P ub l i‘ Fr o m co l le c t io n o f the

S an Fran c is c o C aliforn ia
,

2 006
A DVAN C ED B I O L O GY

BY

FRANK M
‘

. W HEAT
Ch ai rman , D ep art m e n t o f B io lo gy,
Geo rge W as hi ngt o n H igh S ch oo l, N e w Y o rk

I ns t ruct o r in B io lo gy , N e w Y o rk Un ive rs it y
A ND

ELIZA BE TH T . F I TZPA TRI C K

Cha irm an , D e p a rt m e n t o f H e alt h Ed uca t io n ,
,

G eo rge W as hin gt o n H igh S cho o l, N e w o rk Y

A M E RI C A N B O O K C O M PA N Y
K
N E W YO R CI N CI N N ATI C HI C AG O
BO S TO N ATL ANT A
 C O P Y RI G H T , 1 9 29 , B Y

I
AM E R C AN B O OK C OM PA NY
A ll r ight s r e s er ve d

AD . B I O. WH . AN D F I T Z.

W . P. 2

M AD E I N U . S A
.
DEDI CATED TO TW O S UC C E SSFUL PIONEERS
IN B I O L OG Y TEXT B OO K M A K ING

G E O RG E W HUNTER
.

AN D
JAMES E . PEAB O DY
F R OM HOM
W AUTHO R
TH E THIS S OF B O OK
R ECEIVED HEI R EAR LY T AINING
T R
I SPIRATION
AN D N
 P R E F AC E

M OS T a d o l e s c en t b o y s a nd girls a r e m or e i n t er es ted in th ems elv e s

th a n in a b s tr a ct p r o bl em s Alth o ugh c o ll ege s e m ph a s iz e m a th
.

e m a t ic s a n d l a n gu a ge s in th e i r e n t r a n c e r e q ui r e m e n t s a n d s a y littl e

a b o ut s c i e n c e
, th er e h a s b e e n a r a pid gr o wth in t he n u m b er o f
s cie n c es e l ec t e d in t he hi gh s c h o o l s Thi s is p r i m a r ily due t o t he
‘

r e a liz a t io n th a t s c i e n c e is m o r e a p a r t o f t he liv e s o f pupil s th a n

.

o th e r s c h oo l s ubj e c t s a n d a n a n s w e r t o m o r e o f th e ir qu es ti o n s .

Yo uth is m o r e i n t er e s t e d in m a ki n g di r ec t o b s er va ti on s a nd r ea so n
.

in g fr o m th e m th a n in a b s t r a c t t hi n ki n g T h er e is a c o n ce r t ed
.

e ffo r t t o a s c e r t a in t he t r uth a b o ut ph e n o m e n a a n d t o fin d o ut ho w

a n d why th in gs h a ppe n . S ci e n ce t e a ch e s a v a lid m e tho d o f i n t er

p r e t in g e vid e n ce a n d h e lp s o n e t o a r r iv e a t l o i c a l c o n c lu s i o n s
g .

I n m o s t se co n d a r y s c ho o l s thr o u gh o ut t he co un t r y e l e m en t a r y
bi o l o gy o r gen er a l s c i en ce is t a u ght in t he fi r s t o r s ec o n d y ea r .

Th e r e h a s b ee n a gr o wi n g d em a n d fo r a n a dv a n c ed c o ur s e in ge n er a l
bi o l o gy t o fo ll o w t he el e m e n t a r y s c i en c e c o ur s e Thi s t e xt ha s b e e n
.

wr i t t e n p r i m a r ily t o fill thi s n eed The e m ph a s i s o f t he b o o k is

.

o n p r o bl e m s r e l a ti n g t o hu m a n w e lf a re The o r i gi n a n d p r i n c ipl es
.

o f t h e de v e lo pm cn t , s t r u c tur e a n d fu n c ti o n s o f pl a n t s a n d l o w e r
,

a n i m a l s a r e i n t r o d uc e d m a inl y a s a b a c kgr o un d fo r t he p ro pe r

u n d er s t a n di n g o f hu m a n p r o bl e m s .

An i n te r es ti n g a n d n o v e l f e a ture o f t he t ext is t he hi s to r ic a l
t r ea t m en t o f m a n y o f t he s ubj e ct s whi c h give s t he pupil a bi r d s
,
’

ey e V i e w o f t he e n t ir e s ubj ec t with o ut o v er wh el m in g him wi t h

u n r e l a ted fa c t s Te a c hi n g m a t er i a l is giv en a t t he e n d o f e a ch
.

c h a pt e r d e s i gn ed t o h elp t h e pupil in o r ga n izi n g in h is o wn m i n d

, , ,

t he i m p o r t a n t p r i n cipl e s di s c u s s e d Th e li s t o f s uppl e m en t a ry
.

r ea di n gs o ffe r s t he pupil s o ur c e s o f i n f o r m a ti o n o t h e r th a n t he

t ext All t he l a b o r a to ry p ro bl em s n e c e s sa ry fo r a tho ro u gh

.
 P RE FA C E

u n d er s t a n d in g a n d m a s t er y o f t he s ubj ec t a r e i n c lud ed Th e s e .

p ro bl em s a r e u s u a lly given a t t he b e gi nn i n g o f t he c h a pt er s s o th a t ,

t he pupil m a y fin d o ut fo r hi m se lf m a n y o f t he f a c t s giv e n l a t e r in
t he t e x t . The pupil c a n e x er c i se h e r e t he t r u e s c i en t ifi c m e th o d :
e x a m i n a ti o n o b s e r v a ti o n a n d c o nfi r m a ti o n o f h is fi n di n gs
, , .

Th e pl a n o f p r e s e n ti n g t he s ubj e c t m a tt e r is b a s e d o n t he pr a c
ti c a l e xp e r i e n c e in te a chi n g thi s c o ur s e fo r s e v er a l y ea r s t o hi gh
s c h o o l pupil s by m e a n s o f m i m e o gr a ph ed l e s so n s h e e t s p r e p a r e d by

v a r i o u s m em b er s o f t he Bi o l o gy D e p a r tm e n t o f t he G eo rge Wa s hi n g
t o n H i gh S c h oo l N ew Yo r k N Y
, , C h a n ges in t h e se s h ee t s h a v e
. .

b ee n m a d e but m u c h o f t he m a t er i a l h a s b een el a b o r a t e d i n t o t he
,

p r e s en t te xt The e n thu s i a s m o f t he B io l o gy D ep a r t m e n t in t he
.

G eo r ge Wa shi n gt o n H i gh S c h oo l is due l a r ge ly t o t he i n spi r a ti o n a n d

s upp o r t o f H a r o ld S C a m pb e ll As s o c i a t e S up e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e
.
,

N ew Yo r k hi gh s c h o o l s I n his a n n u a l r e p o r t o f 1 92 8 h e in
. c lud e d

t he r e p o r t o f t h e D i s t r ict S up e r i n t e n d e n t o f H i gh S c h oo l s D r J o h n ,
.

L T ildsley I n thi s r ep o r t D r Tilds ley s u m m a r iz ed t h e o bj ec tiv e s

. .
, .

o f sc i e n c e t e a c hi n g a n d s a id :
“
T h es e o bj ec t iv e s c a ll fo r t he c r e a ti o n o f a m o r e m a gn ifi c e n t
s e lf . T h e y c a ll fo r t h e e xp a n di n g o f t he e l e m e n t o f a pp r e c i a ti o n ,

t he ki n dli n g o f i m a gi n a ti o n t he a ro u s i n g o f t he s e n se o f a d m i r a ti o n
,

a n d w o n d e r t h e e x c it a t i o n o f t h e e m o ti o n s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
, ,

p o w er o f a c c u ra t e o b s er v a ti o n t he d e s i r e fo r t r uth c o u r a ge t o
, ,

fo ll o w t he tr uth a n d a b o v e a ll t he s e tti n g fo r th o f s c i en ce a s a ‘

, ,

of
‘
wa y
The u t h o r s h o pe thi s t e xt will o p e n thi s b r o a d er wa y o f life
a

a n d i n s pi r e pupil s t o thi n k a n d t o a c t m a gn ifi ce n tly .

Th a n k s a r e due t he B i o l o gi ca l S upply C o N ew Yo r k for t he .

, ,

use o f ph o t o m i c r o gr a ph s p r e p a r e d by M r R o y M All en a n d a l s o
. .
,

t o M i s s M a r j o r i e F itzp a t r i c k M r C h a r l e s I n m a n a n d M r P a ul B
, .
,
. .

Ma n n of N ew Yo r k c ity hi gh s c h o o l s Pr o f R a lph C h en e y o f L o n g
,
.

I s l a n dUn iv e r s i t y a n d M i ss Ada We e kel o f Oa k Pa r k I lli n o i s hi gh

, , ,

s c h oo l fo r th e i r c r iti c a l r e a di n g o f t he m a n u s cr ipt
,
.
 C ON TE N T S

T H E B LOG O F To M o w
IO Y - R Ro

T H E G R O WT H O F S C EN C E
I

TH E M I C R O S C O P E
T H E H I S TO R Y O F CE LLS
FUN C T I ONS O F A G R EE N C E LL
TYP I CA L AN I M A L CE LL
TH E R E S T I NG A N D D IVI D I NG CE LL
S TR U C T U R E O F H I G H ER P LAN T S

H UM AN T I SS U E S
H UM AN T I SS U E S ( C t i u d)
on n e

F OO D NUT R IENTS
TH E T EE T H A N D T IIEI RCARE
TH D I G E S T IVE S YS T E M
E

D I G E S T I O N AND A S O R PT I O N
B

B L OO D AND I TS I M P O RTAN C E

CIRC U LATO RY S YST E M

L YM P HAT I C S YS T EM
TH S I N AND K I D N EY S
E K

R E SP IRAT I O N
M E T A O LI S M
B

D U C T L E SS GLAN D S

TH N ERV O U S S Y T E M
E S

N ERV O U S R E AC T I O N S
M EN TA L H Y G IE N E
H w L IFE B E G AN
o

AS EX UAL R E PR ODU C TI O N
V111 C ON TE N T S

VE G E TATTVE PR O PA GATI ON
S EX UA L R E PR ODU C TI ON
R E P R O DU C TI O N O F H I G H ER PL ANTS
R E P R O D U C TI O N OF AN I M A LS
P R O T E C TI O N OF Y OUN G
CH ARA C T ER OF OFFS PRIN G
H ERE D IT Y
M UTA TI ON S
P L ANT AN D AN I MA L B REE D IN G
E UG EN I C S

P R OG RE SS IVE D EVE L O PM ENT

B AC T ERIA

B EN EFI C IA L AC TI VI T IE S OF B ACT ERIA

H E A LT H
S M AL L ox A ND I TS C O NTR O L
P

R A IE S AND I TS C O NTR O L
B

TU ER C U LO S I S A ND I TS PREVE NTI O N
B

D I P HT H ERI A S CA R L E T F EVER AND T E TAN U S

, ,

TYP H O I F EVER
D

CERTA I N OTH ER D I S E A S E S
THE C O NTR O L OF M A LA RI A AN D Y E LLO W F EVER

D E F E N S E S A G A I N S T D I S EA S E S

I MMUN I TY
TA X ON O MY
 C H AP TE R I

TH E B I O L O GY
—
OF T O M ORRO W

U nd er wood a nd Un de r wood Un der wood a nd U n der wood

C ol C h a rle s
. Li
n db e r gh . G uglie lm o M a rcon i .

At no t i m e in t h e hi s t o r y o f t he w o r ld h a v e t he l a y m a n a n d t he
s c h o l a r t u r n e d t o t h e fi e ld o f s c i e n c e fo r i n s pi r a t i o n a n d h e lp a s in

t h e p r es e n t a ge . We a r e a ll b e c o m i n g m o r e s c ie n t ific m i n d e d -
.

M a n is l e a vi n g b e hi n d him t he e r a o f s up e r s t i t i o n a n d r o m a n t i c i s m
a n d is s e e ki n g t h e t r uth in t h e li gh t o f s c i e n c e . Al m o s t d a ily a
m ir a c l e h a pp e n s — a di s c o v e r y th a t th r ill s t h e w o r ld wi t h it s

t re m e n d o u s i m p o r t N e w s p a p er s a n d p e r i o di c a l s d e v o t e c o lu m n
.

a f t e r c o lu m n t o s c i e n t ifi c m a t t e r s a n d e v e n t he wr i t e r s o f d r a m a
,

a n d fi c t i o n go t o s c i e n c e fo r pl o t s . Pe o pl e di s c u s s p r e s e n t da y -

s c i en c e a s th e y o n c e di s c u s s e d li t e r a tu r e .

Th e a ge of s c ie n c e D o y o u r e c a ll ho w i n t e r es t e d a n d e x c i t e d
.

y o u w er e o v e r t h e p ro p o s e d N e w Y o r k t o P a r i s fli gh t o f C h a r l es
L i n dbe rgh ? The e n t i r e n a t i o n f o ll o w e d t he p r e p a r a t i o n s a nd t he
p e r fo r m a n ce o f t he fe a r l es s a n d s killful l o n e pil o t All m a r v e l e d
.

a t t he t i n y m o n o pl a n e wi t h it s s p e e dy Wr i gh t whi r lwi n d m o t o r .

N a t i o n s r e j o i c e d in t he s u c c e s s o f t h e e xp e r i m e n t a n d a l m o s t o v er
,

n i gh t p r a c t i c a lly a ll p e o pl e d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t in a vi a t i o n Th e y.

b e c a m e a ir m i n d e d S i n c e t h a t t i m e gr e a t p r o gr es s h a s b e e n m a d e
-
.

in a vi a ti o n a n d t r a v e l by a ir o v e r c e r t a i n r o u t e s ha s b e c o m e s o
,

s a f e t h a t few h e s i t a t e t o s p o n s o r t hi s m e t h o d o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

N o t o n ly in a vi a ti o n b ut in r a di o c o l o r ph o t o gr a phy a nd
, , ,
2 TH E B IO L O G Y OF —
T O M ORRO W

te l e vi s i o n e xp er i m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e a n d a r e f o ll o we d wi t h
,

i n t elli ge n c e a n d e a ge r n e s s by gr e a t n u m b er s o f p e o pl e The r a di o .

E wi n g G a l l owa y

M a n y of t h e pr o b l e m s o f v di
s c ie n c e a r e s o l e n t h e la b o ra t o r y .

ha s b ro u gh t t he p e o pl e o f o ur n a t i o n t o ge t h e r a ga i n a n d a ga i n .

I n o ur o w n h o m e s by a tur n o f t h e di a l we t a ke p a r t in gr e a t
, ,

publi c ga t h e r i n gs m il e s a w a y e n j o y a s ym ph o n y o r li s t e n t o t he
, ,

Wo r ld S e r i e s b a s e b a ll ga m e s The t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t he hu m a n v o i ce
.

a n d o f i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c t h r o u gh m il e s o f s p a c e is n o w a ec o m

p lis h e d
,
wi t h v e r y li t t l e di s t o r t i o n Th e r.e c e p t i o n o f li gh t w a v e s ,

b r i n gi n g m o vi e s i n t o e v e r y h o m e is a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o m o r r ow
,
-
.

Th e r e is a s wid e a n i n t e r e s t in t he s ubj e c t m a t t e r o f bi o l o gy a s
in o t h er fi e ld s . The hi s t o r y o f m a n y s c i e n t ifi c e xp e r i m e n t s a n d
i n v e s t i ga t i o n s ha s b ee n so wid e s p r e a d t h a t t h er e is h a r dly a
s c h o o l b o y o r gi r l w ho d oe s n o t k n o w t h e s t o r y o f t h e co n t r o l

o f m a l a r i a a n d s m a llp o x . The d r a m a t i c d e a t h o f H id e y o N o gu c hi ,

o f t he R o c k e f e ll e r I n s t i t u t e o c c u rr e d a t t he c ul m i n a t i o n o f y e a r s
,
 WH AT OF Y E ST E R D AY ?
3

of wor k on ye ll o w fe v er Th r o u gh his e xp e r i m e n t s he re v e a l e d
.
,

t o t he e n t i r e w o r ld t h e p a i n s t a ki n g m e t h o d s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a
t ru e s c 1e n t is t a s w ell a s t he f ea r l e s s p e r s i s t e n ce o f a
N o gu c hi h a d s o lv e d t he p ro bl e m o f y e ll o w f e v e r in S o u t h Am e r i c a ,

b ut t h e f a ct s h e f o u n d in t h a t c o u n t r y did n o t s ee m t o h o ld t r u e for
t he Afr i c a n t yp e o f t he di s e a s e H e t h e r e f o r e j o u rn e y e d t o Afr ic a
'

, ,
.

t o m a k e fu r t h e r s t udi e s H e c o n t r a c t e d t he di s e a s e a n d di e d
.

b e fo r e c o pl e ti g h s w o k
m n i r H e is o e o f t e h e o es o f t o da y
. n h r — .

Wh a t of ye s te r da y ? C o n s id er t he s t r id es s u r ge r y h a s m a d e
S i n ce t he e a r ly d a y s o f t hi s s c i e n ce F o r ge n e r a t i o n s t he c hi e f
.

m e di c a l a n d s u r gi c a l t r e a t m e fit s w e r e sw e a t i n g bl e e di n g a n d , ,

a m pu t a t i o n s . I n t h e Le w i s a n d C l a r k e xp e di t i o n in 1 8 04 o n e o f ,

t he m e n b e c a m e ill C a pt a i n C l a r k d e s c r ib e d t h e t r ea t m e n t giv e n
.

h im . A b ig h o l e wa s dug in t he gr o u n d a n d a fir e w a s buil t
in it in o r d e r t o m a k e t he gr o u n d h o t
, Th e n t he fir e w a s re .

m o v e d a n d t he m a n w a s l a id o n t h e h o t e a r t h a n d s e c u r e ly
co v er e d s o th a t h e w o uld s w e a t Af t e r t hi s t r e a t m e n t h e Wa s
.

bl e d N o t h a vi n g a n y o t h e r k n if e C a p t a i n C l a r k u s e d his p o c ke t
.
,

p e n k n ife t o o p e n t he bl o o d v e s s el N e e d .

l es s t o s a y t h e m a n di e d Am o n g p r i m i
,
.

t iv e p eo pl e o f t o da y s i m il a r m e t h o d s a r e
-

s t ill in v o gu e The m e di c i n e m a n I n a
.

c e r t a i n p r i m i t iv e t r ib e s till pl a c e s p e o pl e

in h o l e s h e a t e d t o hi gh t e m p er a tu r e s t o ,

s w e a t th e m . I f a m e m b e r o f t he t r ib e
s u ff e r s f r o m c h r o n i c h e a d a c h e s t h e m e di ,

’
c i n e m a n c u t s a pi e c e o ut o f t h e s u ff e r e r s

s kull .

I n c iviliz e d c o m m u n i t i es s u r ge r y a s “
iiififfiifiififiil£232
P h ?
, ,

a s c i e n tifi c s t udy b e ga n wi t h t h e h y p o t h e
,

s is o f Lo ui s P a s t e ur a b ou t 1 860
,
t h a t di s e a s e w a s u s u a lly due
,

t o t he p r e s e n c e o f m ic r o Or ga n is m s R e a lizi n g t h a t m o s t o f
.

t he s u r gi c a l c a s e s di e d f r o m i n f e c t i o n s r a t h e r th a n t he a c t u a l
4 T H E B I OL O GY OF T O—
M ORRO W

o p er a ti on , Jo seph L i s ter
S ir —
( 182 7 19 12 )
s tudi e d t he W or k
o f P a s t e ur Up t o t hi s t i m e pus wa s a lw a y s c o n s id er e d t he
.

n e c e s sa r y a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f a ll w o u n d s L i s t er d e cid e d t h a t .

g e r m s m u s t e n t e r t h e w o u n d f r o m t he a ir f r o m s ur g i c a l i n s t ru ,

m e n t s o r fr o m o t h e r ,

o uts id e a ge n c i e s .

Th er e a f t e r wh e n Op e r ,

a ti n g h e u s e d wh a t h e ,

c a ll ed a n t i s ep t i c s to
kill t he ger m s . He at
t e m pt e d t o d e s tr o y t he
ge r m s in t he a ir by
p r a yi n g t he a ir o f t he s

o p e ra t i n g r o o m with a

c a r b o li c a c id s o l ut i o n .

H e th e n p r o t e c te d t he
An o ld p i t h w t h t h
r n s o d h w
s a tea t d by
ac e m v g
i
as
w
r ea e
o u n dre
ao
s mn
u c h a s

p m” f th k un
a o ° e S '

p o s s 1b l e f r o m co n t a ct
with t he a ir All his i n s t r u m e n t s w er e s ubj ec t e d t o t he m os t
.

c a r e ful a n ti se pti c t r e a t m e n t s H e t a u gh t his p r i n c ipl e s o f a n ti

.

s e p t i c s u r ge r y t o t he s u r ge o n s o f F r a n c e The F r a n c o G er m a n
.
-

Wa r b r o k e o ut in 1 8 70 I t o cc ur r e d t o n o o n e in F r a n c e in t he
.
,

fir s t b a t t l es t o a pply t he n ew m e th o d o f a n ti s e p t i c s ur ge r y I n
,
.

c o n s e qu e n ce hu n d r e d s a n d t h o u s a n d s o f w o u n d e d s o ldi e r s s uc
,

c um b e d t o ga n gre n e a n d s e p t i c a e m i a typ e s o f bl o o d p o i s o n i n g
,
.

Th e n d o c t o r s a ll o v e r t h e w o r ld a d o pt e d a n ti se pti c s u r ger y In .

fe c t io n s whi c h f o r m er ly f o ll o w e d m a n y o p e r a t i o n s p r a c ti c a lly
di sa pp e a r e d B e f o r e L i s t e r s t i m e 70 pe r c e n t o f a ll Co m p o u n d
.
’

fr a c t u r es r e s ul t e d in d e a t h a n d a b o u t 50 per c e n t o f a ll m a j or
,

Af t e r L i s t e r s a n ti s e pti c m e th o d s w e r e in
’
o p e r a t i o n s w er e fa t a l .

t r o duc e d t h e s e p er ce n t a ges w e r e gr ea t ly r e du c e d .

Wh a t of t o da y ? The m os t m o d er n m e t h o d o f s urger y is a sep t i c

-

s u r ge r y . G e r m s a r e c o n tro ll e d by killi n g t h e m wi t h dry h e a t

6 TH E B IO LO G Y O F —
T O M ORRO W

Wh a t of t o-m orr o w ? Th e pu r p o s e o f thi s b oo k is t o giv e a

s c i e n t ifi c bi o l o gi c a l b a c k gr o u n d t o pup il s s o t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e

a b a s i s fo r di s c r i m i n a t i o n b e

t w e e n r e a l a n d p s e ud o s c i e n ce -

in c o n n e c t i o n wi t h t he hu m a n
b o dy Th e a im o f a ll s c i e n ce .

is t o a s c er t a i n t h e t r u t h fr o m
u n bi a se d e xp er im e n t s wi t h
o ut r e ga r d t o e m o t i o n a l prej u

di c e s o r s t a t e m en t s b a s e d o n
s p ec ul a ti o n or i m a gi n a t i o n .

I n s c i e n t ifi c e xp e r i m en t a ti o n
U d w d d U d w d o n e d o e s n o t i m a i n e o r de
n er oo an n er oo
g
c id e b e f o r e h a n d wh a t is go i n g

t o h a pp e n On ly a c t u a l o b .

s e r v a bl e f a c t s a r e a cc e p t e d .

I f e xp e r i m e n t s o n d ise a s e
w e r e p r e j u d ic e d d i s e a s e ,

w o uld n e v e r b e co n tro ll e d .

S i m il a r ly a ll l ife p r o gr e s s e s ,

m o r e e ffi c i e n t ly wh e n it is
~

liv e d s c i e n t ifi c a lly The s c i .

e n t ific u n e m o t i o n a l a t t i t ud e
U S F ,

—
S. i . or es t er v c e
’

Fore s rt yo ff
e rs an opp ort u it n
y f u t f d
or a n t o wo a r
-od l if e s
oor p r o bl e m s l e a d s
l ife o f s ervi ce .
t o a m o r e e x a c t s o lu t i o n .
.

I t is h o ped t h a t t h e s t udy o f b io lo gy will b e a n i n s pi r a ti o n t o

'

r e c r e a ti o n a l a c tivi t i e s E v e r y o n e is h a ppy in t he pu r s ui t o f a
.

h o bby I t g1v e s o n e a wo rt hy us e o f l e i s u
. re t im e I f t hi s h o bby .

t a k e s o n e o ut o f d o or s t h e r es ul t is u s u a lly b e n e fi c i a l t o h is h e a l t h
,
.

I f c er t a i n f a c t s a b o u t p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a r e u n d e r s t o o d a n in ,

t ellige n t i n t e re s t in t h e i r gr o w t h a n d h a bi t s is p o s s ibl e
‘

N ew s .

p a p e r s m a ga zi n e s b o o k s a n d p e r i o di c a l s c o n t a i n m a n y s c i e n tifi c
, , ,

a r t icl e s a n d d e s c r ip t i o n o f e xp e r i m e n t s I f a p er s o n ha s s o m e
.
 W H AT OF —
T O M ORRO W ?

k n owl e d ge o f s c i e n c e t hi s w e a l t h o f m a t er i a l m a y b e e a s ily i n t e r
,

p r e t e d a n d u n d e r s t oo d by h im T h e p r e se n t t e x t a i m s t o s e r v e
.

a s a b a s i s for t h e i n t e r p re t a t i o n o f fu t u r e s c i e n t ifi c r ea dings .

The m o r e i n t e r e s t s o n e c a n c ul t iv a t e t h e m o r e h e ge t s o ut o f lif e .

The r e l a t i o n o f t h e bi o l o gy o f t o da y t o h e a l t h ca n n o t b e o v e r
-

e m ph a s iz e d On e o f t he r e a s o n s why t h e p e o pl e o f y e s t e r d a y
.

h a d s o m a n y f e a r s c o n cer n i n g di se a s e w a s t h a t t h e y w e r e i gn o r a n t
o f m e t h o d s fo r p r e v e n t i n g a n d c o n t r o lli n g it The p r e v e n t i o n a n d
.

c o n t r o l o f di s e a s e c a n n o w b e a pp r o a c h e d i n t elli ge n t ly b eca u s e
‘

t h e r e h a s b ee n s o m e e du c a t i o n a l o ng t h e s e li n es C o Ope r at io n b e .

t w e e n t he publi c a n d t he B o a r d o f H e a l t h 1s m a d e p o s s ibl e b e c a u s e
o f t hi s h e a l t h e du c a t i o n Th e gen er a l publi c u n d er s t a n d s wh a t
.

t he h e a lth a u t h o r i t i e s a r e t r yi n g t o a c co m pli s h B e c a u s e it k n o w s
‘

t h a t c e r t a i n r e s t r i c ti o n s a re f o r m ul a t ed in t h e i n t e r e s t s o f h e a l t h ,

t he publi c r e a dily ac c e pt s a n d c a r r i e s t h e m o ut F o r e x a m pl e .
,

th er e is n o t a s mu c h o pp os i t i o n t o t he S c hi c k t e s t a n d t h e s ub
'

s e qu ent i mm u n iz a t i o n for diph t h e r i a a s f o r m e r ly b e c a u s e t he

, ,

publi c ha s b e e n in t e llige n tly i n s t ru c te d Co n c er n in g t he n e e d o f

t hi s s c i en t ifi c p r o c e du r e t o c o m b a t t he di s e a se .
.

U . S . D ep t . of A gr i c ult ur e

W ild b lue b e rr i e s C ulti v ate d b lue b e rr ie s .

v v flv
.

S e le c t ion , c ult i a t io n a n d b r e e din g h a e in c r e a s e d t h e s iz e a n d a o r of m a n y fruit s .

Wh e n p e o pl e c ul t iv a t e p r o p e r p e r s o n a l h a bi t s t t i t ud e s a n d a nd a ,

more i n t e lli ge n t i n t er e s t s in t he h o m e a n d co m m u n ity th ey a chi e v e ,

8 TH E B I OLO GY OF —
T O M O RRO W

gr e a t e r so c a i l ivi c s uc c e s s Bi o l o gy h e lp s t o fr e e p eo pl e o f
a nd c .

i gn o r a n t a nd u s e l e s s r a c i a l c u s t o m s I t is in s c h o o l t h a t p r o p e r
.

s t a n d a r d s o f c l e a n li n e s s v e n t il a t i o n
,
fe e di n g a n d r o u t i ne a r e fr e
, ,

qu e n t ly a c qui re d I f hygi e n i c h a bi t s o f livi n g a r e d ev e l o p e d a n d

.
,

p e o pl e p e rs i s t in p r a c t i c i n g t h e m b e t t e r s o c i a l c u s t o m s will s o o n b e
,

e s t a bli s h e d F or e x a m pl e if s t ud e n t s a r e t a u gh t t he i m p o r t a n ce
.
,

o f buyi n g b re a d w r a pp e d t o p r e v e n t c o n t a m i n a t i o n
, a n d if t h e y ,

i n s i s t o n buyi n g o n ly wr a pp e d b r e a d t he s t o r e ke e p ers will s oo n ,

S upply it . We i ghi n g e vid en c e in s t udyi n g s c i e n t ifi c d a t a d e vel o p s ,

a co n t r o l whi c h m a k e s t h e s t ud e n t a pp r o a c h f a m ily p r o bl e m s wi t h

g re a t e r wi s d o m E v.e r y i n dividu a l o w es c e r t a i n r e s p o n s ibili t i es

t o his co m m u n ity Pr o bl e m s o f s ew e r a ge ga r b a ge di s p o s a l s t r e e t
.
, ,

c l ea n i n g w a t e r a n d m ilk s upply c o n t r o l o f di s e a s e a r e a ll di s c u s s e d
, ,

in bi o l o gy c l a s s e s a n d a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n di n g o f t h e s e will giv e
,

e a c h p e r s o n a c l ea r e r co n c e p t i o n o f h is o bli ga t i o n t o hi m s e lf a n d

t o t he publi c .

Th e r e la tion o f b iology t o v o c a tion s Th er e a r e m a n y v o ca.

t io n a l o pp or t u n i t i e s in s c i e n t ifi c fi e ld s Bi o l o gy s u gge s t s a n d .

p o s s ibly l a y s t he b a s i s fo r m a n y o f t h e s e The r e l a t i o n o f bi o l o gy .

t o t he s t udy o f d e n t i s t r y a n d m e d1c 1n e 1 s o bvi o u s The a c hi e v e .

m e n t s o f Pa s t e u r K o c h a n d N o gu c hi a r e fin e id e a l s t o a r o u s e
, ,

e n t hu s i a s m a n d i n t e r e s t in r e s e a r c h w o r k B a c t e r i o l o gy c h e m i ca l
.
,

a n a ly s i s a n d ora l hy gi e ne a r e l a b o r a t o r y fi e ld s t h a t a re i n t e n s e ly
,

i n t er es t i n g N ur s i n g is a v o ca ti o n wi t h a gr ippi n g hu m a n i n t e r e s t
. .

S c ie n c e h a s im pr o v
ed th e a ppe a ra n c e , w e igh t , a n d c ol o r o f ca tt le .
 TO —
M O RRO W NE VE R COME S

U n de r wood a n d U n der wood E wi n g G a l l owa y

Agr i c ul t ura l pr o gre s s h a s b e e n m a de po s s ib le la r ge ly t h r o ugh s c ie n t i fi c dis c o v e r ie s and

v
in e n t io n s .

F o r es t r y , i ifi c f a r m i n g a n d a n i m a l a n d pl a n t b r e e di n g a re
sc ent ,

v o ca t i o n s t h a t c o n s t a n t ly n e e d m o re r e cr ui t s B i o l o gy ha s c o n
.

t a c t s wi t h a ll t h e s e v o c a t i o n s a n d is a m e a n s o f givi n g s t ud e n t s
s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t will h e lp t h e m t o d e c id e wh e t h e r t h e y

wo uld like t o pu r s u e a s c i e n t ifi c v o c a ti o n .

To m orr ow n e v e r c om e s
-
Thi s b o o k c a n n o t giv e t he l a t e s t
.

i n fo r m a t i o n a b o u t livi n g t hi n gs B e fo r e it l e a v e s t he p r i n t er s
.
’

h a n d s a n e w V i t a m i n m a y b e di s c o v e r e d t he c a u s e a n d c u re for
,

c a n c er m a y b e a n n o u n ce d a ne w a n d u n e xp e c t e d t h e o r y m a y
,

n e c e s s i t a t e a c h e c k a n d r e vi s i o n o f m u c h o f t h e w o r k t h a t h a s

b ee n s e t fo r t h in t h e s e p a ge s I f y o u who re a d a r e c a r e ful in
.

s c r u t i n izi n g a ll d a t a b e f o r e y o u m a k e a c o n c lu s i o n y o u will h a v e ,

b e c o m e m o re s c i e n t ifi c Y o u m a y b e o n e who will a dd a c h a p t e r
.

t o t he bi o l o gy o f t o m o rr o w -
y o u m a y l e a r n a n d t e ll t h e f a r m e r s

o f t o m o r r o w h o w t o gr o w t w o bl a d e s o f gra s s wh e r e o n e f o r m e r ly
-

gr e w . Thi s Adv a n c e d Bi o l o gy i n c lud e s t he s t o r y o f t h e bi o l o gy

o f y e s t e r d a y a n d o f t o da I f it h a s b e e n w e ll t o ld it s h o uld
y
-
.
,

m a k e y o u r t o m o rr o w a h ea lt hi e r h a ppi e r a n d m or e co m pl e t e da y
-
. , .

WH . FIT Z
. AD . B IO .
 C H AP T E R I I

TH E G RO W TH
OF S CI E N CE

Ar is t o t l e , F a th e r of B iol o gy . H ippo c r a t e s , Fa th e r of M e dic in e .

Wha t c ha n ges ha ve ta ken p la c e i n s ci en ce ? Wha t is s cien ce ?

I n to wha t bra n c hes m a y s cien ce be divided ? Wha t m a kes up bi
o logy ? H o w is bio logy r ela ted to o t he r s ci en ces ?

S c i e n ce b e ga n wh e n p r i m i t iv e m a n m a d e a n e ff o r t t o e x
.
pl a i n “

c er t a i n ph en o m e n a t h a t he c o uld n o t u n d er s t a n d S i c k n e s s .

o c c a s I On e d m u c h s p ec ul a ti o n N o t k n o wi n g o r u n d e r s t a n di n g
.

a n y t hi n g ab o ut t he v a r i o u s o r ga n s o f t h e b o dy h e th o u gh t di s e a s e ,

m u s t b e due t o m agi c D i s e a s e s w e r e s upp o s e d t o b e c a u s e d by

.

e vil s pi r it s wh o s e Wr a t h h a d t o b e a pp e a s e d o r wh o s e f a v or ha d t o
'

b e wo n An c i e n t p e o pl e bu r n e d s a c r ifi c e s or b ea t t o m t o m s t o
.
-

d r iv e a w a y t he e vil s pi r i t s S o m e t h o u gh t t h a t di s e a s e s c o uld b e
.

t r a n s f er r e d f r o m m a n t o a n i m a l s An e x a m pl e o f thi s wa s t he .

b e li e f t h a t a t o o t h a c h e c o uld b e c ur e d if t he a ffli c t e d p er so n s t o o d
o n t h e gro u n d u n d e r a n Op e n s ky a n d s p a t in a fr o g s m o u t h
’

, ,

a s ki n g t h e fr o g t o t a k e t h e t oo t h a c h e a w a y An o t h er r e m e dy s ug .

g e s t e d w, a s t o k e e p a h o t c o o k e d d r,i e d b e a n a t t h e r,
i ght e lb o w
fo r t h r e e d a y s if t he t oo t h a c h e d in t h e l e f t s id e o f t he m o u t h .

Th e o r d e r w a s r e v er s e d if t he t o o t h w a s o n t he r i ght s id e .

Th e a dva n c e s of t h e G r e e k s I t w a s n o t u n t il t h e t i m e of H ip
.

p o c r a t e s ( b o r n a b o u t 4 6 0 B C ) t h a t t h e G r
. e e.k s b e g a n t o a t t r ibu t e

di s e a s e t o n a t u r a l r a t h e r t h a n t o s up e r n a t ur a l c a u ses H ipp o .

cr a t es t a u gh t t h a t t h e b o dy w a s in goo d h e a l t h wh e n t h e f o u r jui ces ,

10
 E A R L Y S URGE R Y AN D M E D I C IN E 11

bl o o d phl e gm y e ll o w bil e a n d bl a c k bil e w er e m ixe d in t hep ro p e r

, , , ,

.
—
p ro p o r ti o n s Ar i s t o t l e ( 3 84 3 22 B C ) w a s o n e o f t he fir s t m e n t o . .

r e a liz e t h a t a ll ph e n o m e n a s h o uld b e i n v e s t i ga t e d v e r y ca r e fully

b f
e o re a c o n c lu s i o n is m a d e H e is ca ll e d t h e F a .t h er o f B ii
o l o gy b e c a u s e h e m a d e e x t e n siv e s t udi e s o f pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s

a n d t he ir d e ve l op m en t N o t o n ly did h e i n ve s t i ga t e b ut he
.
,

wr o te d o w n his i n v e s t i ga t i o n s H e t hu s e n a bl e d t he s c i e n t i st s
.

wh o f o ll o w e d t o build o n h is w o r k
, B e c a u s e s o li t t l e di s s e c t i o n
.

w a s p e r m i t t e d a t t hi s t i m e his w o r k w a s full o f e rr o r s ; b ut
, ,

n e v e r t h e l e s s h is s t udi e s w e r e
,

of t r e m e n d o us v a lu e Thi s .

wa s t h e fi r s t s t e p in b r e a ki n g
a w a y fr o m idl e s p e c ul a t i o n .

H e s t a r t e d s c i e n tifi c i n v e s t i
g a t io n r e a ,
s o n b a s e d o n o b
s e r v a ti o n .

E ar ly s ur ge ry an d m e di
c in e . Pr e vi o u s t o t he M iddl e
Age s , m any i
s c ent st si t a lk e d
and u d a t gr e a t
a rg e l e n gt h
a b o u t h e a l t h a n d di s e a s e b ut ,

th e y w er e u n a bl e t o m a k e
s c i e n t ifi c i n v e s t i ga t i o n s b e
c a u s e th e y w er e f o r bidd e n by

la w t o di s s e c t t he hu m a n
b o dy The o n ly di s s e c ti o n s
.

p er m i t t e d w e r e t h o se o f l o w er
a mm a ls S UC h a s do gs Un I t h m di l h l f th M iddl Ag
'

th n e e ca sc oo s o e e es e

l tu t d i pul pit B b m d th s oo n a ar ers a e e

S kl lle d b a r b e r s u s u a lly m a de
ec rer .

di ti d p i t d ut t h t u tu s sec on s an o n e o e s r c res as

th y w m ti d A f w f v d im l
these d1s s e ct 10 n s fo r t he s c 1e n iv d t h di d dp t th y w
e
ut fi
re ce e
ere
e
en on e

s ca r e
. e

ar s as
a

e
or e

ere c
an a s
o .

t l st s . An I n s t r u c t o r w o uld
r ea d t o his c l a s s fr o m a n a n a t o m y b o o k w r i t t e n by a G r e e k phy

s ic ia n G a l e n
, At t he s a m e ti m e t he b a r b e r po i nt e d o ut t he p a r t
.
12 TH E GRO W T H OF SC IE N CE

of t he str u c t ur e m e n t i o n e d in t he t e x t I t wa s n o t u n t il t h e t i m e
.

—
o f V e s a liu s ( 1 5 1 4 1 5 64 ) wh o liv e d in t he M iddl e Age s t h a t s u r ge r y ,

w a s p ut o n a p r o f e s s i o n a l b a s i s r a t h e r t h a n a m e n i a l o n e p e r f o r m e d
by b a r b er s a n d b a t h k e e p e r s Th e s t udy o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t he
.

hu m a n b o dy w a s n o w b o t h p e r m i t t e d a n d e n c o u r a ge d N o l o n ge r .

wa s m e di c a l s c i e n c e pu r e ly s p e c ul a t iv e I t b e ga n t o b e b a s e d o n
.

o b s er v a t i o n . I n l e c t u r i n g V e s a liu s pu s h e d a s id e t he c lu m s y
,

s u r ge o n b a r b e r a n d h e hi m s e lf d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p a r t s o f t h e dis

s e c t e d b o dy in a p r o p e r w a y . H e b e ga n t o d r a w pi c t u r e s o f t h e
di s s e c t i on s a s he a c t u a lly s a w t h e m H e di s p ro v e d t he o ld id ea
.

t h a t m a n diff e r e d f r o m w o m a n by h a vi n g o n e l e s s r ib o n o n e s id e .

H e d e m o n s t r a t e d by di s s e c t i o n t h a t m a n a n d w o m a n r e a lly h a v e
t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f r ib s o n e a c h s id e . Gr a du a lly t e a chi n g c a m e ,

t o b e b a s e d o n di rect obs er va tion r a t h er th a n o pi n i o n As i n s t r u o . .

t o r s a c qui r e d m or e a n d m o r e k n owl e d ge o f t he hu m a n b o dy t h ey ,

i n s i s t e d o n m a ki n g t h e i r ow n di s s e c t i o n s i n s t e a d o f d e p e n di n g
,

up o n t h e u n s c i e n t ifi c e ffo r t s o f b a r b e r s Th ey r e a liz e d t he v a lu e
.

o f ca r e ful di s s e c ti o n s in o r d e r t o s h o w t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b o dy .

Th e e ffo r t s o f phy s i c i a n s t o l o o k for

'

n a tu r a l c a u s e s o f di s e a s e r a t h e r t h a n s up er

n a t u r a l w a s t h e b e gi n n i n g o f s c i e n c e but ’

t h e y did n o t go fa r e n o u gh Whil e s c ie n .

t is t s w e r e di ss e c t i n g t h e hu m a n b o dy a n d
di sp r o vi n g f a ll a c i es in r e ga r d t o it th e y ,

w er e n o t y e t c h e c ki n g e xp er i m e n t a lly o b
, ,

s er v a t io n s in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f di s e a s e F or .

’
e x a m pl e ,
wh e n a p a t i e n t s c u r e s e e m i n gly
fo ll ow e d t h e a d m i n i s t r a ti o n o f s o m e u n u s u a l
d w n ve r y i
na c w m t ly
ra e '

r e m e dy o r d r u g wi t h o ut fu r t h e r e xpe r i
,

m e n t a t i o n d o c t o r s ju m ped t o t h e c o n c lu s i o n t h a t t h e y h a d dis
,

c o v e r e d t he c u r e . D u r i n g a n e pid e m i c o f t yphu s f e v e r a T u r ki s h ,

uph o l s t e r er h a vi n g b e c o m e ill wi t h t he di se a s e d r a n k s o m e liquid

, ,

fr o m a p a il c o n t a i n i n g pi c kl e d c a bb a ge a n d r e c o v e r e d I m m e
,
.
14 TH E GR OW T H OF S C I E N C E

m a de a nd c o n c lu s i o n s d ra w n . Thi s is t he m o d e r n i
s c en t ifi c m e t h o d
i
s c e n ce b a s e d o n experimen ta tion a n d obs erva tion .

C o n s id e r t h e w o r k o f P a ul E h r li c h H e w a n t e d t o fin d a
.

c h e m i c a l t h a t h a d a d e a dly e ff ec t o n c e r t a i n m i c r o b e s F i r s t he .
,

s t udi e d t h e s e p a r ti c ul a r di s e a s e ge r m s by s t a i n i n g t h e m diff e re n t

colors .Th e n h e t r i e d t h e e ffe c t o f v a r i o u s c h e m i c a l s o n t h e m .

Wi t h gr e a t p a t i e n c e he p e r s e v e r e d r e j e c t i n g t h o s e t e s t s t h a t w e r e
,

n o t s a t i s fa c t o r y F i n a lly his s ix hu n d r e d a n d s ix t h e xp e r i m e nt
.
,

w a s s u c c e s s ful H e h a d f o u n d a s ub s t a n c e whi c h w o uld kill t he

.

g e r m b u t w o uld n o t i n ju r e h e a l t hy b o dy t i s s ue .

D r Th o m a s H M o r ga n Un iv e r s i t y Of C a lifo r n i a is n o w w o r k
. .
, ,

in g o n t h e qu e s t i o n o f h er e di t y H e h a s e x a m i n e d t h e s iz e a n d
.

v a r i o u s b o dy differ e n ces o f t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f t i n y fl i e s On e .

o f t h e diff e r e n c e s n o t e d w a s a s p e c i m e n wi t h c o l o r l e s s i n s t e a d o f

pi n k e y e s H e h a s b r e d t hi s a n d o t h e r diff e r e n t t yp e s t hro u gh
.

c o u n tl es s ge n e r a t i o n s in his e ff o r t s t o u n d e r s t a n d h e r e di t y Th e r e .

is n o wild j u m pi n g t o c o n c lu s i o n s in h is w o r k
-

I t is b a s e d o n .

d e fi n i t e e xp e r i m e n t a l e vid e n c e
,
.

Thi n k o f t he l a t e L u t h e r B u r b a n k Ac r e s o f gr o u n d w e r e till e d
.
,

pl a n t e d c ul t iv a t e d a n d t h e pl a n t s w ere c l o s e ly o b s er v e d by thi s
, ,

e xp e r i m e n t e r All b ut o n e o r t w o pl a n t s gr o w n w er e di s c a r d e d in
.

his s e a r c h fo r s p e c i m e n s o f t he pl a n t h e w a n t e d t o b r e e d He .
,

lik e o t h er s c i e n t i s t s e x a m i n e d a w e a l t h o f d a t a a n d t h e n m a d e a
,

c a r e ful s e l ec t i o n f r o m t hi s m a t e r i a l .

C o n tr a s t t he c a bb a ge j ui c e t r e a t m e n t o f typhu s f e v e r m e n t i o n e d
b e f or e wi t h t he s c i e n tifi c i n v e s t i ga t i o n of m a l a r i a I t w a s fi r s t .

o b s e r v e d t h a t p e o pl e livi n g n e a r s w a m p s c o n t r a c t e d a f e v e r ; t h e r e

f o r e it w a s t h o u ght th a t s w a m py a ir c a u s e d thi s m a l a dy The

,
.

di s e a s e w a s c a ll e d m a l a r i a m e a n i n g b a d a ir Peopl e w e r e c a u
,
.

t io n e d t o c l o s e t h e i r wi n d o w s p a r t i c ul a r ly a t n i gh t t o k ee p o ut t he
, ,

b a d a ir Th e n b e gi n n i n g wi t h o b s e r v a t i o n s b a s e d o n e xp er i m e n t a
.
,

t i o n d o c t or s e xp e r i m e n t e d wi t h sw a m py a ir t o s e e wh e t h e r it w o uld
,

iv e m a l a r i a o r n ot T h e y f o u n d th a t it h a d n o di r ec t r e l a t i o n t o
g .
 VIE WP O I N T S OF S C I E N CE 15

t hedi se a s e . Th e n th e y hu n te d a b o ut fo r a n o th er p r o b a bl e c a u se .

