To enable the student think and work independently.

MAKING PEER TUTORING A SUCCESS

Advantages of peer tutoring

1. ADVANTAGES OF PEER TUTORING

ADVANTAGES TO THE TEACHER/TEACHERS

4. ADVANTAGES TO THE SCHOOL, PRINCIPAL & THE MANAGEMENT

LIMITATIONS OF PEER TUTORING

(c) Differences in abilities form individual to individual.

Definitions of Individual Differences:-

CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:-

The description is as follows:

Types/Kinds/Varieties of Individual difference:-

Laws (Principles) of Learning and their Educational Implications/ Utility(2017-18),2019,2021,2022 16 Marks

A. Primary Laws of Learning:

Limitations of Law of Effect:

a) Sometimes punishment is more effective than reward.

B. Secondary or Minor Laws of Learning:

Learning Theories may be classified in two main categories:

Classification of Leaning Theories

Connectionist Theories of Learning Cognitive Theories

(a) (b) (f) (g)

Different names of Throndike’s Trial and Error Theory:

Diagramatic view of Throndike’s cat Experiment

Features or Essentials of Trial and Error Learning:

Block Closed doors of Puzzle box

Random Movements Clawing, bitting, dashing, pushing nose

Process of Learning Correct techniques selection