D ue t o c a r e fully c o n t ro ll e d e xp er i m e n t s d oc t o r s w er e a bl e t o
,

d e m o n s t ra t e t h a t m a l a r i a w a s c a u s e d by a d e fi n it e m i cr o or gani s m
whi c h wa s c a rr i e d by a cer t a i n s p ec i es o f m o s quito On ce thi s h a d .

b e e n de m o n s t r a t e d t he p r e v e n t i o n t r e a t m e n t a n d c u r e o f t he
, \
, ,

di s e a se fo ll ow e d C er t a i n t o w n s a l o n g t he C a n a l Zo ne fo r m a n y
.
,

y e a r s i n f e s t e d with b o th m a l a r i a a n d y e ll o w f e v er h a v e n o w b e c o m e
,

h ea l t h r e s or ts The c a rr i e r o f t he ge r m h a s b e e n e xt erm i n a te d a n d
.

t he di s e a s e is n ow u n d e r a l m os t co m pl e t e co n t r o l .

M o d e r n e xp e r i m e n t ati o n s o lv e s p r o bl e m s u n d er c o n t ro ll e d c on
dit io n s . Th e a im o f t h e p r o bl e m m u s t b e ke pt in m i n d t h e m e t h o d ,

o f p r oce du r e m u s t b e d e c id e d up o n a n d a ll c o n di t i o n s c a r e fully
,

r e gul a t e d . All p o s s ibl e d a t a m u s t b e p a i n s t a ki n gly c o ll e c t e d a nd

a rr a n ge d in a n o r d e r ly m a n n e r .Jud gm e n t m u s t b e s u s p e n d e d
u n t il a ll t he e vi d e n ce h a s b ee n p r o p e r ly w e i gh e d All o b s er v a .

ti o ns s h o uld l e a d t o a l o gi c a l c o n c lu s i o n whi c h will giv e i n fo r m a t i o n

a b o u t t h e p r o bl e m t o b e s o lv e d if it d o e s n o t a c t u a lly s o lv e it
, .

S u c h s c i e n tifi c o b se r v a ti o n l e a d s t o s tr a i ght thi n ki n g S c i e n c e is .

n o w b e co m i n g a phil o s o phy o f e du c a t i o n r a th e r th a n s i m ply a

m et h o d a n d is a ppli c a bl e t o a ll p ro bl e m s o f life
, .

Vie wpo in ts of s c ie n c e H u m a n k n owl e d ge m a y b e divid e d i n t o

.

t he a r t s a n d t h e s c i e n c e s S c i e n ce is c a r e ful e x a c t o r d e r ly
.
, ,

a rr a n ge d k n o wl e d ge .Am o n g t he m a n y s c i e n c e s ar e c h e m i s tr y ,

phy s i c s a n d bio l o gy B i o l o gy is t h a t b r a n c h o f s c i e n c e th a t d ea l s
,
.

wi t h livi n g thi n gs o r thi n gs t h a t h a v e b e e n a liv e Th e wo r d .

bio lo gy co m e s fr o m t wo G r ee k w o r d s bios ,
life ; lo gos s t udy .

I n s t udyi n g t hi s e a r th o n whi c h we liv e a n d t h e livi n g t hi n gs

,

t h a t a r e f o u n d o n o ur gl o b e t h e diff e r e n t s c i e n t i s t s m a y e a c h l o o k a t
,

t he thi n gs a b o ut th e m fr o m diff e re n t p o i n t s o f vi e w a n d use di ff e r

e n t u n it s up o n whi c h t o build t h e i r s ci e n c e s I n phy s i c s t he
.
,

s c i e n ti s t m a y s e p a r a t e a b o a r d i n t o s m a ll c hip s o r i n t o s a wdu s t ,

a n d divid e it fu r th er i n t o s m a ll e r a n d s m a ll e r p a r ti c l es fi n a lly , ,

r e du c i n g it t o t h e s m a ll e s t p o s s ibl e p a r t i c l e a n d s till h a v e t he
16 THE GRO W T H OF SC IE NCE

m a t er i a l , wo o d . Wh en t he
p a r t i c l es b e c o m e s o s m a ll t h a t th e y
c a n b e s ee n o n ly wi t h a n ultr a m i cro s c o p e t h e y a r e c a ll e d mo le ,

cules Th e phy s i c i s t c a ll s e v e r y t hi n g t h a t o c c upi e s s p a c e m a tter ;

.
,

a n d h e t hi n k s o f m a t t e r a s

b e i n g m a d e up o f t i n y
m o lc le s in m o t i o n .

Th e c h e m i s t t a k e s sub
s t a n c e s o r m a t t e r s till fur

th er a p a r t Wa t er w o o d .
, ,

r o c k s a ir o ur w o r ld in ge n , ,

er a l m a y b e t a ke n a p a rt ,

a n d s e p a r a t e d i n t o n i n e ty

t w o o r m o r e di ff e r e n t s ub
s t a n ce s c a ll e d elem en ts .
_

N i n e t y of t h e s e h a v e b ee n
B i l gy i
o o l t d ts h mi t y
re a e d ph y i
o c e Th
s r s e p a r a t e d f r o m th e i r c o m
an s cs . e

t pi
o cs e mb d b y b t h b i l gy
ra ce d h mi t y h v
o o o an c e s r a e

been g i
or d a n ze
p i l
as i
a bsi h
ec a m i t y p o
s c en ce ,u n d s a n d
o- c S t u d
e l e d M
s r O S t
.

N t th
o e th e o m b i ti
e r co h w i t h di g m
na on s s o n n e a ra
Of t he m a t e r i a l s Of t he
.

w o r ld i n c ludi n g livi n g t hi n gs e xi s t in t h e f o r m o f c o m p o u n d s c o m
, , ,

b in a t io n s o f e l e m e n t s Th e c h e m i s t h a s w o r k e d o ut m e t h o d s fo r
.

d e co m p o s i n gt he c o m p o u n d s in o r d e r t o s t udy t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s .

I f a n e l e c t r i c c u rr e n t is p a s s e d t h r o u gh w a t e r it W ill c a u s e t h e ,

liquid t o b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o t w o ga s e s I f t h e s e t w o ga s e s a r e c o l .
~

le c t e d in tub e s we fin d t h a t t wi ce a s m u c h ga s w ill c o ll e c t in o n e
tub e a s in t he o t h er B o t h ga s e s a re c o l o r l e s s o d o r l e s s a n d t a s t e
.
, ,

l e s s I f a gl o wi n g s pli n t is th r u s t i n t o t he t ub e c o n t a i n i n g t he
.

s m a ll e r a m o u n t o f ga s it w ill bu r n b r i gh t ly
, t h e ga s s upp o r t s c o m
b us t io n I t is oxygen
. I f a li gh t e d s pli n t is h e ld n e a r t he t ub e
.

h o ldi n g t he l a r ge r v o lu m e o f ga s t h e r e is a s li gh t e xplo s mn a n d ,

t he ga s bu r n s wi t h a blu e fl a m e I t is hydrogen Wa t e r ha s b e e n
. .

s e p a r a t e d i n t o it s e l e m e n t s hyd r o ge n a n d o xy ge n ,
a n d is s h o w n ,

t o c o n s i s t o f twi c e a s m u c h hyd r o ge n a s o xyge n T h e m o l e c ul e s .

o f th e s e e l e m e n t s m a y fur t h e r b e divid e d i n t o a toms Th e c h e m i s t .

 B IO L OG Y A C O M P LE X SC IE N C E 17

a nd phy s i c i s t o f t o da y -
d e a l wi t h m a t t er in e v e n s m a ll e r p a r t i c l e s ,

a s th e y h a v e di s co v e r e d t h a t a t o m s a re fu r t h e r divi s ibl e i n t o

t n d elec tron s t h t i p r t i c l e s t h a t c a r r y p o s i t iv e a n d
p r o o n s a a , s a ,

n e ga t iv e e l ec t r i c a l c h a r ge s .

Wh e n a bi o l o gi s t l o o k s a t a lI V I n g pl a n t o r a n i m a l h e V i e w s it
in t h e li ght o f h is p a r t i c ul a r t r a i n i n g T o s o m e bi o l o gi s t s t h e
.
,

s h a p e a n d f o r m o f t he a n i m a l a re o f gr e a t e s t i n t e r e s t Ot h e r s in .
-

v e s t iga t e t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t h e livi n g o r ga n i s m s .

B io lo gy a c om ple x s c ie n c e M a n y divi s i o n s o f bi o l o gy h a v e
.

b ee n i n v e s t i ga t e d a n d t h e r e is s o m u c h k n o w n a b o u t e a c h o n e
,

th a t t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s th o u gh t o f a s di s t i n c t s ubj e c t s Th e .

s p e c i a li s t wh o d e lv e s in a p a r t i c ul a r divi s i o n 1 8 n a m e d in t e r m s o f

t he s p e c i a l t y he f o ll o w s Th e s p e c i a li s t s wh o a r e i n t e r e s t e d in
.

t h e s t udy o f b a c t e r i a ( b a c t e r i o l o gy ) a r e k n o w n a s b a c t e r i o l o gi s t s .

Pr o t o z o Olo gy lik ewi s e h a s

, ,

p ro t o z o ol o gi s t s who a r e in
t e r e s t e d in o n e c e ll e d a n i
-

m als . Th o s e wh o s t udy
s n a ke s are i n t e r e s t e d in
h er p e t o l o gy ; t h e s p e c i a li s t
is a h e r p e t o l o gi s t .Th e e h
t o m o lo gis t s tudi e s i n s e c t s ;
he is c o n c e r n e d wi t h t he
s c i e n ce of e n t o m o l o gy .

S o m e s c i e n ti s t s m a y s p e c i a l
iz e in o n ly o n e b r a n c h
o f e n t o m o l o gy . Bugs a r e
c l a s s e d a s H e m ip t e r a st u
B i l gy i m pl o oi m d
s a co fm y l gi
ex s c en ce a e o an o o es .

d e n t s i n t e r e s t e d ih bu gs a r e
h e m ipt e r is t s . B u t t e r fli e s t h e L e pid o p t e r a a r e t h e t o pi c o f s t udy
, ,

o f t he l e pid o p t e r i s t s I n e a c h o f t h e s e b r a n c h e s o f bi o l o gy w e
.

—
h a v e o t h e r s ubdivi s i o n s m o r ph o l o gy t he s t udy o f t he f o r m s a n d ,

s t r u c tu r e s a n d phy s i o l o gy t h e s t udy o f t h e fu n c t i o n s of t h e o r ga n s
, ,
.
18 TH E GRO W T H OF S C IE N CE

Q UE S TI O N S AN D S UG G E S TI O N S

1 . D o y o u k n o w o f a n y s upe r s t i t i o n s t h a t pe r s i s t t o da y in t he -

t r e a t m e n t o f di s e a s e ? I s t h e r e a n y s c i e n t i c f o un d a t i on fo r s u ch fi
s upe rs t i t i o n s
2 Wh a t w a s t he i m po r t a n c e o f t h e w o r k o f Ves a liu s ?
.

3 Wh o w a s Ar i s t o t l e ?
.

4 C o n t ra s t t he a n c i e n t m e t ho d in t r e a t i n g di s e a s e wi t h t he m o d e r n
.

s cie n t i fi c wa y ?

5 I n y o ur r e s e a r c h n o t e b o o k d e fi n e t he divi s i o n s o f bi o l o gy r e pr e
.

s e n t e d in t h e di a gr a m .

6 Give t he pr o pe r n a m e s t o t he m e n wh o s pe c i a liz e in e a c h divi s i o n

.

n ot ed .

7 a Li s t t e n o r m o r e o l o gi e s n o t give n in o ur o ut li n e
. . .

b Un d e r li n e t h o s e o l o gi e s w h i c h m i gh t pr o pe r l y b e i n c l ud e d
.

in t h e c i r c l e o f bi o l o gy .

0 P l a c e a n m in fr o n t o f t he bi o l o gi c a l
. o l o gi e s j us t un d e r
li n e d t h a t a r e m o r pho l o gi c a l a p in fr o n t o f t he o n es t ha t
, ,

y o u t h i n k a r e ph y s i o l o gi c a l .

S UP P L E M E N T A RY R E A D I N G

D an a P ea ks f
o M edica l H i s to y ( P a ul B H o e b e r [ M e dic al
—
, r .

c h a ps . VI
1 .

Lo c y W ,
.A , B i ology a nd its M a kers ( H e n r y H o lt
.

Lo c y W ,
.A Growth of B i ology (H e n r y H o lt Sr
.
,

Os b or n , H F , F rom the Greeks to D a rwi n ( C h a r les S cr ib n er s S o n s )

’
. . .
 C H AP T E R I I I

TH E
M I C RO S C O P E

An e a r ly m icr o s c o pe . H ow s om e we r e h e ld .

How wa s the micros cope in ven ted ? Was it muc h s imp ler a t on e
time o r is i t s till in i ts igin a l form 2
or
’
Wha t is the us e of a micros cope
I s t he re a defin ite tec hn ique to be b
o s er ve d in us in g i t ?

Bi o l o gy h a s c o n t a c t s wi t h o th er s c i e n c e s I n v e n ti o n s a n d dis .

c o v e r ies by phy s i c i s t s a n d c h e m i s t s h a v e m a d e p o s s ibl e t h e e xpl a n a

ti o n s o f m a n y bi o l o gi c a l f a c t s I t is a l m os t i m p o s s ibl e t o di s c u s s
.

bi o l o gy with o u t i n c ludi n g s o m e phy s i c s a n d c h e m i s tr y The in .

v e n t ion a n d i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e m i c r o s c o p e by phy s i c i s t s h a v e

b ee n l a r ge ly r e s p o n s ibl e for t he r a pid p r o gre ss o f bi o l o gy .

Th e his tory of t h e mic r o s c ope I n H o ll a n d in t h e s e Ve n

.
,

t ee n t h c e n t u r y An t h o n y Vo n Le e uw e n h oe k ( 1 6 3 2 1 7 2 5 ) ex
,
—
p e r im e n t e d with l e n s e s gr i n di n g
, hu n d r e d s a n d u s i n g t h e m in

v a r i o u s c o m bi n a t i o n s t o ge t diffe r e n t m a gn ifi c a ti o n s H e im .

p ro v e d th o se t h a t ha d for m er ly b ee n u s e d H é u s e d du s t w oo d .
, ,

a n d cr y s t a l s t o t r y t h e s t r en gth o f his l e n s e s As he w a s i n t er e s t e d
.

in n a tur a l hi s t or y he i n v e s ti ga t e d t he m i n ut e s tr u c tu r e o f livi n g
,

t hi n gs . H e h a d lit t l e e du c a ti o n a n d his re sea r c h e s w e r e n o t c o n

du c t e d o n a n e xtr em e ly s c i e n tifi c b a s i s a n d th e r e fo r e h is w o r k wa s
, , ,

s o m ewh a t u n s ys t e m a ti c a n d di s co n n e c t e d H o w e v er his im .
,

p r o v e d l e n s e s o p e n e d up a n e n ti r e ly n ew fi e ld n a m e ly t h e in v e s , ,

t iga t io no f m i n ut e livi n g thi n gs S c i en ti s t s co uld n ow a ctu a lly

.

c o n fi r m c er t a i n o f th e i r S p e c ul a t i o n s A s h o r t t i m e b e fo r e t h e
.

m i c r o s cop e wa s i m p r o v e d Willi a m H a r v e y a n E n gli s h phy s i c i a n

, , ,

19
20 TH E M I C RO S C O P E

h a d s a id t h a t thr o u gh t he b o dy in a c i r c ui t a n d t h a t
bl o o d m o ve d
t he b e a t i n g o f t h e h e a r t s uppli e d t h e p r o p e lli n g f o r c e H e ha d .

n o m i c r o s c o p e b ut r e a s o n e d t hi s o ut f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e f r o m
,

his di s s e c t i o n s Le e uw e n h o ek gr o u n d a l e n s t o o b t a i n p r o p er
.

m a gn ifi c a t i o n pl a c e d a t a dp o l e in a gl a s s tub e a n d a dj u s t e d t he
, ,

tub e in fr o n t o f t he fix e d l e n s Wh e n h e l o o k e d t h r o u gh t he l en s
.
,

he s a w t he bl o o d in t h e t a il o f t h e t a dp o l e c o m e d o w n o n e bl o o d
, ,

v e s s e l c r o s s t o a n o t h er a n d r e t u r n t h r o u gh s t ill a n o t h e r Thu s
, , .
,

by m e a n s o f his l e n s e s h e p ro v e d H a r v e y s r e a s o n i n g w a s c o r r e c t
,
’

in t h e s p e c i m e n t h a t h e w a s s t udyi n g L e e uw e n h o e k did a gr e a t .

d ea l t o s ti m ul a t e i n t e r e s t in p e r f e c t i n g t he m i c r o s c o p e I n his .

da y fo r e a c h n e w s p e c i m e n s tudi e d a n e w l e n s h a d t o b e gr o u n d
,

a n d t h e o bj e c t p e r m a n e n t ly fix e d in r e l a t i o n t o thi s m a gn ifi e r .

To da y m i cr o s c o p e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d qui t e di ffe r e n t ly
-
,
The l e n s e s .

a r e p e r m a n e n t ly m o u n t e d in r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e r fo r m m g ,

Vo n L e e uw e n h o e k . On e of h is m a n y m ic r o s c o pe s . W ha t he s aw.

Wh at he s a id

I n th e ye ar6 7 5 I d is c o v e r d li ing c r e a t ur e s in
1
’
v R
a in wa t e r wh ic h h a d s t o o d b ut a fe w

da y s in a n e w e a rt h e n p o t , gla ze d b le w w i t h in v
W h e n t h e s e li in g At o m s d id m o e t h e y put v
v v
.

for t h t w o lit t l e h o r n s , c o n t in ua l ly m o in g t h e m s e l e s Th e y h a d a t a y l , n e a r fo ur t im e s t h e
.

k
l e n gt h o f t h e wh o l e b o dy o f t h e t h ic n e s s ( b y m y M ic r o s c o pe ) o f a S pide r w e b ; a t t h e e n d
.

”
o f wh ic h a pp e a r e d a gl o b ul .

a compo un d m icros cope . We s i m ply c h a n ge t he s lides on w hi c h

t he p e ci m e n s a r e m o u n t ed M a n y i m p r o v e m e nt s h a v e b e e n m a d e
s .

in m i c r o s c o p e s s i n c e t he t i m e o f Vo n L ee uw e n h o e k a n d t he c o m ,
 22 TH E M I C RO S C O P E

is t urn e d . The larger dis k s wit h t h e r ac k and pin io n m a k e up t he coa rs e a dj us t

m en t, or c o ar s e a d j us t m e n t s c r e ws . B y t ur n in g t h e di k s s ge n t ly , y o u c an s ee

t he e ffec t o n t h e t ub e . The c oa r s e a d j us t m en t 13 us e d t o c h a n ge t he dis t a n ce

b e t wee n t he le n s es and t h e ab j ec t o b se r v ed ; t hat focus Belo w t h e
I s, to .

c o ar s e a d j us t m en t s c r ews is a s m a lle r p a ir of dis k s c a lle d t h e fin e adj us tmen t o r

j us t m
,

fin e ad j us t m e n t s c r e ws . T he fin e ad en t is al oS us e d fo r fo c us in g , b ut is

m uch m or e delic a t e t h a n t h e
c o ar se a d j us t m en t .

I I I ; The opt ic a l s y s t em

in
”

c ludes t he p ar t of t he
micr o s c ope c o n t a in in g t he
le n ses . It c o n s st s i of t wo
Se t s of le n se s In m e t al c a se s .

T he se t place d at t he lowe r

en d f t he t ub e , t he
'

o n e ar

o b j e c t , is c a lle d t he j
o b ecti ve .

On m o st mi c r o s c o pe s t her e IS

a s pec ia l a t t a ch m en t at t he
b a se of t he t ube fo r c a r r y in g

t wo or m or e o b j ec t i v es c on

v
Th e m icr os c o pe s of t o -d a y a ry fr o m t h e in d we us e in o ur k v e ni e n fl y t his is t he n ogg
s ch o ol t o t h o s e de s ign e d for e la b o ra t e r e s ea r c h pur po s e s
Wit h
.

t he us e of t he
p iece .

n o s e piec e it is po s s ible t o c h a n g e f r o m o n e o b j e c t i e t o a n o t h er wit h n o lo s s o f v

t im e . v
The ob j ec t i e t h a t I S in lin e w it h t he t ub e I s t h e o n e in us e I n ge n er a l, .

t he lo n ger t h e o b j ec t i v e, t h e gr e a t er is t h e m a gn ifyin g po w er M o s t m icro .

s c o pe s ha v e low p ower
-
a n d high-powe r obj ec ti ve s At t he t o p o f t he t ub e , n e a r
.

t he ey e , is a se t of le n se s in a m et a l c a se c a lle d t he eyepiece . This is ea sily

ta k e n o ut o f t he t ub e .

IV . k
The illum in a t in g s y s t e m m a e s po s s ib le t he a dj us t m en t a n d foc us in g
o f t h e ligh t o n t h e o b j ec t I t c o n s is t s o f t h e m ir ror , hun g un der t he s t a ge , a n d
.

of t he dia p hra gm , in se r t e d in t he o pe n in g o f t he s t a ge . The m irr or us ua lly h a s

t wo face s ,
on e fla t a n d o n e c o n ca v
b e t ur n e d in a ll dir ec t io n s
e . Th e m ir r or c an

a n d is use d fo r t hr o win g a b e a m o f ligh t fr o m t h e w in do w ( or s uit a b le la m p )

upo n t he ob j ec t a n d t hro ugh t he e y e piece , in t o t h e ey e The diaphr a gm .

is a n a rr a n ge m e n t for e n lar gin g or dim inishing t he a m o un t of light c om in g

t hr ough t h e s t a ge , b y m a in g t he k o pe n in g la r ger or s m aller .

V S o m e m icr osc o pe s h a v e
. a j o in t in t he pillar j us t b elo w t h e s t a ge , pe r mit
t in g t he uppe r part of t he st and to b e t il t ed i n t o a m or e c o nve n ie nt pos it io n .
 D I RE C T I O N S USI N G M IC R O SC O P E 23
'

F OR A

Ther e ar e us ua lly o n e or t wo c lip s fa s t en e d o n t he upper f

s ur ac e O f t he s t a ge .

The s e ar e s lippe d o v er t he e dge s O f t he s lide t o h o ld it s t a t io n a r y .

P r ofe s s o r R H v
C h a m b e r s h a s de is e d a m ic r o s c o pe un d e r wh ic h h e c a n dis s e c t o ut po r t io n s
fl
. .

j
o f a c e ll o r in e c t uids in t o t h e difi e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c e ll Th e dr a w in gs ( uppe r r igh t ) s h o w
.

h o w h e t e a r s t h e c e ll s a pa r t Th e ot h e r ill us t r a t ion is a ph ot om ic r o gra ph s h o win g a ph a s e in

.

th e a ct ua l o pe r a t io n .

D ir e ctio n s for c a r in g for a micr os cope I n lif t i n g o r c a r r yi n g .

t he m i cr o s co p e gr a s p it fi r m ly by t h e S p ec i a l h a n dl e a b o v e t he
,

s t a ge a n d c a r r y it in a h o r iz o n t a l p o s i t i o n
,
'
Th e n t he r e m o v a bl e .

p a r t s ca n n o t fa ll a n d b r e a k .

All o w n o thi n g t o t o u c h a n y Of t he o pti ca l p a r t s e x c e pt e s p e

c ia lly p r e p a r e d l e n s p a p e r o r a c l ea n li n e n h a n dk e r c hi e f o t h er ,

wi s e t he gr o u n d s ur fa c e s will b e s cr a t c h e d .

B e fo r e put t i n g t he m i cr o s co p e a w a y tu r n t he n o s e pi e c e s o t h a t ,

t he o bj e ctiv e s a r e n o t in a li n e wi t h t h e t ub e Th ey a r e t h e n .

p r o t ec te d by t he s t a ge a n d t he m i cr os c o p e is n o t a pt t o b e
,

d a m a ge d in pl a c i n g it in t he c a s e .

T u r n t he clip s in s o th e y will n o t b e b ro k e n .

Alw a y s fo ll o w t he r ul e s giv e n b e l o w fo r fo c u s i n g , .
24 THE M IC RO SC O P E
R ul e s fo r F oc us in g

1 . R e v o lve t he n os ep ece i un t il t he S ho r t e r O b e c t j ive 13 in di r e c t

a

li n e wi t h t he t ub e . A c li c k w il l b e h e a r d w he n t h i s IS a c c o m p l is he d .

2 . P l a ce y o ur p p
r e a r e d s lid e on t he s t a ge S O t h a t t he s pe c i men is in
t he ce nt e r Of t he o pe n n g o f i t he s t a ge .

3 T ur n t h e m i r r o r t o w a r d t he n e a r e s t s o ur c e
. O f li gh t . M a n i pul a t e
it u n t il a b r i gh t a r e a a ppe a r s o n t h e s lid e .

4 .Whil e l o o k in g a t t he m i c r o s c o pe fr o m o n e s id e t ur n t he c o a rs e ,

s c re w s c l o c k w i s e un t il t he lo w p o w e r O b j e c t iv e is o n e e i gh t h o f a n in c h
-

fr o m t he S lid e .

5 T h e n l o o k t h r o ugh t h e e ye p i e c e a n d t ur n t h e c o a r s e a d j us t m e n t
.

s c r e w s t o w a r d y o u ( c o un t e r c l o c k w is e ) un t il t h e s p e c i m e n is c l e a r ly

s e en I f y ou w i s h t o s e e m o r e o f t h e s pe c i m e n t h a n I S S h o w n I n t he
.

fi e ld O f vi s i o n t a k e h o ld Of t he S lide w i t h y o ur t h um b s a n d S l o wly
m o ve it in diffe r e n t di re c t i o n s
,

6 Tu r n {
. On y o ur h i gh p o we r O b j e c t ive Lis t e n for a c li c k
-
. .

7 Us e y o ur fin e a dj us t m e n t s c r e w s T ur n t h e m c a r e f ull y ( c l o ck .

w i s e ) un t il fife O b j e c t 1 3 cl e a r l y s e e n Th e fin e s c r e w s s h o uld b e us e d .

c o n s t a n t ly I n f o c us i n g w i t h h i gh p o w e r in o r d e r t o s e e a ll t h a t c a n b e

s een .

P r ob le m . H ow do es an o bj ect a pp e a r whe n s e en t hr o ugh t he m ic r o

s cop e

M a t e r ial C o m po un d m ic r o sc o pe , s lide , c o v er s lip, piec e Of pr in t ed pa per

w it h v e r y s m a ll t ype .

M e t ho d : P la c e a dr o p O f w at er
’
on t he s lide . P la c e a s m a ll p1e c e Of

pr in t e d p a per in t h e w a t er an d co v er w it h a co v e r s lip . The pie ce of p per

a

is now m o un t e d .

L a y t h e pr e pa re d s lide o n t he s t a ge , w it h t h e o b j ec t a s n e a r a s po s s ib le t o t h e
c e n t e r o f t h e h o le in t he s t a ge F ollo w y o ur r ule s for fo c us in g un de r low po we r ,
.

t h e n un de r h igh p o w er .

I L o o k t hr o ugh t h e m ic r o sc o pe a t t h e pr in t e d le t t e r
. .

II D e s cr ib e t he t ext ur e o f t he pa per a s r e v e a le d
. .

I I I D r a w t he s in gle le t t e r pr e fer a b ly t he le t t e r
. i e xac t ly
, ,
as it a ppe a r s

un de r t h e lo w p o w er No t e a n y a ppar e n t c h a n ge in po s it io n
. .

IV . B y means o fm e a s ur e y o ur dr a win g ; t h e n m e a s ur e t h e le t t er
a r ule r

un m a gn ifie d . H o w m any t im e s does t he lo w po wer a ppe ar t o m a gn ify ?

 V Tur n t h e high po wer Aga in dr a w t he le t t er , m uc h
'

. on . or as as you
c a n s ee o f it , as la r ge as it a p pe ar s . M e a s ure y o ur dr a win g wit h y o ur r uler

a n d s ee ho w m a n y t im e s t h e high po we r a ppe ar s t o m a gnify t he le t t e r .

VI . Ha v e y o ur t e a c h e r t e ll y o u h o w m uc h t he m ic r o s c o pe r e a lly e n la r ge s

t he o b j e c t w it h lo w h igh po we r
a nd . Ca uti o n . Alwa ys fin d y o ur j
ob ec t wit h
t he lo w- po wer v
o b j ec t i e , t he n t ur n on

t he high po wer I f y o u lo s e y o ur hig

. h
po w e r foc us , k
go b ac t o lo w po w e r a n d
r efoc us .

P r ob l e m . H o w do i
o n o n ce lls ap

p ea r when vi ewe d t hr o ugh t he m i cr o

’
s cop e 2
C ut a n o n io n in t o h a l v es or qu art er s .

Pee l o ff o ne Of t he s c a le li k e le a v es .

B y m ea ns of a p a ir o f fo r c e p s or k if n e

s t r ip t h e t h in t is s ue fr o m t h e in s ide Of

t he s c a le . M o un t a p ar t of it on a

gla s s S lide in a dr o p Of wat er an d co v er

wit h a co v er gla s s . Be s ur e to fl at t en

y o ur S pec im e n b efor e co v e r in g it . View

t he m a t er ia l un der t he m icr o s c o pe .

Th e n rem o v e co v er gla s s , an d s t a in

t he m a t e r ia l b y a ddin g a s m a ll dr o p o f
dilut e io din e s o lut io n . Aga in co v er . Ob
s er v e wit h lo w p o wer , t he n high po we r .

I . The lit t le di is io n s t h a t m a v k e up
t he o n io n m em b r a n e a r e c a lle d cells .

A . T he b o un da r y O f e ac h c e ll is
t he ce ll wa ll .

Th e c e lls o f t h e o n i o n t i s s ue o ft e n s h o w
B . D e sc r b e i t he C O I OI
’
a n d s h a pe t h e h e a vy , w o o dy wa ll s a n d t h e la r ge v a c uo l e s
t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m o s t pla n t c e ll s
of t he s e c e lls
.
.

II . Ob s e r v e t he p o s it io n of t he gr a n ular a n d c le a r a re a s . The gr a n ula r

ar e a s ma k e up t he v
li in g par t of t he c e ll a n d a r e c o m po s e d o f a m a t e r ia l c a lle d
cytop la s m . Th e c le a r a r e a s ar e t h e va c uoles o r fl uid fill -
e d s pa c e s in t h e c y t o pla s m .

III . Fin d a s m a ll de n s e ar e a s o m e wher e in t he c y t o pla s m This is t he n uc leus . .

A E a c h n uc le us h a s t wo dis k lik e s t r uc t ur e s c a lle d n ucleoli

. Tr y t o .

ide n t ify a n uc le o lus in a n uc le us .

WH . FI T Z . AD . B IO . 3
26 TH E M I C R OS C OP E

IV . M ak e t he following dr awin gs in y o ur r ese ar c h n o t e b oo k

A . A c are ful dia gr a m of a gr o up o f c e lls fiv e t im e s as l a rge as t he y
a pp e a r un de r lo w p o w er .

B A gro up of c ells t wic e a s large a s t h ey a ppe ar un der high

.

po w e r . v
L ab e l c e ll wa ll, c yt o pla s m , a c uole , n uc le us, n uc leolus Un der .

, fi
t h e dr a win g in s m a ll gur e s s t a t e h o w m a n y t im e s e n la r ge d y o ur dr a w
,

in g h a s b ee n m a de ; fo r e xa m ple , X 4; X 5; X 2 .

Q U E S T IO N S
1 . Wha t is t h e diffe r e n c e b e t we e n a S i m pl e a n d a co m p oun d m i cr o
s c ope ?
2 . C l as s ify t he p a r t s O f a m i c r o s co pe i n t o t hr e e divi s i o n s .

3 . N a m e t w o e ffe c t s a m i c r o s c o pe h a s o n O bj e c t s .

4 . E xpl a i n h o w t o f o c us w i t h t h e lo w p o w e r ; w i t h hi gh po w e r .

5 . Why c a n w e fo c us o n l y t hi n m a t e r i a l wi t h o ur c o m po un d
m i c r o s c o pe s
6 H o w do y o u m o un t
. a s pe c im en , fo r st udy un de r t he co m p o un d
m i c r os c o pe

S U PPL E M E N T A R Y R E A D I N G
Lo cy W ,
.A , B io logy a nd I ts M a kers ( H e nr y H o lt
.

Lo c y W ,
.A , The Gr owth of B io lo gy ( H e nr y H o lt
.

Tr ae ger , Alfr e d, The M ic ros cope (E Le it z I n c , 60 . . E a st l 0th St .

, N .
 C H APTE R I V

TH E H I S TOR Y
OF C E LL S

R ob e rt H oo k ’
a s m ic r o s co pe . W ha t he s aw a nd dr e w .

Wha t he s a id

k k k
I t o o a go o d c le a r pie c e o f C o r , a n d wi t h a P e n - n ife s h a r pe n e d a s e e n a s a k
a zo r , I R
c ut a pie c e o f it o ff, a n d t h e r e b y l e ft t h e s ur fa c e o f it e xc e e din gly s m o o t h , t h e n e xa mi n in g it
v e r y dilige n t ly wit h a M ic r o s c o pe , m e t h o ugh t I
”
v
co ul d pe r c e i e it t o a ppe a r a li t t le po r ous ,

m uc h lik e a H o n e y c o m b
- .

H ow were livi n g thin gs fi rs t in ves tiga ted? Wha t wer e s om e o f t he

Wha t
'

l t hes e di es ? s ci en t s ts
i con tr i buted
res u ts f o s tu to t his wo rk ?

The p a ge s of hi s t or y r e v e a l h ow a n d by wh o m t h e t e r m s u s e d in
d e s c r ibi n g t he c e ll h a v e b e e n giv e n t o t he s c i e n c e o f bi o l o gy I t .

wa s c o m p a ra tiv e ly ea s y fo r us t o fin d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n o n i o n c e ll
u n d e r t he c o m p o u n d m i cr o sc op e b ut it h a s t a k e n s c i e n ti s t s t h r e e
,

c e n t u r i e s t o p e r f e c t t h e m i c r o s c o p e a n d fin d o ut a s m u c h a b o ut

c e ll s a s is k n o w n t o da y -
.

Th e c e ll a s fir s t de s c rib e d With v e r y cr ud e l en s e s a r ra n ge d
.
,

s o m e t hi n g lik e th o s e in o ur c o m p o u n d m i c r o s c o p e R o b e r t H o o k e ,

( 1 63 5 a n E n gli s h m a n e x a m i n e d a t hi,
n s e c t i o n o f c o r k H e .

s a w li t t l e b o xlik e s t r u c t u r e s whi c h he c a ll e d c e ll s He d r ew .

di a gr a m s a n d publi s h e d t he r e s ult s Of his i n v e s t i ga t i o n s H e s a w .

o n ly t h e c e ll w a ll a f t e r t he livi n g m a t t e r ha d di sa pp e a r e d but t h e ,

te rm cell fi r s t u se d by him ha s b e e n r e t a i n e d
, , .

Th e n u cl e us .
—
R o b e r t B r ow n ( 1 7 7 3 1 8 5 8 ) wa s a S c o t c h m a n .

He s tudi e d m e di c i n e a n d b e c a m e a s ur ge o n s m a t e of a B r i t i s h
’

r e gi m e n t in I r e l a n d D u r i n g h is e a rly y e a r s a n d whil e c o n n e c t e d
.
,

with t h e a r m y he c o ll e c te d a n d s tudi e d pl a n t s a n d b e c a m e kn ow n
,

a s a n a tu r a li s t I n s tudyi n g o r c hid s he di s c o v e r e d a s t r u c tu r e in
.
,

27
28 TH E H I S TOR Y OF C E LL S

t he ll s whi c h he ca ll e d t he n u c l e u s ; a n d l a t e r he f o u n d a lik e
ce

s t r u c tu re in t h e c e ll s o f m a n y o t h e r pl a n t s H e w r o t e t h e f o ll owi n g .

a c c o u n t o f h is di s c o v e r y : I n e a c h c e ll o f a gr e a t p a rt o f t h e
'

o r c hid f a m ily a S i n gl e c i r c ul a r a r e a
, ge n e r a lly s o m e w h a t m o r e ,

o p a qu e th a n t he m e m b r a n e o f t h e c e ll is o b s e r v a bl e Th e , .

n u c l e u s o f t h e c e ll is e qu a lly m a n if e s t in m a n y o t h e r fa m
ilie s .

—
Th e o d or e S c hw a n n ( 1 8 1 0 1 88 2 ) f o u n d a s a r e s ul t o f c a r e ful ,

w o rk th a t a ll t he a n i m a l s b e i n v e s t i ga t e d We r e m a d e o f c e ll s
,
.

At t h e s a m e t i m e a f r i e n d o f his M a t t hi a s S c hl e id e n di s c o v e r e d
, ,

th a t a ll o f t he pl a n t s he O b s e rv e d w e r e m a d e Of c e ll s I n t he .

c e ll s t h e y s tudi e d th e y b o t h n o t e d t h e n uc l e u s th a t B r o w n h a d
,

fi r s t di s c o v e r e d Th e y th en m a d e t he s upp o s i t i o n t h a t a ll livi n g
.

t hi n gs a r e m a d e Of c e ll s T hi s b e c a m e k n o wn a s t h e c ell t heo ry
.
,

a n d t hi s t h e o r y h a vi n g S i n c e b ee n c h e c ke d a n d r e c h e c ke d by
,

m a n y s c i e n t i s t s a n d m o re fa c t s a dd e d is n ow a c c e p t e d a s a f a c t
, , .

P r otopla s m w a s di s c o v e r e d by a F r e n c h n a tu r a li s t F e lix D uj a r ,

din in 1 8 3 5 a n d n a m e d by P u r ki n j e in 1 84 0
, ,
But t h e s c i e n t i s t .

wh o m a d e t h e n a m e p rotopla s m b e s t k n o w n wa s H u go v o n M o hl

( 1 8 0 5 H e w a s b o r n in S t utt g a r t G e r m a n y H e w a s , .

du a t e d in m e di c i n e f r o m M u n i c h b e c a m e a p r o f e s s o r o f phy s
g r a ,

io lo gy a t B e r n e a n d l a t e r a p r o f e s s o r O f b o t a n y a t T ubi n ge n
,
He .

O b se r v e d a n d a n a lyz e d t h e c e ll c o n t e n t s a n d d e s cr ib e d t h e m o v e

m e n t in t h e c e ll o f c er t a i n s m a ll b o di e s w hi c h l a t e r w er e t e r m e d
c hloropla s ts Th e s e w e re l a t e r S h ow n t o b e t h e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t
.

c o n t a i n gr e e n c o l o r i n g m a tt e r H e b r o u ght i n t o ge n e r a l us e t he
.

t er m protopla s m a n d t he fa c t th a t it is a livi n g s t re a m i n g gr ow , ,

in g dividi n g s ub s t a n c e
,
.

P r ob le m . H ow do the ce lls f
o E lo dea a pp e a r when viewe d t hro ugh t he

mic r os cop e ?
E xa m in e t he a pp e ar a n c e of a i
s ng e l le a f o f t he E lo de a . M o un t it in
w at e r h e a t b y h o ldin g in t h e p a lm
and o f t h e h a n d fo r a fe w m in ut e s . The
v
he a t in g will a c t i a t e t h e pr o t o pla s m . F o c us wit h lo w, t he n h igh po w e r .
 0 TH E H I S TOR Y OF C E LLS

ul t o f t he s tudi e s Of a r es

t h e sc i e n t i s t s p re vi o u s ly
n a m e d t h e c e ll t h e o r y wa s ,

fur t h e r d e v e l o p e d I t wa s .

cellwa ll n o w s t a t e d t h a t a ll pl a n t s

a n d a n i m a l s a re m a d e O f

ce ll s and c e ll p r o du c t s .

Th e c e ll is t h e s t r u c tu r a l
a n d phy s i o l o gi c a l u n it O f

t h e o r ga n i s m Th e livi n g .

o r ga n i s m c a n p e r f o r m c e r

t a i n fu n c t i o n s b e c a u se it s

LcoI e/ c e ll s a r e a d a pt e d t o p er

form t he se fun ct ion s .

Ot h e r s c i e n t i s t s u s i n g thi s ,

th e or y a s t h e ir b a s i s h a v e ,

b e en a bl e t o S h ow t he im
C mp
o thare ll f El d
e ce h w i t h di g m wi th p or t a n ce Of t h e c e ll in t h e
s o o ea s o n n e a ra

th y u t udi d u d
os e o s th m i
e n per e c r o s co e.
d e v e l o p m e n t o f o r ga n i s m s
a n d s o m e t hi n g o f it s i m p o r t a n c e in h er e dity M a n y s c i en t i s t s .

a re s t ill i n v e s t i ga ti n g t h e s t r u c tu r e a n d fu n c ti o n s o f c e ll s a n d

o t h e r s a r e s t udyi n g t h e ce ll in it s r e l a ti o n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t h e o r ga n i s m Thi s w o r k in S pit e o f t h e f a c t th a t th r e e c e n tu r i e s
.
,

h a v e p a s s e d is s t ill in a d e v e l o p m en t a l s t a ge
, .

C e llula r n a tur e Of pla n t s Th e c e ll s o f gr e e n pl a n t s a r e n o t a ll

.

a lik e in S iz e a n d S h a p e A n a r c i s s u s l e a f is m a d e o f m a n y l a y er s
.

o f c e ll s w hi c h v a r y in S h a p e .

P r ob l e m . S tudy o f t he ep i der m is o f t he n a r ci s s us leaf .

I . P e e l Off a s m a ll s t r ip o f t he t hin lo we r s ur fa c e (e pider m is ) Of a n a rc is s us

le a f . M o un t it fo r s t udy , a n d foc us it un de r t h e m ic r o s c o pe .

A .
D e sc r ib e t w o diffe r e n t k in ds Of c ells t h a t a r e s e e n .

B . N ot e t h e s m a ll o v a l o pe n in g b e t wee n p a ir e d c ells . S ugge s t a use

for t h e s e o pe nin gs ; for t h e c e lls t h a t form t h em .

 C E LLU LAR N AT U R E OF P LAN TS 1

II . D ra w a fe w o f t he c e ll s ,
m a in g k s ur e t o in c lude in y o ur dia gr a m , at

le a s t t wo diffe r e n t ly s h a pe d ones .

H i gh e r pl a n t s a r e c o m p o s e d O f m a n y ce ll s b ut c e r t a i n pl ant s ,

a r e v e r y S i m pl e in s t r u c t u r e A gr ee n c o a t i n g is f re qu e n t ly f o u n d
.

o n t h e n or th s id e o f m a n y buildi n gs a n d o f m o s t t r e e s T hi s is .

c a u s e d by t h e p re s e n c e o f th o u s a n d s o f t i n y o n e c e ll e d g r ee n -
,

pl a n t s c a ll e d P leurococc us .

P r o b le m . S tudy of P leuro co ccus .

I . f t h e gr e e n m a t er ia l o n t o a S lide m o un t in wa t e r , a n d
S c r a pe som e o ,

s t udy wit h lo w a n d high m a gn i c a t io n fi

D e s cr ib e t he s h a pe c o lor , a n d s t r uc .
,

t ur e Of t he c e lls .

II . Draw a S in gle c e ll a n d a gr o up o f c e lls . L a b e l c e ll w a ll , t he v e ry la r ge

c hlor o pla s t whi c h a lm o s t fills t he c e ll, a n d t he n uc le us

III . Wr it e a des c r ipt io n Of wh a t y o u h a v e s ee n a n d t e ll h o w Ple ur oc o c c us

differ s fr o m E lo de a a n d n a r c is s us c e lls .

A typ i c a l ll t h a t is e a s y t o s t udy is S pi r o gyr a

gr e en c e . As it
fl o a t s o n t he s u r fa c e o f p o n d s it l o o k s lik e a t a n gl e d , mat o f
g r e e n t h r e a d s o r h a i rs A .

c o m m o n n a m e fo r it is p o n d
“ ’
s c um or fr o g s S pi t t l e .

Thi s l a t t e r n a m e is giv e n t o
it b e ca u s e it is s li m y in t ex
t u r e a n d is f o u n d in t h e s a m e
ha bit a t wi t h fr o gs M a n y .

p e o pl e a t o n e t i m e th o u gh t
th a t t he fr o gs s pi t it o ut .

P ro b le m . S tudy o f t he cells

of S pi r ogyra .

B y m ean s of for c eps and a pa ir

A ph o t o m icr o gr a ph of t h e l o w e r s urfa c e of a l e af .

o f s c is s o r s de t a c h a fe w s t r a n ds of
S pir o gyr a . M o un t t he m on a s lide an d co v er w it h a co v er s lip . Fo c us
t he s pec im e n un der t he lo w powe r .
 32 TH E H I S TOR Y O F C E LLS

I . D e sc rib e t he c e llula r s t r uc t ur e o f a S in gle s t r a n d o f S piro gyr a . Whe n

e v er un ic e llula r pla n t s e xi s t s in gly , e n d to e n d, t he for m a t io n is c a lle d a fila m en t .

In re a l it y , e a c h c e ll is a c o m ple t e un it a n d
in no w a y de pe n de n t on t he j
a d o in in g c e lls .

II . D es c r ib e a s t r uc t ur e in t he c e ll t ha t
s ugge s t s t he reason fo r t h e n am e S pir o gy r a .

The name S piro gy r a m e a n s c o ilin g i l

'

c rc e s

(spi ra c o il ; r
gy os c ir c le ) . Wha t re

s em b la n c e is t h e r e b e t we e n a c h lo r o pla s t of

S pir o gyr a a n d a c hlo r o pla s t O b s er v ed in t h e

E lo de a ?
C h lo r o plas t III S t a t e t he n um b e r Of c o m ple t e c h lo
.
.

l
r op a s t s O b s er v ed in e ach c e ll O f y o ur
S pe c im e n .

A . S t a t e t he n um b e r of c o m ple t e

t ur n s fo un d in e a c h c hlo r o pla s t .

B . U s in g t he w o r ds w a vy irr e gula r , ,

or s t r a igh t , de s c r ib e t he e dge of t he
c hlo r o pla s t .

IV . I de n t ify t he c e ll w a ll an d t h e fila

m ent sh e a t h s . This s he a t h is ge la t in o us
an d gi v es t he s t r a n ds t he ir c h a r a c t e r is t ic

s lim y t e xt ur e .

V Draw
. a
’

c e ll fiv e t im e s la r ge r t h a n
t he o ne
.
Ob s e r v
lo w po w ered un de r t he .

S h o w in y o ur dr a win g h o w t he a dj o in in g
S pir o gyr a is a s in gl e -c e ll e d pl a n t .

c e lls lie in r e la t io n t o t h e o n e dr a w n L a b el
‘

T h e s e pla n t s gro w e n d t o e n d a n d
fi
.

t h us fo rm s t r a n ds c a ll e d l a m e n t s .

c e ll w a ll, fil a m e n t s h e a t h , c h lor o pla s t .

VI . S t a in a c e ll wit h dilut e io din e and foc us un der lo w po w e r a n d t he n

un der high po w e r . Lo c a t e and de s c r ib e t he n uc le us , n uc le o lus , a n d s t r a n ds

o f c y t o pla s m .

VI I . D e s c r ib e t h e lo c a t io n a n d s ugge s t t he n a t ur e o f t he c ont en t s o f t he
v ac uo le s le ft a m o ng t he stran ds o f c y t o pla s m . T he pa r t of t he c y t o pla s m

in c lo s in g t he v a c uo les is c a lle d t h e p la sm a me mbra n e .

VI I I . Lo c a t e t he s t r uc t ur es s t a in e d b lue . Th e s e are s pec ia liz e d cyt o

pla s m ic s t r uc t ur e s c a lle d
py r en o ids . Wh a t e vid enc e is pr ese n t t h a t t he pyr e
n o ids s t or e s t ar c h ?
 Q UE S T I ON S 33

IX D r aw a Co m plet e c ell o f S pir ogy r a a s

. Ob s e r v d un de r t he high-po wer
e

o b j e c t iv e L a b e l fi la m e n t S h e a t h c ell w a ll
.
, , s t r a n ds O f c y t o pla s m , pla s m a

m em b ra ne , v a c uo le , n uc le us , n uc le o lus , s pir a l c hlo r o pla s t , a n d pyr e n o id .

X . Wr it e a de s c r ipt io n o f S pir o gyr a , m e n t io n in g a ll t h e p ar t s t h a t y o u s a w .

Th e i m pl e s t pl a n t s h a v e n o r o o t s t e m
S , ,

nor l ea ves S u c h pl a n t s a r e c a ll e d Tha l

.

lop hyta ( tha llus — Shoo t ; h

p y to n
— pl a n t ) .

Th e gr e e n t h a ll o phy t e s a r e c a ll e d a lga e .

Th e i r c o l o r is due t o t h e p r e s e n c e O f c hl o r o
l t th t v r y in S iz e a n d S h a p e T h
p a s s a a e .

a l ga e th a t w e h a v e a l r e a dy s t udi e d a r e

Pl e u r o c o c c u s a n d S pi r o gyra Oth er t h a l P l u u e roc oc c s is fo un d a s s in gl e

pl o r in gr o ups
.

t an s .

lo phy t es l a c k c hl o r o pl a s t s a n d a r e u s u a lly
colorle ss Th e y a r e c a ll e d fun gi
. Ye a s t s a nd m o ld s . a r e c o mm o n

e x a m pl es O f fu n gi .

Q U E S TI O NS
‘

1 O ut li n e in t a b ul a r f o r m , t h e n a m e s o f t he s c i e n t i s t s , t he i r n a t i o n
.

a lit ie s , c e n t ur y in wh i c h t h e y w o r e d , a n d t h e i r c o n t r i b ut i o n s t o t h e k
ce ll t he o r y .

2 . m a n y l a b e l e d c e ll s a s a r e n e c es s a r y t o S h o w c e ll w a ll ,
D ra w as

n u c l e us , c y t o pl a s m , v a c uo l e , py r e n o id , a n d c h l o r o pl a s t .

3 C o m p a r e Sp i r o gyr a w i t h a n o t h e r a l ga t h a t y o u h a ve s t udi e d
. .

4 Wh a t m a e s S pir o gyr a s li m y ?
. k
5 Wh a t is a r e a s o n fo r t h e n a m e t h a ll o phy t e s ?
.

S U PP L E M E N TA RY R E A D I N G

Ga ger C S Gen er a l B o ta n y (P B la kis t o n s S o n c h a p 11

’
. . . . .
, ,

H a up t A W , F un da men ta ls of B iology ( M c Gr a w -H ill B o o

,
. . CO ,
k .

c h a p iv . .

H o lm a n , L A a n d Ro b in s W W Textbook of Genera l B ota ny ( o h n Wile y 85

. .
, ,
. .
,
J
S on s ) .

H o lm e s , S J Genera l B iology (H ar c o ur t , B r a c e
. . c h a p iii
,
. .
 C H AP TE R V

F UN CTI ON S OF
A G RE E N C E LL

fo o d fa c t o r y S om e
’
N a t ur e s . of t h e pr o duc t s .

Wha t does a gr een ce ll us e for food? Where does it get t his food ?
Wha t a re t he p hys iologic a l i
a c t vi ti es o f c ells co n ta in i n g c hlo r o h ll ?
p y

In ord e r t o liv e a gr e e n ce ll m u s t c a rr y o n c er t a i n fu n c t i o n s B e
, .

c a u s e t h es e fu n c t i o n s a r e c a rr i e d o n wi t hi n t h e o r ga n i s m t h e y a r e

c a ll e d phy s i o l o gi c a l fu n c ti o n s Th e s e fu n c t i o n s m a y b e c l a s s ifi e d
.

a s n utr itive , a da ptive a n d rep r o duc tive

,
Th e n u t r i t iv e p r o ce s s e s
.

c a n b e fu r t h e r s ubdivid e d i n t o a b s o r p t i o n f o o d m a n uf a c t u r e f o o d
, ,

s t o ra ge di ge s t i o n a s s i m il a t i o n s e c r e t i o n gr o w t h r e s pi r a t i o n a n d
, , , , , ,

e x cr e t i o n Th e s e h a v e t o do wi t h t h e O b t a i n i n g a n d t he u s i n g Of
.

fo o d The a d a ptiv e p r o c e s s e s h a v e t o do wi t h t he w a y t he o r ga n i s m
.

m a i n t a i n s it s e lf a n d b e h a v e s in it s e n vir o n m e n t The r epr o duc .

t iv e p r o c e s s e s h a v e t o do wi t h t h e p r o du c i n g o f n e w i n dividu a l s .

Ab s orpt ion Th e S pi ro gy r a t a k e s in c a r b o n di o xid e w a t e r a n d

.
, ,

m i n er a l m a t t er fo r t h e m a n uf a c t u r e o f f o o d Th e s e r a w m a t e r i a l s
.

a r e in t h e f o r m O f ga s e s a n d s o lu t i o n s a n d e n t e r t h r o u gh t he c e ll

m em br a n e T h e y r e m a i n in t he v a c u o l e s u n t il t h e y a r e n e e d e d
. .

Oxy ge n a l s o is t a k e n in du r i n g t h e b r e a t hi n g p r o c e s s
, ,
Th e .

p r o ces s by which m a t er i a l p a s s e s th r o u gh a c e ll m e m b r a n e is c a ll e d
os mos is o r a b so r pti o n M a n y th eo r i e s a r e a dv a n ce d t o e xpl a i n
.

t hi s a c tivi t y ; but p r o b a bly n o o n e t h e o r y h o ld s u n d e r a ll c o n di

-

t io n s . Ac c o r di ng t o o n e e xpl a n a ti o n t h e r e a r e m i n ute o p e n i n gs in
t he m e m b r a n e t h r o u gh whi c h t h e liquid o r ga s p a s s e s .

34
 AB S OR P T I O N 35

Ac c o r di n g t o t he mo lecula r t heor y, al
lid l m a t t er , wh et h e r so ,

liquid o r ga s c o n s i s t s o f m o l e c ul e s in c o n s t a n t m o t i o n The m o l e
, ,
.

c ul es Of s o lid s a r e c l o s e t o ge t h er a n d t h e re is v e r y lit t l e s p ace for

t h e m t o m o ve Th e r e is m o r e s p a c e b e t w e en t h e m o l e c ul es o f
.

liquid s a n d s t ill m o r e b e t w e e n t h o s e o f ga s e s C o n s e qu e n t ly
,
.
,

m o l e c ul e s O f liquid s m o v e m o re f r ee ly t h a n t h o s e O f s o lid s a n d ,

m o l e c ul e s O f ga s e s m o v e e v e n m o r e fr e e ly t h a n t h o s e O f liquid s .

As t he m o l e c ul e s in ga s e s o r s o lu t i o n s k e e p b o u n di n g up
a n d d o w n k n o c ki n g a ga i n s t e a c h o t h e r a n d a ga i n s t t h e c e ll m e m
,

b r a n e s o m e o f t h e m m o v e t hr o u gh t he s m a ll o p e n i n gs I f t h e
,
.

m o l e c ul es a r e v e r y a c t iv e a s in ga s e s o r c e r t a i n liquid s t h e s e
, ,

m o l e c ul e s c a n p a s s r e a dily t h r o u gh t he m e m b r a n e Th e m o l e .

c ul e s O f d e n se r liquid s m o v e m o r e s l o wly a n d t h e r e f o r e will t a k e a

l o n ger t i m e t o go t h r o u gh t he m e m b r a n e I n ge n e r a l t he r a t e O f .
,

o s m o s i s O f a s ub s t a n c e d e p e n d s up o n t h e n u m b er O f it s m o l e c ul e s .

D u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f o s m o s i s t h e m o l e c ul e s O f a n y s ub s t a n c e
p a s s t h ro ugh a p e rm e a bl e m e m b ra n e m o re r a pidly f r o m t he a r e a
o f gr ea ter c on cen tr a tion t o a n a r e a o f les s er c on c en tra tion Os m o s i s .

n e ver s top s a l t h o u gh wh e n t h e r e is a b a l a n c e o f m a t e r i a l s o n
,

e i t h er s id e o f t h e m e m b r a n e t h e r e m a y b e so e v e n a n e x c h a n ge
,

O f m o l e c ul e s t h a t o s m o s i s is n o t O bvi o u s Wh e n t he m e m b r a n e .

is a livi n g o n e a s in t h e c e ll m e m b r a n e t h e c y t o pl a s m e x e r c i s e s
, ,

a d e fi n i te s e l e c t iv e a c t i o n t a ki n g in a n d k e e pi n g in t h e m a t e r i a l s
,

n ee de d by t h e c e ll a n d e li m i n a t i n g t h o s e n o t n e e d e d .

D e m on s tr a t i o n . T0 illus tra te t he m o vem en t of m olecules .

M ak e a v ery dilut e s o lut io n of po w de r e d c a r m in e o r I n dia ink in w a t e r .

Pla c e a dr o p un der t h e c o m po un d m ic r o s c o pe a n d Ob s e r v e un de r b o t h lo w and

high m a gnific a t io n .

D e s c r ib e t he v
b eh a ior o f t he p a r t ic le s O b se r v ed in t his e xpe ri m e n t .

Ac c or din g t o t h e m o le c ula r t he or y , m o lec ule s a r e a lw a y s in a s t a t e Of m o t io n

s o m e wh a t S im ilar t o t hat of t h e pa r t ic le s Ob s e r v ed b y you .

Ro b e r t B r o w n w h o w a s t h e fi r s t p e r s o n t o O b s e r v e t he n u c l e u s
,

in pl a n t c e ll s fi r s t d e s cr ib e d t h e m o v e m e n t t h a t y o u h a v e ju s t
,
36 FUN C T I ON S OF A G R EE N C E LL

O b ser v e d Thi s is c a ll e d t he B rown ia n motion M o d e r n phy s i c s

. .

t ea c h es th a t m o l e c ul e s m o v e n o t o n ly in s o lu t i o n a n d du r i n g
o s m o s i s but t h a t t h e m o l e c ul e s O f a ll m a t t e r a r e c o n s t a n t ly b o m
,

b a r di n g e a c h o t h e r The d es k o n whi c h y o u w r i t e is c o m p o s e d
.

O f t i n y p a r t i c l e s n o t i n s e p a r a bly c o h e r i n g a n d s t i c ki n g t o e a c h

o th e r , but in a S li ght c o n s t a n t s t a t e O f a c t ivi t y S i m il a r t o t h a t

,

whi ch y o u O b s e r v e d in t h e p a r t i c l e s u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o p e .

F oo d m an ufa ctur e
,
A gr e e n c e ll is o n e c o n t a i n i n g c e r t a i n o r ga n
.

iz e d a n d s p e c i a liz e d c y t o pl a s m c a ll e d c hl o r o pl a s t s
, Th e r e is .

f o u n d in t h e s e c hl o r o pl a s t s a c o m pl e x gre e n m a t e r i a l c hlorop hyll

, , ,

whi c h is n e c e s s a r y fo r t he m a n uf a c t u r e O f fo o d Th e gr e e n c e ll is .

i nd e p e n d e n t b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t r e ly o n o t h e r o r ga n i s m s fo r it s
f o o d it m a n uf a c t u re s it s o w n All c e ll s wh e t h e r gr e e n o r n o t n ee d
.
, ,

c a r bo hydr a tes ( s u ga r a n d s t a r c h e s ) f a t a n d p r o tei

, n Th,
e c e ll s .

m a n uf a c tu r i n g f o o d s a lw a y s a b s o r b t wo c o m p o u n d s a ga s c a r b o n ,

di o xid e ( C0 2 ) a n d w a t er (H gO) Th e s e r a w m a t er i a l s ge t t h r o ugh

,
.

Th e r e is a c o n t in uous in co m e a n d o ut go o f ga s e s dur in g r e s pir a t io n a n d ph o t o s y n t h e s is .

t he ce ll w a ll a n d pl a s m a m e m b r a n e by t he p r o c e s s O f o s m o s i s .

Th e n t he c hl o r o pl a s t s by a n u m b e r Of c o m pli c a t e d p r o ce s s e s wi t h ,

t he a id O f s u n li gh t c h e m i c a lly t e a r a p a r t t he e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e
,

com po und s w a t er a n d c a r b o n di o xid e a n d r e c o m bi n e t h e m i n t o

, ,

S i m pl e c a r b o hyd r a t e s S i n c e m o r e o xy ge n is co n t a i n e d in t h e r a w
.

m a t e r i a l s t h a n in t he s u ga r m a n uf a c tu r e d o xy ge n is giv e n O ff ,

du r i n g t he p r o ce s s I t is s upp o s e d by s o m e t h a t t he e l e m e n t s
.
38 FUN C T I O N S OF A G R E EN C E LL

s yn t hes is pl a n t a b s o r b s m i n er a l s in t he f o rm o f n i t r a t e s
t he , ,

s ulph a t e s a n d ph o s ph a t e s whi c h a r e di s s o lv e d in s o il w a t e r
, , Th e s e .

s ub s t a n c e s fur n i s h t h e pl a n t s wi t h n i t r o ge n s ulphu r a n d ph o s , ,

p h o r us whi c h a r e t h o u gh t t o c o m bi n e wi t h s o m e O f t h e s u ga r t o

f or m p r o t e i n a s ub s t a n c e c o n t a i n i n g c ar b o n hyd ro ge n o xy ge n
, , , ,

n i t ro ge n , s ulphu r ph o s ph o r u s a n d p er h a p s o t h er m i n e ra l s
, , .

Pr o t e i n in p ro t o pl a s m m a y b e r e p r ese n t e d by t h e s y m b o l s
— —
C H O N S P — — — M o s t p ro t e i n is u s e d fo r gr o w t h (p r o t o pl a s m
.

m a ki n g) r e p a i r a n d s t o r a ge
, , S o m e is d e c o m p o s e d a n d t he s u ga r
.

( o n e o f t h e p r o du c t s o f d e c o m p o s iti o n ) is bu r n e d a s fu e l whil e ,

t h e o t h e r p r o du c t s a r e t h r o w n o ut a s n itr o ge n o u s w a s te s o r s t o r e d
fo r fu r t h e r p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s -
.

D ige s tio n Wh e n t he fo o d s ub s t a n ces t h a t h a v e b e e n s t o r e d

.

in t h e c e ll s O f t he pl a n t a s f a t s s t a r c h e s a n d p r o t e i n s a r e t o b e u s e d
, , ,

t h e y m u s t fi r s t b e c h a n ge d t o a s o lubl e f o r m The p r oc e s s o f .

c h a n gi n g a n i n s o lubl e n ut r i e n t i n t o a s o lubl e f o r m t h a t ca n b e

u s e d by t he o r ga n i s m i s c a ll e d diges tion D i ge s t i o n is b r o u gh t .

a b o ut by t h e p r e s en c e a n d a c t i o n O f c h e m i c a l s ub s t a n c e s c a ll e d

di ge s t iv e en zymes Th e s e a c t a s c a t a ly t i c a ge n t s t h a t is th e y
.
, ,

b r i n g a b o u t a c h e m i c a l c h a n ge b ut a r e t h e m s e lv e s n o t a ffe c t e d
,

by n o r c h a n ge d du r i n g t h e p r o c e s s I n t h e c e ll wh er e di ge s t i o n
.

t a k e s pl a c e t h e r e is a n a m yla s e fo r t h e b r e a ki n g d o w n Of s t a r c h
, ,

a p r oteas e f o r t he di ge s t i o n O f p r o t e i n s a lip a s e fo r t h e di ge s t i o n
,

of fa t s ( T h m f m t f t h zy m d i ) A f t er
“

. e n a e s O o s O e e n e s e n n a s e .

b e i n g di ge s t e d t he liquid n u t r i e n t s m a y b e c a r r i e d by m e a n s o f
,

t h e s t r e a m i n g fl o wi n g m o t i o n O f t h e p r o t o pl a s m t o t h a t p a r t O f
,

t h e ce ll wh e r e th e y a r e t o b e u t iliz e d I f t h e r e is a n e x c e s s O f
.

f o o d n u t r i e n t s t h e y m a y a ga i n b e c o m bi n e d i n t o a n i n s o lubl e
,

f o r m a n d s t o r e d in t he ce ll s u n t il n e e d e d .

R e s pira tion E a c h livi n g pl a n t c e ll t a k e s in o xy ge n t h r o u gh t h e

.

c e ll m e m b r a n e a n d giv e s O ff c a r b o n di o xid e by m e a n s O f diffu s i o n .

Th e o xy ge n u n i t e s wi t h t he co m p o u n d s o f hyd r o ge n o xy ge n a n d , ,

c a r b o n a n d re l e a se s t h e e n e r gy in t he fo r m Of h e a t s t or e d in t h e m
, , .
 AS S I M I LAT I ON

Thi s u n i o n is typ e o f o xid a t i o n Th e e n er gy r e l e a s e d fro m

a .

f oo d w a s s t or ed up a t t he ti m e Of t he m a n ufa c t ur e Of fo o d ( ph o t o
syn t h e s i s a n d p r o t e i n f o r m a t i on in a p o t e n t i a l l a t e n t o r d o r ma n t
) -
,

fo r m Th e s un is t he s o u r c e Of t hi s e n er gy Wh e n o xid a ti o n o f
. .

fo o d o c c u r s t he p o t e n t i a l e n e r gy is c o n v er t e d a n d r e l e a se d a s
,

kin etic a n a c t iv e f or m O f e n e r gy
, I n pl a n t c e ll s t he ki n e t i c
.
,

e n e r gy t a k e s t h e f o r m o f w o r k e n e r y o r h e a t e n e r y r e s ul t i ng
g g ,

in t he m a i n t e n a n ce o f a n o r m a l t e m p er a tu r e AS a p a r t o f t hi s .

o xid a t i o n p r oce s s w a s t e s ca rbon dioxide a n d wa ter a r e f o r m e d

, , ,
.

r e le a s e a
.

en e r

C 0 + 11 0
2 2
g
Th e gr e e n pl a n t c e ll b uil ds up ca r b oh y k
A pr o t e in m a y b e b r o e n do wn dur in g o xi
dr a t e s wh i c h co n ta in b o un d- up e n e r gy T h is . da t io n a n d e n e r gy r e l e a s e d . Am o n g t h e
ma y la t e r b e s e t fr e e a s h e a t or wor e n e r gy k . r e s ul t in g wa s t e s a r e s o m e c o n ta in in g nit r o ge n
.

Th e s e t he ce
g ivll
e s O ff I f r e s pi r a
. t i o n t a k e s pl a ce a t t h e ti m e

t he pl a n t is a c tiv e ly m a ki n g s u ga r t h e c a r b o n di o xid e a n d s o m e
,

O f t h e w a t er r e s ulti n g fr o m o xid a t i o n m a y b e r e t a i n e d fo r fu r t h er

ph o t o s yn th e s i s N i t r o ge n o u s w a s t e s a r e p r o b a bly r e t a i n e d fo r
.

fur t h e r m a n uf a c tu r e O f p r o te i n The o xyge n r e l e a s e d du r in g

.

ph o t o s yn th e s i s m a y b e r e t a i n e d fo r o xid a t i o n a l t h o u gh it is u s u a lly
giv e n Off Thu s a b a l a n ce o f m a t e r i a l s m a y b e m a i n t a i n e d
. Res .

p ir a t io n t,h e n i n v o lv
, e s t h e t a ki n g in O f o xy g e n t h e o xid iz in g o f ,
v

c e r t a i n f o o d m a t er i a l s p r e s e n t a n d r e l e a s i n g e n e r gy a n d w a s t e
,

p ro du c t s The re s pi r a ti o n p r oce s s is t he m e a n s O f re l e a s i n g a ll o f
.

t he e n e r gy n e e d e d by t h e pl a n t .

As s im i la tio n Th e p r o t o pl a s m o f t he ce ll is built O f t he e l e m e n t s
—
.

— — —
C H O S N P a n d s o m et i m e s o t h er s
-

,
Af t e r p r o t e i n m a n ufa c
.

t ur e is a c co m pli s h e d t he life l e s s p r o t e i n to ge t h e r wi t h w a t er a n d
,
40 FUN C T I ON S OF A G R E EN C E LL

m i n e r a l m a t e r i a l s m a y ulti m a t ely b e t ra n s for m e d i n t o livi n g pl a n t

p ro t opl a s m S c i e n ti s t s h a v e n ot d e t e r m i n ed j u s t how t hi s t r a ns
.

A gr e e n c e ll m a e s k a n d a s s im ila t e s fo o d G r o wt h o c c ur s Wh e n no fur t h e r gr o wt h is p o s
v vd
.

s ib l e , t h e n uc l e us e l o n ga t e s , d i i de s , an d th e n t h e c e ll di i es . T h us tw o c e ll s a r e for m e d
.

fo r m a t i o n t a k e s pl a c e The n a m e giv e n t o t he c h a n ge o f a s o lubl e

.

p r o te i n i n t o livi n g p r o t o pl a s m is c a ll e d a s s imi la tion Tr u e gro w t h .

in a n i n dividu a l c e ll is due t o t h e i n c r e a s e in t h e s um t o t a l O f t h e
a m o u n t o f p r o t o pl a s m r e s ul t i n g f r o m a s s i m il a ti o n C e ll s m a y a l s o .

i n cr e a se in S iz e t e m p o ra r ily wh e n t h e c e ll v a c u o l e s b ec o m e fill e d
, ,

wi t h a n a bu n d a n c e Of w a t e r y s a p Th e e n ti r e pl a n t o r ga n i s m .

g r o w s by e n l a r ge m e n t o f t h e i n dividu a l c e ll s u n t il t h e y a t t a i n a ,

c er t a i n s iz e . Th e n t h e y divid e c a u s i n g a n i n c r e a s e in t h e t o t a l
,

n u m b e r o f c e ll s Thi s p r o c e s s O f c e ll divi s i o n will b e di s c u s s e d l a t e r

. .

E xc r e tio n An y p r o du c t giv e n Off th ro u gh t h e c e ll w a ll a s w a s t e

.

is c a ll e d a n excr etion I f a p r o du c t is built up a n d giv e n O ff fo r a

.

fur t h er us e in t he o r ga n i s m it is c a ll e d a s ec r etion Oft e n s o m e

, .
,

o xy ge n f or m e d du r i n g f oo d m a n uf a c t u r e is h e ld a n d u s e d fo r o xi

d a ti o n The w a s t e p r o du c t s fr o m o xid a ti o n O f s u ga r s a r e c a r b o n
.

di o xid e a n d w a t er Wh e n t h e s e w a s t e s a r e n o t r e t a i n e d by t h e
.

c e ll fo r f ur t h e r f oo d m a ki n g th e y a r e e x c r e t e d t h r o u gh t h e c e ll w a ll
,
.

I r r ita b ility Th e r e a re m a n y s ub s t a n c e s a n d f o r ce s c a ll e d
.
,

s timuli th a t a c t up o n a gr e e n pl a n t c e ll
, A c e ll is s p o k e n O f a s .

b e i n g s en s itive o r i r rita ble t o li gh t t e m p e r a tu r e t o u c h c h e m i c a l s

, , , ,

e l e c t r i c i t y a n d m a n y o t h er s t i m uli
, Th e r e a l c a u s e o f t he e ffe c t s
.

p r o duce d by th e s e s ti m uli is t o b e f o u n d in t he n a t u r e o f pr o
t o pla s m . I t is t h e p ro t o pl a s m th a t is i r r i t a bl e Res pon s e is t he .

n a m e giv e n t o t h e r ea c t i o n t h e o r ga n i s m m a k es t o t h e s t i m ulu s .

We h a v e s ee n t he e ffect o n t he p r o t opl a s m Of t he E l o d e a ce ll by
 C E LL D I VI S I O N 41

h o ldi n g it in a w a r m h a n d fo r a fe w s e c o n d s Oth er s ti m uli h a v e .

o t h e r e ff e c t s d e p en di n g up o n t h e s e n s itiv e n es s o f t h e p a r t i c ul a r c e ll .

C e ll divis io n A pl a n t c e ll h a s a c e r t a i n li m i t o f s iz e b ey o n d
.

whi c h it d o e s n o t gr ow Wh e n t hi s li m i t is r e a c h e d t he n u c l e u s
.
,

m a y e l o n gat e a n d divid e p r o du c i n g t w o n u c l e i , Th e r e is a w a ll .

f o r m e d a cr o s s t h e c ell dividi n g t h e p r o t o pl a s m i n t o t w o p a r t s ,

e a c h c o n t a i n i n g o n e o f t he d a u gh t e r n u c l e i .

Q U ES TI O N S
1 . Wh y m a y c hl o r o phyll b e c o n s id e r e d t he s o ur c e o f t he f o o d s upply
O f t he w o r ld ?

2 D i s c us s t he t ra n s f o r m a t i o n s o f e n e r gy in a gr e e n pl a n t
. .

3 I f gr e e n pl a n t s a r e e a t e n b y a n i m a l s wh a t a ddi t i o n a l t r a n s
.
,

fo r m a t i o n s O f e n e r gy m a y r e s ul t ?
4 . C o m p a r e t he o xid a t i o n o f fo o d in t he pl a n t c e ll w i t h t h e o xid a t i o n
Of c o a l in t h e s c h o o l f ur n a c e givi n g p o i n t s o f s i m il a r i t y a n d di ff e r e n c e
, .

5 C o m p a r e r e s p i r a t i o n in a gr e e n pl a n t c e ll w i t h ph o t o s y n t h e s i s
.
,

c o n s id er i n g m a t e r i a l s us e d pr o d uc t s f o r m e d ,pr o d u c t s e x c r e t e d a n, d ,

t he p ur p o s e o f t he f un c t i o n s .

6 Why m a y c a r b o n b e c o n s id e r e d t h e r e a l f ue l o f a gr e e n c e ll ? I n
.

wh a t f o r m did it e n t e r t h e c e ll ? I n w h a t f o r m did it ul t i m a t e l y
l e a ve t he c e l l ? N a m e a ll phy s i o l o gi c a l fun c t i o n s i n v o lve d in t he us e
Of c a r bo n .

7 Tr a ce t h e pr o b a b l e s o ur c e o f t h e c a r b o n in c o a l
. .

8 D i s c us s a b a l a n c e d a q ua r i um s t a t i n g t h e give a n d t a k e O f
.
,

m a t e r i a l s b e t we e n fis h a n d gr e e n pl a n t s .

9 I n t h e fi gur e o n p a ge 3 6 t he p o s s i b l e i n t a k e a n d o ut go o f
.

m a t e r i a l s in a gr ee n c e ll a r e s h o w n Wh a t a r e t h e a c t ua l i n t e r c h a n ge s
.

o f m a t eri a ls ?

S U PP LE M E N T A RY R E A D I N G
C o ult e r B ar n e s a n d C o wle s A Text book of B ota n y
, , , ( Am e r ic a n B o o k
Vo l I . .

G a ger C S Ge n e ra l B ota n y ( P B la kis t o n s S o n

’
. .
, , .

H o lm e s S J Gen era l B iology ( H a r c o ur t B r a c e

,
.
,
c h ap . Vl l .

WH . F I Tz . AD . B IO . 4
 C H APTE R VI

T YP I C A L
AN I M A L C E LL

Ph o t om ic r o gra ph s o f Am oe b a a n d of P a r a m e c ium .

Do a n i m a ls ever c on s is t o f i
s n gle c ells ? Ca n t he s imples t of a n im a ls
be ea s i ly recogn ized a s a n i m a ls Do t hey a ppea r difieren t from on e
‘

?
celled pla n ts ? D o t hey perform the s a me p hys i o logic a l a ct v i i ties

L a b or a t ory e xe rc is e . S tudy f o an ( a m o i bos

a m oeba c h a n gin g) T h e
— .

a m o eb a s b e lo n g t o t he b r a n c h o f a n im a ls c a lle d P rotozoa (p rotos fir s t ; zoon

a n im a l : fi r s t or e ar ly an im a l ) . TO lo c a t e a m o e b a s , s c r a pe t he un de r s urface of

t h e le a v e s Of E lo de a o n t o a gla s s s lide . Add a dr o p o f w a t e r a nd co v er w it h a

co v er gla s s . An o t her m e t h o d for fi n din g a m o e b a s is t o c r us h s o m e p o n d lilie s

o r o t her w a t e r pla n t s and le t t he mas s r e m a in un dis t ur b e d for a fe w we e k s .

Tin y a n im a ls will us ua lly b e fo un d in t h e sc um whic h for m s . M o un t s o m e Of

t he s c um a nd loc a t e an b a wit h low po wer , th en

a m oe st u dy it wit h high
p o w e r . L at er s t a in wit h io din e a n d a ga in Ob s er e v .

I . D e s c r ib e t he a m oeb a , in c ludin g s h a pe , c o lo r , a n d n um b e r O f c e lls .

II . H ow do e s it s s h a pe diffe r fr o m a n y c e ll v
pr e io us ly O b s er v ed ? The
irr e gula r pr o j e c t io n s Of pr o t o pla s m ar e c a lle d p s eudop o dia or
p s eudop ods
(ps eudo fa ls e ; p odium fo ot ) Wh at . s ee m s t o b e t he f un c t io n Of t he

p se udo po dia o r fa ls e feet ?

III . D e s c r ib e t he m ove m e n t O f t he a ni m al . S ugge s t a r ea s o n for t he
n a m e a m oeba

IV . Aft e r i
s t a in n g it wit h io din e , fin d c y t o pla s m , n uc le us ,
~

a nd a s pa c e

c a lle d t he c o n t r ac t ile v ac uo le . Th e c le a r o ut e r p ot op a sm o
r l f t he c e ll is c a lle d

ectop la s m a n d t h e gr a n ula r in n e r a re a is en dop la s m .

V . S t a t e t hre e s t r uc t ur e s fo un d in t he S pir o gyr a n ot fo un d in t he a m oe b a ,

a n d o n e s t r uc t ur e fo un d in t he a m oe b a n o t fo un d in t he S pir ogyr a .

VI . St at e a diffe r e nc e in n ut r it io n b e t w een S pir o gyr a an d a m oeb a .

42
 L I FE FUN C T I ON S OF AN AM OEB A 3

VI I . N am e fun c t io n pe r for m e d b y t h e a m o e b a t h a t t h e gr ee n c e ll c a n n
a ot

pe rfo r m . v
Wh a t is t he a lue O f t h is fun c t io n t o a n a n im a l o r ga n is m ?
VI I I . M ake a dr a w in g t hr ee in c he s in dia m e t er , of a n a m oeb a , a n d lab e l
c y t o pla s m , n uc le us , pla s m a m e m b r a n e , p s e udo po dia , and v a c uo le .

Life fun c t ion s of a n am oe b a . I n ge s tio n

ba . Wh e n an am oe

c o m es in c o n t a c t wi t h a p a r ti c l e o f f o o d it t h r o w s o ut p s e ud o p o ,

dia whi c h flow o v e r a n d a r o u n d t h e f o o d The f o o d p a r t i c l e is t h e n .

t a k e n i n t o t h e c y t o pl a s m Thi s e n gulfi n g o f f o o d by t h e a m o e b a
.

is it s m e t h o d O f f o o d ge t t i n g o r in ges tion The a m o e b a S h o w s li t t l e

,
.

p o w er o f s e l e c t i o n o f fo o d I t t a ke s in a l m o s t a n y t hi n g s m a ll e n o ugh
.

t o b e e n gulf e d Th e c yt o pl a s m en c l o s e s t he f o o d a n d fo r m s a v a c
.

uo le o r bubbl e e n c i r c l e d by pl a s m a m e m b r a n e Th e f o o d a n d .

so m e fluid d e p o s i t e d by t h e c y t o pl a s m a r e i n s id e t he v a c u o le .

D ige s tio n Th e e n gulf e d f oo d is p r i n c ip a lly s m a ll e r m ic r o o r

.

g a n is m s a n d p a r t i c l e s o f pl a n t s T h e s e c o n s i s t. O f c o m bi n a t i o n s o f
t he n ut r i e n t s p r o t e i n s f a t s a n d c a r b o hyd r a t e s
, , ,
Th e p a r t i c l e s c ir .

c ul a t e in t h e s t r e a m i n g c y t o pl a s m in t he f o r m o f a f oo d v a c u o l e .

The c y t o pl a s m s e cre t es

di ges t iv e e n zy m es t o c o n
v er t t h es e n utr i e n t s i n t o a
s o lubl e f or m whi c h c a n
t h e n b e a s s i m il a t e d by t he
p r o t o pl a s m As t he c ir c u
.

l a t i n g p r o t o pl a s m c a rr i e s
t he fo o d a r o u n d t h e ce ll ,

t he di ge s t iv e e n zy m e s pr o ,

t e a s e lip a s e a n d a m yl a se
, , ,

r a du a l ly dl S S O lV e t he n u
g Am b m y um i ty f h p
oe a C mpa as s e a va r e O s a es . o are

t e n t s I n t he f o o d Th e s e
. ,

ri t h im l y u t udi d u d
e an th m i
a s p o w it h s e n er e c ro s c o e

th e e d g m
,

s ia ra s.

n u t r i e n t s p a s s th r o u gh t h e

pl a s m a m e m b r a n e O f t he va c u o l e by o s m o s i s a n d m i n gl e wi t h
t he c y t o pl a s m The i n di ge s t ibl e m a t e r i a l s t h a t h a v e e n t e r e d with
.

t he f o o d ma y b e e li m i n a t e d f ro m a n y p a r t o f t he or ga n i s m .
44 T YP I C A L AN I M A L C E LL

As s im ila t io n di ge s t e d p r o t e i n t o ge t h e r with w a t e r a n d
. Th e
a b s o r b e d m i n e ra l m a t t e r a r e c o n v er t e d i n t o p ro t o pl a s m by t h e a c

t iv it y O f t h e c yt o pl a s m O f t h e
livi n g a m o e b a Thi s is a s .

s im ila t io n As a r e s ul t O f a s .

s im ila t io n n e w p r o t o pl a s m is ,

fo r m e d a n d t he a n i m a l grow s .

R e s pir a t ion Oxy ge n fr o m .

t h e a ir in t he w a t er m a y
e n t e r th r o u gh a n y p a r t o f t h e

s u r f a ce O f t he a m o eb a It .

m e e t s t he di ge s t e d n ut r i e n t s
in t he c y t o pl a s m a n d o xid a
t i o n t a k e s pl a c e th a t is o xy , ,

g e n c o m bi n e s wi t h c a r b o n a n d
A p t i t i v t ig t
a en nw t h des d d ib d
a or hyd r o ge n c o m p o u n d s AS a
a c e an e s cr e .

th b h vi f m it w t f t
e e a or b o an a oe a
l
as
f d
en a
r er a o

s ph i l f d p ti l
e r ca oo wh i h h d ar ll d w y
c e
I C S ll
c
t O a
O a t
ro
I le
e n e gy
a
Ia
S .
‘

Th d w g h w h w t h m b pu u d d
e ra in s o s o
relea sed
e a oe
T
a
h l S e n e r gy e n
rs e an
_
gulf d t h p t i l ff d
.

en e e ar c e o oo .

a bl e s t h e a m o e b a t o c a r r y o n

it s fu n c t i o n s S i n c e p r o t e i n fa t a n d s u ga r c o n t a i n c a r b o n a n d
.
, ,

hyd r o ge n c a r b o n di o xid e a n d w a t e r a r e o xid a t i o n p ro du c t s

, .

Pro t e i n giv e s r i s e t o n i t r o ge n s ulphu r a n d ph o s ph o r u s p r o du c t s , , ,

a lso , o n e o f whi c h u r e a is a n i t r o ge n o u s w a s t e The w a s t e s

, ,
.

r es ul t i n g fro m o xid a t i o n a r e c o ll e c t e d in t h e c o n t r a c t il e v a c u o l e .

Thi s bu r s t s a n d e xp e l s t h e w a s t e s t h r o u gh t he pl a s m a m e m b r a n e
i n t o t h e s u r r o u n di n g w a t e r .

R e pr o ducti on Wh e n t he a m o e b a r e a c h e s a c er t a i n m a xi m u m
.

s iz e n a ra t o it s s p e c i e s t h e n u c l e u s divid e s in t w o p a r t s a n d
tu l
\
,

t h e n t h e e n t i r e c e ll c l e a v e s in t w o e qu a l p a r t s Thi s r es ul t s in t he .

p r o du c t i o n O f t wo di s ti n c t c e ll s e a c h wi t h it s o wn n u c l e u s Thi s .

p r o ces s is c a ll e d r e p r o du c ti o n by fis s ion .

I r r ita b il ity The a m o e b a is v e r y s e n s i t iv e t o o ut s id e s ti m uli

. .

I f it is t o u c h e d wi t h a p o i n t e d O bj e c t it d r a w s a w a y I t m o ve s ,
.
 6 TY PI C A L ANI M A L C E LL

s ide re d n ega tive a n d is re p r e se n t e d by a m i n u s S i gn t r o pi s m ) .

Th e di ffe r e n t tr o pi s m s a r e n a m e d in t e r m s O f t h e s t i m ulu s t o

whi ch t he o rga n i s m is rea ct in g L i s t e d b e l o w a re t h e t ro pi s m s

.

S h o w n by t h e a m o e b a .

Ph o t o t ro pi s m — r e a c ti o n t o li gh t .

Chemo t rop ism re a ct io n to

ch em i c a l s .

T h i gm o t r o p i s m rea ct io n t o

t o u c h o r co n t a c t .

Therm o t rop i s m rea ct io n t o

he a t .

Ga lvan ot rop ism r e a c ti o n t o

e l e c t r i c c u rr e n t .

Th e s e r e a c t i o n s a r e l ar ge ly pro
t e c t ive As a r e s ult O f t r o pi s m s
.

t h e a m oe b a O f t e n e sc a p es u n f a v o r
a bl e c o n di t i o n s a n d ge t s i n t o a n

e n vi r o n m e n t wh e r e t h e c o n di t i o n s

a r e f a v o r a bl e fo r it s lif e a n d a c

t iv it y .

Lo c om otion . By means of it s
Wh e n th e
o am eba isp vi w d f
see ud o peo di a t h
r om e a m
th e
o e b a w a lk s ,
”

Si d e, p ud p d
se om y o iat a be s e en o ex
t
en d wh i h cul t i re s t likn m v m
fr o m pl a c e 120 pl a ce I t s e n d s O ll t
o e en s e .

a s tre a m o f p r o t o pl a s m in o n e
di r ec ti o n G ra du a lly t he r e s t O f t he c y t o pl a s m c a r r yi n g t he
.

n u c l e u s fl o w s i n t o it ; a n d a ga i n a t hi n S t r e a m is s e n t o ut Thu s .

t he o r ga n i s m m o v e s By m e a n s o f t he fu n c t i o n O f l o c o m o t i o n it
.

c a n ge t f o o d a n d e s c a p e u n f a v ora bl e c o n diti o n s .

P r ob le m . S tudy of a P a r a m eci um .

Pla c e s om e h ay in a bea k er o f dis t ille d w a t e r . H e a t in o r de r to s oft e n t he

hay . L e t t he m a t e r ia l st and tw o or t hr e e w ee k s . T he a ddi t io n Of a lit t le
t hyr o id e xt r a c t w ill us ua lly pr o m o t e t h e m ult iplic a t io n and gro w t h Of t he

o r ga n is m s p r e se n t . This is a P ar a m e c ium c ult ur e .

 L O C O M O TI ON 47

I . Ta k e a dr o p of t h e infus io n , pla c e it o n a s lide a n d c o v er wit h a co v er

gla s s . The m ic r o Or ga nis m s c a lle d P a r a m e c ia s ho uld b e pr e s e n t .

A . D e s crib e t he c e llular s t r uc t ur e O f a P a r a m ec ium .

B . H o w doe s it s m o v em e n t differ fr o m t h a t of t he a m oe ba ?

G . Wh a t pr o of h a v e y o u t h a t t he P a r a m ec ium is c y lin dr ic a l a n d n o t flat ?

D . D e s c r ib e t he s h a pe Of a P a r a m ec ium . Th e end t h a t goe s fo r wa r d
m ost of t he t im e is c a lle d t he a n te ri o r e nd . T he O ppo s it e e n d is t he p os
te rio r e nd . D e s cr ib e t he s h a pe of t h e a n t e r io r a n d p o s t e r io r e n ds .

II . P ut a fe w t hr e a ds Of c o t t o n o r s o m e fi ne ly s hr e dde d le n s p a per o n a
gla s s s lide . P lac e on t his a dr o p O f t h e P a r a m e c ium c ult ur e a n d fo c us un de r

t he lo w po w e r .

A . D e sc rib e t he a ppe ar a n c e Oft he t hr e a ds of c o t t o n un de r t h e m ic r o s c ope .

Wh a t e ffec t do t h e t hr e a ds o f c ot t on se em t o ha v e on t he m o v em en t O f
t he P ar a m e c ium ?

B . N o t e t he fur r o w in o n e S ide of t h e a n im a l . Th is is c a lle d t h e gr o o v e .

At t he b a s e Of t he gr o o v e is a m o ut h , an d t he c y lin dr ic a l s t r uc t ur e b e lo w
is t he gulle t .

0 L oo . k c lo s e ly at t he pla s m a m em b r a n e . The s t r uc t ur e s t h a t yo u
s h o uld O b s e r v e t h er e , ar e pr o j ec t io n s f p r o t o pla s m a n d
o are c a lle d cilia .

D e s cr ib e any mo v em e n t s o f t h e c ilia . S ugge s t a fun c t io n of t he c ilia .

D Th e gr o o
. v e and gulle t a r e a ls o lin e d wit h c ilia . S ugge s t a fun c t io n
for t he s e c ilia .

E . At e it h e r e n d o f t h e P a r a m ec ium y o u w ill s ee a s m a ll c le ar b ubb le .

Wa t c h e a ch b ubb le for m , gr o w la r ger , a nd b ur s t . Th e s e ar e t he c on tra ct ile

va cuoles .

III . S t a in t h e P a r a m ec ium wit h dilut e io din e an d m o un t un der t h e lo w and

high po w e r Wh a t e ide n c e Of e c t opla s m a n d en do pla s m

. v c an be s ee n ? De
s crib e a diffe r e n c e b e t w ee n t h e s e t w o in ds O f pr o t o pla s m k .

IV . Ta k e a n e w c ult ur e a n d a dd a s m a ll a m o un t o f b l ue fo un t a in pe n in k
t o it , a n d a ga in put a fe w t hr e a ds Of c o t t o n o n it .

A . F oc us un de r t h e high p o w er . Ob s e r v e t h e lo n g h a ir li k e s t r uc t ur e s

t hat are t hr o w n o ut . T he s e are pr o t ec t i v fe n s e a n d

e s t r uc t ur e s o f O f de fe n s e
c a lle d tr ic hocys ts .

B . Ob s e r v e t he t wo n uc le i . The lar ge r n uc le us is c a lle d t he ma c ro

n uc le us (ma kr os la r ge ) and t he s m a ller , t h e m ic r on uc leus ( mi kros
s m a ll ) . I t m a y b e n ec e s s ar y t o s t a in t he s pe c im en wit h io din e t o s e e t h ese .

G . D r a w a P ar a m ec ium t hr e e in c h e s lo n g a n d lab el all t he s t r uc t ur e s

Ob s er v ed .

D . Wr it e a b r ief de s cr ipt io n o f t he P ar am ec ium .

 8 T YP I C A L AN I M A L C E LL

The phy s i o l o gi ca l fu n c t i o n s o f t he Pa r a m ec iu m a r e s o m ewh a t

m ore c o m pl e x t h a n t h o s e O f t h e a m oe b a b e c a u s e o f t h e i n cr ea s i n g
c o m pl e xi t y o f s t r u c t u r e .

N utr ition B a c t e r i a a n d a n y o t h e r ti n y pl a n t s o r p r o t o z o a t h a t
.

s m a ll e n o u gh a r e s w e pt by t he c u r r e n t c r e a t e d by t h e c ili a

i n t o t he o ra l gr oo v e Th es e .

a r e d r iv e n t h r o u gh t h e u l
g
le t wh e r e t h e y a r e m a d e ,

c i l i a:
i n t o a fo o d b a ll a n d dis
t r id h cy
o s t s c h a r g e d i n t o t h e c y t o pl a s m
O f t h e c e ll Th e f oo d b a ll
e c t o p l a sm
.

is c a rr i e d a r o u n d a s a v a c
p l a s m
uo le by t h e s t r ea m i n g c yt o
l l i o le .
pl a s m Th e p ro ce s s e s o f .

di ge s ti o n c i r c ul a t i o n a s , ,

s im ila t io n gr o wth a n d r e s , ,

p ir a t io n in t h e a n i m a l a re

s i m il a r t o t h o se d e s c r ib e d

fo r t h e a m o e b a AS t he .

f o o d is gr a du a lly di ge s t e d ,

a n y m a t er i a l t h a t c a n n o t b e

dige s t e d is c o ll ec t e d a t a
c e r t a i n s m a ll a re a o f t he

a n a l S p ot pl a s m a m em b r a n e in t he
. .

p o s t er i o r e n d o f t he a n i m a l .

Th e m e m b r a n e b r e a k s a t
r e gul a r i n t er v a l s t o th r o w

O ff t he s o lid f o o d w a s t e s .

Thi s m e c h a n i s m is c a ll e d
N t i t hi di g m t h
o e n s a t u tura th t y u w
e s r c re s a o ere

una bl te i y u mi
o s ee n pi
o t udy f t h
r cro s c o P t he a n a l o p e n i n g
c s o e a ra B eca use .

m ium
ec
t h e w a ll a lw a y s b r e a k s in
.

t h e s a m e r e gi o n t o le t o ut t h e s o lid m a t e r i a l it is f r e qu e n t ly c a ll e d
,

a we a k sp o t Th e w a s t es ca r b o n di o xid e w a t e r a n d u r e a f o r m e d
.
, , , ,
 L O C OM OT I ON 49

in t he xid a t i o n p r o ce s s a r e c o ll e ct e d by ti n y r a di a ti n g c a n a l s
o ,

a n d e m p t i e d i n t o a c e n t r a l c o n t ra c t il e v a c u o l e a t e a c h e n d o f t h e

o r ga n i s m Wh e n t h ese v a c u o l es h a v e a t t a i n e d a c er t a i n s ize t he
.
,
-

c y t o pl a s m s u r r o u n di n g t h e m c o n t r a c t s a n d di s c h a r ge s t h e w a s t e s

t h r o u gh t he c e ll m e m b r a n e Th e c o n t r a c t il e v a c u o l e is c o n s t a n tly
.

filli n g a n d di s c h a r gi n g .

Lo com ot ion C yt o pl a s m i c s tr uctu r e s c a ll e d c ili a p ro j ec t t h r o u gh

.

t he ce ll m e m b r a n e a n d by r a pidly l a s hi n g b a c k a n d f o r t h p ro p e l
, , ,

t he a n i m a l t h r ou gh t h e w a t e r Th e c ili a a re a r .

r a n ge d in ro w s a ll o v e r t h e b o dy All t h e c ili a in .

a ro w b e a t a t t h e s a m e t i m e I f wi t h a n e e dl e .
, ,

t h e th r e a d O f c y t o pl a s m whi c h c o n t r o l s t h e b ea ti n g
o f a ro w O f c ili a b e c ut t h e e n t i r e r o w will ce a s e t o
,

b e a t a n d r e m a i n s p a r a lyz e d D ue t o t he m ore .

r a pid b e a t i n g o f t he c ili a in t h e gr o o v e t h e a n i m a l ,

r o t a t e s a n d p r oc e e d s in a s pi r a l r a t h e r t h a n a

s t r a i ght p a t h I t u s u a lly p r o gr e s s e s wi t h t he blu n t

.

o r a n t e r i o r e n d f o r w a r d but c a n r e v e rs e it s c ili a
,

a n d t r a v e l e qu a lly w e ll with t h e p o i n t e d e n d fo r

w a r d S u c h a r e v er s i o n Ofte n t a k e s pl a c e wh e n it
.

m e et s a n O b s ta c l e I f co n fi n e d in c l o s e qu a r t e r s
.
,

t he Pa r a m e c iu m c a n p a s s th r o u gh s m a ll o p e n i n gs
due t o t he e l a s t i c i t y o f it s b o dy A .
p m ium a ra ec

fn i zggfl z
e“
-
g
‘
R epr o du ctio n Re p r o du c ti o n o cc u r s by fi ss i o n
.
,

d i m g t w
a s in a m o e b a E a c h o f t he t wo n u c l e i divid es a n d t i t i e e a e' a n ‘

pp s r c on a e a rs ,

e a c h d a u gh t e r c e ll c o n t a i n s a m a c r o n u c l e u s a n d
d th an e

t ll pl t p t er c e s s i a ar .

m i cro n u c l e u s A n e w gr o o v e a n d gull e t a r e f o r m e d
g fib sfi g
du
fg
s g c
.

in o n e o f t he c e ll s a n d t w o n ew c o n t r a c t il e v a c u
o l e s a pp e a r Wh e n c ell d i vi s i o n o r bi n a r y fi s s i o n go e s o n in defi
.

n it e ly t he c e ll s s o m e ti m es l o se th e i r vi t a li t y
, Wh e n t hi s h a pp e n s .

th e y b ec o m e s m a ll er a n d in s o m e c a s e s di s t o r t e d Un d e r s u c h
, , , .

c o n diti o n s t wo Pa r a m e c i a c o m e t o ge t h e r
,
Th e c e ll m e m b r a n e s .

a r e di s s o lv e d a t t he p o i n t O f c o n t a c t a n d a b r id e o f c yt o pl a s m
g
50 T YP I C A L A N I M A L C E LL

is for m ed The m a cr o n u c l e i di sa pp ea r a n d t he m i c r on u c l e u s go e s
.

th ro u gh a s er i e s o f c o m pli c a t e d divi s i on s F i n a lly o n e p a r t o f t he .

n u c l e u s o f e a c h c e ll p a s se s o v e r t h e c y t o pl a s m i c b r id ge a n d u n it e s

wi t h a p a r t Of t he m i cr o n u c l e u s in t he o pp o s it e c e ll The a n i m a l s .

t h e n s e p a r a t e a n d th e r e is a r e o r ga n iz a t i o n Of p a r t s t o r e s t o r e t he
s t r u c t re t o t h e n o r m a l s t a t e T hi s e x c h a n ge a n d u n i o n O f n u c l e i
u .

is c a ll e d c onj uga tion Th e p r o c e s s s ee m s t o giv e t he Pa r a m e c i a

.

r e n ew e d vi go r a n d vit a li t y The c e ll s m a y n ow go o n dividi n g fo r

.

hu n d r e d s O f ge n e ra t i o n s b e f o r e c o n j u ga t i o n a ga i n t a k e s pl a ce .

I t h a s b ee n s h o w n by o n e s c i e n t i s t t h a t t h e l o w e r e d vi t a li t y o f
a c o l o n y o f c er t a i n P a r a m e c i a m a y b e c a u s e d by t h e s u rr o u n di n g

m e di a o f t h e i r e n vi r o n m e n t I f t hi s b e c o m es co n c e n t r a t e d with
.

w a s t e s o r m a t er i a l s t h a t a r e u n f a v o r a bl e c o n ju ga t i o n m a y o c c ur ,
.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d if c a r e ful c o n t r o l is k e p t Of t hi s m a t er i a l in whi c h
,

t he cr e a t u r e s liv e a n d if a bu n d a n t f oo d is s uppli e d a n d w a s t es
,

r e m o v e d ce r t a i n P a r a m ec i a will divid e e e a t i o n a f t e r g e n era t i o n

, g n r

wi t h o u t r e s or t i n g t o c o n ju ga t i o n L L Wo o d r uff a p ro fes so r a t . . .
,

Ya l e Un iv e r s ity ha s k e p t a s t ra i n Of Pa ra m e c i a a c tiv e for s e v era l

,

y e a r s Th o u s a n d s Of ge n e r a ti o n s h a v e b ee n p ro du ce d fr o m t h e
.

c r ea tu r e wi t h whi c h h e s t a r t e d By e xer c i s i n g gre a t c a r e t o m a k e

.

t he s u rro u n di n gs m o s t h ea l t h
ful fo r P a r a m e c i a h e h a s pr o ,

Pe llic le duce d t h e s e th o u s a n d s O f ge n
e r a t io n s with o u t h a vi n g t h e m

c o n ju ga t e o r die Thi s b io lo .

P r o t o pl s m g i s t b e li e v e s t h a t
a if c o n diti o n s
.

a r e c a r e fully s a f e gu a r d e d a n d
If l h li
a co odd d t P m ium th p t
s a e o a a ra ec e ro o

pl m i d h y d t d th
c o n t r o ll e d these t in y I I ] a s S OS 0 f
as s e t d
ra e f y t pl m
, e s ra n s o c o as ,
,
cil i a, pul l d t h
are ugh t h
e ll m m b
ro e ce e ra n e or

p ll i l
e c el vi g t h
ea w n f p e i g i th
ro s p r o t opl a s m k n ow n a s Pa ra
o o en n s n e

p lli l
e c e.

m e c ia will liv e f ore v er .

I rr ita b il ity The r e a c ti o n o f Pa ra m ec i a t o e xt e r n a l s ti m uli i s

.

m u c h t he s a m e a s in a m oe b a s B e c a u se o f t h e i r c ili a th e y ca n
.
,

r e s p o n d m o r e qui c kl y t o w a r d o r a w a y fr o m s t i m uli Th e y h a v e a .
 P R O T OP LAS M I S SP E C I A L I ZE D 51

s p e ci a l se t o f p r o te ctiv e s tr u c tu r es c a ll e d t r i c h o cy s t s E a c h o n e .

Of t h e s e s t r u c tu r e s c o n s i s t s o f a p o c k e t fitt e d wi t h a l o n g s t r a n d o f

c yt o pl a s m whi c h is t h r o w n o ut wh e n d a n ge r is n e a r Thi s s trand .

s e cr e t es a p o i so n o u s s ub s t a n ce .

The wh o l e m e c h a n i s m a c t s a s
L o c a t io n .

a p r o t e c ti on . A w or m m u c h ,
of
“
T m c h o c s t -s
l a rger t h a n a Pa r a m ec iu m a s ,
x
it t h r a s h e s a b o ut m i ght i n jure
,

t he P a r a m e c iu m . To p r o t e c t
i t s e lf t h e P a r a m ec i u m dis
,

c h a r ge s t r ich o c y s t s whi c h will

pi er ce o r p o i s o n t he e n em y s o
th a t it will b ec o m e i n a c tiv e .

P rotopla s m is s pe c ia li z e d .

The s peci a liza tion of p r o top a s m l

l I l Pa r a m eC l um I S a S tep tow ard If a s m a lldr o p o f fo un t a in pe n in k is put o n

t he S p e c i a liz e d o r ga n s fo r de fi _ a Pa r a m e c ium , t h e a nim a l th r o ws o ut lo n g

pr o t o pla s m ic s t r uc t ur e s , t r ic h o c y s t s
. Th e s e
n it e fu n c ti o n s f o u n d in hi h e r t h r e a ds us ua lly s e c r e t e a s ub s ta n c e t h a t s t un s
g a n e n e m y o r t h e pr e y .

a n im a l s . The p r o t o pl a s m o f
t he a m oe b a s h o w s v e r y littl e diff e r e n t i a t i o n Pse ud o p o di a m a y b e
.

thr ow n o ut f r o m t h e b o dy a t a n y pl a ce F o o d m a y b e t a k e n in a n d
.

w a ter giv e n off fr o m a n y p a r t o f t he b o dy The o n ly s p e c i a liz e d .

p r o t opl a s m o f t he a m o e b a s ee m s t o b e t he n u c l e u s a n d t he pl a s m a
m e m b r a n e a ro u n d t h e c o n tr a c t il e v a c u o l e I n t h e Pa r a m e c iu m
.

th er e a r e d efi n i t e p a r t s Of c yto pl a s m s p e c i a liz e d t o fo r m c ili a .

Th e s e a r e c o n s t a n t s t r u c tu r e s u se d fo r l o c o m o t i o n a n d fo r p r o p e l
li n g foo d i n t o t he m o u t h Th er e is a d e fi n i t e p a r t O f t he c y t o pl a s m
.

fo r m i n g t he gr o o v e m o u t h a n d gull e t F o o d is t a ke n in t h ro u gh
, ,
.

t h e s e s tr u ct u re s . The t wo n u c l e i t h e c o n t r a c t il e v a c u o l e s c e ll
, ,

m e m b ra n e a n d a n a l c a n a l a r e a ll fi t t e d o r a d a p t e d t o t h e fu n cti o n s
,

th ey h a v e t o p er for m The Pa r a m e c iu m is o n e o f t he s i m pl e s t
.

o r ga n i s m s t o S h ow d e fi n i t e a d a p t a t i o n s t o fu n c t i o n Phy s i o l o gi c a l
.

divi s i o n o f l a b o r is a c c o m pli s h e d by s p e c i a liz e d p ro to pl a s m .

52 T Y P I C A L AN I M A L C E LL

S i m pl e an v e r y s i m il a r t o s i m pl e pl a n t s in s t r u c tu r e a n d
im a ls a re

fu n c t i o n Th e m a i n diffe r e n ce s a r e t h a t a n i m a l s h a v e t he fu n c t i o n
.

o f l o c o m o ti o n a n d a r e a d a p t e d t o p e r f o r m t hi s fu n c ti o n
, Ver y fe w .

pl a n t s h a v e t he p o w er o f l oc o m o t i o n G r ee n pl a n t s m a n ufa c t ur e
.

t h e i r o w n f o o d by m e a n s o f t h e i r c hl o r o phyll a n d do n o t h a v e t o ,

s e e k f o o d a s m o s t a n i m a l s do I n a ddi t i o n t o t h e pl a s m a m e m
.

b r a n e t h er e is a p r o t e c tiv e w a ll in t he pl a n t ce ll s m a d e o f a n o n
,

livi n g m a t e r i a l cellulos e Thi s is m i s s i n g in a n i m a l c e ll s Am o e b a s

, . .

a r e b o u n d e d by t h e pl a s m a m e m b r a n e o n ly .

A c e ll e i t h e r pl a n t o r a n i m a l h a s b ee n s h ow n t o b e a ti n y m a s s
, ,

o f p r o t o pl a s m ge n e r a lly h a vi n g a n u c l e u s a n d h a vi n g a b o u n d a r y
, ,

a c e ll w a ll o r a n a n i m a l m e m b r a n e
,
Th e c e ll t h e o r y a s fi r s t s t a t e d
.

by S c hl e id e n a n d S c hw a n n h a s b ee n c h e c k e d by m a n y s c i e n ti s t s
o v er a l o n g p e r i o d O f y e a r s T O da y it is n o l o n ge r c o n s id e re d
.
-
,

a th e or y but is a c ce pt e d s o m e wh a t m o difi e d
, as a d o c tr i n e
, .

Am o n g o th e r thi n gs thi s th e o r y s t a t e s th a t t he c e ll is t h e u n it o f
s t r u c tu r e a n d o f fu n c t i o n a n d th a t a ll pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a r e

m a d e up Of c e ll s a n d c e ll p r o du c t s .

Q U E S T I O NS
1 . N a m e t h e f o r m s O f e n e r gy n e e d e d by t he a m o e b a o r P a r a
m e c ium .

2 . C l a s s ify t h e phys i o l o gi c a l f un c t i o n s i n t o n ut r i t ive , a d a pt ive , a n d

r e pro d uc t ive Give t he f un c t i o n s o f e a c h c l a s s
. .

3 Why is di ge s t i o n n e c e s s a r y in a n i m a l s ; in pl a n t s ?
.

4 Wh a t is t he m a i n di ffe r e n c e in t h e n ut r i t i o n o f a pl a n t a n d
.

a nim al ?

5 D i s c us s s o m e p o s i t ive a n d n e ga t ive e xa m pl e s o f t r o pi s m s
. .

6 I n o ut li n e f o r m , c o m pa r e t h e s t r uc t ur e a n d f un c t i o n o f a o n e
.

c e ll e d pl a n t a n d a o n e c e ll e d a n i m a l
-
.

7 D i s c us s t h e i m p o r t a n ce o f c hl o r o ph y ll t o a n i m a l s
. .

8 Wh a t is m e a n t by p hys i o l o gi c a l divi s i o n o f l a b or a n d s pe ci a li
.

z a t io n o f pr o t o pl as m ?

. k
9 M a e a li b ra r y r e p o r t o n t h e e c o n o m i c i m po r t a n c e o f p r o t o z o a .
54 TH E RE S TI NG AN D D I VI D I N G C E LL

ca ll ed t he reticula r theory A s e co n d gro up o f s c i en t i s t s b e li e v e s

.

t h a t p ro t o pl a s m is s i m il a r t o a m a s s o f bubbl e s lik e s o a p s ud s o r a ,

fro th Thi s gr o up t hi n k s t he S O c a ll e d fib er s a r e o n ly t he d eli c a t e

.
-

Th e s t ruct ur e o f pro t o pla s m h a s n ot b e en s a t is fa ct o r il y de t e rm in e d I t h a s b e e n de s c r ib e d in

v v
.

a r io us wa y s a n d r e pr e s e n t e d a s in th e a b o e dia gram s .

li n e s se p a r a ti n g t he bubbl e s fr o m h o t h e r Thi s t h e o r y is c a ll e d
ea c .

t he a lveo la r o r t he foa m t heo ry A t hi r d gr o up thi n k s t h a t p ro to

.

pl a s m is a n i nfi n i t e n u m b e r o f v er y s m a ll livi n g m o vi n g gr a n ul e s , ,

a rr a n ge d in li n e s r e s e m bli n g fib e r s Th e s e fib e r s diff e r e n t ly a r
.
,

r a n ge d m a k e v a r i o u s fi gu r e s
, Thi s is t he gra n ula r t heor y All .

bi o l o gi c a l p ro bl e m s a r e ce n t er e d in t he ce ll i n c ludi n g t he m a n u ,

f a c tur e a n d us e o f fo o d a n d a n u n d e r s t a n di ng o f t he n a tu re o f
,

a n d t h e c o n t r o l O f p ro bl e m s O f h e r e di t y S u c h p r o bl e m s s h a ll.

n e v er b e s a t i s f a c t o r ily s e t tl e d u n til m o r e k n o wl e d ge o f t h e w o r k

o f t h e c e ll is ga i n e d .

M a n y i n v e s t i ga t o r s a r e n o w t r yi n g t o s o lv e c e ll p r o bl e m s Co n .

s id e r t h e w o r k o f Al e xi s C a r re l ] t h e F r e n c h s u r geo n
,
F or y e a r s .

h e a n d his a s s mt a n t s h a v e b e e n w o r ki n g a t R o c k e f e ll e r I n s t i t u t e ,

N e w Yo r k c i t y t r yi n g t o d e v e l o p v a r i o u s c e ll s o ut s id e O f a livi n g
,

o r ga n i s m F o r s ixt e e n y ear s h e h a s k e p t c e ll s o f a c hi c k e n e m b r y o
.

a c t iv e ly gr o wi n g H e h a s a l s o s u c ce e d e d in ge t t in g Ot her livi n g
.
'

c e ll s t o gr o w u n d er c o n tr o ll e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s H e h a s b e e n a bl e t o .

us e s o m e o f t h e s e c ul t iv a t e d ce ll s t o t r y o ut t h e e ff e ct s Of v a r i o u s
a n ti s e pti cs I t is p o s s ibl e th a t c ul t iv a t e d t i s s u e s will b e Of grea t
.

v a lu e in o p er a t i o n s o f s ki n gr a fti n g G r owi n g ti s s u es fo r thi s .

pur p o s e is o n ly o n e s m a ll p a r t Of t he w o r k n ow b e i n g d o n e by
C arr el ] . He ha s tra n spl a n t ed wh ol e or ga ns fr o m o n e a n i m a l t o
 C H AR AC T E R I S T I C S OF P R OT OP LA S M 55

a no ther a n d s u c cee d e d in h a vi n g th e m gr o w a n d fun c ti o n in t he

s eco n d a n im a l H is w o r k o n a n t i s ep t i cs du r i ng t he Wor ld Wa r
. , ,

wa s i n v a lu a bl e I t s e e m e d a l m o s t i m p o ss ibl e t o k ee p wo un dsf re e
.

fr o m c o n t a m i n a t i n g ger m s whi c h d e s tro y e d t he c e ll s H e a n d .

D a ki n p r e p a r e d a n d i n t r o du ce d a n a n t i sep t i c D a ki n s o lu t i o n fo r , ,

t re a t i n g w o u n d s T hi s s o lu t i o n whi c h did n o t i n j u re t h e ti s s u e
.
, ,

s a v e d m a n y s o ldi er s fr o m ga n gr e n e a n d o t h e r i nfe c ti o n s .

The p r o bl e m o f h er e di t y whi c h in v o lv e s a n u n d e r s t a n di n g o f
c er t a i n c e ll s is n o w b e i n g s t udi e d by m a n y s c i e n t i s t s I t is a w e ll .

kn ow n f a c t t h a t c er t a i n phy s i ca l a n d m e n t a l tr a it s a r e tr a n s m i t t e d
fr o m p a r en t t o O ffs p r i n g th r o u gh a gr a n ul a r m a t er i a l c hroma tin , ,

foun d in t he n u c l e u s of t he ge r m c e ll s Thi s chr o m a ti n c o m bi n es .

t o f o r m t h e s t r u c t u r es c hr omos omes whi c h c a rr y a n d t r a n s m it

, ,

c er t a i n c ha ra cter determ in ers E xp e r i m e n t s a r e n ow b e i ng m a d e

.

t o fin d o ut e x a c t ly wh a t c h a r a c t e r s a re i nh er i t e d a n d t he a m o u n t ,

o f t h e h e r e di t a r y b e a r i n g s ub s t a n ce
-
Why h a s a c er t a i n i n dividu a l
.

o ne a bility whil e a n o t h er in t he s a m e f a m ily l a c k s t hi s a bili t y ?

,

S c i e n t i s t s i n c ludi n g T H M o r ga n W J V Os t e rh o ut E B
‘

.
, , ,
. . . . . .

Wil so n a n d R H C h a m b e r s a r e w o r ki n g o n thi s pr o bl em a t t he
,
. .
,

p r e s en t ti m e .

C h ar a cter is tic s of pr otopla s m Pr o t o pl a s m is b e i ng s tudi e d by

.

m a n y bi o l o gi s t s fr o m f o ur diff e r e n t vi e wp o i n t s .

P hys ic a lly it is a con s t a n tly s t r e a m i n g c o l or l e s s s li m y s em i

-
, , ,

liquid s ub s t a n c e s i m il a r t o t he whi t e o f a n e gg I t is a c o ll o id . .

By th a t we m ea n it is a m a s s o f t i n y s o lid p a r ti c l e s s u s p e n d e d
in a liquid . I t will n o t p a ss t h r o u gh a p a r c h m e n t m e m b r a n e .

Chem ica lly — it is a v e r y c o m pl e x u n s t a bl e m a s s m a d e O f pro

t e i n s a n d i n or ga n i c s a lt s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h a l a r ge a m o u n t O f w a t er
a n d f r e qu e n t ly c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o hyd r a t e s a n d f a t s

—
.

S truc tur a lly it is v a r i a bl e S o m e t i m es it a pp e a rs pur e ly gr a n

.

ula r o t h e r t i m e s fib r illa r o r th r e a dlik e a n d a ga i n it m a y r es e m bl e

, ,

a m a s s o f f o a m or bubbl e s I t v a r i e s a cc or di n g t o t he a c tivity
.

a n d i n dividu a l n a tur e Of t he c e ll .
 56 THE R E S TI NG AN D D I VI D I NG C E LL

P hys io logica lly it liv es m o v es r e p ro du ce s a n d di e s I f ke pt , , ,

.

un d e r p ro p e r c o n diti o n s s uch a s Wo o d r uff a n d C a rr e l ] k e p t it in

,

t h e i r e xp e r i m e n t s p ro t o pl a s m s ee m s ,

t o b e a bl e t o liv e i n d e fi n it e ly .

D r C a lki n s O f C o lu m bi a Un i .
,

v er s i t y h a s p e r f o r m e d m a n y e xpe r i ,

m e n t s o n c er t a i n c e ll s t o S h o w
t he i m p o r t a n c e o f t he p r e s e n c e o f
n uclear m a t er i a l I n o n e e xpe r i .

A m b w
n a oe ut p t a p t
as c a a r , one or i on

b i g th
ear n u l u eB t h f gm
n c e t m e n t h e u s e d Uron yc hia a O D O
s. o ra en s

m v
,
h l d b th
ea e , ti u d t
o b ut th
c on n e o o e, e
one with ut u l u
o a n l w dd wc e c e ll e d animal
s s o on s o l 6 I t s r el a t i ve
e o n, .
,
cam t e t d di d
o re s Th u l
an t d e e n c ea e
P a ra m e c i u m t h i s c r ea tu r e h a s t wo
.
,

p t
ori ong w d b
re m an m l e ca e a n or a ,
am b oe a.
n u c l e i a m a c ro n u c l e u s a n d a m i c ro ,

n u cl e u s The p r o t o z o o l o gi s t divid e d t he ti n y c r ea tu r e i n t o t wo
.

fr a gm e n t s e a ch h a vi n g a n e qu a l p a rt Of t he m a cr o n u c l e u s a n d
,

m icr on u c l e u s B o t h p a r t s h e a l e d B o th gr ew a n d r ep r odu ce d
. . .

Th e n h e divid e d a s e c o n d o rga n i s m u n e qu a lly S O th a t t h e s m a ll e r

A S t e n t o r , r e la t i e of v P
a r a m e c ium , wa s A S ty lo n y c hia wa s c ut s o th a t o nl y o n e o f
c ut i n t h r e e pa rt s E
a c h fr a gm e n t h a d a
. t h r e e fra gm e n t s c o n ta in e d n uc l e a r m a t e ria l
.

p a r t o f th e n uc l e us E
a c h gr e w a n d t e
. All t hr e e s wa m a b out for a tim e b ut o nl y th e
ge n e r a t e d mi s s in g pa r t s , r e s ul t in g in t h r e e p or t io n b e ar in g th e n ucl e a r m a t e r ia l r e ge n
n e w a n d c o m pl e t e a n im a l s . e r a t e d l o s t pa r t s , gr e w a n d r e pro duc e d .

p a r t h a d li t t l e m a cr o n u c l e a r m a ter i a l a n d n o m i cr o n u cl e u s I t .

t o o k in li t t l e f o o d gr e w b ut did n o t r e p r o du c e
, I t s o o n di e d
,
. .

The l a r ge r p o r t i o n o f t he a n i m a l c o n t a i n i ng m o s t o f t he m a cro ,
 FUN C TI ON S OF D I FFE R EN T P AR T S OF P R OT OP LAS M 57

n ucl eus and t he m i cro n u c l e u s ,

h e a l e d t oo k in foo d gr e w r ep r o
, , ,

duce d a n d wa s s o o n a n o r m a l a n i m a l
,
.

M a n y o th er s i m il a r e xp e r i m e n t s h a v e b ee n c o n du c t e d t he r e sTI I t s ,

o f whi c h i n di c a t e th a t t h e m a c r o n u c l e u s is a n e s s en ti a l f a c t o r in t h e

m e t a b o li s m gr o w t h a n d r e ge n er a t i on o f t he o rga n i s m
, , Th e m i c r o .

n u c l e u s h a s t o do wi t h r e p r o du c ti o n .

Th e p r o t o pl a s m m a y b e divid e d i n t o c y t o pl a s m a n d n u c l e o
pl a s m .

S tr uct ur es foun d in cytop la s m S tructur es foun d in n ucleop la s m

C e ll w a ll (pl a n t c e ll s on ly) N uc le a r m e m b r a n e
P l a s m a m e m br a n e N uc le o lus
Va c uo l e C hr o m a t i n gr a n ul es
C e ll s a p Li i n
n n e t wo r k
Va c uo l a r m e m br a n e N uclea r s ap

C hl o r o pl as t s (in s o m e c e ll s )
S t a r c h gr a i n s
C r ys t a l s ( pr o t e i n ur e a ) ,

C e n t r os o m e (a n i m a l ce ll s c h i e fl y)

Th e fun ction s of th e diffe r e n t pa r ts of pr otoplas m

ucl eu s . The n

c o n s i s t s Of v e r y d e n se p r o t o pl a s m b o u n d e d by a d e li ca t e m e m b r a n e .

I t m a y lie a n ywh er e in t h e c yt o pl a s m o f t h e ce ll I n f a c t it is .
,

c o n s t a n tly b e in g c a r r i e d t o diff e r e n t p a r t s Of t h e c e ll by t h e s t r e a m

in g m o v e m e n t s o f t he c yt o pl a s m I t ge n er a lly c o n t a i n s a m i n u t e
.

s ph er i c a l b o dy t h e n u c l eo lu s
, S o m e ti m es th er e a r e s e v er a l n u c l e o li
.

in o n e c e ll . The e x a c t fu n c t i o n Of t h e n u c l e o lu s is n o t k n o w n .

A typ ic a l r es ti n g n u c l e u s s h o w s m a n y p a r t i c l e s c a ll e d c hro m a tin

g ra n u le s
. T h e s e a r e e n m e s h e d in a n e tw o r k c a ll e d li n i n Th e .

ch r o m a t i n gr a n ul e s a r e b e li e v e d t o b e t h e c a rr i e r s Of h er e dit a r y

e c o lo r o f a p e r s o n s e y es hi
’
ch a r a c t r d e t er m i n er s
e s uch a s t h ,
s ,

di s p o s iti on his h e i ght o r his a r t i s t i c a bili t y Th e se p a r ti c l e s a r e

, ,
.

a bl e t o a b s o r b c er t a i n s t a i n s m o re r e a dily th a n t h e r es t Of t h e

m a ter i a l s f o u n d in t h e c e ll .

Th e n ucl e u s c o n t ro l s t he w o r k o f t he c e ll I t is t he c e n t e r o f a ll
.

the phy s i o l o gi ca l a ct ivi t i e s o f t he c e ll ; s u c h a s n utr iti o n r es pi r a ti o n

, , ,

WH . F I Tz . AD . BIO . 5
58 TH E R E S T I N G AN D D I VI D I NG C E LL

r o wth a n d r e p r o du c ti o n A c e ll wi t h o ut a n u c l e u s ( t h e n ucl e u s
g
.
,

h a vi n g b ee n r e m o v e d wi t h a t i n y k n ife ) will n o t liv e Wi t h o u t a .

n cu l e u s a lth
,
o u g h f o o d is p r e s e n t t h e c e ll c a n n o t t a k
, e in f o o d n o r ,

us e f o o d a n d it s re s pi ra t i o n ,

b e c o m e s gre a tly r e du c e d .

l
Th e c yt o pl a s m is t h e livi n g
a s m
p a

m a t e r i a l o f t he c e ll s u r r o u n d ,

in g t he n u c l e u s I t is s e m i .

fluid l e s s d e n s e t h a n t h e
’

n u c l eo pl a s m a n d is a lw a y s ,

in m o t i o n t h ro u gh o u t t h e c ell .

The c e ll w a ll is f o u n d a s
a n a ddi t i o n a l b o u n di n g l a y e r

a r o u n d pl a n t c e ll s I t is c o m
Wh
.

A pl an t ll h ce ll w ll
as a ce w da en Vi e e

p l g v u l
.

thro ugh a mi cr o s c o e ar g e lly

ac p o s e d o f a s ub s t a n c e c e llul o s e
o e s a re e n e ra
,
s e en mt h y t pl m
e c o as .

whi c h ha s t he e l e m e n t s fo u n d
in s t a r c h ; n a m e ly c a r b o n hyd r o gen a n d o xyge n
, , C yt o pl a s m i c
, .

t h r e ad s p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e ce ll w a ll a n d c a u se it t o gr o w in thi c k ,

n es s by d e p o s i t i n g w oo dy m a t er i a l AS t he c e ll ge t s O ld e r m o r e
.
,

a n d m o r e w o o dy m a t e r i a l is d e p os it e d Wi t hi n thi s thick en e d
.

w a ll o f t he pl a n t c e ll is t he pl a s m a m e m b r a n e I n t he a n i m a l c ell .

t h e pl a s m a m e m b r a n e is t h e o nly b o u n di n g l a y e r ; it l a c k s t he
m a t er i a l whi c h m a k e s up t h e pl a n t c e ll w a ll Th e pl a s m a m e m .

b r a n e is a v e r y d e li c a t e l a y er o f d e n s e c yt o pl a s m a n d h a s t h r e e
fu n ct i o n s in pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s I t Tegula t e s o s m o s i s by p er m i t
.

t i n g t he e n t r a n c e o f n ee d e d m a t er i a l s I t d e t er m i n e s t he s h a p e o r
.

f o r m of t he c ell I t a ffor d s p r o t e c ti o n a ga i n s t l o s s o f w a t er
. .

A v a c u o l e is a s p a c e in a pl a n t ce ll whi c h b e co m e s fill e d wi t h a
liquid c a ll e d t he cell s a p The cell s a p co n t a i n s a lit t l e di s s o lv e d
.

s u ga r m i n er a l s a lt s
, c r y s t a l s (w a s t e a n d s t o r a ge p ro du c t s O f t he
,

pl a n t c e ll ) a n d a gr e a t d e a l o f w a ter The p r ese n c e o f a v a c u o l e

, .

h elp s t he pl a n t c e ll t o s w e ll up a n d b e c o m e v e r y l a r ge e v e n
th o u gh o nly a s m a ll a m o u n t Of c yto pl a s m is p r e s en t Thi s c yt o .
 FUN C TI ON S OF P R OT OP LA S M 59

pl a s m b e co m e s s t r e t c h e d i n t o a thi n l a yer a ro u n d t he v a c u o l e .

The v a c u o l e is b o u n d e d by a d e li c a t e l a y er o f cy t o pl a s m t h e ,

v a c uo l a r m e m b r a n e S o m e a n i m a l c e ll s p o s s es s v a c u o l e s s i m il ar
.

t o t he f o o d a n d w a t e r v a c u o l e s o f t he p r o t o zo a n s a n d co n t r a c til e ,

v a c u o l e s fo r t he e x c r e ti o n Of n itro ge n o u s w a s t e s .

A c hl o r o pl a s t is a s m a ll m a s s o f c yt o pl a s m c o lor e d g r ee n by ,

t he c hl o r o phyll pi gm e n t . Th e c e ll a id e d by t hi s c hlo r o phyll in t h e

p res e n c e Of s un light is a bl e t o m a n ufa c tu r e r a w m at er i a l s i n to t h e
fo o d n ece s s a r y t o build p r o t o pl a s m .

Th e c e n t r o s o m e s a r e t he f o c i f o r t he s t a r like f o r m a t i o n s a p
p ea r i n g like fib er s o f c y t o pl a s m Th ese s e e m t o b e o f gr e a t
.

i m p o r t a n c e in t he divi s i o n o f t h e a n i m a l ce ll .

Th e s um t o t a l Of a ll t h e fu n c ti o n s o f t h e ce ll is c a ll e d m eta bolis m .

I t r e f e r s t o t he phy s i o l o gi c a l a c tiviti e s Of a ll livi n g p ro t o pl a s m .

Th e r e a r e t wo ki n d s o f m e t a b o li c a c t ivity ; a n a b o li s m a n d k a t a b
O lis m . Wh e n t he phy s i o l o gi c a l a c tivi t i es t en d t o build up p r o t o
pl a s m th e y a re t er m e d a n a b o li c Two e xa m pl es Of a n a b o li c
, .

n uc l e a r

Com par e thi s anima l c e ll with t h e pla n t c e ll o n th e pr e vio us pa ge .

a ctiviti e s are st arc h m a ki n g a n d a s s i m il a t i o n Wh e n t h e s e pr o .

c e s s e s t e n d t o b r e a k d o w n p r o t o pl a s m t h e y a r e k a t a b o li c
,
An .

e x a m pl e o f a k a t a b o li c p r o c e s s is t h e o xid a t i o n Of f o o d B o th type s .
60 THE R E S TI NG AN D D I VI D I NG C E LL

of p r o c e s ses a r e e s s e n ti a l t o t he w o r k Of t he c e ll a n d d e p en d up o n
e a ch o t he r .Th e a n a b o li c a ctiviti e s a r e c o n c er n e d c hi e fly wi t h
n ut r i t i o n a n d t h e k a t a b o li c wi t h e n e r gy r e l e a se
, F o r e x am pl e .
,

in o r d e r t o p er f or m t he a n a b o li c fu n c ti o n s O f a s s i m il a t i o n, t he
ce ll is d e p e n d e n t o n t he e n e r gy d e r iv e d fro m t h e k a t a b o li c fu n c

ti o n Of re s pi r a t i o n .

I n ge s t i o n
D i ge s t i o n
Ab s o r p t i o n N ut r i t i o n
C i r c ul a t i o n
As s i m il a t i o n
An a b o l i s m
Gr o w t h
S e cr e t i o n
R e pr o du c t i o n
M e t a b o l is m
Re s pi r a t i o n
I rri t a b li t y
i Ka t a b o l is m
E xcre t i o n
M o t ion

C e ll divis ion . Wh e n ll is n o t a t r es t it is in a s t a te o f divi

a ce ,

s ion Th e r e a r e t wo m e t h o d s o f divi s i o n : 1 D i r e ct divi s i o n

— —
. .

a l s o c a ll e d a mitos is ( a with o ut mito s thr e a d ) a n d 2 in , .

dir ec t divi s i o n o r m it o s i s I n a m i t o s i s di r e ct divi s i o n t he n u

.
, ,

c le us s i m ply pi n c h e s in h a lf a n d b e c o m e s s e p a r a t e d i n t o t wo
d a ught er n u c l e i The c yt o pl a s m s o m e ti m e s c l e a v es a n d a p a r t
.

g oe s wi t h e a c h n u c l e u s T hi s
. s
-
o r t O f divi s i o n t a k e s pl a ce o n ly in

ce ll s whi c h a r e v e r y a c t iv e a n d n ee d v e r y m a n y n u c l e i in t he w o r k

th e y a re d o i n g Am ito s i s m a y a l so o cc ur wh e n c e ll s h a v e b ee n
.

v er y a c tiv e a n d t he n u c l e u s b eco m i n g e xh a u s te d m ultipli e s

, , ,

r a pidly by b r ea ki n g i n t o f r a m e n t s
g .

M ito s is or in dir e c t c e l l divis ion M it os i s is a v er y co m pli

.

c a t e d p r o c es s wh e n c o m p a r e d with a m it o s i s Th e n u c l eu s liv e s a
.

v er y l o n g ti m e in a n a ctive a n d y o u n g c e ll a n d will divid e a gr ea t

,

many t imes E a c h ti m e t h e n u c l e u s divid e s t h e e n t ir e c e ll di

.
,

vid e s f or m i n g t wo n ew c ell s E a c h c ell will h a v e e xa ctly t he

, .
 TH E R E S TI NG AN D D I VI D I N G C E LL

Th e s pi r e m e b r e a k s up i n t o a n u m b er Of p a r t s ca ll e d c h ro m o s o m es .

E a ch pl a n t or a n i m a l c e ll s e e m s t o h a v e a d e fi n it e n u m b e r O f t h e se .

I n t he c e ll s O f hu m a n b e i n gs ,

t he s pi re m e b re a k s up i n t o

fo r t y e i gh t c hr o m os o m e s I n
-
.

t he o n i o n c e ll t h ere a r e s ix t e e n
, .

I n a c e r t a i n li t t l e f r ui t fly ,

t h e r e a r e o n ly e i gh t Th e s e .

n u m b e r s a r e a lw a y s c o n s t a n t

fo r a p a r t i c ul a r s p e c i es F o ur .

c h r o m o s o m e s a r e s h o w n in t he

di a gr a m s ( p a ge 6 1 ) illus t r a t
in g m i t o s i s o f a n a n i m a l c e ll .

The a s t er s s e p a r a t e m o r e
Ph o t o m ic ro gra ph of a s e c tio n of a gr o win g
a nd m o r e W l de ly c a US I I l g t he
r oot t ip o f a n o n io n H o w m a n y difi e r e n t s t a ge s

ll divi i
fib b t w t h m t b
.

e rs e ee n e o e
o f ce s on c a n y o u i de n t ify

c o m e l o n ge r a n d t o a s s u m e

a s pi n dl e lik e s h a p e F i n a lly t h e y r e a c h t he o pp o s i t e s id e s Of
.

t he n u c l e u s Th e c h r o m o s o m e s a r e n o w d r a w n i n t o t h e c e n t ra l
’

p a rt Of t he s pi n dl e f o r m i n g a r in g a r o u n d it in a pl a n e ca ll e d ,

t h e e qu a t o r i a l pl a t e All o f t h e s e c h a n ge s a r e a p a r t o f t h e
.

p pro ha s e s t a ge ( b e gi n n i n g) o f m i t o s i s Th e p ro ph a s e e n d s. wi t h
t he c h r o m o s o m e s a rr a n ge d o n t h e s pi n dl e in t h e e qu a t o r i a l pl a t e .

E a c h c h r o m os o m e n o w S pli t s l e n gt hwi s e i n t o e x a c t ly t wo s i m il a r
p a r t s The a c t u a l s pli t t i n g o f t h e c h ro m o s o m e s m a y o c c u r b e fo re
.

t he a rr a n ge m e n t a t t he e qu a t o r i a l pl a t e D ivi s i o n O f t h e c h r o m o
.

s o m e s h a s b ee n a c c o m pli s h e d Thi s is t he meta p ha s e ( m iddl e )

.

s ta ge Of m i t o s i s .

The s pli t c h r o m o s o m e s b e gi n t o s e p a ra t e a n d m o v e t o w a r d
t he c e n t r os o m es o r t h e p o l e s As t h e y a pp r o a c h t h e i r p o l e s t h e
.

c h r o m o s o m es l o s e t h e i r re gul a r ity o f o u t li n e a n d up o n r e a chi n g ,

t h e p o l e s e a c h gr o up b e c o m e s c o n v e r t e d i n t o t w o n e w n u c l e i .

Thi s is t he a n a p ha s e ( a pp r o a c hi n g t he e n d) s t a ge o f m it o s i s .
 M I T OS I S OR I N D I R E C T NU C LE A R D I VI S I O N 63

M ito s i s d s with t he telop ha s e A n e w ce ll w a ll fo rm s o n t he

en .

s pin dl e m idw a y b e t w e e n t h e t wo d a u ght e r n u c l e i

, I t divid e s .

t he ce ll i n t o t wo p a r t s in e ac h o f w hi c h a n u c l e o lu s n o w a pp e a r s
, .

P r ob lem S tudy f m i t os i s S tudy f p p a red s li des f As ca ris

‘

. o . o r e o

un de r t he mi cros cop e .

I . S e lec t a goo d e xa m ple O f t he a n a ph a s e s t a ge .

A . H o w do es t he s lide differ fr o m t he dia gr a m m a t ic dr a win gs ?

B Wha t c a use s y o u t o ide n t ify it a s a n a n a ph a s e s t a ge ?
'

II . I de n t ify a n y o t he r s t a ge o f m it o s is pr e s e n t in y o ur s pe c im e n .

III M a ke a n o ut lin e dr a wi n g O f t hr e differ e n t c e lls s e e n t hr o ugh t he micr o

e
.

s c o pe .

IV . Alo n gs ide o f e ac h dr a win g ,

C o py a n d la b e l t he dia gr a m of t he ph a se
whic h m o s t n e a r ly r e se m b le s t he vi e we d c e ll .

A v er y s i m il a r p r o ce s s t a ke s pl a c e in pl a n t ce ll s C e n tro s o m e s
.

a re l a c ki n g The s pi n dl e f o r m s fr o m
. m a t e r i a l whi c h is p r o b a bly o f

A group of c e lls o f a v
plan t sh owin g a r ious s ta ge s in t h e m it ot ic divis ion of t h e ce lls Com .

par e an d contra s t t his s e rie s wit h t h e dia gr a ms s h owing mi tos is of a n a n ima l c e ll .

64 THE RE S TI NG AN D D I V I D I N G C E LL

n u c l e a r o r i gi n A c l ea v a ge pl a t e t h r o ugh t he m iddl e o f t he c e ll is
.

s e c r e t e d by t h e c y t o pl a s m Thi s divid es t he ce ll i n t o t wo p a r t s
.
.

Th er e is n o c o n s t r i c ti o n h ere a s t h e r e wa s in a n i m a l c e ll s .

C e ll t h e o ry The illu s tr a ti o n ( b e l ow ) s h o w s s o m e Of t he m e n
.

wh o h a v e di sc o v e r ed a n d m a d e k n o w n m a n y i n t e re s t i n g fa c t s a b o u t
-

a n i m a l a n d pl a n t c e ll s so t h a t w e t o da y h a v e c o m e t o h a v e f o u r
,
-

id ea s c o n c e rn in g t he c e llul a r s tr u c t ur e o f a ll o rga n i s m s .

1 . Th e c e ll is t he u n i t o f s t r uc t ur e o f a ll livi n g pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s
'

2 . Th e c e ll is t he u n i t o f a ll phy s i o l o gi c a l f un c t i o n s o f livi n g pl a n t s
a n d a n im a ls .I t is t he c e ll t h a t b r e a t he s , di ge s t s fo o d e x cr e t e s w a s t es , ,

m o ve s a n d p e r fo r m s a ll t h e o t he r phys i o l o gi c a l fun c t i o n s
,
.

q
3 Th e c e ll e m b r a c e s a ll t h e h e r e di t a r y ua li t i e s o f t he o r ga n i s m
.

wit hi n it s n u c l e a r m e m b r a n e .

4 P l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s m a y c o n s i s t Of s i n gl e c e ll s T h e y a l w a ys
‘

. .

s t a r t w i t h a s i n gl e c e ll , a n d in t h e i r e a r ly s t a ge s O f d e ve l o pm e n t ( e m

b ry o ) t hi s ce ll divide s a n d c h a n ge s i n t o m a n y c e ll s .

Q U E S TI O N S
H a ll of Fa m e fo r b i o l o i s t s
g Wh o w or k e d o n c e ll s

C o un t r y

C o n t r i b ut i o n s

1 . C o py t he n a m es a n d fill k
in t he bl a n spa ce s in t he a b o ve t a b l e .

C he c k y o ur r e s ul t s w i t h y o ur a n s we r t o ue s t i o n 1 o n pa ge 3 3 q .

2 B y m e a n s o f p a r a ffin , s o a p c l a y, or pl a s t i c i n e t ry t o m a e k
m
.
,

ode l s o f a re s t in g c e ll a n d s o m e o f t he s t a ge s o f m i t o s i s .
 S U P P LE M EN TAR Y R E AD I NG

N a m e t he s t r uc t ur e s c o m m o n t o b o t h pl a n t a n d a n i m a l ce ll s .

L
i s t t he livi n g a n d n o n livi n g s t r uc t ure s in a pl a n t ce ll .

Wh a t p a s r t o f a ce ll a r e m o s t a c t iv e d ur i n g m i t o s i s ?

I n wh a t i n ds o f ce ll s is a m i t o s i s c a rr i e d o n ? Why ?
k
D r a w a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t a ge O f e a c h ph a s e Of m i t os i s.

8 Why is it t h a t e ve r y c e ll in a n o r ga n i s m h as c hr o m o s o m es O f t he
.

sam e n a t ur e f o un d in e ve r y o t h e r c e ll ?

9 D i s c us s t he c e ll a s t h e un i t o f s t r u c t ur e ; t he un i t o f fu n c t i o n
. .

1 0 D i s c us s t h e i m po r t a n c e O f t h e ce ll in t he d e ve l o pm en t o f t he
.

i n dividu a l .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E AD I N G

G a ge r C S Gen e ra l B ota n y ( P B lakis t o n s S o n

’
. . .
, ,

L o cy , W A , B iology a nd I ts M a kers (H e nr y H o lt
‘

. .

Wils o n , E dm un d B , Cell i n D evelop men t a nd H eredity (The M ac m illa n

.
 C H AP TE R VI I I

S TR UC TUR E OF
H I G H E R P LAN T S

Ph o t om ic ro gra ph o f c o r n Ph ot o m icr o gr a ph o f woo dy

s tem. s t em .

Wha t is m ea n t by p hys iologic a l divis ion of la bo r ? D oes e a c h pla n t

c e ll of a highe r pla n t live i n depen den tly o r a re t he c ells de en den t
p
on ea c h other ? Why ca n on e type of cell pe rform a fun ction better
t ha n a n o ther type ? Wha t a dva n ta ges ha ve highe r pla n ts o ve r S i mp le r ?

S o c ial di vis io n of la b o r . Iniviliz e d c o m m u n i t y c er t a i n

a ny c

i n dividu a l s p e r fo r m o n e t yp e o f l a b o r m o r e e ffi c i e n t ly t h a n o t h er s .

T h e r e a r e s e a m s t r e s s e s t o m a k e c l o t h e s s h o e m a k e r s t o m a k e s h o es
, ,

m illi n e r s t o m a k e h a t s e n gi n e e r s t o r un t r a i n s c l e r k s t o p e r f o r m
, ,

c l e r i c a l w o r k t ypi s t s t o t yp e w r i t e a n d n u m e ro u s o t h e r s p e c i a li s t s
, , ,

e a c h p e r f o r m i n g a s p e c ifi c w o r k The p e o pl e who a r e m o s t s uc
.

c e s s ful a r e t h o s e wh o a r e p a r t i c ul a r ly fi t t e d o r a da pted fo r t h e i r

po s i t i o n s e i t h e r t h r o u gh s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g n a t u ra l t a l e n t o r s iz e
, , , .

M o r e e ffi c i e n t w o r k is a c c o m pli s h e d in l e s s t i m e wh e n it is divid e d

a m o n g s p e c i a li s t s t h a n if e a c h m a n h a d t o do a ll t he w o r k hi m s e lf .

S i m il a r t o t h e divi s i o n o f l a b o r a m o n g p e o pl e in t h e i n du s t r i a l
w or ld t h er e a r e in o ur b o di e s n u m er o u s a c t ivi t i e s t h a t a r e c a r
,

r i ed o n by v a r i o u s s t r u c tu r e s e s p e c i a lly a d a pt e d fo r th a t w o r k .

P hys iologic al divi s ion of lab or Th e r e is phy s i o l ogi c a l divi s i o n

.

O f l a b o r in a ll pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s Th e a m oe b a Pa r a m e c iu m
.
, ,

Pl e u ro coc c u s S pi r ogyr a a n d c o u n t l e s s o t h e r pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s
, ,

a r e s u ffici e n t ea c h in it s e lf E a ch with it s o ne ce ll by m e a n s o f
.
,

s p e ci a liz e d p ro t o pl a s m p e rfo r m s a ll t he a ctiviti e s a nd p ro ce s se s

,

66
 P H Y S I O LOG I C A L D I VI S I O N OF LAB O R 67

n ec e s s ar y fo r livi n g Th e s e o rga n i s m s h ow e ver live v er y s i m ply

.
, , .

The m a n y c e ll e d pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a r e m u c h m or e co m pl e x
-
.

Th e y c o n s i s t o f a v a r i e ty o f ce ll s D iff e r e n ti a ti o n o f c e ll s a n d .

g r ea t e r s p e c i a liz a t i o n o f fu n c t i o n a r e s h o w n in th es e W h e n e v er .

t h e r e is a co ll ec t i o n O f s i m il a r c e ll s in hi gh er o r ga n i s m s it is k n o w n ,

a s a ti s s u e .

P r o b le m . S tudy of t he lo we r ep i de r mis of a leaf .

Pe a l O ff t he un de r s ur face o f a ge r a n i um le a f . M o un t it un der t he lo w
po wer of t he m ic r o s c o pe .

I . D e s c r ib e t he s h a pe , c o lo r , a n d st r uc t ur e Of t he differ e n t t ype s o f c e lls

in t he e pi de r m is .

A . E pider m a l c e lls ha v e un us ua lly t hic kw a lls . R e m e m b er in g t h a t t he

e pi e r m is d is t he o ut er la y e r of t he le a f, s ugge s t a fun c t io n of t h e t hic k
wa lle d c e lls .

II . No t e t he s m a ll h o le s b e t we e n t he o v a l- s h a pe d c e lls E a c h o f t he s e is a
.

s toma (fro m a Gr e e kw or d m e a n in g m o ut h o r o pe n n g i ) . S ugge s t a f un c t io n for

t he se o pe n in gs or s t o m a t a .

A . The o v a l- s h a pe d c e lls , c a lle d gua rd ce lls , a re s o c o n s t r uc t e d a s to

c a use t he o pe n in g a n d c lo s in g O f t he s t o m at a .

B . D r a w a n d la b e l t he lo w er e pider m is Of a le a f .

C . D e s c r ib e b r iefly t he func t io n s of t h e c ells a n d t he a da pt a t io n s o f t he

c e lls t o t he ir f un c t io n s .

P r o b le m . S tudy f
o a c ro s s s ec t on o i f t he s a me leaf .

Pla ce le af b e t w e e n t wo piec e s
a o f c or k a n d c ut t hr o ugh t he c or k wit h a

s h a r p r a z or b la de .

I . D e sc r ib e t he ge n er a l a rr a n ge m e n t of t he c ells in t he upper e pide r m s , i

m iddl e are a , a nd low e r e pide r m is o f t h e le a f , a s s ee n in t h e c r o s s s e c t io n .

II . No t e t he uppe r c o lor le s s e pider m a l c ells b e ar in g h a ir -li k e s t r uc t ur es .

S ugge st a us e for t h e s e cells .

III . No t e t he re gula r a rr a n gem e n t Of t he c e lls im m e dia t e ly un der t he

uppe r epider m is . This lay er is c a lle d t h e p a lis a de la yer or t is s ue . H OW
ar e t he ce lls in t he p a lis a de la y e r a rr a n ge d so as to s ec ur e s un ligh t ?

IV . Ob ser v e t he lo o s e arr a n ge m e n t of t he c e lls un der t h e p a lis a de t is s ue .

The s e lls fo r m t he sp ongy la yer

ce .

A Wh a t is t he ad a n t a ge
. v of t he a ir s pac es a m o ng t he gree n c e lls ?
B . St at e a func t io n Of t he gree n c e lls o f t he le a v es .
68 S TR U C T U R E OF H I G H E R P LAN TS

V . Ob s e r v e t he s ide vi we of t he c ells in t he lo wer e pider m is . D escrib e t he

a ppe ar a n ce o f t he e pide r m a l c e l s , l guar d c e lls , a n d s t o m a t a .

VI . D isc us s t h e im por t an c e of t h e t r a n s luc e n t c h a r ac t e r O f t he e piderm a l

ce lls .

VI I . W h a t s pe c ia liz a t io n O f s t r uc t ur e for fun c t ion is s hown in a gr ee n leaf ?

Gi v e at le a s t five e xa m ple s .

VI I I . S e c ur e t wo le a v f es r om a r u b b e r pla n t . C o a t t he upper e pider m is o f

o ne a n d t h e lo w er e pide r m is of t he o t h e r wit h v a s e lin e S e a l t h e e n ds o f t he
.

s t em s wit h v a se lin e . K ee p t h e m in a c o ol pla c e for se v er al day s .

A . S t a t e y o ur Ob se r v a t io n s .

B . S ugge s t a s ec o n d us e for t he s t o m a t a .

P r o b le m . S tudy o f t he vas cula r a n d s upp o r tin g tis s ues in a leaf.

B re a k Of
f a n arc is s us le a f a n d s e p ar a t e s o m e t is s ues fr om t he b ro k en e n d .

M o un t on a gla s s s lide .

I . Ob s e r v e s om e of t he c e lls wit h s pir a l t hic k e n in gs o n t he w a lls . These

a re tr a c he ids (xy le m ) . In or der t o k e ep o pe n t h e p a s s a ge w a y of t he t ub e s
fo r m e d b y t he s e c e lls , s pir a l t hic k e ni n gs o f wo o d for m on t he w a ll . Or igin a lly ,
t her e w er e cros s w a lls wh er e o n e c e ll e n de d b ega n , b ut t he par t i
a n d an o t he r

t io n s h a ve b ee n a b sor b e d, le a vin g an un in t err upt e d c a n al Wa t er t r a e ls . v

up t hr o ugh t h e s e t r ach e ids .

II . Th er e ar e o t h er c e lls wit h s ie v lik

e e pla t e s a t r e gular in t e r v a ls . These
a re t he s e i v e t ub e s (phl oem ) . Thr o ugh t hes e s t r uc t ur e s m at eria ls pa s s down
t he pla n t fro m t h e le a ve s t o t he r o o t s .

A . D a ce a m a t er ia l t h a t t r a vlf
e s rom v t
le a t es o r oo s .

B . Why do m a t er ia ls t e n d t o p a s s m qui kly d

or e c o wn t h a n up ?
0 . Wh a t is a po s s ib le a dv a n t a ge of th i v lik
e s e e e cr o s s w a lls in t he
s ie v e t ub es ? E ac h s ie v e t ub e is a s in gle r ow o f e lo n ga t e d c e lls pla c e d
end to end an d t h e t hic k en e d e n d wa lls of t h ese c e lls ha v e n um ero us

pe rfo r a t io n s .

III . T he r e a r e a ls o s uppo r t n g i t is s ues c a lle d woodfibe rs t h a t h a v v e ery t hic k

w a lls Of c e llulo s e . S ome of t he m c o n s is t e n t ir e ly o f c e llulo s e a n d c o m po se t he
s uppor t in g s t r uc t ur e in a pla n t .

IV . Place t he r o o t s o f a c o m ple t e n ar c iss us

pla n t or a n y o t h er y o un g pla n t

in r e d ink or e o s in der t o s h o w t hec o n t in uo us pa t hw a y fr o m r oo t s t o le a

in or v es .

A . Wha t e vide nc e o f t he pa s s age of uids do y o u o b s er e ? fl v

B . Tr a c e t he li uid t h a t t r a q v els up in a pla n t fr o m t he po int
'
of en

t r a n c e t o t he c e lls t h a t use it .

V D raw
. and lab e l as m an y o f t he t iss ue s as yo u
:
70 S T R U C TU R E OF H I G H E R P L AN TS

Th e fib r o va s c ul a r b un dle s a r e m a de up o f diff e r e n t ty pe s of wo o dy c e ll s , s o m e pit t e d, oth e rs

k
r ib b e d an d s t ill o t h e r s s t re n gt h e n e d b y s pira l o r c ir c ula r t hi c e nin gs o n t h e wall s .

an d pi t t e d u il du c t s h nt it r ea c es t he
o r gr ee n h h
c o ro p y ll b e a r i n g
-

c e ll s p a r t i c ul a r ly th o s e I n t h e m iddl e p a r t o f t h e l e a f
, Th e gr e en .

c e ll s a b s or b t h e w a t e r fr o m t h e t r a c h e id s H er e a ga i n a b so r p .
, ,

ti o n is a c e ll fu n c ti o n Oxyge n for r e s pi r a ti o n a n d ca r b o n dio x

.

ide fo r ph o t o s y n t h es i s diffu s e t h r o u gh t he s t o m a t a in t h e l ow er
e pid e r m i s Of t h e l e a v e s th r o u gh t he a ir s p a c e s in t h e m iddl e l a y e r
,

O f t h e l ea f a n d by m e a n s O f , ,

o s m os i s p a s s i nto t he gr ee n ,

ce ll s I n t h es e gr e e n ce ll s .
,

ph o t os yn th e s i s fa t m a n ufa c ,

t u r e a n d p r o t e i n m a n uf a c tu r e ,

t a k e pl a c e Th e s e p ro c e s s es .

a r e c o n s id e r e d l ea f fu n c t i o n s

b e c a u s e th ey t a k e pl a c e in
t h e gr ee n c e ll s Of t he l ea v es .

Aga i n t he fu n c ti o n Of t he
o r ga n i s m 18 r ea lly a c e ll fu n c

ti on .

Wh en
g t ly m g i fi d
rea w dy b u dl
a n f th
e . a E x c e s s fo o d p a s s e s i n t o t he
oo n e o e

t m h w m
c o rn s e s y f th
o st ub whi h
an o th e es c a re e

p a s sag w y fe a th f s d f t h pl t
or e oo o S i e v e tub e s a n d 1s c o n v e y e d
e an .
 S P E C I A L I Z AT I O N I N H I G H E R P LAN T S 71

d ow n t o e s p e c i a lly a d a pte d l a y er s o f c e ll s in t he s t e m o r in t he
co r t ex o f t he r o ot fo r s t or a ge i n t h e form Of s t a r c h gra n ul es O il
,
'

g l o bul e s a n,
d p r o t e i n c rys ta l s T u .r n ip s p a r s n ip s a,n d ra d is h es a r e ,

u s e d by p e o pl e fo r fo o d b e c a u s e o f t he e x t ra pl a n t fo o d s to r e d
in th e m . I n t he c a s e
Of t he p o t a t o ,t he

e xt r a f o o d is s t o r e d in

a n u n d e r gro u n d s t e m

in a s p a r a gu s ,s u ga r

ca n e a n d r hub a r b
,
it ,

is s t or e d I n s t e m s
a bo ve t he g r o u n d .

Wh e n t he pl a n t n ee d s
food a pro tea se
, ,

lip a s e a n d a m yl a se
,

s e c r e t e d in t h e c y t o

pl a s m of t he c e ll s th a t
s t ore f oo d c h a n ge t h e
,

s t o r e d m a t e r i a l s a ga i n

t o a sol uble form .

Th e s e di s so lv e d fo o d s
a re t h e n di s t r ibut e d
by m ea n s Of t he du c t s .

S upp o r t i n g ce ll s a r e
u s u a lly fo u n d in co n
n e c t io n with t h e duct s

a nd sieve tubes
ugh wh i h fl ui d p
.

Th p t h w y th
e re a r e a a s ro up dd w c s ass an o n
Th es e W oo dy fib e r s i pl t n R w m t i l t v l up th
an s a a er a st m i t th l v
ra e e s e n o e ea es
F d m uf t u d i th l v t v l d w t th
. .

oo an ac re n e ea t
es ra e s o n o e roo s
s up p o r t t h e p l a n t
.

Th ose in t he l o w e r p a r t o f t h e pl a n t s tr e n gt h e n t he ro o t s a n d
h elp t o a n ch or t he pl a n t in t he gr o u n d Th e w o o dy fib er s Of .

t h e s t e m s h e lp h o ld up t he l ea v e s a n d e n a bl e t h e m t o ge t s un
li gh t whi c h is n e ces s a r y fo r ph o t o s y n th es i s .
72 S TR U C T U R E OF H I G H E R P LA N TS

ll s n ee d e nergy t o All ce

c a rr y o n t h e i r w o r k E a ch .

c e ll t a k e s in o xy gen o xi ,

diz e s t he fo o d di s t r ibu t e d
t o it a n d giv e s O ff c a r b o n ,

di o xid e a n d s o m e w a t er .

Th e s e m a t e r i a l s m a y b e
di s tr ibute d e ith er t h r o u gh
t h e v a s cul a r s y s t e m o r by
I n ti
c ro s s t i
s ecl f w il l
on , h w a ll p a s s i n g f r o m c e ll t o Cell
cer a n ea s o ce s
.

g d i
a rr a n e d ly f h i
n an O or p t f th
er as on . ne ar o e

l f
ea t i m
c on a n s y i p th ugh wh i h g
an a r The e n t i r e pl a n t gr o w s by
s a ce s ro c ases
h
a r e e xc g d with t h
an t iv
e u u di g ll e ac e s r ro n n ce s.

t h e gr o wth a n d l lS lO I l
Of t he i n dividu a l c e ll s Re p r o du c ti o n o f t h e pl a n t is t oo c o m pli
.

c a t e d t o di s c u s s h e r e but it will b e f o u n d l a t e r th a t it t oo is due

, , ,

t o t he divi s i o n o f c er t a i n ce ll s .

I n thi s c h a pt er t he s h a p e o f pl a n t c e ll s h a s b ee n c o n s id er ed
, .

I t is by th e ir s h a p e o r ga n i c n a tu r e a n d a rr a n ge m e n t t h a t th e y a r e
, ,

fitt e d t o p er fo r m c er t a i n fu n c ti o n s E a c h c e ll o f hi gh er pl a n t s .

co n t a i n s t he s tr u c tu r e s di s c u s s e d in a r e s t i n g pl a n t c ell I t is by .

t he c o Or din a t io n Of a ll th ese c e ll s th a t t he e n ti r e pl a n t fu n cti o n s .

Q U E S TI O N S
1 . M a ke u t li n e o f t he s pe c i a liz a t i o n s in hi gher pl a n t s us i n g t he
an o ,

he a di n gs (a ) n a m e o f t i s s ue (b) fun c t i o n (e) a d a p t a t i o n t o f un c t i o n

, ,
.

2 N a m e t he s t r uc t ur e in a h i ghe r pl a n t c o rr e s po n di n g in fu n c t i o n
.

t o e a c h s t r u c t ur e O bs e r ve d in a c e ll Of S p i ro gyr a .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E AD I N G S
C o ul t e r B ar n e s ,
, an d C o wle s , A Textbook f
o B ota ny ( Am e r ic a n B o o k
Vol I . .

H o lm a n , R M a n d Robb in s W W , A Textbook
. .
, ,
. .
f
o Gen era l B ota ny ( J ohn

Wiley S o n s ,
G a ger , C S , Genera l B ota n y ( B lakis t o n s S o n
’
. .
 C H APT E R I X

HUM AN T I S S UE S

B on e c e ll s b uil d s k e l e t on s . S k e le t o n s o f fis h an d fr og
.

H ow ca n t he m in ute s tr uc tur e o f t he body be i n ves tiga ted ? H o w is

divis ion f
o la bor p erfor m ed by t he hum a n body ? Wha t a r e bon e a n d
ca rti a ge
l H ow a re t he cells in a m ulticellula r o rga n is m held together

If a thi n s li c e Of a n y p o r ti o n O f t h e hu m a n b o dy is e x a m i n e d
m i cro s c o pi c a lly it will b e f o u n d t o c o n s i s t O f a m o s a i c o f m i n u t e
,

u n i t s c a ll e d c e ll s I t will b e fu r t h e r f o u n d t h a t n o c e ll c o n fo r m s t o
.

t he di a gr a m O f t he t ypi c a l c e ll Th e r e a r e m a s s e s o f s i m il a r c e ll s
.

t h a t build t i s s u e s a n d t h e s e ti s s u e s build m o r e c o m pl e x s t r u c t u r e s
,

c a ll e d o r ga n s E a c h o r ga n h a s a s p e c i a l du t y o r fu n c t i o n
. In .

t he hu m a n b o dy t h e r e is gr e a t er S p e c i a liz a ti o n t h a n in t h e hi gh e r

pl a n t E a c h t i s s u e o r gr o up O f c e ll s is a d a p t e d t o p e r fo r m a pa r
.

t ic ula r phy s i o l o gi c a l fu n c t i o n At t h e s a m e t i m e a ll t h e fu n c t i o n s
.
,

n e c e s s a r y fo r lif e a r e c a rr i e d o n wi t hi n e a c h c e ll .

Th e c e ll t h e u n it o f s tr uctur e An y fu n c t i o n o f a n o r ga n i s m
.

m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e fu n c t i o n o f t i s s u e s o r o f c e ll s ,

b ec a u s e it is t he i n dividu a l c e ll t h a t d o e s t he w o r k F un da m e n .

t a lly e a c h c e ll p o s s e s s e s t he c o m pl e t e a pp a r a t u s fo r life
,
Tis s ues .

c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o c o ll e c t i o n s o f s i n gl e c e ll e d o r ga n i s m s in t h a t
-

t h e y p e r f o r m m o s t o f t h e fu n c t i o n s t h a t t h e o n e c e ll e d a n i m a l s -

c a rr y o n b ut e a c h gro up o f t i s s u e c e ll s is fi t t e d by s h a pe s t r u c t u r e , ,

l o c a t i o n o r c h e m i c a l p o w e r s t o p e r fo r m s p e c i a l fu n c ti o n s n e c e s s a r y
,

t o t h e lif e o f t h e c o m pl e t e o r ga n i s m o f whi c h it is a p a r t Th e r e
—6
.

WH . FIT Z . AD . B IO . 73
74 H U M A N TI S S UE S

fo r e it m a y b e s a id th a t a ll
,
of t he t i s s u e ll s w o r k to ge th er t o
ce

a cc o m pli s h t he lif e p r o c es s e s of t he o r ga n i s m Thi s is b r o u gh t

.

a b o ut by differ e n t i a
ti o n Of s t r u c t u r e fo r
f la bor divis ion o .

The c e ll s o f m ul t i
c e llul a r animals a nd

pl a n t s a r e n o t i so l a t e d
c e IIS Pf V lv x
‘l
f o
m a
o i
l
ndividua ls
a ,
f -e ’b ut a r e
fi
,
“l a M W °
p r o b a bly h e ld t o ge t h er
I m t
n os
g i m or ll an s t s, p cet s d di t i t
a re no se a ra e an s nc

u itn b ut
s, j i dt are th
o ne b y d li t t
o one a n o d f b y s o m e k i n d Of c y t o
er e ca e s ra n s o

°yt pl m° as
p las mic cont in uit y
°

B i o l o gi s t s h a v e f o u n d in c er t a i n c a s e s a n d h a v e r e a s o n t o b eli e v e,

t h a t in m o s t c a s e s s l e n d er c y t o pl a s m i c b r id ge s c o n n e c t t he v a r i o u s
m
,

ce ll s .Thi s giv e s di r e c t c o n t i n ui t y t o t h e c yt o pl a s t h ro u gh o u t
t he e n t ir e o r ga n i s m a n d p r o b a bly e n a bl e s t h e
,

o r ga n i s m t o a c t a s a u n it e v e n th o u gh it is

co m po s e d O f m illi o n s o f diff e re n t ce ll s .

M a n y ce ll s o f t h e b o dy d ep o s it in tercellula r
ma teria ls whi c h giv e a ddi t i o n a l s tr u c t u r a l
,

s t r e n gt h Th e a m o u n t O f t h e d e p o s it v a r i e s
. .

B o n e c e ll s d e p o s it a l a r ge a m o u n t Of s u c h
m a t er i a l ; e pi t h e liu m p ro du ce s a v e r y s m a ll
a m ount Pr o t o pl a s m is t he f o u n d a t i o n s ub
.

O r ga n s
s t a n ce o f ce ll s Gr o up s Of s i m il a r c ell s with
.

t h e i r i n t er c e llul a r m a t er i a l s m a k e up ti s s u e s
A
T is s u e s .

Wh e n t i s s u es a r e gro up e d t o m a k e a l a rger 1 .

s t r u c t u r e t o p er f or m a ce r t a i n fu n c t i o n t h a t C e lls ,

ll i t h u i t f
s tr u c tu r e I S c a ll e d a n o rga n Thu s t he e n Th
d fu t i ,
i
e ce s e n o

: t u tu
v m
s r c re aq nc on n

fi r e pl a n t o r a n i m a l o r ga n i s m 18 a c o m b i y g e er or a ni s

n a t i o n o f o r ga n s buil t O f t i s s u e s whi c h in tu r n a r e buil t O f ce ll s

,
.

Th e t i s s u es o f t he hu m a n b o dy m a y b e c l a s s ifi e d i n t o e pith e li a l ,

s upp o r ti n g o r co n n e ctiv e m u s c ul a r bl o o d a n d n e r v o u s
, , , .
 E P I TH E L I AL TI S S UE 75

P r ob l e m . S tudy f
o c er ta in ep i theli a l ce lls .

Ta k e a t o o t h pic k and ge n t ly r ub t he in s ide of t he

d gum s M o un t
c h ee k an .

t he m a t er ia l fr o m t h e t oo t hpic ki n w a t er a n d a dd j us t e n o ugh fo un t a in pe n i nk

t o gi v e a s ligh t ly -b luis h t in t t o t h e wa t er . S t udy wit h t h e lo w an d high m a g

n ific a t io n .

I . D e s crib e t he sha pe c olor r elat ive s iz e , , ,

an d s t r uc t ur e Of t he ce lls .

II . D r aw a gr o up o f e pit helial c ells a t lea s t fiv e t im e s la r ger t h a n t h e y

a ppe a r .

III . Wr it e a b r ief desc r ipt io n o f e pit h e lia l c e lls .

E pith e lia l tis s ue E pi t h e li a l .

ce ll s c o ver a n d li n e t he orga n s
o f t he b o dy Th e y m a k e v e r y
.

li t t l e i n t er c e ll ul a r m a t er i a l Th e i r .

fu n c t i o n is p r o t ec ti o n a n d s e cre
t io n . Th e y m a y p r o t e c t cer t a i n
o r ga n s a ga i n s t i n v a s i o n o f f ore i gn

m a t er i a l o r by m e a n s O f t h e i r
, ,

m o i s t s e cr e t i o n gu a r d o th er o r ,

C ub ic a l
g a n s a g a i n s t f r i c ti o n T h e e p i .

t he lia l c e ll s th a t li n e t he n o s e ,

th r o a t di ge s tiv e s y s t e m a n d a ir
, ,

tube s o r r e s pi r a t o r y Sy s t e m m a k e
up t he t i s s u e c a ll e d muc ous m em
l

bra n e (A m e m b r a n e is a v er y
‘

thi n s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f a
s i n gl e l a y e r o r a fe w l a y e r s O f
O i I i“t e a .

c e ll s ) . Th e c e ll s li n i n g t h e wi n d
E pit h li l ll v y i h p Th y m y
pip e h a v e ti n y p r o j e c ti o n s o f pp i gl l y g up fl y a
e

ear as a s n
a ce s
e
ar

a
n s
e r or
a e
ro
.

s o
e
a
a

ers

f fl tt d ub l ik lum u it
p ro t o pl a s m c a ll e d ci li a G er m s Th h k .

li d wi t h q u m u pi
o a

e c
en e

ee
, c

s are
e
ne
e , or c o
s
n ar
a o
n

s e
s .

t with il i
a r e pu s h e d o r m o v e d b a c k i n t o t h l i l ll ; th pi t y t e a ce s e res ra o r ra c c

t d pith li l ll a e , e e a ce s .

t he t hr o a t b y m e a n s o f thi s b r u s h
'

like a rr a n ge m e n t Th e y w o r k v e r y m u c h like t h e cili a o f t he

.

Pa ra m e c iu m B e ca u s e Of t h e m uco u s epi t h e liu m in t he a li m e n t a r y

.

c a n a l f oo d s lip s e as ily thro u gh t he tub e wi t h n o fr icti on I n addi

, .
76 H U M A N TI S S UE S

t io n t o m u co us ll s t h e r e a re o t h e r e pi t h e li a l ce ll s in t he a lim en
ce ,

t a r y c a n a l a d a p t e d fo r s e c r e t i n g di ge s t iv e j ui c e s .

Th e e pi t h e li a l c e ll s li n i n g t h e c l o s e d c a vi t i e s Of t he b o dy c o m
p o s e s t r u c t ur e s c a ll e d s erous m embra n es The s er o u s m e m b r a n e s .

li n e bl o o d v e s s e l s c o v e r t he lu n gs li n e t he c h e s t c o v e r t he
, , ,

h e a r t c o v e r t h e a bd o m i n a l o r ga n s a n d li n e t he a bd o m e n The
, .

s er o u s m e m b r a n es t h a t
c o v e r t h e lu n s a r e t h e
g
pl e u r a e (pleura r ib ) .

I n b r ea t hi n g wh e n t he ,

lu n gs b e c o m e i n fl a t e d or
l a r ger a n d c o m p r e s s e d o r ,

s m a ll e r th e r e w o uld b e ,

fr i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e lun g
a n d t he w a ll O f t h e c h e s t ,

w e r e it n o t fOr t hi s m o i s t
e pith e li a l ti s s u e I f t he .

E pith li l ll m y m uf tu
e a ce s a an ti ac C t i
r e s e cr e on s er a n

v 1 b m H m T
.

ce lls, gl
o b l t ll
e ce f u d i
s , a ret h ogu ll nt T h ny g i e P e u r a e
e ec o e l I l
e a e ( e J

G up f pith li l ll ft f m im pl t he p e r s o n I S S a l d t o h a ‘ 6
.

o ut m u ic n ro s o e e a ce s o en or s e

m p u d gl d wh i h giv
.
r

or co o n an s ff c t i ti
e o c e r a n s e cre on s .

pl e u r i s y I f t he s e c r e t i o n .

O f fl uid is i n t e r f e r e d wi t h th e r e is fr i c ti o n b e t w e e n t he lu n gs a n d
,

t he w a ll s O f t h e c h e s t a n d b r e a t hi n g b e c o m e s p a i n ful .

Th e c o v e r i n g o f t h e h ea r t is t he perica rdium (p eri a round ;

c a rdium h e a r t ) Thi s m e m b r a n e p r e v e n t s fr i c t i o n b e t w ee n t he
.

h e a r t a n d lu n gs a n d o th e r o r ga n s The m e m b ra n e li n i n g t he .

a bd o m e n is t h e pe r iton eum I n fe c t i on o r i n fl a m m a t i o n o f t he
.

p e r i t o n e u m is k n o w n a s p er it o n i t i s Thi s c o n di t io n is so m e t i m e s .

b r o u ght a b o ut wh e n a n i n fe c t i o n e xt e n d s fr o m a r uptu r e d a pp e n
dix a n d a t t a c k s a p a r t Of t he p e r i t o n e u m F r i c t i o n a m o n g t he .

a bd o m i n a l o r ga n s s u c h a s s t o m a c h liv e r a n d i n t e s ti n es is a v o id e d , ,

by t he m o i s t e pi t h e li a l p er i t o n e u m The a bd o m i n a l o r ga n s do .

n o t fl o a t in t h e a bd o m i n a l ca vi t y I f th e y did ju m pi n g o r b e nd
.
,

in g m i gh t th r o w th e m o ut o f pl a c e Th e y c o m pl e t e ly fill t he .
78 H U M AN T I S S UE S

I . D e s c rib e t he m a t er ia l c o v er in g t he e n la r ged h e a d o f t he b o n e .

A . I s t hi s m a t er ia l (c ar t ila ge or gr is t le ) s hin y or dull ; m o is t or dry

s m oo t h o r r o ugh ; t o ugh or s o ft ?
II . H ow do e s t h e t ext ur e Of t h e b o n e un der t h e c ar t ila ge diffe r fr o m t he
b one of t he sh an k?
II I . D e s cr ib e t he m a t e r ia l filli ng t he s p ac e in t he c e n t er o f t he b one . This
is b o n e m a r r o w a n d c o n s is t s la r ge ly Of fa t c e lls . C o m p ar e t he m arr o w in t he
he a d o f t h e b o n e wit h t h a t in t he o t h er p a r t s .

IV . Th e o ut e r m e m b r a n o us co v er in g o f b o n e is t h e pe rio s t e um (peri
a r o un d ; os teon
— b on e ) .

P r ob le m . S tudy o f m i cros COpi c s t r uctur e o f bon e .

I . M o un t a r
p pe are d s li de of b on e c e lls un de r t h e m icr o sc o pe . No t e t he

s pider li k e, ir r e gular c e lls ar r a n ge d a r o un d a c e n t r a l s p a c e . v

I n li in g b o n e , t hi s
s pa c e is fill ed wit h b lo o d v e s s e ls a n d n e r v es . Fo o d pa s s e s t hr o ugh t h e b loo d
v e s s e ls t o t he c e lls , a nd w a s t e s fr o m t h e c e lls a re diffus e d int o t h e b lo o d
v e s se ls . T he b o n e c ells ta k e c a lc ium s a lt s fr o m t h e b lo o d an d de po s it t h e s e
m in e r a ls ar o un d t he ir irr e gula r pr o j e c t io n s .

A . E xpla in why b o n e c e lls wit h ir re gular pr o j e c t io n s o f c y t o pla s m

.

de po s it gr e a t e r a m o un t s Of in t e r c e llula r min er a l m a t t er t h a n t h e y wo uld

if t h e s e c ells we r e perfec t ly r o un d .

B . S ugge s t a m a t e r ial t h a t pr ob ab ly fill s t he s pa c e s a m o n g t he b o n e

c e lls .

G . D r aw a s in gle b on e c e ll five t im e s la r ge r t h a n it a ppe a r s un der t h e

m ic r o sc o pe .

D . Dr aw a gr o up O f b one c e lls s h o win g h o w t h e y fit t o ge t h e r an d

h o w t he y are a r r a n ge d a r o un d t he s pac e t hr o ugh whic h t h e b lo o d v e s s e ls

r un . L a b e l c ell ,
in t er c e llula r m a t er ia l, a n d c a n al .

II . M o un t a pr e pa r e d s li de of hy a lin e c a r t ila ge un de r t he m i c r o s c o pe .

A . D e s c r ib e t h e sh a pe of t he c ells .

B . D e s c r ib e t he for m a t io n o f t he c ells .

G . Wha t e vide n c e o f in t er c e llula r m a t er ia l is t h er e ? The in t er ce llula r

m a t er ia l o f hy a lin e c a r t ila ge a ppe a r s h o m o ge n e o us t hr o ugh o ut .

D . Dr aw a gr o up o f c a r t ila ge c e lls . L ab el c ell ,

in t er cellular m a t e r ia l,
or m a t r ix .

C a r t il a ge a nd bone a re l
c o se ly l t d in t h e i r d e v e l op m e n t
re a e ,

loca t ion , and fu n c t i o n . I n t he e m b r y o t h e b o n e s a re fi r s t pre

,
 S U P P OR TI NG T I S S UE S 79

ce d e d by i n fa n c y t he
ca r t il a ge . In ,

b o n e s o f t he s kull a r e s o ft a n d fle x
ibl e b e ca u s e t h e y a r e l a rge ly c a r t i
,

l a ge On e c a n O b s e r v e t he s o ft
.

t e xt ure Of c er t a i n p a r t s o f a n in
’
fa n t s s kull u n t il t he c hild is a b o ut
e i gh t e e n m o n t h s Old As gr owth .

t a ke s pl a ce thi s c a r til a ge b e c o m e s
,

h a r d a n d r i gid by t he d ep o s it o f
m in e ra l m a t t e r Thi s c o m p a c t s ub
.

s t a n c e is t h e n c a ll ed b o n e A c hild s
’
.

b a c k s h o uld b e c a r e fully s upp o r t e d b e

C t i ll t il g ll u er a n ce s , c ar a e ce s , oc c r
c a u s e it s b a c kb o n e is l a r ge ly c a r til a ge i p i T h y d p it t h i k t ugh n a rs . e e os a c , o

t llul m t i l ll d m t ix e x ra c e ar a er a ca e a a r
a n d is th er e fo r e v er y e l a s ti c a n d
.

, , ,

b e n d s o m u c h t h a t t h e orga n s o f t he b o dy will b e i n j ur e d .

Wh e n a b o n e is b r o ke n ,

t he n ew p a r t fi r s t de
v e lo ps a s c a r t il a ge a n d

is r e pl a c e d a f t e rw a r d by , ,

t r ue b o n e The typ e O f .

c a r t il a ge s t udi e d in t h e

l a b o r a t o r y e x e r c i s e is
a n a l hy a li n e c a r t il a ge I t is .

f o u n d c hi e fly o n t he e n d s
Of b o n e Thi s is n o t t he .

o n ly ki n d o f c a r t il a ge
f o u n d in t h e b o d y .

Th e r e a r e o th e r t yp e s
wi t h differ e n t fu n c ti o n s .

On e fu n c ti o n O f c a r t il a ge
is t o giv e e a s e t o t h e
M g ifi d a n ti
e fb h wi g t h
cro s s s e c g
on o on e s o n e a r ra n e

m ent f llo d ce l t h ugh wh i h b l d v

s an ca n a s l m o t i o n o f j o i n t s a n d by
ro c oo ess e s

v i g p i t um d t h
,
ru n Th ut e o er co er n t e r os e an e ce n e r
fill d with m w b m e a n s o f it s t o u gh e l a s
.
, ,

e i th l w
a r ro di g m
ca n e s een n e o er a ra .
80 H U M AN T I S S UE S

t ic it y build t h o s e p a r t s o f t he b o dy s u c h a s t he e a r a n d v o i c e b o x , ,

t h a t r e qu ir e s tr e n gt h c o m bi n e d wi t h s o m e e l a s t i c i t y Th e i n t er .

c e llul a r s ub s t a n c e o f c a r t il a ge is a s e c r e t i o n o f t h e c e ll s .

Th e p r o p er gr o w t h o f
b o n e d e p e n d s up o n s uffi
c i e n t li m e s a l t s in t he f o o d

a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f c er t a i n

v a lu a bl e gro w t h p r o m o t e r s
“
21 3 c o p sc m in s whi c h s t i m ul a t e t he3
f o u n d in f o o d c a ll e d vi t a o
,

Qé n a l ,

p r o p e r us e O f t he li m e s a lt s
b y t h e b o n e c e ll s I f b o n e
B ll with t h ei i gul p j ti fp t
.

on e c e s, r rr e ar ro e c on s o ro o

l ium m p u d wh i h t h y b t i
pl m d p it ( I OC S n O t d e v e l o p p r o p e r ly
as e os ca c co o n s c e o a n

f m bl d A i dividu l b
,
ro oo . nll i n l h w a on e c e s a so s o n .

s kel e t a l d e fo r m i t i e s lik e ,

b o wl e gs m a y o c c u r Thi s will l a t er b e di s c u s s e d in c o n n ec t i o n
,
.

wi t h vi t a m i n s .

P r o b le m . S tudy of o t he r s uppo r tin g ti s s ue s .

I . P la c e a p re p a r e fi
d s lide O f b r o us t is s ue un de r t h e m ic r o s c o pe .

A . No t e t h e la r ge de po s it s o v fi
f w a y w hit e b e r s w it h c e lls s c a t t er e d
a m o ng t hem . Th e w hit e fib er s a r e t h e in t er c e llular m a t e r ia l wh ic h w a s

se c r e t e d b y t he c e lls .

B . D raw a fe w ce lls wit h t he s urr o un din g fib er s e n lar ge d fiv e t im es .

L a b e l t h e c ells a n d in t er c e llular fib e r s .

II . P la c e a pr e pa r e d s lide O ffa t o r a dipo s e t is s ue un de r t he m ic r o s c o pe . T he

la r ge s pa c e fi lli ng t he c e n t er Of e a c h c e ll is a v a c uo le fille d wit h s t or e d O il .

The c y t o pla s m lie s j us t w it h in t he w a ll , c r o w de d t he r e b y t h e e n la r ge d v a c u

l
o e . The n uc le us can b e n o t ic e d w it hin t he c y t o pla s m .

A . D e s c r ib e t he a da pt a t io n o f a dipo s e c e lls fo r fa t s t o r a ge .

B . D r a w a gr o up o f a dipo s e c e lls L a b e l c ell m e m b r a n e n uc le us

.
, , cy t o

p la s m ,
an d v a c uo le .

F ib r o u s , e la s tic , tis s u e s Th e whi t e fib r o u s t i s s u e is

a n d a dipo s e .

m a d e s t r o n g a n d fl e xibl e by t h e i n t e rc e ll u l a r fib e r s w hi c h a r e p r o b
a bly s e c r e t e d by t h e c e ll s I t build s liga men ts s tr o n g fl e xibl e b a n d s
.
, ,
 F I B R OU S E LAS T I C , , AN D A D I P OS E TI S S UE S 81

t hat h o ld t h e b on e s t o ge t h e r a t t h e j o i n t s T he ten don s a r e a l s o .

m a d e o f it Th e se a t t a c h m u s c l e s t o t he b o n es a n d a re c o m m o n ly
.

ca ll e d co r d s I n b e n di n g t h e
.

wr i s t o r s t r e t c hi n g t he n e c k ,

t h e s e c o r d s a r e e a s ily see n .

Wh e n e l a s t i c fib e r s p r e d o m
in a t e in c o n n e c t iv e ti s s u e it ,

g iv e s a y e ll o wi s h c o l o r t o t h e

t i s s u e a n d is k n o w n a s ela s tic

tis s ue .I t is m o r e e l a s t i c t h a n
fib r o u s t i s s u e b ut n o t s o
s t ro ng I t is f o u n d b e t w e e n
.

a dj a c e n t ver t eb ra e in s ur i ng ,

el a s t i ci t y to t he v er t e br a l
c o lu m n I t 1 5 a l s o f o u n d I ll C m p
.
t h i ph t m i g ph f ti
o a re s o o c ro ra o a c ro s s s e c on

f b wit h t h di g m h w p g 79 o on e e a ra s o n on a e
t h e w a ll s o f bl o o d v e s s e l s
.

Th e a dip ose cell s s t o r e e x c e s s s uppli e s Of fa t T h e s e c e ll s c o m .

p o s e t o a l a r ge e xt e n t t he y e ll o w m a rr o w o f b o n e D e p o s i t s
, , .

o f f a t ty c e ll s a r e in t h e

d ee p er l a y e r s O f t he s ki n
a n d e n c a s e o r ga n s s u c h a s

t he kid n e y s and hea r t .

Wh e n t he fa t is n ee d e d
by t he b o dy fo r m e t a b o
lis m c er t a i n e n zy m e s in ,

t he c e ll e n t e r t h e v a c u o l e

an d di ge s t t h e fa t .

I n ge n e r a l t he c e ll s o f ,

c o n n e c t iv e t i s s u e s upp o r t

t h e o rg a n s a n d m a k e t he
D ropl t e sf il t o t i o ll T hi
en er il i
ce r a n ce s s o h

v lum b y ddit i l p t i l
.

cre a s e s i n o e at i g fr a m ew o r k o f t he b o dy
ona ar c es en er n .

th e cell s d wdi g t h p t pl m i
an c ro n t t e f ro o as c c on e n s o

th e ce ll i t m ll m
n o a Ths ll ba m ass di . Th e t o u gh n e s s O f t e n d o n s
e ce e co es s
,
t t d Th il m y b t f m dt f t M f
‘

ot e e O a e r a n s or e o a as s es o
t he e x t e n s il e c h a ra c t e r O f
. .

th e s e ce ll b uil d t h f t
s di p ti u e f th b dy
a or a os e ss e o e o .
82 H U M A N T I S S UE S

l i t i s s u e a n d c a r t il a ge a n d
e a st c ,

t h e h a r d n es s o f b o n e a r e a ll due
t o t he c o m p o s i t i o n a n d dis t r ib u
ti o n o f t he i n t e r c e llul a r m a te ri a l
o f t h e c o n n e c t iv e ti s s u e c e ll s .

Q U E S TI O N S
1 . Wh a t is m e a n t b y s e c re t o ni ?
C e rt a in v
c on n e c t i e t is s ue c e ll s d e po s it A . N a m e f o ur m a t e r i a l s
m e n t ion ed
l on g s t r a n ds o f e xt ra c e llula r m a t e r ial in t h e
I n t h l s C I] a p t e r s e c r e t e d I) y Ge ll S
o

fi
fo rm o f e it h e r y e ll o w o r wh it e b e r s .

B G 1 v e t h e pur p o s e o f e a c h m a t e r i a l
o .

. .

2 N a m e t hr e e t y pe s O f e p i t he li a l t i s s ue
. Te ll t he fun c t i o n o f e a c h
. .

3 Wh a t d o e s t h e b ur n i n g O f b o n e s h o w y o u ?
.

4 Wh a t e ffe c t do s o m e a c id s h a ve o n a b o n e ?
.

5 Why s h o uld t h e fo o d O f a n i n fa n t c o n t a i n m i n e r a l m a t t e r s ?
.

6 Ar r a n ge I n t a b ul a r fo r m t he n a m e s o f t h e t i s s ue c e ll s di s c us s e d ,
.

t he f un c t i o n o f e a c h , a n d a n a d a p t a t i o n for e a c h fun c t i o n .
 C H AP TE R X

H UM AN TI S S UE S

( Con tin ued)

B abe R ut h , h om e r un ki ng. H e le n W ills , q ue e n o f t e n n is .

Why is t he body ab e l to mo ve ? Wha t tis s ue i n t he body m a kes

movemen t pos s ible ? H ow a re m es s a ges c a r r ie d from on e p a r t o f t he
body to a n othe r ? I n wha t wa y a re t he difier en t tis s ues s tr uc tura lly

l
re a ted ? Wha t b rin gs a bout coo rdin a tion a mon g the differen t pa r ts

o f the body ? Why m a y blood be con s i dered a tis s ue ?

M us c ular tis s ue s . All m o v e m e n t in t h e

hu m a n b o dy is b r o u gh t
a b o u t by m u s c ul a r o r c o n t r a c til e t i ss u e s Wh e t h er it is t he r a i s i n g .

of a n arm t he s w a ll o wi n g O f f o o d t h e b e a ti n g o f t h e h e a r t c o n
, , ,

tr a c ti o n Of t he pupil s Of t he e y e in r e s p o n s e t o li gh t o r t he for m a ,

t i o n o f s o c a ll e d goo s e fl e s h in t he s ki n wh e n t he b o dy is c o ld
-
,

t he m o v e m e n t is t he re s ult o f c h a n ge s in t he m u s cul a r ti s s u e .

P r ob l e m . Gros s s t r uct ure o f s keleta l m us cle ( un m a gn ified) .

S e c ur e s om e fo r e sha n k Of m eat fr om t he b ut c her . B e Sur e t o O b t a in a

piec e t h a t s h o w s t he a t t a c hm e n t o f s o m e of t h e m e a t t o t he b o n e . Ha v e t he

b ut c h er c ut it up in t o e n o ugh s ec t io n s to s upply t he c la s s .

k
The m e a t y par t o f t he s h a n is c o m po s e d la rge ly o f a t ype o f m us c le c a lle d
s k v
e le t a l m us c le b e c a use it m o e s t h e b o n e s o f t he s e le t o n This m usc le is a ls o k .

ca lle d v o lun t a r y b ec a use it is un der t he c o n t r o l o f t he will .

I . Ob ser v e and de sc r ib e t he a p pe a r a n c e o f t he m us c le t h a t is a t t ac h e d

t o t he b o n e . Th e c o n t r ac t in g o r s h or t e n in g o f t h is t y pe Of m us c le will m o v e t he
b o n e b y m e a n s o f t he s t r o n g in e la s t ic t en do n s whic h are fa s t e n e d t o t he b o n e .

II . Fin d a pie ce o f b e ef s h o win g t he de

o ut s i of t he m us c le . D es c rib e t he

a ppea r a n ce o f t he co v er in g o r s h ea t h . I t is m a de Of c o n n e c t i v e t iss ue .

83
84 H U M AN T I S S UE S

III . Te a r or s e pa r a t e t h e m usc le in t o pa r t s . No t ic e t h a t t he m usc le is

v
di ide d in t o lit t le b un dle s . Tr y t o rem o v e o n e Of t he lit t le b un dle s fro m t he
ot he r s . N a m e a n d de s cr ib e t h e t is s ue t h a t s e pa r a t e s o n e b un dle fr o m a n o t her .

D e scr ib e t he s h a pe o f e ac h lit t le
b un dle D e s c r ib e t he arr a n ge m e n t
.

o f t he b un dle s in m a in g up t he k eu

t ir e m us c le .

P r o b le m . The s tr uct ur e f s kel

o

e ta l m us cle .

S e lec t t in y m us c le b un dle ; plac e

’

it fl a t on t h e gla s s s lide a n d a dd a

dro p Of dilut e io din e . Co v er w it h a

co v er gla s s a nd foc us un der lo w

po w er , t h e n high po we r .

I . Ob s er v e t he lo n g in dividua l
m us c le fib er s a nd fin d t he t iny cr o s s

m ar in gsk c a lle d s t ria tio n s . S k e le t a l

m us c le is O ft e n c a lle d s t ria t e d m us c le
b e c a us e f t h e pr e s e n c e o f t h ese c h ar
O

a c t er is t ic c r o s s m ar in gs k .

II . D r aw t wo or t hr ee m usc le
fib er s fiv e t im e s lar ger t h a n t h ey
a ppe ar un der t h e m icr o s c o pe . L ab e l
fib e r a n d s t r ia t io n s .

A m us cl e is m a de
b un dle s o f m us c l e
of

fi b e r s , e a c h b un dl e s ur r o un de d b y c o n n e c t i e v III . E xa m in e a pr e p a r e d S ll de O f
t is s ue k
A t h ic e xt e r n a l la y e r o f t h is c o nn e c
S t r ia t e d m us e] e D e S CI lb e t h e
v ap
. ‘
'

t i e t is s ue is c o n t in uo us w it h t h e t e n do n wh ich
is c o m pos e d e n t ir e ly o f c o n n e c t i e t is s ue v .
pe a r a n c e an d lo c a t io n Of t he n uc le i
j
T h e t e n do n o i n s t h e m us c l e t o a b o n e .

s c a t t e r e d a lo n g e a c h fib er .

P r ob lem . The s tr uctur e f

o s m oo t h o r in volun ta ry m us c le .

M o un t a r
p pe a r e d s lide o f s m o oth m us c le un der t h e m icr o s c o pe .

I . H o w do e s s m o ot h m us c le differ fr o m s t r ia t e d m us c le in a ppe ar a n c e a n d
s h a pe o f fib er a n d in n uc e l i?
II . S m oo t h m us c le is c a lle d s m o o t h or uns t ria ted m usc le b e c a us e Of t he
a b s en c e o f c r o s s - s t r ia t io n s . I t is l
a so ca lle d in v o lun t ar y b ec a us e it is not un der

t he c o n t r ol Of t h e w ill . I t is fo un d in m a n y in t e r n a l o r ga n s s uc h as t h e w a lls
o f t he s t om ac h a n d in t e s t in e , and is r e s po n s ib le for m o v em e nt in t h e s e o r ga n s .

III . Dr aw an d la b e l t wo or t hr ee sm o ot h m us cle c ells .

86 H UM A N TI S S UE S

k e ep s t h e m u s cl e s in a co n diti o n re a dy fo r w o r k M u s cl e s a lwa y s .

e x e r t a pull n o t a pu s h ,
S k e l e t a l m u s cl es u s u a lly o ccur in p a i r s
.
,

o n e o f whi c h o pp o s es t h e o th er F or e x a m pl e in fr o n t o f t he
.
,

upp er a r m th er e is a
m u s cl e c a ll e d t h e flexo r
'

a nd on t he o pp o s it e
s id e t he a n t a go n izi n g ,

m u sc l e c a ll e d t h e e x
t e n so r The f o r m e r .

c a u s e s t he f o r e a r m t o
b e n d a n d t he l a tter
Mu l w k i p i
sc es or M ti i nu d b y t h pull
a rs . o
c a
on
u ses s
I t
ca
t o e
se
xtend e
r e s ul t in g fr o m m us c ula r c o n t r a c t io n I f th e b ic e ps c o n
t ra c t s ,
.

t h e t r ic e ps r e l a xe s ; t h e for e a r m is t h us pull e d up .
N e rve 111 8 8 11 6 . The
b o dy a r e o r ga n s O f t he
c o m p o s e d o f v a r i o u s ti ss u e s Th e s e t i s s u es a n d o r ga n s a r e i n t e r
.

r e l a t e d a n d b r o u ht i n t o c o mm u n i c a ti o n by m e a n s O f t he n e r v e
g
t i s s ue As t e l e ph on e wi r es b r i n g v a r i o u s h om es o f a c o m m u n ity
.

i n to co mm u n i c a t i o n s o n er v e ti s s u e b r i n gs t he v a r i o u s o r ga n s
,

i n t o Co Or din a t io n F or e xa m pl e we s ee a c o i n o n t he fl o or a n d
.
,

pi c k it up Th e e ye s in s ee i n g t he m i n d in d e c idi n g t he b o dy
.
, ,

in b e n di ng a n d t h e fi n ge r s in pi c ki n g up a ll w o r k in p r o p er
, ,

s e qu e n c e due t o r e gul a ti o n by t he n er v e s The m u s c l e s a c t u .

a lly do t h e w o r k but t h e n er v es c o n tro l

t he m u s c l e s M u s c l e s a r e k e pt in p r o p er
.

t o n e by r ep e a t e d s ti m ul a t i o n f r o m t he n er v e
c e ll s .

I f a n e r v e c e ll is e x a m i n e d m i c ro s c o pi
c a lly t h e c e ll b o dy c yt o n
, with b r a n c hi n g
, ,

p r o j e c ti o n s o f p r o t o pl a s m a n d with o n e l o n g
p r oc es s is e a s ily see n The b r a n c hi n g pr o .

j e c t io n s a r e t h e d e n d r ites a n d t h e o n e l o n g A b u dl f n e rv e Is a n e o

p r o ce s s I s t he a xon The n ucl e u s he s n e a r

.
E h b u dl i u a xo n s . ac n e s s r

u d d by fa t ty p ot ro n e a r eo

t he c en t er Of t he cell b ody By mea n s of t iv s he th . e a .

 B LOO D T I S S UE 87

t he d e n d r it es n er v e c e ll s c o n n e c t wi t h e a c h o t h e r The a x o n
, .

is t h e p r o c es s whi c h c o n n e c t s t he n e r v e c e ll w i t h a s t r u c t u r e
re m o t e f r o m t h e c e ll b o dy .

I f o n e h e a r s a s o u n d a n d w a lk s t o w a r d
it a n a x o n h a s c a r r i e d t h e s o u n d fr o m
,

t h e e a r t o a n e r v e c e ll in t h e b r a i n By .

m ea n s o f d e n dr i t e s a co n n e ct i o n wa s s e t,

up wi t h a n o t h er n er v e c e ll whi c h in t ur n
xo a n
c a rr i e d t h e m e s s a ge t o m u s c l e c e ll s Th e .

m u s c l e c e ll s c o n t r a c t e d s o a s t o m a k e
.

w a lki n g p o s s ibl e Ax o n s v a r y in l e n gt h
.

s o m e a r e m i c r o s co pi c whil e o th e rs m a y b e

a s l o n g a s tw o o r t h re e f e e t Th e ce ll .

b o dy is a lw a y s o f m i cr os co pi c di m en s i o n s .

N e r v e c e ll s a t t a i n t he hi gh e s t d e v e l o p m e n t
o f i rr i t a bili t y Th e y a r e t he hi ghly s e n s i
.

tiv e c e ll s Of t he b o dy Th e y r e c e iv e m es .

t he i fli fi fi i iii $3333

t
t r a n s m i t th e m a n d r e gul a t e
’ e
s a ges , ,
s e a

r e s p o n s es t o t h e se m e s s a e s N v ti ue h v l “ m “ as se e ra ess e s, 0
g e r e s s
m t im v y l g th
.

so e es er on , e a xo n .

will b e s t udi e d in gr e a t er d e t a il in a l a t e r Alt h ugh th ll b dy yt q e ce o . c on,

m p th x l Is i cr o s c o ic, e a on , a so
c ha p t er . mi pi i di m t m y cros co c n a e er , a

b tw th f t l g e o or ree ee on .

B lo od ti s s ue B l oo d 1 8 s o h I ghly fl uI d
.

th a t it is n o t u s u a lly co n s id er e d a t i s s u e A t i s s u e h a s b ee n .

d efi n e d a s a gr o up o f s i m il a r c e ll s a n d bl o o d c o n s e qu e n t ly m a y , , ,

b e c o n s id e re d a ti s s u e s m e e it c o n s i s t s o f gro up s O f s i m il a r ce ll s .

P r ob le m . S tudy o f blood tis s ue .

Pr e s s t he fi n ge r n e ar t he t ip un t il b lo o d c o n ge s t s . Pr ic k th e e n d o f t he fi n ger

wit h a n ee dle t h a t h a s b ee n p a s s e d t hr o ugh a fl am e to s t er iliz e it . To uc h a

co v er gla s s t o t he dr o p o f b loo d on t he fi n ge r ; in v er t t he co v e r s lip o n a gla s s

s lide . M o un t un der t he lo w , t h e n un de r t h e h igh po we r Of t he m icr o s c o p e .

I D e sc rib e t he t h e m or e n um e r o us c e lls
'

. s h a pe , s iz e , a n d c o lo r Of s ee n .

The se ar e t he r ed co rp us c es l .

II . E xa m in e a ll t he s ub s t a n c e un de r t h e m ic r o s c o pe c ar efully a nd fin d
a n oc c a s io n al ir re gular ly s h ape d c ell
. This is a white or a m oebo id corpus cle .
 H U M AN T I S S UE S

B lo o d c orpus c le s Th e r e d c o r pu s c l e s a r e c i r c ul a r bi c o n c a v e
.
,

di s k s l a c ki n g n u c l e i T h e r e a r e a pp r o xi m a t e ly fiv e m illi o n in a
.

c ubi c m illi m e t e r O f n o r m a l hu m a n bl o o d Th e y h a v e a y e ll o wi s h
.

r e d t i n ge w h e n vi ew e d s i n gly b ut in gr e a t n u m b e r s a pp e a r r e d
, .

Thi s c o l or is due t o a n i r o n b e a r i n g c o m p o u n d ha emoglo bin

-
, ,

whi c h is in t h e c y t o pl a s m Thi s h a e m o gl o bi n r e a dily u n i t e s

.

wi t h o xyge n a n d j u s t a s r e a dily giv e s it up wh e n o xy ge n is s c a r c e .

Th e r e d c o r pu s c l e s in s pi t e Of t h e i r e x t r e m e ly m i n u t e s iz e c a n
, ,

c a rr y l a r ge qu a n t i t i e s Of o xy ge n H u m a n t i s s u e c e ll s a re n o t in
.

di r e c t c o n t a c t wi t h t he o xyge n Of t he a ir Th e r e fo r e t h e y de .
,

p e nd up o n t he s p e c i a liz e d r e d c or pu s c l e s fo r t h e i r s upply o f o xy ge n .

Th e whi t e c o r pu s c l e s a r e i rr e gul a r m a ss es o f c y t o pl a s m c o n
t a i n i n g o n e n u c l e u s o r s e v er a l n u c l e i N o r m a lly th e y n u m b er
.
,

b e t w e e n e i ght t h o u s a n d a n d n i n e t h o u s a n d t o a c ubi c m illi m e t er .

Th e y m o v e a n d f ee d in a m a n n er s i m il a r t o t h a t O f a m o e b a s .

Th e y s e n d o ut pr o j e c t io n s o f p ro t o pl a s m whi c h e n gulf a n d di ge s t
'

fo r e i gn m a t er i a l s Th e y a re .

s o m e t i m es ca ll e d t h e s ca v e n

ge r s o f t he b o dy b e c a u s e t h e y
r id t he b o dy O f ger m s a n d
o t h e r f o r e i gn m a t e r i a l Uh .

lik e o t h er b o dy c e ll s th ey ,

h a v e t h e p o w er o f i n d e p e n d e n t
m o t i o n a n d c a n m o v e in a di
r e c t i o n o pp o s i t e t o t he bl o o d

c u rr e n t ; Th e y c a n e v e n m a k e
t h e i r w a y o ut O f bl o o d v e s s e l s
a n d ge t i n t o t h e s u r r o u n di n g

P t f d p f b l d t h t h b m g ifi d t l S S ll eS t o d es t r o y ge r m s
ar o a ro o oo a as een a n e .

2 5 0 0 dia m e t e r s a n d t h e n e n l a r ge d T h e c e ll
S pe c I a l I z a t i o n Of h um a n
.

s h o wn in t h e c e n t e r w it h a la r ge n uc l e us is a

po lyn uc l e a r wh it e co r pus cle ~

tis s ue s I t is e vid e n t fro m .

t h e p r e c e di n g c h a pt e r s t h a t t he diff e r e n t ti s s u e s O f t he b o dy a re
a d a p t e d t o p e r fo r m p a r t i c ul a r fu n c t i o n s E pi t h e li a l t i s s u e is
.
90 H U M AN T I S S UE S

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S

1 . N a m e a ll t he t i s s u es o f t he h a n d a n d give t h e fun c t i o n O f e a ch .

2 . C o m p a r e m us c l e , n e r ve , a n d bl o o d t i s s ue s in f un c t i o n a n d in
a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e i r s t r uc t u r e fo r t h e f unc t i o n m e n t i o n e d
.

3 . C o m p a r e a P a r a m e c i um a n d a t i s s ue ce ll w i t h r es pe c t t o fun c t i o n s
a n d a d a p t a t i o n s fo r f un c t i o n .

4 C o m pa r e a S pi r o gy r a c e ll a n d a t i s s ue c e ll as t o fun c t io n s a n d
.

a d a p t a t i o n s fo r f un c t io n
.

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E AD I N G S

Kim b Gr a y , Text book of Ana tomy a nd P hysi ology (The M ac m illa n

er an d

S t ohr Textbook of H is tology (P B lakis t o n s S o n

’
.
,

J
Willia m s , es s e F , H ea lt hful L ivi ng (The M ac m illa n
.
 C H APTE R X I

F O O D N UTRI E N T S

When b ro k en in t o e le m e n t s m a n is w o rt h e igh ty - t wo ce n t s .

What is a food? Wha t is the r ela ti o n o f a n utr i en t to a food?

Wha t is m ea n t by dieta ry i
re qu remen ts an d dieta ry defi cien cies ?

S i n ce t he b a s i s o f o ur m a ke up a n d s i n c e t h e s e c e ll s
ce ll is t h e -
,

liv e gr o w a n d w o r k e a c h m u s t h a v e fo o d a n d o xy gen t o c a rr y
, , ,

o n t he v a r i o u s lif e p r o c e s s e s The c e ll s o f t h e b r a i n m u s t h a v e
.
'

foo d a n d fu e l t o do t he p a r t e a c h d o e s in t he t hi n ki n g p r o c e s s .

M u s c l e c e ll s in t he t hu m b a n d fi n ger s m u s t b e n o ur i s h e d a n d giv e n
o xy ge n if t h e y a r e t o do t h e i r w o r k .

Wh a t is a fo od ? A b ee f s t e a k i n c lud e s l e a n m ea t fa t a n d b o n e , , .

On ly a p a r t o f t hi s c a n b e u s e d by t he b o dy Thi s p a r t is n u .

t r it io us Po t a t o e s co n t a i n a b o ut 7 0 per c e n t Of w a t e r a n d v a r y
.

inga m o u n t s o f s t a r c h p ro t e i n a n d m i n era l s a lt s
, As a m a tter
, .

Of f a c t th e y c o n t a i n o n ly a b o ut 2 5 pe r c e n t Of n utr i t iv e m a t er i a l
, .

The s m a ll pe r c e n t o f c e llul o s e whi c h m a k e s up t he c e ll w a ll s ha s

n o m o r e r e a l f o o d v a lu e t h a n t h e w o o d o f a l e a d p e n c il I t p a s se s .

thr o u gh t he fo o d tub e u n a ffe ct e d c h e m i c a lly S u c h p a r t s o f t he

, .

p o t a t o a r e c a ll e d was te Thu s we s e e t h a t e v er y f o o d m a y c o n t a i n
.

b o th n u t r i e n t s a n d w a s t e s C e r t a i n o f t he w a s t e m a t er i a l s t h a t
.

p a s s thr o u gh t he f oo d t r a c t u n di ges t e d s er v e t he r e a l a n d de ,

s ir a bl e pu r p ose o f givi n g bulk t o t he di e t .

Wh a t is a n utrie n t ? An y s ub s t a n c e s u c h a s c a r b o hyd r a t e pr o , ,

t e i n o r fa t th a t yi e ld s m a t e r i a l fo r gr owth a n d r e p a ir o f ti s s u es or
, , ,

91
92 F O O D NU T R I EN TS

wh e n o xidiz e d , ca n be used as fu e l fo r t he r el e a s e Of e n er g y is
, a

n ut r i en t Th e
. t er m n utr ien t is fr e qu e n t ly u s e d to d en ot e t he

M a ln ut r it ion e xis t s a m o n g pl a n t s a s w e ll a s a n im a l s . M a ny difi e r e n t m in e ra l s a r e e s s en

tia l for t h e b e s t gr o wt h a n d d e ve lo pm e n t of pl a n t s W h e n s o il is pr o pe r ly fe r t iliz e d, it c on
N
.

ta in s a ll t h e e s s e n t ia l m in e r a l m a tt e r s
. o t e t h e r e la t ion of m in e r a ls t o pla n t gr o wt h.

wh o l e fo o d ,
b ut
f o o d s a r e r e a lly m a d e o f c o m bi n a t i o n s o f n u t r i
ent s . Th e e n e r gy whi c h w a s o r i gi n a lly s t or e d in t h e f o o d by t he
pl a n t dur i n g t h e p r o c e s s Of ph o t o s y n t h e s i s is r e l e a s e d fr o m t he
,

f o o d du r i n g t h e o xid a ti o n p r oce s s in t he b o dy Thi s s t o r e d .

e n e r gy is s e t f r e e f r o m t h e f oo d in s o m e a c tiv e f or m ; s u c h a s ,

m u s c ul a r e n e r gy c h e m i c a l e n e r gy h e a t e n e r gy o r n e r v o u s e n e r gy
, , , .

Wh e n s u ga r s a n d f a t s a r e bu r n e d e i t h e r o v er a fir e Or in t he b o dy
,

w a s t e p r o du c t s c a r b o n di o xid e a n d w a t er a r e f o r m e d ; wh e n pr o
, ,

t e i n is bu r n e d in t h e b o dy n i t r o ge n o u s w a s t e s c o n t a i n i n g s o m e
, ,

u r e a a n d ur i c a c id a re f or m e d in a ddi t i o n t o c a r b o n di o xid e a n d
,

w a t er All fo ods do n o t yi e ld t he s a m e a m o u n t s o f e n er gy The

. .

o xid a t i o n O f t h o s e f o o d s in whi c h s u ga r s a n d f a t s a r e c o n ce n t ra t e d

in t he gre a t es t a m o u n t s yi e ld s t h e m os t e n e r gy wi t h t h e l e a s t
,

a m o u n t o f w a s te The b e s t fu e l n u t r i e n t s a r e s u ga r s a n d f a t s
.
,

a n d t h e gro w t h or buildi n g n ut r i e n t s a r e p r o t e i n s s a lt s a n d w a t e r , , .

Wh e n t he di e t c o n t a i n s a n i n s uffi c i e n t a m o u n t o f s u ga r s a n d
f a t s s o m e Of t he p r o t e i n s m a y b e o xidiz e d fo r t he rel ea se o f e n e r gy
,
.

B ut p r o t e i n s giv e o ff gr e a t a m o u n t o f w a s t e s whi c h t he b o dy
u s u a lly h a s difficulty in di s p o s i n g o f e ffe c tiv e ly .
T AB LE OF F OOD N U T R I E N TS

l l
a a
m m e 4 E E
a m u 3
£
o va
8 9 m 8
3 s
fi
m
a
0
c w
d 8 d a 3 8 s
a
3 am s ? 3 o g
m m
e
fi
a

0
a
e
s n n n
g o g e e e 9 o s
e w e w w w3 g e
 M I NE R A L I N S UFF I C I E N C Y 5

ca u s e o f s o m a n y c a s e s o f m a l n u t r i t i o n The i n s ti t u t i o n wa s in
.

e x ce ll e n t c o n diti on a s fa r a s v e n til a ti o n s a n i t a r y f a c iliti es s un

, ,

p orc h e s pl a y gr o u n d s a n d c a re ful s up er vi s i o n we r e c o n ce r n ed
, , ,

but s e v e r e m a l n u t r i t i o n e xi s t e d a m o n g t he c hi ld r e n A c are ful .

s tudy o f t he f oo d o f t he c hild r e n s h o w e d t h a t th e r e w e r e s uffi

c i e n t n u t r i e n t s in t h e f o o d s giv e n in t he di e t b ut th a t t h e pr o ,

t e i n s w e r e s uppli e d c hi e fly by l e a n m e a t Th e c hild r e n w e r e .

th e n divid e d i n to t wo gro up s I n o n e gr o up a qu a r t o f m ilk

.
,

w a s a dd e d t o t he d a ily di e t O f e a c h c hild I n t he o t h e r gr o up t he
.
,

c hild re n co n ti n u e d o n t he o r i gi n a l di e t wi t h o u t t h e m ilk Wi t hi n .

a s h o r t ti m e t h e r e w a s a m a r k e d i n c r ea se in b o dy w e i ght a m o n g

t he c hild r e n in t he m ilk fe d gr o up -
The i n c re a s e d w e i ght w a s
.

m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h er e wa s a n o t i c e a bl e c h a n ge in b e h a vi o r
, Th e .

m ilk fe d gr o up b e c a m e m u c h m o r e a c tiv e th a n t he gr o up o f
-

c hild r e n n o t r e c e ivi n g m ilk F r o m t hi s a n d s i m il a r e xp e r i m e n t s

.

it wa s c o n c lud e d t h a t a di e t c om p o s e d l a r ge ly o f cer e a l s v e ge t a ,

bl e s m e a t a n d b r e a d d o e s n o t p r o v e s a ti s f a c t or y for t he phy s i c a l
, ,

d e v e l o p m en t o f t he yo u n g c hild r e n a n d th a t t he a ddi t i o n o f m ilk

fu r n i s h e s t he s uppl e m e n t a r y f oo d fo r t h e typ e o f di e t t h a t is l a c k
in g in s uffi c i e n t ly v a r i e d a n i m a l p r o t e i n s I t h a s a l s o b ee n fo u n d
.

th a t t he p r o t e i n s in p e a s b e a n s a n d o th er v ege t a bl e s a r e o f l es s
, ,

a n a b o lic (p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e buildi n g Of p r o t o pl a s m ) v a lu e th a n

tho se in m ilk e gg a n d m ea t
, , .

M in e r al in s uffi c ie n c y Th e r e s e e m s t o b e a m a r k e d t en d e n cy in
.

t he a v er a ge Am er ic a n t o da y t o h a v e p r o p o r ti o n a t e ly t oo littl e
,
-
,

c a l c iu m in his die t in r e l a ti o n t o t he a m o u n t o f ph o s ph o r u s It .

m a y b e p a r tly in c o n s e qu e n ce o f thi s th a t m illi o n s o f t he s c h o o l

,

child r e n of t he Un ite d S t a t e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o h a v e d e fec tiv e

tee t h The c a l c iu m m u s t n o t o n ly b e p r e s e n t in t he di e t b ut
.
,

m u s t b e in s u c h a f or m th a t t h e b o dy is a bl e t o use it Th e .

utiliz a t i o n o f c a l c iu m will b e m o r e fully di s c u s s e d in a l a t er

c h a pt e r . The li s t o n t he fo ll o wi n g p a ge giv e s s o m e o f t he com
mo n fo o d s th a t con t a i n v ar i ou s m i n er a l s .
 F OO D NU T R I E N T S

S o diu m co mm o n lt sa .

Po t a s s iu m m ea t a n d v e ge t a bl e s .

M a gn es iu m m e a t a n d v e ge t a bl es .

C a l c iu m m ilk a n d l e a fy v e ge t a bl e s .

S ulphu r m ea t a n d v e ge t a bl e s .

Ph o s ph or u s c h ee s e c o d h a dd o c k c e l er y s pi n a c h a n d l e t t u c e
, , , , , .

I ro n m e a t m ilk e ggs wh o l e wh e a t
, , , s pi n a c h a nd , ,

bea ns .

I o di n e m ilk l e a fy v e ge t a bl e s fr uit s a n d w a t e r
, , , .

I f t he di e t is wid ely v a r i e d t O in c lude a gr e a t m a n y diffe r e n t

foo d s s u ffi c i e n t m i n e r a l s a re O b t a i n e d Wh e n t he di e t is n o t p r o p
’

.
,

e r ly v a r i e d s p e c ifi c m i n e r a l s a r e s o m e ti m e s p r es c r ib e d by d o c t or s
, .

F o r e x a m pl e li m e w a t er is put in t h e m ilk o f i n f a n t s o r m e di c i n e s
, ,

c o n t a i n i n g i r o n a r e giv e n c hild r e n Th e b o dy u t iliz es t o s o m e

.

e xt e n t t h e m i n e r a l s in t hi s f o r m H o w e v e r it is c h e a p e r a n d
.
,

b e t t er t o ge t t he m i n e r a l s fr o m f o o d Her e t h e y a r e b o u n d .
,

c h e m i c a lly with o r ga n i c s ub s t a n c e s in whi c h f o r m th e y a r e e a s ily

,

a s s i m il a t e d by t h e b o dy .

Vitamin s C e r t a i n Of o ur f oo d s a r e o f gr ea t use t o t he b o dy in
.

th a t t h e y a r e h ea l t h r e gul a t i n g I t is k n o w n th a t s u c h f oo d s
.
98 F O O D NU T R I E N T S

At l a n t i c Oc e a n s S u ch
qu e s t o f t h e a n c i e n t s c o ur ge wa s un
. a con

k n o w n up t o t h a t t i m e C a p t a i n C o o k a t t r ibu t e d his s u c c e s s t o t he
.

lib er a l us e Of s u c h fr e s h fr ui t s a n d v e get a bl e s a s c o uld b e O b t a i n e d ,

a n d t o t h e f r e qu e n t us e o f s a u e r k ra u t a n d b a r l e y P a r t ly o n .

a c c o u n t o f t hi s e xp er i e n ce a n d p a r t ly b e c a u s e o f s i m il a r o b s e r v a

t i o n s a n d c o n t ro ll e d e xp e r i m e n t s r e gul a t i o n s fo r t h e B r i t i s h n a vy ,

h a v e r e quir e d s i n ce 1 7 95 t h a t a ll s hip s c r e w s b e s uppli e d wi t h

, ,
’

fr ui t j ui c e s ( u s u a lly li m e s ) a n d v e ge t a bl e s whi c h w er e t h o u gh t t o
p re v e n t s c u r vy ( B e c a u s e E n gli s h s a il o r s e a t l i m e s fo r t he vi t a
.

m in in li m e j ui c e t h e y a r e o f t e n c a ll e d li m e y s N o t o n ly a r m i e s .

a n d n a vi e s b ut e xpl o r i n g e xp e di t i o n s c a m p s o f lu m b e r m e n a n d
, , ,

o t h e r i s o l a t e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f p e r s o n s h a v e s u ffe r e d f r o m s c u r vy .

Al t h o u gh thi s d i s e a s e h a d i n di c a t e d du r i n g a ll c e n t u r i e s o f r e ,

c or d e d hi s t o r y th a t s o m e p e c uli a r f oo d s ub s t a n c e wa s r e qui r e d
, ,

r e c o gn i t i o n o f t he vi t a m i n c h a r a c t er o f t h e s ub s t a n c e w -
hi c h
p r e v e n t s s c u r vy c a m e o n ly in r e c e n t y e a r s ( 1 9 1 9
A s i m il a r s t or y is
f o u n d in t h e hi s t or y
o f t h e p e c uli a r dis

e a s e c a ll e d be r iberi .

Thi s h a s a l s o b e e n
o n e o f t he a n c i en t

s c o u r ge s o f c e r t a i n

r a ces D efi n i t e r ec .

o r d s d a ti n g b a c k t o ,

a n e x t re m e ly r e m o t e

Th di t
e f th
e s tw
o t f th
es e m g w o ra s lik io p e r i o d a pp e a r in
e sa e a e ere a e n
ev y p t pt i t h ki d f f t Th t t h igh t
er re s ec e xc e n e n o a e ra on e r
,

iv d b ut t vit m i A ; t h t t h l ft C h l n e s e W I l t l n gS
.
’

re ce e wh i h er t i c c on a n s a n e ra on e e

iv d l d wh i h l k vit m i A
r e ce e ar c Thac tu t d s t d v l
a n e s n e ra e e
t e lll n f h r t
.

o pe d a n eye di s e a s e . g O e av

b er i b er i a ge s Of .

B er ib er i is ch a r a c t er iz e d by i n fl a mm a t o r y c h a n ge s in t he n er v e s
a n d it u s u a lly i n v o lv e s di s t o r t i o n a n d e v e n p a r a ly s i s o f t h e li m b s
‘

Like s c ur vy t hi s di s ea s e m a y p ro v e f a t a l if it is not c ou n t era ct ed

,
 PRE S E N T -
D AY KN OW LE D G E OF V I TAM I N S 99

by a pp r o p r i a t e f o o d s B er ib er i o c c ur s fr e qu e n t ly in As i a ti c co u n
.

t r i e s wh er e r i c e is t h e s t a pl e a r t i c l e O f f o o d Th e u n qu e s t i o n e d
—
.

p r e v a l e n c e o f t he di s e a s e a m o n g r i c e e a t i n g p e o pl e le d t o t h e ‘

t h e o r y t h a t a fu ngu s or
b a ct e r i a l gro w t h in r i ce
m i ght b e t he c a u s e o f t hi s
di se a s e H o w e v e r a de
.
,

fic ie n cy in t he vi t a m i n di e t
is n o w ge n e r a lly h e ld t o b e
Fu k f d pig f th m g th m m u t
t he c a u se O f t h l s dl s e a s e
n e e on s o e sa e a e e sa e a o n s

f i Th t h l ft t wh l i Th
‘
o r ce » e on e on e e a e o e r ce e on e
wh i h l k vit
.

th igh t w f d p li h d i
Pr e s e nt day kn owle dge mi B Th a
on e r as e o s e r ce c ac s

d pig n i h wi g ym pt m
. ef s e co n e on s s o n s o s o

o f vita m in s Th e e xpe r i p ly u it i wh i h ob u d by f
ne di g it f d
r s i h c ca n e c re ee n oo s r c
i vit m i B P ly u it i i l f u d i p pl
.

n a n . o ne r s s a so o n n eo e .

m e n t s p e r f o r m e d in t he
l a s t few ye a r s h a v e giv e n us c o n s id e r a bl e kn o wl e d ge o f vit a
m ins . Un l e s s w e i n c lud e th e m in t he di e t d e fi c i e n c y di s e a se s ,

m a y r es ult .

An i n t e re s ti n g e xp e r i m e n t wa s c a rr i e d o n t o d e t e r m i ne t h e di e t
e s se n ti a l for t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f r a t s B a by r a t s w e r e fe d .

e qu a l a m o u n t s o f f oo d with p r o p e r ki n d s a n d p r o p o r t i o n s o f pr o

t e i n s c a r b o hyd r a t e s a n d m i n e r a l m a t t e r s b ut o n e gr o up w a s giv e n
, , ,

fa t in t h e f o r m o f l a r d a n d t h e o t h e r giv e n but t e r i n s t e a d o f t h e
l a r d The r a t s fe d o n la r d fa ile d t o gr o w n o r m a lly a n d th e y s o o n
.
‘

d e v e l op e d s or e e y e s The bu t t er fed r a t s gr e w i n to no r m a l
.
-

h e a lthy r a t s L a r d l a c k s t he vit a m i n k n o w n a s t he fa t s o lubl e

.
-

vita min A .Thi s vi t a m i n o c c u r s in m ilk bu t t e r c o d liv er O il e gg , ,

-
,

y o lk a n d in t he l e a fy gr ee n p a r t s o f v e ge t a bl es s u c h a s s pi n a ch
, ,

l e t t u c e a n d c a bb a ge a n d in t he y e ll o w pi gm e n t e d p a r t s o f pl a n t s
, ,

s u c h a s ca rr o t s a n d s w ee t p o t a t o e s Th e l a c k o f vi t a m i n A c a u se s
.

s tu n t e d gro wth a n d a c e r t a i n e y e di s e a s e x e r o ph t h a l m i a whi c h

, , ,

m a y r es ul t in p e r m a n e n t bli n d ne s s
,
Ta k e n in it s e a r ly s t a ge s .
,

h o w e v er thi s di s e a s e c a n b e c ur e d by i n cluding in t he di e t s o m e
,

fo o d s c o n t a i n i n g V it a m i n A .

I n a n o t h e r e xp e r i m e n t t wo gr o up s o f pi ge o n s w er e fe d o n e o n
, ,
100 F OOD NU T R I EN T S

p o li s h e d r i c e a n d t he o t h e r o n wh o l e gr a i n s o f r i ce I n a s h or t .

t i m e t h e fi r s t gr o up d e v e l o p e d a p e c uli a r n e r v o u s di s e a s e po ly n e u
, ,

r i t i s or a n im a l b er ib e r i The .

gr o up fe d o n wh o l e r i ce r e
m a i n e d h e a l t hy Po li s h e d r i c e .

l a c k s a vi t a m i n k n o wn a s vita
m in B Wh en t he p o ly n e ur iti c .

T w gui pig f th m lit t w f d

s u ff e r e r s
e e re

t
s an d d di t
o
ar Th
n ea
e s. th
s o
igh t did t
e sa

e on e o n
w er e
e r
er
giv en f oo d
e
0
no
1
’

g t e y vit m i C
an I t l t w igh t
a n d d v l
w
os
a t e r s o luti o n s m a d e fr o m r ic e
e an e e

u vy wh i h i
.
,

op d e sc r t yp f m l ut it i
c s a e o a n r on .

p o li s hi n gs t h e y r e co v er e d , .

V i t a m i n B o c c u r s in y e a s t m ilk a n d in t h e hull s o r o ut e r co v , ,

e r in gs o f gra i n s a n d f r uit I n f a c t t hi s vi t a m i n is f o u n d in s o m a n y
.
,

c om m o n f o o d s t h a t it is p r o b a bly o n ly a n e xt r e m e di e t o f s o m e

ki n d t h a t will i n du c e b e r ib er i .

Tw o s e t s o f gui n e a pi gs w e r e fe d a di e t c o n t a i n i n g e v a p o r a t e d
p owd e r e d m ilk in a ddi t i o n t o t he b a s a l fo o d s r e qui r e d I n t he .

c a se of one set , t he

milk w a s h e a t e d for a

l o n g p e r i o d t he o t h er
s e t o f pi gs w a s fe d t h e

u n h e a t e d m ilk Th e .

fir s t gr o up d e v e l o p e d
s c u r vy ; t he s e co n d

g r o u p r e m a i n e d

h e a l t hy Te s t s s h o w
.

t h a t vi ta min C whi c h ,

is p r e s e n t in m ilk a n d
t he l a ck o f wh i ch
c a u s e s S C UI V y I S In a f i k t m y b du t l k f vit
‘
L g di t yp e s ea s e , a e o r c e s, a e e o ac o a
iv d t h
, ,
mi D Th hi k th m d
m ea sure d 9
g n es e c c ens are e sa e a e an r e ce e e
t i i g vit m i
.

a r g6 m m u t f diff t f d
“
F d sa e a o n s o e ren oo s oo con a n n a n
v u 1 gh t W l l h l p t p v t
.

s t r o y e d by h e a t Pa s
D
.
d u or e k t en s n 1
.

i e o re en an c re ric e s.

t e ur iz a t io n o f m ilk t h e r e f o r e m a y d e s t r o y t hi s vi t a m i n
, F o r t hi s
, .

rea s o n b a bi es t h a t a r e fed o n p a s t e ur iz e d m ilk s h o uld b e giv e n

,
1 02 F OOD NU T R I E N T S

ot he r f oo d s t o s upply thi s vi t a m i n V i t a m i n C o c curs l a r ge ly in

.

c i t r u s fr ui t s s u c h a s l e m o n s a n d o r a n ges a n d in t o m a t o e s a n d
,

Under wood dc Underwood

v
S un b a t h s a r e al ua b l e for in s ur in g t h e pr o pe r fun c t io n in g o f t h e b o dy . I r ra
d ia t io n gua ra n t e e s a n o pt im um s t o ra ge o f ca lc ium in th e b o dy .

ca bb a ge D uri n g t he e a r ly d a y s of t he grea t Wo r ld Wa r b e fo r e
.
,

t he Uni t e d S t a t e s h a d e n t ere d t he fi ght a f o r e i gn s hip e n t e r e d

,

H a m pt o n R o a d s wi t h h a r dly e n o u gh h ea l t hy s a il o r s t o m a n t h e
v e s se l : The s hip h a d b ee n tr a n s for m e d i n t o a c o m m er ce r a id er a ,

g u n h a d be e n m o u n t e d b o t h f o r w a r d a n d a ft a n d t h e h o ld w a
, s fill e d
wi t h e n o u gh c a n n e d a n d c o n c e n t r a te d fo o d s t o p r o vi s i o n t he c r e w
o f s a il o r s a n d m a r i n e s fo r m a n y m o n t h s B ut fr e s h f o o d s w e r e
.

l a c ki n g a n d t he c r ew w a s r e p e a ti n g t he e xp e r i e nc e o f m a n y s a il or s ;
it w a s s uff er i n g fr o m s c u r vy Or a n ge jui ce t o m a t o jui ce m ilk
.
, , ,

r a w c a bb a ge c e l e r y c a rr o t s a n d w a t e r c r e s s whi c h a r e k n o w n t o
, , , ,

c o n ta in vi t a m i n C w er e a t o n c e i n c lud e d in t h e di e t o f t h e s a il o r s
, , ,

a n d t h e y s o o n r e co v e re d .

M a n y a n i m a l s s uffe r fr o m a di se a s e k n o wn a s r i c k e t s whi c h is ,

a n i m p r o p er fo r m a ti o n o f b o n e s Thi s s ee m s t o b e c a u s ed by t he
.
 —
P R E S E N T D AY K N O W LE D G E O F V I TA M I N S 1 03

n o n- d ep o s it of whi c h is p re s en t in c er t a i n
t h e m i n e r a l c a l c iu m
fo o d s The h e a d o f a r a c hi t i c a nim a l u s u a lly b ec o m es bulky a n d
.
,

t h e b o n es a t t h e k n ee s a n d a n kl e s b ec o m e e n l a r ge d , F o r e xperi .
-
f

m e n t a t i o n a se t o f r a t s wa s fe d a di e t whi c h co n t a i n e d vit a m i n A
, ,

but l a c k e d a n o t h er s ub s t a n c e k n ow n a s vi ta min D ; a n o t h er s e t
o f r a t s wa s g i v e n vit a m i n D in t h e f o r m o f co d liv e r O il Th e fi r s t
g r o up d e v e l o p e d r i c k e t s ; t h e se c o n d gr o up g re w n o r m a lly M a n y
phy s i c i a n s a n d s c i e n t i s t s h a v e o b se r ve d an d r e p o r te d t h a t t h e
e xp o s ur e O f r ac hi t i c c hild re n t o t he r a y s O f t he s un h a s b ro u ght

a b o u t a n i m p ro ve m e n t a n d c u r e o f r ic k e t s I n th e s e c a s e s t h er e
.

w ere pl e n t y o f ca l c iu m a n d ph o s ph or u s a lr e a dy p r e s e n t in t he
bl oo d a n d t he s un light 1 3 th o u ght t o h av e in flu en ce d I n s om e
, ,

wa y t he a c tiviti e s Of c er ta in c ell s s o
,

th a t the y c o ul d m a k e effi c i en t use of

the se m i n e r a l s Ot h er s c i en ti s t s ha ve
.

fo u n d t h a t it is t he ultr a vi o l e t ra y s in -

s u n li ght whi c h a r e i n s tr u m e n t a l in
,

p re v e n ti n g a n d cur i n g r i c ke t s Th e s e .

c u r a tiv e r a ys ca nnot p a s s thro u gh

o r di n a r y wi n d o w gl a s s but will p a s s
,

thr o ugh qu a r tz gl a s s .

I f b a bi es a r e giv e n foo d d e fi c i e n t in
vit a m i n D but whi c h ha s b ee n e xp o s e d
“

t o th es e li ght r a y s t he f o o d ca n b e ,

a c tiv a t e d s o a s t o c a u s e it t o h a v e t he

s a m e e ff ec t s a s t he ult r a vi o l e t ra y s -
.

C o tt on s ee d o il which o r di n a r ily c o n
-
,

t a i n s n o vi t a m i n D beco m es ant i
,

r a c hi t i c wh e n e xp os e d t o s u n li ht
g .

TW O S C ie n t iS t S E v ans a n d B i s h o p
: S u uit giv ,h il d
ns s th b fit f
e c re n e ene o
th d a m “ “ the ure e s n
h a v e a dd ed a no th er m e m b er t o t he '

vita m i n f a m ily Th e y fo u n d th a t t hi s vi t a m i n whi c h th e y n a m e d

.
,

vi ta min E ha s a m a r k e d i n flu e n c e up o n t he f er tility Of r a ts
, .
 04 F OO D NU TR I EN T S

Wh en a di e t l a ckin g c e r t a in fo o d s tuff s whi c h co n t a i n vit a m i n E is

fe d t o r a t s t h e r e p r o du c t ive o rga n s O f b o t h t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e
,

will b e a ffe c t e d I n v e s t i ga t or s h a v e fo u n d t h a t a d efi c i e n c y o f t hi s
.

vi t a m i n in t he m o t h er r a t will l e a d t o t he r e s o r p t i o n o f t he e m b r y o s
e v e n a ft e r d e v e l o p m e n t h a s p ro ce e d e d in a n or m a l m a n n e r fo r a

w e e k o r m o r e Ot h er r es e a r c h w o r ker s h a v e f o u n d th a t t hi s vit a
.

m in is p re se n t in m e a t wh e a t ge r m r o ll e d o a t s y o lk o f e gg
, , , ,

m ilk fa t a n d l e t t u c e
,
.

I n t he bi o l o gy Of t o m orr ow th ere will p r o b a bly b e o th er vit a

-
,

m i n s t o a dd t o t he gr o up a l re a dy li s t e d Th e r e h a s b ee n s o m e
.

—
w o r k wi t h wh a t h a s b ee n c a ll e d vita min G o r vit a m i n P P (p e ll a gr a
’

p r e v e n t iv e ) L a c k o f it is k n ow n t o i n du ce p e ll a gr a a di sea s e
.
,

a ffli c t i n g m a n y p e o pl e in t h e s o u t h e r n s t a t e s Th e l a t e D r J o s eph
. .

G o ldb e r ge r Of t he Un i t e d S t a t e s Publi c H e a l t h S er vi c e f o un d
, ,

th a t c e r t a i n f oo d s c o n t a i n thi s pella gr a pr e v e n t iv e but a s y e t t he

=
,

a m o u n t o f t h e p r e v e n t iv e s ub s t a n c e in v a r i o u s f oo d s h as n o t b ee n

co n c lu s iv e ly d e t er m i n e d .

D ie t s . M a l n ut r i t i o n w a s a t o n e ti m e a ttr ibut e d t o p o v er ty ,

but s c i e n t i s t s h a v e fo u n d th a t t h e r e is a lm os t a s m u c h m a ln u
t r it io n a m o n g t he w ea l t hy a s t h e p oo r Pr o p er di e ti n g is a m a t t er
.

o f s e l e c ti n g diff e r e n t f oo d s th a t giv e a ll t he e l e m e n t s e s s e n ti a l t o t h e

h e a l t h o f t h e i n dividu a l M a n y die t a rv s tudi e s h a v e b ee n m a d e in

.

v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s a n d a m o n g p e o pl e do m g diffe r e n t typ e s O f wo r k .

F ro m th e s e s tudi e s a n d fr o m e xp e r i m e n t s c e rt a i n foo d s h a v e b ee n
,

r e c o m m e n d e d th a t a r e th o u gh t t o m a k e fo r phy s i c a l fi t n e s s .

All di e t s s h o uld in c lud e p r o t e i n s f a t s a n d ca r b o hyd r a t e s p r o b

, , ,

a bly in t he p r o p o r t i o n s o f o n e th r ee a n d s ix
, , T h e y s h o uld in
.

c lude a m o n g o th e r f o o d s a qu a r t O f m ilk a n d s o m e l ea fy o r r a w
, ,

v e get a bl e s o t h a t a s u ffi c i e n t s upply o f vita m i n s c a n b e gua r a n te e d .

I t s h o uld b e k ept in m i n d th a t p eo pl e Of diff e r e n t a ges s iz e s , ,

we i ght s a n d o cc up a ti o n s n a tu ra lly r e qui re di ffe r en t a m o u n t s of

,

c a l o r i e s of foo d s The fo ll owi n g t a bl e is s ugges te d fo r d eter m i n i n g

.

t he n u m b e r o f c a l or i e s o f f o o d n ee d e d by b o y s a n d gi r l s
106 F OO D NU T R I E N T S

A . C o n s ult t he t a b le s o f c a lor ic v a lue s o f fo o ds in t he in de x .

1 . F ill in t he n um b e r o f c a lo r ie s o f pr o t e in , fa t , a n d c a r b o hy dr a t e s for
eachfo o d y o u h a e lis t e d v
To t a l t h e c o lum n s . .

2 . Add t h e t o t a ls C o m p ar e y o ur a c t ua l t o t a ls w it h t h e
. n um b er of

l
c a o r ie s y o u r e a lly n ee d a c c or din g t o t h e gi v en t a b le .

a . Ar e y o u e a t in g e n o ugh t o o lit t le , or t o o m uc h fo o d ?
,

I s t he r a t io o f pr o t e in fa t , a n d c a r b o hy dr a t e s c o r r e c t ?
,

0 . C o n s ult t h e s ugge s t io n s gi v en in t h e dis c us s io n of fo o ds an d s ee

w he t he r a ll t h e t ype s o f fo o d n e e de d a r e l n y o ur die t .

3 . Wha t c h a n ge s , if a n y , s h o uld b e m a de in y o ur die t ?

a . Gi v e r ea s on s in each c a se . T he a ge -w e igh t t a b le s ar e n ot

a ut h e n t ic o pin io n s a s t o m a ln ut r it io n . The y ar e , ho we v er , s o m e

w h a t in dic a t i v e Of t he c o n dit io n o f n ut r it io n .

QU E S T IO NS
1 . fi
D e n e a fo o d a n d a n ut r i e n t .

2 . Wh a t e l e m e n t s in fo o ds a re f ue l fo r o xid a t i o n ?
3 . Wh a t a r e vi t a m i n s ? Wh a t a re t he i r v a l ue in t he di e t ?
4 . Wh a t a r e d e c i e n cy di s e a s e s ? N a m e s e ver a l
fi .

S UPP L E M E N T A R Y R E A D I N G
H a rr o w , B e n j a m in , Vi ta min s (E P D ut t o n Co . . .

M c C o llum 85 S im m o n ds , The N ewer K n o wledge of N utr it ion (The M a c m illa n

S h er m a n , C hemi s try of F ood a nd N utr it io n (T h e M a c m illa n f

S t ie glit z , J
O , a n d o t he r s C hem is t ry i n M edic in e ( C h e m ic a l F o un da t io n
. .
,
 C H APT E R X I I

TH E TE E TH
AN D TH E I R C AR E

C o n t in uo us gr o w t h of t e e th . Fa n gs of s n a k e in j e ct v e n om .

Wha t a r e s ome ca us es of ba d teeth ? Wha t is m ea n t by t he hygien e

of t he tee t h ? Why a r e the teeth of t he a ver a ge Am erica n p ro ba bly
inferio r to t hos e of his grea t gra n dp a ren t ? -

D e t a il e d uc tur e of t e e t h N o t o n ly a r e t e e t h i m p o r t a n t in
s tr .

h e lpi n g t o p r e p a r e f o o d fo r use in t h e b o dy b ut t h e y a r e i n v a lu a bl e
,

in m a i n t a i n i n g t he h e a l t h o f t h e b o dy Th e t e e t h e m b e dd e d in
.
,

s oc k e t s in t h e upp er a n d l o w e r j a wb o n e s a r e e s p e c i a lly fit t e d for

,

t he w o r k t h a t t h e y h a v e t o do E a c h t o o t h h a s a r o o t whi c h c o n
.

s i s t s O f o n e o r m o r e divi s i o n s c o n t a i n e d in t h e s o c k e t ; a c r o w n

whi c h p r o j e c t s a b o v e t h e gu m s ; a n d a n e c k w hi c h is t h e n a r r o w
p o r t i o n a t t he e d ge o f t h e gum .

E a c h t o o th is c o mp o s e d p r i n c ip a lly o f den tin e I n t he c e n t er

.

o f t he d e n ti n e is t h e pulp c a vi t y w hi c h t a p e r s i n t o t h e r o o t c a n a l

a n d e n d s in a s m a ll o p e n i n a t t h e e x t r e m i t y o f t h e r o o t T h e
g .

pulp c a vity is fill e d wi t h l oo s e c o n n e c tiv e ti s s u e c o n t a i n i n g bl o o d

v e s s e l s a n d n er v e s w hi c h e n t e r t h r o u gh t he r o o t c a n a l Th e .

den t i n e i s c r ow n e d wi t h a h a r d l a ye r o f e n a m e l c o m p o s e d m o s t ly
o f c a l c iu m . Th e d e n t i n e o f t h e r o o t is c o v e r e d wi t h c e m e n t whi c h
h a s p r a c t i c a lly t h e s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s t r u c tur e a s b o n e but ,

is m u c h h a r d e r E v e r y n o r m a l p e r s o n h a s t w o s e t s o f t ee t h dur
.

in g his life t h e fi r s t o r tempo ra r y a nd t he perm a n en t

, ,
Th e r e a r e .

tw en ty t e m p o r a r y t eet h t en in e a c h j a w : fo ur sh a r p e d ged in
,
-

10 7
108 TH E T E E TH AN D TH E I R C AR E

c iso rs , h a r p can i n e s a n d fo u r m o l a r s e s p e ci a lly a d a pte d for

t wo s ,

cr u s hi n g a n d gr i n di n g The fi r s t t ee t h of t he t e m p o r a r y s e t us u
.

a lly b egi n t o a pp ea r wh e n t h e c hild is s ix

m o n th s o ld a n d t he l a s t a pp ea r wh e n he is
a b o ut t wo y e a r s o ld The t ee th o f t he .

l ow er j a w u s u a lly d e v e l o p b e fo r e t he c or
r e s p o n di n g o n e s o f t h e upp e r
j w
a .

The p er m a n e n t t e e t h pu s h o ut t he t e m
p o r a r y t e e th Th e m ilk m o l a r s a r e fo l
.

Bl d v
oo l d
es s e s v l o w e d by t he p er m a n e n t p r e m o l a r s but
an n er es
t
en er th teth vity wh i h
oo ca c
,

t iv
,

i t
c on s s s f o ti u
con ne ct h e r e a re n o p r e d e c e s s o r s for t h e p er m a
e ss e,
t h ugh t h
ro t e l Th i
r oo ca n a s
vit y i w ll p t t d b y th n e n t m o1ELI S
.
'

ca s e ro ec e e .

” w " d ti
e en d “m “
ne ’ a n en
Th e fi r s t p er m a n e n t t ee th u s u a lly a pp e ar
a b o ut t he s ixth y e a r whil e t h e l a s t o n e s m a y n o t a pp ea r u n til t h e

tw e n ty fift h ye a r The m o l a r s a r e t he fi rs t t o a pp e a r th e n t he
-
.
,
.

t wo c e n t r a l i n c i s o r s a b o ut t h e s e v e n th ye a r t he t w o l a te r a l in ,

c is o r s a t e i gh t t h e bi c u s pid s a t n i n e a n d t e n t h e c a n i n e a t e l e ve n
, ,

o r tw e lv e t he s e c o n d m o l a r s a t tw e lve o r thir t e e n a n d l a s t a r e
, ,

t he th ir d m o l a r s o r wi s d o m t ee th .

The fi r s t p e r m a n e n t t e e t h t o a pp e a r a re t he upp er fi r s t m o l a r s
whi c h do n o t r e pl a c e a n y O f t he m ilk t e e t h but c o m e d o w n b ehi n d ,

t he s e c o n d t e m p o r a r y m o l a r s Wh e n t he t em p o r a r y t e et h o f c hil
—
.

d r en a r e n e gl e c t e d t h e s e s ix y e a r m o l a r s a r e o ft e n n egl e c t e d a n d ,

c on se qu e n tly h a v e t o b e e xt ra c t e d e a r ly in lif e .

Arr a n ge m e n t of t e e th Wh e n t he m o uth is c l o s e d t he upp er

.

fr o n t t ee t h p r o t r ud e S li ghtly o v er t he l o we r fr o n t t e e t h I f t h e .

t e e th a r e i rr e gul a r o r o ut o f p o s i t i o n thi s a rr a n ge m e n t is c h a n ge d
, .

Ad e n o id s a r e s o m e ti m e s r e sp o n s ibl e fo r n a rr o wi n g t he j a w a n d
thr o wi n g t he t ee t h o ut o f p o s i t i o n P eopl e wi t h p o or f or m a ti o n s.

o f t ee th c a n n o t c h e w th e i r f o o d p r o p e r ly a n d di ge s t i o n is t h er e f o r e

i m p a i r e d Wh en t ee th a r e cr o wd e d a n d o ut o f pl a c e t h e foo d m a y
.
,

r e m a i n l o d ge d b e tw ee n t h e t e e th a n d c a u se th e m t o d e c a y Th e .

n o r m a l c on t o ur s O f t h e f a ce a r e c h a n ge d by m a lf o r m a ti o n s Of t h e
1 10 TH E T E E TH AN D TH E I R C A RE

by di s s o lvi n g a h a lf t e a s p oo n ful o f s a l t in a gl a s s Of w a r m w a ter .

F r ui t a c id s s u c h a s dilu t e l e m o n j ui c e o r vi n e ga r s h o uld b e u s ed
o c c a s i o n a lly I f f o o d l o d ge s b e t w ee n t e e t h it S h o uld b e r e m o v e d
.
,

by d e n t a l fl o s s A m e t a lli c t oo t hpi c k o r p in s h o uld n e v e r b e u s e d

.

a s it m a y c hip o r c r a c k t h e e n a m e l VVO O de n t o o t hpi c k s s h o uld

.

a l s o b e a v o id e d a s t h e y t e n d t o c ut a n d i r r i t a t e t h e gu m s S ilk .

t h r e a d is n o t a n a d e qu a t e s ub s t i t u t e fo r d e n t a l fl o s s b e ca u s e it is
n o t s t e r il e a n d it m a y c ut t he gu m s .

P e r io dic a l vi s it s t o t h e de n tis t I n s pi t e o f t h e b e s t c a r e t he
.
,

t a r t a r c a n n o t b e e n t i r e ly r e m o v e d fr o m t he t e e t h w i t h a b r u s h .

The b a c t e r i a whi c h a re h e ld in t h e s o f t t a r t a r will p r o b a bly

d e c a y t he f oo d l e f t in t he t e e t h S o m e t i m e s t he f e r m e n t i n g o f
.

s u ga r b e tw ee n t h e t e e t h a n d t h e a c id s f o r m e d by b a c t e r i a will

di s s o lv e t he e n a m e l c a u s i n g s o f t s p o t s o r ti n y c a vi t i e s int he t e e t h
, .

Th e s o f t d e n t i n e is t h e n e xp o s e d t o t h e d e c a y a c t i o n Of t he b a c
t er i a . On c e a ye a r a t l e as t a vi s i t s ho uld b e m a d e t o t he d e n t i s t
, ,

fo r t h e pu r p o s e O f h a vi n g t h e t e e t h c l ea n e d a n d a n y s m a ll c a vi

By s killful de n t a l j
pr o e ct in g i n c is o r s o f t h e uppe r
a tt e n t io n , ja w c an b e m a de t o
a rt ic ula t e , t h a t is , m e e t t h e lo w e r j a w
.

d e t e c t e d a n d fill e d b e fo r e the y s e r io u s ly we a k e n t he te e th
t ie s .

Wh e n a c c u m ul a t e d t a r t a r re m a i n s o n t he t ee t h t he gu m s m a y ,
 R E L AT I O N OF D I E TS TO T E E TH 111

r e ce d e b e co m e s w o ll e n a n d i n fl a m e d a n d t he t e e t h m a y l o o se n
, ,

in th e ir s o c k e t s Thi s is o n e t yp e o f py o r r h e a whi c h a d e n t i s t
.

m a y b e a bl e t o p r e v e n t .

Wh e n t he t e e t h d e c a y pus is ,

fr e que n t ly f o r m e d a n d a b s o r b e d
by t he bl oo d The pus m a y .

tra v e l t h ro u gh t he b o dy a n d
m a y s e t t l e in t he v a lv e s o f t he
h e a r t c a u s i n g a h e a r t d e fe ct o r
, ,

in t he j o i n t s c a u s i n g r h e u m a
,

t is I D . B e s id e s t hi s d e ca y e d Th ,
t u f p fil m y b h
e con o g d byrs o a ro e a e c an e
t igh t i g th t th Th
s ra ut l i
en n e ee ese o nes are
t ee t h g1v e t he b r e a t h a n O b JGC t h p fil f b y b f
.

e d ftro e h h d
O a o e or e an a er e a
iv d d t l t e t m e t
r e ce e en a r a n
t io n a b le O d o r a n d t he m o uth a n
u n s i gh t ly a pp ea r a n c e P hy s i c i a n s O f t e n i n s i s t t h a t p a t i e n t s h a v e
.

t he t e e t h e x a m i n e d a n d t r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e y will t r e a t t h e m fo r
o t h e r a il m e n t s Th e di s o r d e r s o m e t i m e s di s a pp e a r s w h e n t h e
‘

t e e t h a r e put in go o d c o n di t i o n D e f e ct iv e t e e t h do n o t h a v e a s
.

re a t r i n di n g p o w e r a s h a v e s o u n d t ee t h a n d t h e r e f o r e hi n d e r
g g , , ,

dige s t i o n .

R e la tion o f die t s t o t e e th M o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n r ep a i r i n g
.

u n s o u n d t e e t h is t he buildi n g Of s o u n d t ee t h F oo d s c o n t a i n i n g .

c a l c iu m s h o uld b e e a t en s o t h a t t h e b o n e c e ll s c a n d e p o s i t s u f fi
c i e n t c a l c iu m t o build s t r o n g t e e t h E v er y di e t s h o uld i n c lud e
.

s o m e fo o d s c o n t a i n i n g vit a m i n D s o t h a t t h e b o dy will b e s t im u
,

l a t e d t o m a k e t he gr ea t es t p o s s ibl e us e O f t he c a l c iu m F o o d s .

t h a t d e m a n d c h e wi n g s u c h a s b r e a d s m a d e o f wh o l e c e r e a l s t o a s t
, , ,

a ppl e s a n d ce l e r y a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t O f go o d
, ,

t ee t h . H a r d f oo d s c a u se t he t e e th t o m o v e s li gh t ly in t h e i r .

s o cke t s Thi s h a s a m a s s a gi n g e ff e c t up o n t he gu m s a n d t e n d s t o
.

p r o m o t e c i r c ul a t i o n t h r o u gh t h e pulp c a vi t y a n d t he p a r t o f t he
g u m h o ldi n g t h e t ee t h in t h e b o n y s o cket s O n e o f t h e r ea so n s .

why f o r m er ge n er a t i o n s h a d b e t t e r t ee t h t h a n m a n y o f t he p e o pl e
t o d a y is b e c a u s e th ey a t e c o a r s er f o o d s whi c h s uppli e d m i n er a l s
,
1 12 TH E TE E TH AN D TH E I R C A RE

a nd vit a m i n s in t qu a n tity th a n o ur p r e s e n t r efi n e d a n d r i c h
gr ea e r

f o o d s Th e c o a r s e fo o d s a c t lik e ti n y t o o t hb r u s h es in s cr a t c hi n g
.

fo o d p a r t i c l e s Off t he t ee th a n d p o li s hi n g t h e ir s u r fa c e s .

C a us e s of t e e t h de c a y Oth er c o n diti o n s b e s id e s l a c k o f i n di
.

vidu a l c a r e m a y c a u s e d e fe c t iv e t e e t h A lo w r e s i s t a n c e of t he .

t ee th t o d e c a y is f r e qu e n t ly c a u s e d by s o m e d e fe c t in t h e d e v e l
o pm e n t O f t h e i n dividu a l F o r e x a m pl e so m e b a bi e s h a v e a thi n
.
, ,

f a ulty s ke l e t a l d e v e l o p m e n t whi c h n a tur a lly a ffe c t s t he f or m i n g

o f t he t ee t h Thi s m a y b e c a u s e d by a d e fi c i e n t di e t
. b o th Of
t he e xp ec t a n t m o t h e r a n d l a t e r o f t h e c hild The c a l c ifi c a t i o n o f .

t h e t e m p o r a r y t e e t h a n d t h e p er m a n e n t m o l a r s t a k e s pl a ce dur
in g t h e c hild s p r e n a t a l lif e a n d if t h e m o t h e r d o e s n o t ge t t h e ki n d
’

o f f o o d th a t is e s s e n ti a l fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t e e t h o f t h e

u n b o rn c hild t he c h a n c e s a r e th a t it s t e e th will b e d e fe c tiv e

, .

Aga i n if a child s di e t l a c k s vi t a m in D it is p o s s ibl e t h a t t h e

’

, ,

p r op e r a m o un t Of c a l c iu m fo r f o r m i n g t e e t h wil l no t b e d e p o s it e d .

D e n t a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e fi r s t t e e th is o ft en n e gl ec t e d b eca u s e
p a r en t s f a il t o r e a liz e t h e n e c e s s i t y of it o r c a nn o t a ffo rd t he hi gh
co s t of su ch c ar e F r e qu e n t ly t h e f a il ur e o n t he p a r t o f c hild re n
.
,

t o t e ll th e i r p a r e n t s o f c a vi t i e s in th e i r t e e th e ith er b e c a u s e t h e y ,

a r e t oo y o u n g or b ec a u s e th e y a r e a f r a id o f b e i n g hu r t by t he

d en ti s t is t h e c a u s e o f p o o r t e e t h The l a c k of c o m p e t en t d e n t a l
, .

f a c ili t i es in m a n y c o m m un i t i e s is by n o m e a n s a n i n fr e qu e n t
r e a s o n fo r b a d t e e t h .

P r ob le m . S ur vey f
o t he co n di tion o f t he teet h .

Us e a m irr or or m irr o r s t o a s s is t y o u in y o ur
. s ur v ey .

I . Not e y our b it e b y c los in g t he t eet h a n d dr awing b a ck t he lips .

A D e s c r ib e a n y m a lfor m a t io n s s uch a s t e e t h o ut o f pla c e upper

.
, t ee t h

pro t r uding o v er lo we r t e e t h , or lo w er t ee t h e xt e n din g o v er uppe r t e e t h .

B . D is c us s t he im por t a n c e of h a vin g t he t eet h s t r a ight e n e d .

C . Wh a t is t he a dv a n t a ge o f h a vin g a n or t ho do n t is t (a den t is t s pec a l

i
izin g in t re a t in g irr e gular it ie s of t he t ee t h ) s t r a igh t e n y o ur t ee t h r a t her

t ha n a re gula r fa m ily de n t is t ?
 C H APT E R XI I I
‘

TH E
DI GE S TI VE S Y S TE M

P a rt of fo o d t ub e of wo r m . Alim e n t a ry c an a l o f a b ir d .

Wha t s i mi la r i ties an d dif er en ces a re foun d in t he diges tive s ys

tems of fro g a nad of a ma n . H o w is food prepa r ed for diges tion ?
We s h a ll fin d in di s s e c t i n g a fro g a n d s tudyi n g it s di ge s t iv e o r
ga n s t h a t it s di ge s t iv e p ro c e s s e s a r e in m a n y w a y s s i m il a r t o t h o s e
of m an .

P ro b l e m . S tudy o f t he in tern a l o rga n s o f f oag r .

P la c e t h e fr o g t o b e s t udie d in a co v er e d j ar . P o ur a lit t le e t h er in t o t h e

j ar or p ut in t h e j ar a s po n ge s a t ur a t e d w it h e t h er . Whe n t he a n im a l is
de a d, r em o v e an d pla c e it , wit h t h e v e n t r a l s ide up an d t he hea d away fro m
y o u, in s h a llo w w a t er in an v
in di idua l dis s ec t io n pa n Pin t he le gs o ut s o .

t h a t t h e y w ill n ot in t erfer e w it h t h e dis se c t io n B y m e a n s o f for c e p s , lift up

.

t he s ki n in t h e c e n t er o f t he bo dy an d c ut a v e r y s m a ll o pe n in g n e a r t h e po s

t er ior end . I n s er t t h e po in t Of t he s c is s o r s in t o t h e O pe n in g a n d c ar e fully c ut

a lo n g a m e dia n lin e t o t h e m o ut h . Aga in in s er t t he s c is s o r s n e ar t he le gs an d

c ut t h r o ugh t h e m us c le s un de r t h e s ki n . Be s ure to c ut t hr o ugh t h e p e c t or a l

gir dle o f b on es n e ar t he for e legs . I n s er t t h e sc is s or s a t t he a n t e r ior and po s

t er io r e n ds o f t h e m e dia n S lit a n d c ut at r igh t a n gle s o n e it h er s ide . Tur n
b ac k a n d c ut o ff t h e loo s e n e d fl a ps of s ki n and t he un der lyin g m us c le s , in o r der

to e xpo s e t h e in t e r n a l o r ga n s . I f t he s pec im e n is a fe m a le , r em o v e n e ar ly a ll

t he e ggs s o t h a t t he or ga n s m a y b e m or e rea dily s ee n .

I . M ak e a n o ut lin e dr a win g, n a t ur a l s iz e , o f t he s h a pe o f t he fr o g .

II . Ob se rv e t h e co n e- s h a pe d he a r t m idw a y b e t we e n t he fo r e lim b s . I f t he
he a r t is s t ill b e a t in g, it do e s not in dic a t e t h a t t h e a ni ml i a s a li v e . I t m e an s
1 14
 P RO B LE M 1 15

t h at a ll o f t he c e lls Of t h e b o dy ar e n o t ye t de a d, e s pe c ia lly t he c ar di ac m us c le
c e lls . D r a w in t he o ut lin e , t h e h e a r t in it s pr o p e r po s it io n. .

III . The lun gs lie o n e it h e r s ide o f t h e h e ar t p a r t ly co v

d b y t h e li e r
er e v .

B y m eans o f a b lo w pipe pa s s in g fr o m t he m o ut h t o t h e win dpipe o f t h e fr o g,

ge n t ly in fl at e t he lun gs .

A . Acc o im t for t h e c o lo r Of t he l un gs . P r es s t he m wit h t h e wo o de n

e n d of t he dis se c t in g n e e dle . Ar e t h ey s po n gy or c o m pa c t ?
B . Wha t is t h e r e la t io n o f t h e t e xt ur e o f t h e lun gs t o t h e a m o un t

O f a ir pr e s e n t ?
0 . B y m eans o f a h a n d le n s de t e r m m e and de s c r ib e t h e e xt e r n a l a n d

in t e r n a l s t r uc t ur e of t h e lun gs . Draw t he lun gs in po s it io n in y o ur

o ut lin e .

IV . Th e la r ge lo b e d, , r e ddis h- b r o w n o r ga n t h a t lie s t o t h e r igh t and be

hin d t he h e ar t , an d co v er s p ar t of t he lun gs , is t he live r . I t is o n e of t h e diges
tiv gl d N t t h
e an s . o e e gr e e n is h bile sac (o r ga ll bla dde r ) a t t a ch e d t o t h e li v er .

S k t h i y u ut li
e c n o r o ne t h e li v er a n d ga ll b la dde r .

V . On t h e left s ide O f t he b o dy n ot e t h e lo n g, t ub ula r , po uc h li k e s toma c h .

P us h t he h a n dle Of t h e dis s ec t in g
. n ee dle do wn t he gulle t in t o t h e s t om a ch .

D r aw as m uc h O f t h e s t o m a ch a s c an be s ee n .

VI . The t ub ular s t r uc t ur e le a din g fr o m t he s t o m ac h an d filli ng t h e lo w er

pa r t of .
t h e b o dy ca vit y f or m s t h e i n tes ti n es . At t h e lo w er e n d of t he s m a ll

in t e s t in e t h e t ub e b e c o m e s la r ger an d dis a ppe ar s b e t we e n t he t w o t high s .

This la r ge t ub e is t h e lar ge in t e s t in e , t h e la s t p a r t o f whic h is t h e c loaca Th e .

la r ge in t e s t in e is s im ilar t o t h e lar ge in t e s t in e in high er a nim a ls in t h a t it

e xc r e t es t he s o li d wa st e s of t he b o dy , b ut it is a ls o a r e s er v o ir fo r n it r o ge n o us

wa s t e s a n d r e pr o duc t i v e c e lls . I n t hi s r e s pe c t it is diffe r e n t fr o m a t r ue la r ge

in t e s t in e a n d c on se qu e n t ly is c a lle d a c lo a c a . D r a w t he s m a ll in t e s t in e , lai ge
in t e s t in e , a n d c lo a c a .

VI I . I n t he U s h a pe d lo o p
-
m a de b y t h e s t om a ch an d t he sm a ll in t e s t in e
is a s m a ll, ligh t -
c o lo r e d, pe a r -
s h a p e d o r ga n . Th is is an im p o r t a n t dige s t i v e

gla n d
“

c a lle d t he p a n c rea s . Draw t he p a n c r e a s .

VI I I . D e s c r ib e h o w t he in t e rna l o r ga n s o f t he fr o g ar e he ld in pla c e . T his

s t r uc t ur e is t e r m e d t he m e se n t er y .

IX . L a b el h e a r t lun gs , li
,
v er , ga ll b la dde r , s t o m ac h, s m a ll in t e s t in e , la r ge
in t e s t in e , c lo a c a , a n d pa n cre a s .

X . Aft er a ll t he re qui r ed dr a w in gs ar e m a de , t a k e y o ur s p c e im e n fr o m t he
dis s e c t io n pa n an d w r a p it in m im e o gr a ph p a pe r whic h h a s b ee n m o is t e n e d
1 16 TH E D I G E S TI VE S YS T E M

in a s a lt s o lut io n . K e ep it in a c o ld plac e so t ha t y o u m a y c o n t in ue
y o ur

in v e s t iga t io n th e n ex t da y .

XI . Wr it e a p a r a gr a p h de s c r ib in g t h e in t er n a l o r ga n s o f t he fr o g , as s ee n

fr o m t he v ent r al vi w e .

P r ob le m . S tudy of t he foo d t ube or a lim en ta r y ca n a l o f t he

frog .

B y m ean s Of y o ur fo r c e ps lift up t h e h e a r t
, a n d c ar e fully c ut it o ut o f t he

b o dy . Lift up e ach lun g, a n d c ar e fully c ut it o ut . I n a s im ilar m a n n er re

mo v e t h e li v er .

1 . D e s cr ib e t he o r ga n le a din g in t o t h e
This is t he gullet or st om ach .

e s o ph a gus . P la c e t he b lun t e n d o f t h e dis s e c t in g n ee dle in t h e a n t er ior

en d Of t he gulle t C a r e fully for c e it t hr o ugh t h e gulle t
. Wh er e do e s it .

le a d ? I s t h e p a s s a ge w a y a c o n t in uo us On e or did t h e nee dle m ee t any ob

s t r uc t io n s ?

II . M a k e a n ot h er o ut lin e dr a win g Of t h e fr o g a n d sk e t c h in it t h e a lim e n t ar y

c a n al . L ab el gulle t , s t o m a c h , s m a ll in t e s t in e , lar ge in t e s t in e , a n d c lo a c a .

III . Re m o v e t he a lim e n t a r y c an al . Th e t w o s m a ll b r o w n is h re d s t r ue

t ur es n e ar t he k
b ac b o n e in t he c en t er of t h e b o dy ca vit y are t h e kidn eys . T he
kidn ey s r em o v e t he n it r o ge n o us wa st es (ur e a ) fro m t he b lo o d . E ac h one is
c o n n ect e d t o t he c lo a c a by a s m a ll duc t .

IV . Wr it e a p a r a gr a ph de s c r ib in g t h e a lim e n t a r y c a n a l .

P r ob l e m . S t udy f
o t he i n tern a l o rga n s o f man .

Rem o v e t he fr o n t w a ll fr o m t h e m a n n i ki n .

I . C o n t r a s t t h e ches t a n d a bdo m in a l ca vitie s o f m a n wit h t h e b o dy c a v it y

of t h e fr o g . No t e t h e pr e s e n c e of a p a r t it io n , t h e dia p hra gm .

II . Lo c a t e a n d de s c rib e t he or ga n s in t he c he s t or thoracic c a vit y .

III . N a m e a ll t he a b do m in a l o r ga n s Ob s er v e d in t he fr o g whic h , c an be
ide n t i fi ed in m a n .

IV . S t a t e fo ur e a s ily r e c o gn z e d i differ e n c e s in s t r uc t ur e or po s it io n b e
t w ee n t h e f t he fr o g a n d m a n
o r ga n s o The lar ge in t e s t in e t a e s c a r e o f s o lid
. k
was t e s o n ly ; t h er ef or e , it is a t r ue lar ge in t e s t in e a n d n o t a c lo a c a .

V . M ak e a n o ut lin e dr a w in g of t h e m a n n i in k and s k t h th
e c e o r ga n s im po s i
vit y vit y h v
'

t io n . L a b el che st ca ,
dia ph r a gm , a b do m in a l c a , e ar t , lun gs , li er ,

s t om ach, s m a l l in t es t in e, and la r ge in t e s t in e .
 1 18 TH E D I G E S T I VE S YS T E M

s y s t em , t he p art o f f oo d t h a t c a n n ot b e u s e d is s ep a r a t e d
t he
fro m t he Thi s p r oc e s s m a y b e c a ll e d a r e fi n i ng pr o
n u t r ien ts .

c es s Th e w a s t e o r i n di ge s t ibl e
.

p a r t of t h e f o o d is ul t i m a t e ly
e xp e ll e d fr o m t he b o dy Th e .

n u t r i e n t s a re m a d e r e a dy for .

a b s o r pti o n by t h e a c t i o n o f
v a r i o u s j ui c e s I n t hi s di ge s .

t iv e p ro c e s s t h e n u t r i e n t s a r e
r e du c e d t o s i m pl e r a n d S i m pl e r

o r ga n iz a t i o n o r c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d
t hora c ic C a v it
y f o r m s t o e n a bl e t h e m t o p a s s
t h r o u gh t he w a ll s o f t h e bl o o d
v e s se l s F o r e x a m pl e t he pr o .
,

t e i n s in e ggs m ilk a n d m e a t , ,

a r e r e du c e d t o s t a n d a rd p r o t ein
a b do m i n a l
p r o du c t s ; t he s t a r c h in b r e a d
a n d p o t a t o e s a n d t h e s u ga r in

fr ui t s c a n di es a n d c a rr o t s a r e , ,

a ll re du c e d t o a s t a n d a r d c a r

b o hy dr a t e p r o du c t Th e pro .

c e s s O f di ge s t i o n r e a lly c o n s i s t s

M i
an s ll t i
a co f t ub
ec on d viti o f r e fi n i n g di ge s t i n g a n d s t a n d
o es an ca es.
Th epi s lna l um ico b ny t ub
s th
a on e, e n e rv e

cor d li d
a so dm d ro f d li t t i u
a e o d th e a r diz in g p ro c e s s e s
ca e ss e , an e
t i u u pip l ik
.

f d tub
oo l g
e a on , co n n lo s, e e c a na .

D ige s t iv e or ga n s The di ge s .

t iv e s y s t e m m a y b e s a id t o c o n s i s t o f t w o gr o up s o f di ge s t iv e .

o r ga n s t h os e m a ki n g up t h e a limen ta ry c a n a l o r f o o d tub e in
,

whi c h f o o d s a r e a c t u a lly di ge s t e d a n d t he a c c e s s o r y o r ga n s t he , ,

l
g n ds whi c h m a k e o r s e c r e t e t h e jui c e s for di ge s t i o n
a , A gl a n d is .

a c o ll e c ti o n o f e pi t h e li a l c e ll s t h a t s e c r e t e s a j ui c e S o m e o f t he .

di ge s tiv e gla n d s a r e l a rge o r ga n s o u t s id e t h e fo o d tub e s u c h a s ,

t h e p a n crea s a n d live r a n d o t h e r s a r e m i n ut e s t r u c tu r e s in t he
,

li nin g o f t he foo d tub e a s t he gas tric peptic a n d in tes tin a l gl a n d s

, , ,
.
 A LI M E N TAR Y CA N A L O F M AN 19

Wh e n di ge s tiv e gl a n d s a r e l o c a t e d s o m
t he e di s t a n c e f r o m t he

foo d tub e t h e y h a v e a t ub e o r du c t whi c h e ffe c t s t he di s ch a r ge

,

o f t h e s e cr e ti o n i n t o t h e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l .

Alim e n tary c an a l of m a n Th e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l is a t ub e p a s s
.

in g t h r o u gh t he b o dy in whi c h f o o d is m a d e r e a dy fo r t he us e
,

o f t h e o r ga n i s m Whil e f oo d r e m a i n s in t he c a n a l it is a c t u a lly
.
, .

s e p a r a t e d fr o m t h e b o dy b e c a u se it c a n p a s s o ut o f t he b o dy a t

t he p o s t e r i or e n d o f t h e tub e wi t h o u t h a vi n g a ff e c t e d t he o t h e r
or g a n s o f t he
b o dy . C o n s id e r
t he a li m e n t a r y
c a n a l o f th e

w o r m I t is a
.

s t r a i gh t t ube
p a s s i n g fro m t h e b ile

a n t er ior t o t he
p o s t er i o r e n d o f .

e l on
t he
’
a n im a l s

b o dy . I t is a
t ube wit hin a

tu be B efore .

f o o d is a c t u a lly
in t h e bo dy it ,

m u s t ge t fr o m
t h a t i n n e r t ub e

i n t o t h e s ur
ro u ndi n g s t r uc

t ure s . The a li
m ent a ry ca n al O f Th e dige s t i ve o r ga n s of ma n are dis pla c e d t o s o m e e xt e n t in t h is
illus t ra t io n , in o r d e r t o s h o w c l e a r ly t h e ir r e la t io n s t o e a c h o t h e r Th e y
N
.

man IS a Co l l i l lI a r e s o m e w h a t s im ila r t o t h o s e o f t h e fr o g . ot e th e a b s e nce o f a

c lo a ca , h o w e ve r H igh e r a nima l s h a ve a la r ge in t e s t in e b ut n o c lo a ca
t ub e fr o m
. .

uo us
t he m o u t h t o t he u s o r e n d o f t h e l a r ge i n t e s t i n e Th e r e is m u ch
an .

va r i a t io n in wid t h in v ar i o u s s e c t i o n s a n d it is t wi s t e d a n d c o il e d
,
12 0 THE D I G E S T I VE S YSTE M

to a grt ext en t in s om e p ar t s but is j u s t a s tr uly a tub e a s

ea ,

t he s i m pl e s tr a i ght a li m e n t a r y c a n a l in t h e w o r m s b o dy
’
Th e .

a li m e n t a r y c a n a l c o n s i s t s o f t h e m o uth c a vity wi t h it s a c ce s s o r y

o r ga n s : t h e t e e t h t o n gu e gl a n d s th r oa t o r ph a r yn x e s o ph a gu s
, , , , ,

s t o m a c h t h e s m a ll i n t es ti n e a n d l a r ge i n t e s t i n e
, , .

M outh The m o uth c a vi t y n e a r ly o v a l in s h a p e is li n e d with a

.
, ,

s o f t m e m b r a n e whi c h is k e p t m o i s t by Sa liv a se c r e t ed f r o m gl a n d s .

The p a l a te o r r o o f O f t he m o uth c o n s i s t s o f a h a r d p o r ti o n in fr o n t ,

f o r m e d by a b o n e co v ere d by
m u c o u s m e m b r a n e a n d Of a s o ft ,

p o r ti o n f a r th er b a c k co n t a i n i n g
n o bone The h a r d p a l a t e f or m s
.

t h e p a r titi o n b e tw e e n t h e m o uth
a n d n ose ; t he s o ft p a l a t e a r c h e s

b a c kw a r d a n d fr o m t he m l ddle Of ,

it s l o w er b o r d e r th er e h a n gs a
p o i n t e d p or ti o n o f t he s o ft p a l a t e
c a ll e d t h e uvula ( littl e gr a p e ) .

liv y gl d
Th ere th
a re p i f
re e a rs o sa
The t o n gu e 18 a m u s c ul a r or ga n
ar an s
,
whi h c m pt y i t t h m ut h
e n o eTh ot th . e ee

m yb
a m
e co t d wit h t t
e co a e whi h i p
ar ar a n d h a s o n l t s upp er s u r f a ce m a n y
c s ar

t i lly
a d p it f m t h
a e os liv
ro e sa a.

s m a ll pr o j e c t l o n s c a l le d pa pi lla e .

Th e se p a p ill a e c o n t a i n c e r t a i n n e r v e c e ll s th a t m a k e it p o s s ibl e
for us t o t a s t e s w ee t bit t er s o u r a n d s a lt
, , Wh e n th e s e s p e c i a l
, .

iz e d s tr u c tur e s ( ta s te buds ) a r e s ti m ul a t e d by t he f oo d t he s e c r e
-
,

ti o n o f s a liva is i n cr ea s e d a n d gas tric fluid in t he s t o m a c h s ta r t s

t o fl ow Th e t o n gu e h e lp s m a s ti c a t i o n by pu s hi n g a n d r ubbi n g
.

p or ti o n s o f t he f o o d a ga i n s t t h e r oo f o f t he m o uth a n d a l so guid e s ,

t he f oo d i n t o p o s iti o n for c h e wi n g Th e t o n gu e a s s i s t s in s w a ll o w
.

ing by m a n ipul a ti n g t h e f oo d i n t o s m a ll m a s s es a n d pu s hi n g th e m
b a ck t o t he th r o a t c a vity .

D ue t o t he c o m pl e x m o v e m e n t of t he l o w er j a w up a n d d o w n , ,

forw a r d a n d b a c k a n d fr o m s id e t o s id e t he t e e th s h a v e S lice
, , , ,

cr u s h a n d gr i n d t he f oo d The b r oa d s ur fa c es o f t he m o l a r s
, .
1 22 THE D I G E S T I VE S Y S TE M

p r o du c t s in t he di ge s t i o n o f s t a r c h Th e y a re s i m pl er p r o du c t s.

t h a n s t a r ch b ut n o t S i m pl e e n o u gh t o b e u s e d by t he b o dy
, Th e .

c h a n ge due t o p t y a li n t a k e s pl a c e wh e n t h ere is a s li ghtly a lk a

, ,

li n e c o n di t i o n S a liv a th a t is di s t i n c tly a c idul o u s hi n d er s o r a rr e s t s

.

t he di ge s t iv e p r o c e s s B o il e d s t a r c h is c h a n ge d m o r e r a pidly a n d
.

c o m pl e t e ly t h a n r a w b ut f oo d is r a r e ly r e t a i n e d in t he m o u t h
,

l o n g e n o u gh for t he s a liv a t o m or e th a n b egi n t he tra n s fo r m a t i o n

o f s t a r ch .

Th r o a t an d e s oph a gus Th e m o uth c a vity n a rr o w s t o f or m

.

t h e ph a r y nx o r th r o a t c a vi t y I t is s h a p e d s o m ewh a t like a fu n n e l
.
,

wi t h it s n a rr o w o r c o n s t r i c t e d e n d tu rn e d d o w n w a r d t o fo r m t he
b e gi n n i n gs O f t h e e s o ph a gu s a n d t h e wi n dpip e Th ere a r e s e v e n .

o p e n i n gs in t h e t h ro a t ca vity l e a di n g t o t he n o s e e a r s m o uth
, , , ,

l a r y n x a n d gull e t Two in fr o n t a b o v e l ea d i n t o t h e b a c k o f t he
“

,
.
, ,

n o s e a n d a re k n o w n a s t h e i n t e r n a l n a s a l o p e n i n gs Tw o o n e o n .
,

e i t h e r s id e a b o v e l e a d i n t o t h e e a r s a n d f o r m t h e o p e n i n gs t o t h e
,

E us tac hia n tubes On e m idw a y in fr o n t c o n n ec t s wi t h t h e m o u t h

. .

Tw o b e l o w o n e o p e n i n g i n t o t h e wi n dpip e t h r o u gh t h e glottis a n d
,

t he o t h e r b e hi n d t h e gl o t t i s i n t o t h e gull e t .

Th e ph a r y n x is a p a s s a ge w a y for a ir fro m t h e n o se t o t he gl o t t i s ,

a n d fo r f o o d f r o m t h e m o u t h t o t h e gull e t Wh e n t he f oo d is r e a dy
.

t o b e s w a ll o w e d it is b r o u ght t o ge t h e r o n t h e upp er s u r f a c e O f t h e
,

t o n gu e a n d p r es s e d b a c kw a r d i n t o t h e ph a r y n x T h e n t h e m u s cl e s .

in t he ph a r y n x c o n t r a c t d r a wi n g t h e ph a r y n x upw a r d a n d c a u s
,

in g it t o dil a t e t o r e c e iv e t h e f o o d Th e m u s c l e s th e n r e l a x c a u s
.
,

in g t he ph a r y n x t o s i n k a n d f o r c i n g t h e f o o d i n t o t h e e s o ph a gu s .

At thi s i n s t a n t b r e a t hi n g is t e m p o r a r ily s u s p e nd e d a n d t he a ir
,

p a s s a ge s c l o s e d a ga i ns t t h e p o s s ibl e e n t r a n c e o f f oo d Th e so ft .

p a l a te is d r a w n b a c k thu s c l os i n g a n d p r o t e c t i n g t he n a s a l pa s
,

s a ge s. The e n t r a n c e t o t he wi n dpip e is s hi e ld e d by b e i n g pull ed

forw a r d Un d er t he b a s e Of t h e t o n gu e Th ere is a n a ddi t i o n a l .

s a f e gu a r d t h r o u gh t h e f o ldi n g d o w n o f t h e epi glottis a sp ec i a l ,

iz e d c o v e r .Wh e n f oo d is o n ce withi n t he e s o ph a gu s b rea thi n g ,

 T H R OA T AN D E S O P H AG U S 12 3

m ay b e res um ed . Pr a c tic a lly no di ge s ti o n t a kes pl a c e in t he

ph a r yn x due t o t he fa c t s t h a t foo d is s w a ll ow e d qui c kly a n d n o
e n zy m e s a re se c r e t e d h er e .

The e s o ph a gu s is a c o m p a r a t iv e ly s tr a i ght tub e a b o ut n i n e ,

or t e n i n c h e s l o n g I t d e s c e n d s in fr o n t O f t he s pi n e p a s s i n g
.
,

t h r o u gh t h e di a ph r a gm a n d t e r m i n a ti n g in t h e s t o m a c h I t ha s .

o n e se t o f m u s c l e s e xt e n di n g a r o u n d it c i r c ul a r ly a n d a n o t h e r l a y e r

o f m u s c l e s l o n gi t udi n a lly a rr a n ge d By a s er i es o f c o n tr a c t i on s o f
.

t h e c i r c ul a r a n d t h e l o n gitudi n a l m u s c l e s f oo d is p a s se d by a s e r i e s
,

o f w a v e lik e m o v e m e n t s in t o t h e s t o m a c h On ce t h e t o p r i n g Of
.

m u s c l e s is s t i m ul a t e d by t h e s w a ll o wi n g Of t h e f o o d a w a v e o f ,

c o n tr a c t i o n goe s t hr o u gh t h e full l e n gt h o f t h e gull e t ca u s i ng ,

t he f oo d t o e n t er t h e s t o m a c h Thi s se r i e s o f r hy t h m i c w a v e
.
,

l ike co n tr a c ti o n s Of c ir c ul a r a n d l o n gi t udi n a l m u s c l e fib e r s whi ch

a ffe c t s ucc e s s iv e p o r ti o n s o f t h e t ub e d o w n w a r d is c a ll e d peri

s ta ls is The c o n s t r i c t e d p o r ti o n is a lw a y s p r e c e d e d by a n a r e a
.

O f r e l a x a t i o n whi c h r e n d e r s t h e c o n t r a c t i o n m o re e ff ec t iv e in
for c i n g t he c o n t e n t s o n w a r d The di r e c ti o n is n o r m a lly t h e
.

s a m e a n d t h e a c ti o n is u n de r t h e c o n t ro l o f t h e n er v o u s s y s t e m
, .

Thi s m o v e m e n t m i ght b e c o m p a r e d wi t h pl a c i n g a l a r ge m a r bl e
in a n a rr o w r ubb e r tub e a n d f o r c i n g it thr o u gh by s u cce s s iv e ly
pi n c hi n g t he tub e .

D ur i n g t he p ro c e s ses of m a s ti c a ti o n m o i s t e n i n g a n d s w a ll o w
, ,

in g t he f oo d is r e du ce d t o a s o ft pulpy c o n di t i o n
, ,
An y s t a rc h .

it m a y co n t a i n b e gi n s t o c h a n ge i n t o s u ga r in t he m o uth but ,

it re m a i n s in t he m o u t h t hr o a t a n d e s o ph a gu s s o S h or t a t i m e
, ,

th a t di ge s ti o n c a n n o t b e co m pl e t e d in th e m .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S

1 H o w d o e s t he b o dy c a vi t y Of t h e fr o g di ffe r fr o m t h e c a vi t i e s
.

in m a n s b o dy ?
’

2 N a m e t hre e pur p os e s O f t h e di ge s t ive pr o c e s s

. .

3 C o m pa r e t he a li m e n t a r y c a n a l s O f t h e wo r m , fr o g, a n d m a n ,
.

s t a t i n g a ll s i m il ar i t i e s a n d di ffe re n c e s .
12 4 TH E D I G E S T I VE S YS T E M

4 .I f s a liva we re a cid in r e a c t i o n i n s t e a d O f a lk a li n e , wha t e ffe c t

wo uld it h a ve o n t he t e e t h ?
5 Wh a t a r e t he f un c t i o n s o f t he s o f t a n d h a r d p a l a t e s ?
.

6 S t a t e t h e us es o f t h e t o n gue
. .

7 Wh a t is t he i m po r t a n c e o f s a liv a in di ge s t i o n ?
.

8 D e s c r i b e t he pr o t e c t i o n o f t h e v a r i o us o pe n 1n gs fr o m t he t hr oa t
.

d ur i n g t h e a c t i o n O f s w a ll o w i n g.

9 D e fi n e pe r i s t a l s i s
,

. . D i s c us s t h e i m po r t a n c e o f pe r i s t a l s i s in t he
dige s t ive p r o c es s .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E A D I N GS

H o we ll, Wm H , Te xt book of P hys iology (W B S a un der s

. . . .

K im b e r , D C , a n d Gr a y , C E , Textbook of Ana tom y a n d P hys io logy (The

. . . .

M a c m illa n
M art in a n d We y m o ut h , E lemen ts of P hys iology (L e a F e b iger ) .
 126 D I G E S T I ON AN D AB S O R P T I ON

a nd t he
zy m e p e p s i n en ,
. Th e m e a t k now n a s t r ip e is t he li n i n g
o f a c ow s st o m a ch a n d t he
’
s om e wh a t re s e m bl e s li n i n g of t he
hu m a n s t o m a c h .

P r ob le m . Wha t i s t he e fl ec t of ga s t ri c j uice on p r o t ein

1 . Pr e p a r e s om e v e ry t hin s lic e s of h a r d b o ile d w hit e

-
of e gg . P ut a s lic e

of t hi s in t o e a ch of fo ur t e s t t ub e s . Ha v e t he piec e s a li k e in s iz e . Add t o t he
fo ur t ub e s t h e fo llo win g li uids q
A . Wa t er ,
t o t ub e n um b er on e .

B . Wa t e r in wh ic h pe p s in h a s b e e n dis s o l e d, t o t ub e n um b er t wo v .

0 . Wa t er an d v
e r y dilut e h y dr o c h lo r ic a c id, t o t ub e n um b e r t h r e e .

D . Wa t er , v er ydilut e hy dr o c hlor ic a c id, a n d pe ps in ( ar t i c ia l ga s t r ic fi

j uic e ) ,
t o t ub e n um b e r f o ur P la ce a ll f o ur t e s t t ub e s a n d c o n t e n t s I n a
.

w a r m plac e or in an in c ub a t or .

II . C o m par e t h e a pp e a r a n c e o f t he e gg in t h e fo ur t ub e s at t he e n d of o n e ,

t w o , fo ur , e igh t , a n d t w en t y -fo ur h o ur s . Wh a t e ffe c t ha v e t he v ar io us c o n

s t it ue n t s o f ga s t r ic j uic e on pr o t e in ?

III . Gi v e y o ur e xp la n a t io n o f t h e follo w in g

A . Wh e n p e o ple are s uffer in g fr o m in dige s t io n , why are pe psin and

hy dr o c h lo r ic a c id s o m e t im e s pr es c r ib e d ?
h , why
’
I f t he r e is t oo m uc h hy dr o c hlor ic a c id in
B . a pe r s o n s s t om ac

is b ic arb o n a t e o f s o da s o m e t im es pr es c r ib e d ?
0 . Why is it un w is e fo r a per s o n to ta k e art i fi c ia l ga s t ric j uic e or

b ic ar b o n a t e o f s o da un le s s a doc t o r de fi n it e ly p r e s c r ib e s it ?

P r o b le m . Wha t is t he e fi e ct o f t he s i ze o f p ro t e n i f oo d o n t he tim e
n eede d f or di ges ti o n

I . P la c e in a t e s t t ub e s om e fi ne ly c h o ppe d whit e o f e gg . P ut in t o an

O t h er t e s t t ub e lar ger piec es O f wh it e o f e gg, a n d in t o a t hir d t es t t ub e ,

s om e
‘

som e v
e r y lar ge piec e s o f w hit e o f e gg C o e r t h e e gg wh it e in e a c h t ub e wit h . v
fi
a r t i c ia l ga s t r ic j uic e .

II . C o m par e t he a ppe ar a n c e o f t he egg in t he t hr ee t ub e s , ho ur b y ho ur ,

a n d n ot e t he r e s ult s .

Wh a t
'

III . do y o u fin d t o b e t he r e la t io n o f t h e s iz e o f fo o d t o t h e t im e
n ee de d fo r v
dige s t io n ? Of wh a t a lue is t h o r o ugh m a s t ic a t io n o f fo o d ?
 S E C R E T I O N OF G A S T RI C J U I C E 12 7

P r ob le m . Wha t a n im a l p rote n s a r e i diges ted mo s t q ui ckly an d mos t

t ho ro ughly

I . P ut in t o s e p ar a t e t ub es e qu l a -s ize d, t hin s lic e s o f t he fo llowin g pr o t e ms

A . Well b o ile d b eef
-
. D . R o a s t po r k .

B . Ra wb f ee . E . R o a s t la m b .

0 . Roa s t b eef . F . Fr ie d fis h .

Po ur an e qu l a a m o un t o f t he ar t fi
i c ia l ga s t r ic j uic e in t o e ac h t ub e . P lac e
t he t ub e s in a w a r m pla c e .

II . C o m par e a t r e gular in t e r v a ls t he a m o un t s o f pr o t e in in e ach t ub e .

III . S t a t e y o ur c o n c lus io n fr o m y o ur Ob s e r v a t io n s .

S e c r e tion t j uic e The s e c r e t i o n Of ga s t r i c jui ce is

of ga s r ic .

co n t i n uo u s E v e n wh en o n e is n o t e a t i n g t h e r e is a s m a ll a m o u n t
.

o f s ec r e ti o n but du r i n g ,

t he a c t O f e a t i n g a n d
th r o u gh o u t t h e e n t i r e
p e r i o d Of di ge s t i o n t he ,

r a t e o f se c r e t i o n is gre a t ly

i n cr e a s e d Thi s r a t e is
.

r egul a t e d by se v e r a l fa c

to r s : ( 1 ) P s yc hica l s t im u ’

la t io n s a r e b r o u gh t a b o u t
by t he se n s a t i o n s o f e a t
in g . Th e t a s t e a n d o d o r
o f f oo d s ti m ul a t e t he b e

g i n n i n gs o r r e c e pt o r s o f
ce r t a i n s e n s o r y n e r v es s it t p p i
I g t i gl d t i ll wh il
n a as r c an cer a n ce s s e cr e e e s n, e

t i th t h yd hl i id W it h w t
cer a n o e rs s e cre e ro c or c a c . a e r,

ua t e d in t he m o uth a n d th ub t th m i t it u t f g t i
ese s s an ce s a r e e a n c on s en s o as r c

j ui whi h i m pt i d f m t h gl d i t th t m h ce c s e e ro e an n o e s o ac .

nose Thi s s ti m ul a t i o n
.

r es ult s in a c tiv a ti n g t h e ga s t r i c gl a n d s I t ha s b e en d em o n .

s t r a t e d e xp e r i m e n t a lly t h a t a s s o o n a s a do g t a s t e s
, ,
s m e ll s o r , ,

s ee s f oo d t h e flo w o f ga s t r i c jui c e i n c r e a s e s
,
A p s y c hi c s t im u .

l a ti o n r e s ul t s in a c opi o u s flow o f ga s tr i c jui ce S u c h a s ti m ul a .

t i o n is a lw a y s b r o u gh t a b o u t wh e n o n e e a t s a pp e tizi n g f o o d .
12 8 D I G E S T I ON AN D AB S O R P TI O N

( 2 ) Che mica l st i m ul a ti o n is b r o u ght a b o u t by t he m a t er i a l s co n

t a in e d in c e r t a i n f oo d s a n d by t h e s ti m ul a t i n g m a t er i a l s co n t a i n e d
in t h e p r o du c t s O f di ges t i o n . C e r t a i n f oo d s s u c h a s m ea t j ui ce s
or e xt ra c tiv e s by t h e i r a c t i o n s up o n t h e n e r v e s o f t h e s t o m a c h
, ,

s ti m ul a t e t h e ga s t r i c gl a n d s t o p o u r f or t h th e i r s e c r e t i o n S uch .

s ub s t a n c e s a r e c a ll e d s ec r eta gogues Ot h er f oo d s s u c h a s m ilk a n d

.

b r e a d do n o t se e m t o co n t a i n t h e s e s ub s t a n c e s Wh e n th e s e fo o d s
.

a r e e a t e n t h e s e c r e ti o n o f j ui c e s is p r o b a bly due t o a m e c h a n i c a l
,

s ti m ulu s r e s ul t i n g fr o m t h e p r e s e n c e O f f o o d in t h e s t o m a c h Wh e n.

c er t a i n di ge s tiv e p r o du c t s a r e f o r m e d th e y in tur n s t i m ul a t e a
, , ,

fur t h er se cr e t i o n o f ga s tr i c fluid The a m o u n t o f s e cr eti o n de

.

p en d s up o n t he qu a n ti t y a n d n atur e of t h e foo d t o b e di ge s te d .

G a s tr i c j ui ce is a thi n n e a r ly c o l o r l e s s liquid with a n a c id

,

r e a c ti o n
. I t c o n t a i n s s o m e i n or ga n i c s a l t s b ut t h e e s s en ti a l c o n
,

s t it ue n t s a r e hyd r oc hl o r i c a c id a n d t w o e n zy m e s peps i n a n d ren n in

, .

H yd r o c hl o r i c a c id in n o r m a l ga s tr i c fluid is f o u n d in t he p r o p o r
ti o n of t o 5 per c e n t
. . E xp er i m e n t s h a v e s h ow n t h a t a hi gh er
c o n c e n tr a ti o n o f hyd r o c hl o r i c a c id is n o t f a v o r a bl e fo r t h e di ge s

tiv e a c ti o n O f p ep s in . I t ha s t he fo ll o wi n g fu n c ti o n s : ( 1 ) it a c ti
v a te s t he peps in ogen (a n in a c tiv e f o r m o f p ep s i n ) o f ga s t r i c
jui c e t o for m p e p s i n ; (2 ) it p r o vid e s a n a c id m e diu m whi c h
is n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e p e p s i n t o c a rr y o n it s w or k ; ( 3 ) it s w e ll s
t he p r o t e i n fib er s t hu s p r o vidi n g a l a r g
, e r s u r f a c e for t h e a c t i o n

of p ep s i n ; (4 ) it kill s m a n y b a c t e r i a th a t e n t er t he s t o m a c h ;
a n d ( 5 ) it h e lp s t o r e gul a t e t h e o p e n i n g a n d c l os i n g O f t he pyl or u s .

Pe p s i n whi c h m a y b e c a ll e d ga s t r i c p r o t e a s e is fi r s t f o r m e d by
, ,

t he ga s tr i c gl a n d s a s p e p s i n o gen a n d is c h a n ge d i n t o p e p s i n wh e n
it c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t with t he hyd ro c hl or i c a c id I t h a s t he .

p o w er of c h a n gi n g p r o t e i n s i n t o t he i n t er m e di a t e p r o du c t s c a ll e d
p r o te o s es a n d p p
e ton es . T h e se a r e a s i m pl er f o r m O f p r o t e i n s but ,

n o t y e t s i m pl e e n o u gh t o b e a b s or b e d Th er e fo r e t h e y ar e c a ll e d
.
,

i n t e r m e di a t e p r o du c t s o f di ge s t i o n .

Re n n i n a n o th er e n zy m e f o u n d in ga s t r i c jui ce a c t s u po n c a s e i n ,
, ,
 130 D I G E S TI ON AN D A B S O R PT I O N

Th e liv a r y di ges ti o n o f s t a r c h c o n t i n u es in t he s to m a c h u n t il
sa

t he a c id p e r m e a t e s a ll p a r t s o f t h e f o o d m a s s Pr o t e i n s a r e t h e .

n u t r i e n t s c hi e fly a ff e c t e d

in ga s t r i c di ge s t i o n b ut ,

e v en th e ir di ge s ti o n is

i n c o m pl e t e M a n y b a c .

t e r i a th a t e n t e r wi t h t h e
fo o d a re kill e d by t he
ger m ic ida l i
a c t on of t he
id hyd r o chl or i c ac .

Th e s m a ll in te s tine .

The s m a ll i n t e s ti n e is a
n a rro w tubul a r o rga n ,

a b o u t o n e i n c h in di a m

e t e r a n d f r o m t w e n ty t o
Rh y t h m i t i ti
c f t h w ll
c on s r c on sf th o m ll i
e a s o e s a a
t ti
es neb k t h f d i t q u l gm t E h f thir ty f e e t 111 l e n gt h I t
r ea e oo n o e a se en s ac o

h lv d
_
.

th es e s egm t i en s s d u it
a w it h t h
e an dj tn es e a a c en

h lf f t h
a o t gm
e n ex t seS gm t ti
en ti u
e i en aI S S O c o il e d t h a t it e a s ily
on c on n es n

f dig t iv j ui
.
,

s u i g th
r n m pl t m ixt u
e co e e re o d f d es e ces an oo .

fit s I n t o t h e c e n t r a l p a r t
o f t h e a bd o m i n a l c a vi t y I t is co n ti n u o u s wi t h t h e pyl o r i c e n d of
.

t he s t o m a c h A m e m b r a n e t he m e se n t e r y a t t a c h e s t h e c o il s of
.
, ,

t h e i n t e s t i n e t o e a c h o t h er a n d t o t h e b a c kb o n e .

Th e s m a ll i n t es t i n e h a s m u s c l es whi c h p er m i t t wo ki n d s of
m o v e m e n t o n e c a ll e d r hyt hm ic s egmen ta tion a n d t he o th er p eri
,

s ta ls is Th e r hy t h m i c se gm e n t a t i o n is c a u s e d by l o ca l c o n s t r ic
.

t i o n s o f t he i n t e s t i n a l w a ll a t r e gul a r i n t e r v a l s T h e s e co n s tr i c t i o n s .

divid e t he c hy m e i n t o a n u m b er o f e qu a l p a r t s Withi n a few .

s e c o n d s e a c h o f t h e se p o r ti o n s is h a lv e d a n d un it e s with t h e cor
,

r e s p o n di n g h a lv e s O f t h e a dj a c e n t s e gm e n t s I n t h e n e xt c o n .

s t r icti o n t h e s e gm e nt s a r e r e s t o r e d t o th e i r o r i gi n a l p o s i t i o n Thi s .

e n a bl e s t h e m a s s t o b e th o r o u ghly m ix e d with t he di ge s tiv e jui ces .

Th e n a p e r i s t a l t i c m o v e m e n t a s u cc e s s i o n o f w a v e s o f c o n t ra c ti o n
,

a n d r e l a x a t i o n b egi n n i n g a t t he a n t e r i o r e n d o f t h e s m a ll i n t e s ti ne
, ,

s w e e p s a l o n g f o r c i n g t h e f o o d o n w a rd thr o ugh t h e tub e

, .
 TH E P AN C R E A S 13 1

C er t a i n gl a n d s in t he li n i n g of t he intest i ne
jui c e c a ll e d s e cr et e a

s uccus en te r icus o r i n tes ti n a l j ui ce N ea r t he r e gi o n w h e r e t he .

s m a ll i n t e s t i n e l e a d s f r o m t h e s t o m a c h is t he Op e n i n g Of a du c t

for m e d by t he u n i o n o f du c t s fr o m t he liv e r a n d p a n c r e a s .

Th r o u gh thi s du c t j ui ce s fr o m t he liv e r a n d p a n c r ea s a r e e m p t i e d
,

i n to t h e s m a ll i n t e s t i n e wh er e t h e y m i n gl e wi t h t he s e c r e t i o n s Of
,

t he i n t e s ti n a l gl a n d s .

Th e pan c r e a s Th e p a n c r ea s is a fl a t p e a r s h a p e d gl a n d a b o u t
.
,
-
,

fiv e i n c h e s in l e n gth t h a t li e s s li gh t ly b a c k o f t h e s t o m a c h b e t w ee n
, ,

t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e s t o m a c h a n d a f o ld O f t h e i n t e s t i n e It .

s e c r e t e s a n a lk a li n e di ge s t iv e jui ce c a ll e d pa n cr ea tic j uic e Thi s .

j ui c e c o n t a i n s th re e e n zy m e s : ( 1 ) An a m yl a s e a mylops i n s i m il a r , ,

t o t he p t y a li n o f t h e s a liv a c o n ti n u e s t h e c o n v e r s i o n O f s t a r c h
,

i n t o s i m pl e s u ga r s (2 ) A p r o t e a s e fo r m ed a s tryps in ogen is c o n
.
, ,

v e r te d i n to tryps in by t he a c t i o n o f a s ub s t a n c e e n t er o ki n a s e , ,

s ec r e t e d by t h e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e o f t h e s m a ll i n t e s t i n e Tr yp .

s in ,s i m il a r t o b ut m o re p o w e r ful t h a n p ep s i n c h a n ge s t h e pr o
, ,

t e i n s i n t o t he s i m pl e r p ro du ct s p e pt o n e s a n d a m i n o a c id s
, ( 3 ) A -
.

lip a s e s tea ps in b r e a k s d o w n fa t s i n t o f a t t y a c id s a n d gly ce ro l

’

,
.
,

S o m e Of t h e s e f a t t y a c id s t h e n c o m bi n e wi t h t he a lk a li n e s a l t s ,

p r e s e n t in t he jui c e s o f t he i n t e s t i n e t o fo r m s oa p s F a t s a r e , .

i n s o lubl e but t h e s e s o a p s a r e r e a dily s o lubl e in w a t er S o a p

, .

m a ki n g s a po n ific a t io n is p a r t o f t h e di ge s t iv e p r o c e s s
, , Th e .

b r e a ki n g d ow n o f t he f a t s a n d t he s a po n iflc a t io n th a t fo ll o w s a r e
m a d e e a s i e r by e m ul s ifi c a t i o n t h a t is t he b r e a ki n g up o f t he fa t
, ,

I n t o v e r y ti n y p a r t i c l e s .

Pr ob l e m . Wha t i s t he fl
e e ct o f an a lka li o n a f
at ?

P la c e in e ac h o f t w o t e s t t ub e s a s m a ll a m o un t o f O li v e O il . Add an e qua l
a m o un t Of s o dium k
hy dr o xide ( a n a l a lin e m a t er ia l) t o t he O il in on e of t he

t ub e s . L e t it s t a n d fo r fo r t y-e igh t ho ur s , s h a in g o c c a s io n a lly k .

I . Wha t v
differ e n ce do y o u O b s er e b e t w ee n t he O ils in t he t wo t e s t t ub e s ?
The v
c h a n ge y o u h a e b r o ugh t a b o ut in t h e o n e is c a lle d a n e m uls io n .

II . M o un t a dr o p o f O il un der t he m ic r o s c ope .
132 D I G E S TI ON AN D AB S O R P T I ON

III . M o un t a dr op of t he fi
e m uls i e d O il un der t he m icro s c o pe .

A . D e s cr ib e t h e differ e n c e in t h e a pp e a r a n c e o f t he t w o dr o ps o f Oil .

B Why wo uld y o u expe c t e m uls ifi ca t io n t o h a s t e n t he dige s t io n o f fa t s ?

.

IV . B ile a n d s ucc us e n t e r ic us a r e a lk a lin e liq uids Wh a t e ffec t wo uld y o u .

e xpec t t he m t o h a v e on t h e diges t io n of fa t ?

Th e liv e r . Th e liv e r is t he
l a r ge s t gl a n d in t he b o dy I t is .

s i t u a t e d o n t he O f t h e b o dy a n d co v e r s p a r t o f t h e
r i gh t s id e ,

s t o m a c h s m a ll i n t e s t i n e , ,

a n d l a r ge i n t es ti n e The
a ll b la dd e r
.

g .

upp er s u r f a c e fit s c l o s e ly
i n t o t he u n d e r s u r f a c e
o f t h e di a ph r a gm The .

liv er s ecr e te s a n a lk a li n e
j ui c e y e ll owi s h gr e e n o r ,
-

b r ow n in c o l o r c a ll e d ,

bile Thi s p o u r s by .
,

m e a n s o f t h e bil e du c t ,

i n t o t he s m a ll i n t e s ti n e
o n ly du r i n g t h e p e r i o d
N t f
o b l w th
ar t m h
e o t ub m pt
e s ot th ac a e e I es In o e

t h liv
,

i t ti
n es ne. T h i t ub l d f m t h p
s e ea s o f d i ge s t i o n
ro e The a lk a l i
a n c re a s , e e r, .

an d th g ll b l dd
e a d d ia j ui i t t h i t t i
e r, a n ra n s ce s n o e n es ne.
I I I t h e bil e a c t iv a t e s t he
dige s t i o n o f f a t s a n d h e lp s in t he a b s o r pti o n Of di ge s t e d fa t s The .

e xce s s bil e p a s s e s t h ro u gh a n o t h er du c t i n t o t he bil e s a c o r ga ll

bl a dd er wh er e it is s t or e d u n t il n ee d e d S o m e t i m e s a p a r t o f
,
.

t he bil e s ub s t a n ce c r y s t a lliz e s in thi s du c t f o r m i n g ga ll s t o n e s ,

.

I n s u c h a c a se t h e bil e du c t is c l o s e d a n d t he e x c e s s bil e p a s se s
,

i n to t he bl oo d ca u s i n g j a u n di ce ,
.

I n te s tin a l dige s ti on Th e p r e se n ce Of f o o d in t he s m a ll i n t e s
.

ti n e s ti m ul a t es t he fl ow o f i n t e s ti n a l jui c e whi c h co n t a i n s a n um
b er o f e n zy m e s An i n t e s t i n a l p r o t e a s e ereps in h e lp s t o c o n v e r t
.
, ,

t he p r o t e o s e s a n d p e pto n es f o r m e d in t he s t o m a c h i n t o t he e n d
p ro duct s Of di ge s t i o n a m i n o a c id s S e v e r a l i n v e r ti n g e n zy m e s
,
-
.

in t he i n t e s ti n a l j ui ce c o n v e r t t h e d o ubl e s u ga r s in t o s i n gl e o r
1 34 D I G E S TI O N AN D AB S OR P TI ON

CH A RT OF CH EM I CAL DI GES TI ON

l
Di ge s t a n t is a t e r m us e d t o de s ign a t e a c h e m ic a l m a t e ria l wh ic h b r i n gs a b o ut a c h a n ge i n t h e dige s t ive pr oc e s s
.

2
S ub s t r a t e is a t e r m us e d t o des ign a t e t h e m a t e r ia l c h a n ge d in t h e p r o c e s s o f di g e s t i o n .

3
E n d pr oduct de n o t e s t h e p ro d uc t a t t h e t e r m m a t io n o f t h e pa r t ic ul a r pr oc e ss c o n s ide r e d This pr o duct ma y
.

o r m a y n o t b e r e a dy fo r a b so rp t io n .

4 m a l t os e i n t o gluc o se
Th e r e is a m a l t as e i n s a liva whic h c o n ve r t s s ma ll q ua n t it ie s of .
 TH E LA R G E I N T E S T I NE 135

ca ll e d t he vermiform a ppen dix I t h a s n o u s eful fu n cti o n I f

. .

f o o d c o ll e c ts in t he a pp e n dix it is n o t e a s ily d r a i n e d o ut Thi s

,
.

fo o d m a y d eca y whi c h ca u s e s a n i n fl a m m a ti o n c o mm o n ly kn ow n
,

a s a ppen dic itis .

The l a r ge i n t e s ti n e is divid e d i n t o t h e a s c e n di n g co l o n tr a n s ,

v er se co l o n d es c e n di n g c o l o n a n d s igm o id flexur e ( s ee p a ge
, ,

The c o l o n s a n d t h e s i gm o id fle xur e i n c l o se t he f o ld s o f t h e s m a ll
i n tes ti n e The s i gm o id flexur e e n d s in t he r e ct u m Th e r e c tu m
. .

is s ix t o e i ght i n c h es l o n g a n d l e a d s i n t o t h e a n a l c a n a l h a vi n g ,

a n e x t er n a l a p e r t u re t he a n u s
,
Thi s o p e n i n g h a s a n i n t e r n a l
.

s phi n c t er m u s c l e O f t h e i n v o lu n t a r y t yp e a n d a n e x t e r n a l s ph in c
,

t er th a t is v o lu n t a r y Th ese S phi n c t er s c o n tr o l t h e p a s s a ge Of s o lid

.

w a s t e fro m t he b o dy .

Th e p r oce s s o f di ge s ti o n is co n ti n u e d t o a s li gh t d e gr e e in t he
l a rge i n t e s t i n e due t o t h e p r e s en c e o f t he di ge s t iv e fluid s wi t h
,

whi c h t he fo o d b e ca m e m ixe d in t he s m a ll i n t e s t i n e Th e i n di .

'

g e s t ib le w a s t e m a t e r i a l s a s s o c i a t e d with a ll f o o d s a r
, e r e m o v e d
fr o m t he b o dy t h r o u gh t he l a r ge i n t e s ti n e by m ea n s Of p er i s t a l t i c
_ m o vem en ts . Th e c hi e f w a s te p r o duc t is t h e c e llul o s e O f v e ge t a bl e
foo d a n d t he fib er o f m e a t .

B a c te ri a a r e a bu n d a n t in t he l a r ge i n te s t in e Th e y c a u s e t he .

putr e f a c ti o n o f un a b s o r b e d p r o t e i n s S o m e Of th e s e p r o du c t s o f
.

pu t r e f a c t i on a r e a b s o rb e d fr o m t he i n te s ti n e by t he bl o o d whil e ,

t he o t h e r s ar e e li m i n a t e d f r om t h e b o dy I f a n e x c e s s iv e a m o u n t
.

o f t o xi c p r o du c t s fro m t hi s put r e f a c t i o n is a b so r b e d i n t o t h e bl o o d ,

a h e a d a c h e o r f ee li n
g O f l a s s i t ud e w ill u s u a lly r e s ul t N o r m a lly
.
,

t he r e c tu m is e m p t y u n t il ju s t b e f o r e defec a tion o r t h e e li m i n a ti o n
Of so lid w a s t e .

AB S OR PT I ON

Afte r f o o d s h a v e b e e n fi n e d s plit a n d s t a n d a r diz e d in t he

re , ,

dige s t iv e p ro c e s s i n t o t he s i m pl e s t fo r m s ; n a m e ly a m i n o a c id s ,
-

fr o m p r o t e i n s glu c o s e a n d ga la c t o s fr o m ca r b o hyd r a t e s a n d f a tty

, ,
 36 D I G E S TI O N AN D AB S O R P T I O N

ac id s , gly c e r o l ,
a nd soa
p s fr o m fa t t h e y a r e in a diffu s ibl e for m ,

a n d m a y e n t er t he bl o o d wh er e th e y will b e u t iliz e d Th e p r o c e s s .

O f f o o d p a s s i n g th r o u gh t h e li n i n g o f t h e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l a n d

t h r o u gh t he w a ll s o f t he bl o o d v e s s e l s is c a ll e d a bs orption Ab .

so r p t i o n is a p ro c e s s O f os m os is V er y li t t l e a b s or p t i o n t a k e s pl a ce .

in t he m o uth th r o a t gull e t a n d s t o m a c h b e c a u s e t h e f o o d is in
, , ,

co n s t a n t m o t i o n a n d b e c a u s e v er y ,

littl e Of it h a s r e a c h e d t he e n d
p o i n t o f di ge s t i o n .

M o s t a b sor p t i o n t a k es pl a ce in
t he s m a ll i n t es t i n e for t he f o ll o w
in g r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) Th e di ge s t i o n o f
m o s t o f t h e f o o d h a s b een c o m

p l e t e d M a n y o f t h e e n d p r o du c t s .

Of t h e di ge s tiv e p r o c e s s a r e f o r m e d

in t he s m a ll i n t e s t i n e ( ) The
2 .

H i lik m i
a r e pi t u tu
c r o s co k w g r ea t
c s r
l e n gc
t h O f
res
t h e s mno
a ll I n t
n e S t l n e
as villi f u d g t um b
are o n In th
g
rea
1 v e s a
n
l a r e a b
e rs on
s b m s ur fa ce
e

m g f t h m ll m t t m
o e s Th y m
a es e g r o
e
r g _
.

Th m ut h
th
c re a s e b e abi g u f
s or n
(s
3 ) Th e s m a ll i n t es t i n e I S n a rro w
r a ce . e o s

of i t ti l gl
n es na d h w m an g th m
s s o a on e .

a n d t h e f o o d is p r es se d a ga i n s t a ll

it s s u r f a ce s C o n s e qu e n tly n o t o n ly t h e l o w e r s u r f a ce b ut a ll it s
.
,

s ur f a ces a r e u se d in t he a b s or bi n g p ro c e s s ( )
4 M u s c ul a r a c tivity .

h elp s t he f oo d t o m ix with t he di ge s tiv e jui ce s s o th a t c o m pl e t e ,

diges ti o n t a k es pl a ce At t he s a m e ti m e t he fo o d is p r e s s e d a ga i n s t
.
,

t he a b s or bi n g s u r f a c e (5 ) Th e r e a r e s p ec i a l a d a p t a t i o n s fo lds
.
, ,

a n d villi for i n c r ea s i n g t h e a b sor bi n g s u r f a ce

, The l e n gt h Of t he .

s m a ll i n t e s ti n e is a t l ea s t tw e n ty f ee t in a n a dult Th e n u m b e r .

o f e pith e li a l c e ll s u s e d in a b s o r pti o n is t r e m e n d o u s ly i n c r ea se d by

t he p r ese n ce o f c i r c ul a r f o ld s o r r id ge s a r o u n d t h e c i r c u m f e r e n ce o f
t he li n i n g o f t he i n t e s ti n e On t h e s e r id ge s a re li t tl e s t r u c tur es
.

c a ll e d villi s o n u m e r o u s a n d s o c l ose t o ge t h e r t h a t t h e y r e s e m bl e
,

t he n a p o n c ar p e t E a c h villu s co n s i s ts o f a n o ut er l a y e r O f e pi
.

t he lia l c e ll s i nc l o s i ng a n e tw o r k Of c a pill a r i es a n d a ce n tr a l ly m ph
138 D I G E S TI O N AN D AB S O R P T I O N

fu s ibl e h a s b ee n a b so r b e d by t he t i m e t he r es idu a l m a ter i a l e n te rs

t he l a r ge i n t e s ti n e . Thi s m a t er i a l c o n s i s t s chi e fly o f i n di ge s tibl e
s ub s t a n c e s a n d s o m e w a t e r . The w a t e r is gra du a lly a b s o r b e d
dur i n g t he p r o gre s s o f t he c hy m e a l o n g t he l a rge i n te s ti ne Thi s .

r e s ult s in t h e w a s t e m a t e r i a l b ec o m i n g m or e a n d m o r e p a s ty a s it

a pp r o a c h e s t h e r e c t u m fo r e li m i n a ti o n.

H ygi e n e of dige s tion . Th e b o dy is n o r m a lly in a s t a t e o f h ea lth

a n d n o t di se a se . I t is a bu s e o f so m e ki n d th a t i n duc e s di ges tiv e
di s tu r b a n c e s c o m m o n ly c a ll e d i n di ge s ti o n H ygi e n i c h a bits o f
.

livi n g m a ke for goo d di ge s ti o n Ac tivity in t he o p e n a ir a n d s un

.

li ght goo d f oo d r e l a x a ti o n a n d r e s t a r e o f p r i m e i m p or t a n ce
, , , .

Pr o p er n utr iti o n a l h a bit s s h o uld b e e s t a bli s h ed M e a l s s h o uld

.

b e t a k e n a t r e gul a r i n t e r v a l s . I f t h e di ge s tiv e o r ga n s a r e w o r ke d
p er i o di ca lly m or e r egul a r diges tiv e h a bit s a r e e s t a bli s h e d As a
, .

r ul e f oo d s h o ul d n o t b e ea t e n b e tw e e n m ea l s fo r it di s tu r b s t he
, ,

phy s i o l o gi c a l ro uti n e a n d a l s o i n terfer e s with t he a pp e tite

, , .

S i n ce t h e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l is c o m p o s e d l a rge ly of m u s cl es exer ,

ci se is i n v a lu a bl e in k ee pi n g th e s e mu s c l e s in p r o p er t o n e B y .

t o n e we m e a n t he c o n s ta n t a n d u n c o n s c i o u s t e n d e n cy of t he
m u s cl es t o co n t ra c t u n d er n o r m a l c o n diti o n s . H o w e v er s t r e n u o u s
,

e xer c i s e i mm e di a t e ly a ft er a m ea l is b a d a s it withd r a w s m u c h o f
,

t he bl oo d fr o m t he di ge s tiv e o r ga n s wh er e it is n e e d e d a n d s e n d s ,

it t o t he a c tiv e s ke l e t a l m u s c l e s th a t a r e w o r ki n g Thi s m a y r e .

s ult in i n di ges ti o n a n d p o s s ibly m u s c ul a r cr a m p s C o n s e qu e n tly

.
,

n e ith e r m a xi m u m di ges ti o n n o r p r o p er m u s c ul a r a ctivity is o h

t a in e d .Thi s is o n e r e a s o n why p er s o n s a r e s ubj e ct t o di ge s tive

o r m u s cul a r c r a m p if th e y s wi m t oo s oo n a f t e r ea ti n g a h ea v y

m ea l . F or a s i m il a r r e a so n u n du e e x c it e m e n t or m e n t a l s tr es s
,

s h o uld b e a v o id e d du r i n g or a ft e r m ea l s . S in ce t he s ti m ul a ti o n
o f di ge s tiv e gl a n d s is p ar tly ps y c hic ( m e n ta l ) vi o l e n t e m o ti o n s in
,

t er fere with t he p r o p er flow o f di ge s tiv e juice s a n d withdr a w t he

bl o o d fr o m t he diges tiv e or ga n s a n d s e n d it t o t he br a i n a n d
n e r v o u s s y s te m. P a vl o v a f a m o u s R u s s i a n phy s i o l o gi s t l ea r n ed
, ,
 HY G I ENE or D I G E S TI O N 139

thr o u gh s ci e n t ifi c e xp er i m e n t a ti on th a t in d o gs fea r a n ger a n d

, , , , ,

r a ge i n t e r fe r e d with p r o p e r di ge s t i o n a n d a lt e r e d t he c h a r a c t e r o f

t he di ge s tiv e j ui c e s .

F o o d s h o uld b e th oro u ghly c h e w e d t o b e p ro p e r ly m ixe d with

t he s a liv a . As m u c h w a t er a s p o s s ibl e s h o uld b e t a k e n e a c h da y .

Th er e is n o o bj e c ti o n t o d r i n ki n g w a t er wi t h t h e m ea l s p r o vidi ng ,

th a t it is n o t s o co ld th a t t he or ga n s m i gh t b e c hill e d a n d th a t t he ,

fo o d is t h o r o ughly m a s ti ca t e d a n d n o t w a s h e d d o w n by t he w a ter .

As t he u n di ge s t e d p a r t o f t h e f o o d p a s ses t h r o u gh t he c o l o n ,

it gra du a lly l o s e s it s w a ter th ro u gh t he p r o ce s s o f a b s or ptio n .

Thi s w a s t e b e c om e s s e m i s o lid I t s h o uld b e r e m o v e d d a ily a t

.

a r e gul a r ti m e I f t hi s d e fe c a ti o n d oe s n o t t a ke pl a c e b e c a u se o f
.

h a s t e or i n co n ve n i e n c e o r s o m e irr egul a r ity in t he ro uti n e t he

, , ,

w a t er in t he s o lid w a s te b eco m e s a b s or b e d a n d t he w a s t e b e
co m e s so co m p a ct th a t it is di ffi c ult a n d in s o m e c a ses i m p o s s ibl e

t o e li m i n a t e . A c a th a r t i c o r l a x a tiv e m u s t t h e n b e t a k e n t o s t im u
l a te t he a c tivity o f t he i n te s t i n a l m o v e m en t I t is a w e ll k n ow n .
-

fa ct th a t i m p r o p er f oo d s m a y c a u s e c on s tip a ti on Thi s c on di .

ti o n m a y b e a v o id e d by e a ti n g bulky fo o d s whi c h will s t i m ul a te

t h e w o r k o f t h e m u s c l e s o f t he c a n a l S u c h bulky f oo d s a r e
.

v ege t a bl e s s a l a d s a n d fr uit s Pr o p er ro u t i n e i n c ludi n g r egu

, , .
,

la r it y o f m e a l s a n d r e gul a r ti m e s for e li m i n a ti o n of w a s t es m u s t , ,

a l so b e e s t a bli s h e d
, .

L a xa tive s a r e u s e ful in r em o vi n g a n a cut e co n diti o n o f c o n s tip a

t i o n but s h o uld n ot b e t a k e n r e gul a r ly S o m e l a x a tiv e s con t a i n
.

drugs th a t s ti m ul a te t h e n er v e s c o n tr o lli n g t h e m u s c l es u se d in
d e fec a ti o n Oth er l a x a tiv e s c a ll e d t he s a lin es co n t a i n t he s a lts
.

o f s o diu m p o t a s s iu m a n d m a gn es iu m
, , Th e y c a n n o t b e a b s o r b e d
.

by t he i n te s ti n e The y h o ld a gre a t d ea l o f w a t er in s o luti on a n d

.

in cr ea s e a n d s o ft e n t he bulk o f t he m a te r i al fa v o r i n g it s m o v e ,

m e n t a l o n g t he c a n a l E p s o m s a lt s m a gn e s iu m c itr a t e a n d s o
.
, ,

dium ph os ph a t e a r e e x a m pl e s o f s a li n e c a th a r ti c s A thir d typ e .

o f l a x a tiv es is hea vy oi l m i n e r a l o r c a s t o r o il
, Thes e li n e t he fo o d
.
1 40 D I G E S TI ON AN D AB S OR P TI ON

t ra ct with a film o f o il . Th e oi l t en d s t o so ft en a nd i n c r ea se t he
bulk of t he
i n t e s ti n a l c o n t e n t .

Th e b es t w a y s o f p r e v e n ti n g a n d o v erc o m i n g c o n s t ip a ti o n a r e
to a ct o n t he d e s i r e fo r d e f e c a t i o n t o h a v e a r e gul a r ti m e fo r
,

k
As dige s t io n t a e s pl a ce , fo o d is gra dua lly a b s o r b e d un t il t h e wa s t e s o nl y e n t e r t h e la r ge ih
t e s t in e. . k
Wh e n th e s e wa s t e s r e a ch t h e r e c tum , t h e y a r e r e a dy for e lim in a ti o n I t t a e s a b o ut
tw e n ty -fo ur h o ur s for dige s t io n t o b e c o m ple t e d a n d fo r t h e wa s t e s t o r e a ch t h e r e c tum .

d o i n g t hi s a n d t o e a t pl e n t y o f fr ui t a n d v ege t a bl e s a s th e s e t en d ‘

, ,

t o p r o m o t e p er i s t a l s i s .

S o m e i n v e s t i ga t or s t hi n k t h a t o n e o f t he c o n t r ibuti n g f a c t o r s t o
o ld a ge is t h e t o xi n s a b s o r b e d f r o m pu t r e f a c ti o n in t h e l a r ge i n t e s

ti n e The t o xi n s a ffe c t t he a r te r i e s c a u s i n g t he h a r d e n i n g o f t he
.

a r t e r i a l w a ll s Th e b a c t e r i a o f putr e f a c ti o n w o r k b e s t in a n a lk a
.

li n e m e diu m A Ru s s i a n phy s i ol o gi s t M e t ch n ik o ff co n ce iv e d t he
.
, ,

id e a o f i n t r o du c i n g a n a c id i n t o t he l a r ge i n t e s t i n e He th o ught .

t hi s w o ul d c h e c k put r e f a c ti o n a n d p o s s ibly p o s tp o n e Old a ge He .

O b s e r v e d th a t B ul ga r i a n s w h o u s e d a gr e a t d e a l o f s o u r m ilk , liv e

t o a gr ea t e r a ge t h a n o t h er p eo pl e H e k n e w th a t t h e a c ids fro m
‘

m o s t f o o d s a r e n e utra liz e d b e fo re t h e y re a c h t h e l a r ge i n t e s ti ne ,

b ut t h a t u n lik e o r di n a r y s o u r m ilk t he a c id in B ul ga r i a n m ilk

d oes r e a c h t he l a r ge i n t e s t i n e D iffe r e n t s tr a i n s o f b a c ter i a in
.

m ilk ca u s e t he t wo diff e r e n t r e a c t i o n s B acillus bulga riens a n d

'

ba cillus a cidop holus whi c h is a r e l a t e d s t r a i n o f m i cr o or ga n i s m s ,

h a v e b ee n c ultiv a t e d in Am er ic a E xp e r i m e n t s a r e n o w b e i n g
.

m a d e with a c ido ph o lus m ilk t o d e t e r m i n e wh e th er it d o e s h a v e a

b en e fi c i a l eff e c t a l t h o u gh th e r e is a s y e t n o d efi n it e p r o o f .

Peo pl e s h o uld n o t b e co m e f a ddi s t s in ea ti n g N utr iti o n a l .

 D I G E STI ON AN D AB S O R PT I O N

4 . Lo cate fo ur s ph in c t e rs a n d di s c us s t he im po r t a n ce o f e a c h .

5 . Pl a n an e xpe r i m e n t w hi c h w ill ill us t r a t e t he di ges t io n of

s t a r ch .

6 . N a m e t hree i n t e r m e di a t e a n d t hre e e n d pr oduc t s in t he di ges t i o n

of n u tr ie n t s .

7 D i s c us s t he i m po r t a n c e o f t he villi in a bs o r p t i o n
. .

8 Give t w o c l a s s e s o f c a t h a r t i cs o r l a x a t ive s
. Af t e r r e a din g t he
.

l a b e l s o f t w o o r t hr e e c o m m o n c a t h a r t i cs s t a t e t o w hi c h c l a s s e a c h
,

b e l o n gs .

9 N a m e a n un hy gi e n i c c o n di t i o n t h a t is fr e q ue n t l y f o un d a m o n g
.

hi gh s c h oo l s t ude n t s a n d w h i c h m a y l e a d t o di ge s t ive di s o r de rs .

1 0 Wh a t is t he o b j e c t i o n t o r e a di n g a n d e a t i n g a t t he s a m e t i m e ?
.

1 1 N a m e t w o s c i e n t i s t s w h o ha ve i n ves t i ga t e d f oo d h a bi t s
. D is .

c u ss t he ir co n t r ib u t i o n s t o t he s c i e n ce o f n ut r i t i on .

12 R e vie w a n d r e po r t o n t he di ge s t i o n a n d o s m os i s e xpe r im e n t s
.

s e t up in e l e m e n t a r y s c i e n ce .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R EA D I N GS
H a ggar d H W S c ie nce of H ea lt h a nd D is ea s e ( H ar pe r
, . .
, B ro t he r s ) .

K im b e r a n d Gr a y , Textbook of A na tom y a nd P hys iology (The M ac m illa n

 C HAPT E R XV

B LO OD AN D I TS
I M P ORTAN C E

W illiam Har v ey . V e s a l ius

’
idea of bloo d ves s e ls .

Wha t is t he re a l tio n of blo od to t he o t he r t is s ues of t he body ? Whe re is

blood ma de an d whe re a re its va r io us pa r ts des t royed ? Wha t is mea n t
by difl e re n t types f bl d ? Wha t is t he impo r ta nc e f bloo d te s ts ?
'

o o o o

M a ny ce ll s a re u rce o f s upply o f fo o d a nd o xy
fa r f ro m t he so

g e n a n d f a r f r o m t he o r ga n s whi c h w ill e x c r e t e t h e i r w a s t e s .

The bl ood t h e r e fo r e a c t s a s a mediu m fo r t he di s t r ibu t i o n o f

, ,

fo o d m a t e r i a l s a n d o xyge n t o t he c e lls a nd fo r t he co ll e c t i o n o f ,

wa st es fro m t he ce ll s .

C irc ula tio n is t he c e a s e l e s s m o v e m e n t o f bl oo d t h r o u gh t he

b o dy in a s y s t e m o f c l o se d t u be s c a ll e d blood ves s els whi c h b r a nc h
t o a ll p a r t s o f t he b ody Wh e n bl ood fl o ws fro m a ny p a r t o f t he
.

b o dy bl ood v es se l s h a ve be e n b ro ke n
,
.

P ro b l e m . S tudy of t he blood .

Se c ure s o me fre s hly dr a w n b loo d fro m a b ut c he r l

o r s a ug hte r ho use . K ee p

In a t ight ly c or k ed b o t t le w he n no t in us e .

I . Po ur t wo or t hre e o unce s o f t he b loo d in t o an o pe n dis h a nd be a t it

v igo ro usly i wit h a fe w b roo m s t ra ws .

A . De s c ribe t he n a t ur e O f t he m a t e r ia l re m o v ed by t his b e a t ing . This

ma t er ia l is lle d As t he b e a t in g e xpo se d t he b loo d t o t he a ir ,
ca fib ri n .

t he q
li uid b lo o d pro te in , fib r ino ge n ,
w as co n v e rt e d in t o t he so lid for m ,

B . De sc ribe t he ma t e rial left in t he dis h . T his is defib r ina ted b lood .

1 43
14 4 B L OO D AN D I TS I M PO R TA N C E

II . C o n t in ue b ea t in g un t il no m or e fib r in c a n be r em o ve d .

III . Aft e r b ea t in g, rem o v e t he fib r in , and po ur t he i

r e m a n der of b loo d
in t o a b o t t le . L ab el it defib r in a t e d b loo d .

IV . P o ur a li k qu e a n t it y o f un b e a t e n b lo o d in t o a sec o n d b o t t le an d le t
b ot h v o lum e s o f b loo d s t a n d, c o r k e d, for v
s e er a l da y s . C o m par e t h e a ppe ar

an ce o f t he m a t e r ia ls in t h e t w o b o t t le s .

A . D es c rib e a n y s o lid m as s, a clot, whi c h m ay h a v f

e or m e d in one or

b o t h b o t t les .

B . D es c r ib e t he li uid q a r o un d t he c lo t . This li uid is q c a lle d s erum .

C o m par e b lo o d s e r um wit h defib r in a t e d b lo o d .

V . Pla c e a n o un ce o f b lo o d in a t hir d b o t t le a n d, b y m eans of a deli v er y

t ub e , a dd o xy ge n t o it .

A . Wh a t e ffec t has o xyge n o n t he c o lo r o f b lo o d ? This is n o w o xy

ge n a t e d b lo o d . I t m ay b e c o m par e d to a rte ria l b lo o d .

VI . P la c e a n o un ce o f b loo d in a four t h b o t t le a n d, b y m e an s of a deli v ery

t ub e , a dd c ar b o n dio xide t o it .

A . Wha t e ffec t has c a rb o n dio xide on t he c o lor of b loo d ? This is

deo xy ge n a t e d b loo d . I t m ay b e c o m par e d to ven ous b lo o d .

VI I . L o ok at t he v e in s
in y o ur wr is t .

A . Do v e in s a ppe ar t o h a e o xyge n a t e dv or de oxyge n a t e d b lood in

t h em ?
B . E xpla in why b lo o d whic h fl o ws fr om a c ut vein lo o k s li k e Oxy
ge n a t e d b lo o d .

P r ob le m . S tudy o f blood s er um .

Te s t t h e se r um fo r pr o t ein , s t ar c h s ugar , fa t , wa t er , , an d mi n e r al m a t t e r .

Acc o un t for t he pr e s e n ce or ab s e n c e o f e a c h .

P r ob l e m . S tudy o f blood c orp us cles .

M o un t a t iny dr o p of b loo d on a gla s s s li de . B y m e a ns of t he edge of a

s qu are c o v er gla s s , m a in g a t hin film

s m e ar t he dr o p
C o er a cr o s s t he s lide , k . v
wit h Wr ight s B lo od S t a in for t hr ee m in ut e s ; t he n w a s h o ff t h e s t a in E xam
’
.

in e wit h lo w po w e r a n d t he n wit h high po w er o f t he m icr o s c o pe

“

Ob s er e t he . v
re gula r , dis li k k e, y e llo w is h c e lls whic h c lin g t o ge t h e r ; wh e n in m a s s e s of gr e at
n um b er s t hey a ppear r e d . T he s e are t he red corpus c es l . Th e lar ger , ir r egu
lar b lue
, c e lls ar e t he white corp us c es l . When un s t a in e d, t he y a r e c o lor le s s .

I . E st im a t e r o ughly , t he pr o port io n a t e n umb er of t he t wo t ype s of c or

p sc les
u .
146 B LO O D AN D ITS I M PO R TA N C E

t he differ e n t c e ll s a s t he bl oo d c ir c ul a te s a r e di s s o lv e d in t he ,

pl a s m a a n d ca r r i e d t o t he kid n ey s lu n gs o r S ki n wh er e th e y a re
, , ,

thr ow n o ut .

v k
Th e r e a r e a r io us in ds o f whit e c or pus cl e s W h e n s ta in e d, o n e ty pe , t h e po lym o r ph o n u
.

cl ea r , s h o ws n uc l e i wit h o n e , t wo , t h r e e , fo ur , o r five e nl a r ge m e n t s I n h e a l t h t h e r e is a
fi v v
.

de ni t e r e la tio n s h i p o f t h e n um b e r s o f e a c h o f th e a b o e ; in s t a r a t io n o r di s e a s e th e four s
an d fiv e s a r e s e ldo m fo un d B lo o d t e s t s us ua ll y in dica t e th e ge n e r a l c on dit io n o f th e b o dy
. .

C h e m ic a l ub s t a n ce s in bl o o d kn o w n a s a n tibodies h e lp t o co m
s , ,

b a t ge r m s d ir e c tly Or n e u t r a liz e t he t o xi n s whi c h t h e b a c t er i a

,

s e c r e t e in t h e bl oo d T h es e s ub s t a n ces a r e p r o duce d by t he ce ll s
.

du r i n g a di s e a s e o r i n fe c ti o n I m m u n i t y t o di sea se whi c h will b e

.
,

di s cu s s e d l a t er is b r o ugh t a b o u t in t he b o dy by t h e s e a n t ib o di e s
,
.

B loo d a tis s ue Re d c o r pu s c l e s w e r e m e n t i o ne d wh e n ti s s u es
.

w e r e co n s id er e d Th e y a r e five t o s e v e n hu n d r e d t i m e s a s n u m e r
.

o us a s t he whi t e c o r pu s c l e s Pr es e n t i n v es ti ga ti o n s S h o w th a t th e y
.

differ fr o m o t h er c e ll s in t h a t t h e y l a ck a n u c l e u s Th e y a r e m a d e .

fr o m livi n g c e ll s l o c a t e d in t h e bl oo d fo r m i n g ti s s u e o f t he m a r
-

r ow o f b o n e s M illi o n s o f th e s e c o r pu s c l es a r e f o r m e d a n d give n
.

o ff i n t o t h e bl oo d e a c h m i n u t e Th e y a r e th o u ght t o gra du a lly

.

di s i n t e gr a t e a s th e y m o v e a b o u t The fi n a l d es t r u c t i o n o f t he
.

s m a ll f r a gm e n t s p r o b a bly t a k es pl a c e c hi e fly in t he s pl ee n a n d t he

liv er but m a y o c c ur I n a n y p a r t o f t he bl oo d s y s te m The c orr e c t

, .

fu n c ti o n i n g o f t he red c orpu s c l es d ep en d s up o n t he ha emoglobin

whi c h is t he o xygen c a rryin g pigm en t o f t he bl oo d
- .

A s e r i o u s d e cr e a se in t he n u m b e r o f r ed c o r pu s c l e s o r a d e fi c i e n c y
in h a e m o gl o bi n in t he c o r pu s c l e s c a u s es a c o n diti o n k n o w n a s
a n aem ia . C e r t a i n typ e s o f a n a e m i a in p eo pl e h a v e b e e n t r ea t e d
s uc ce s s fully by a liv er di e t The liv e r whi c h is u se d a s fo o d
.

p r o b a bly c o n t a i n s i r o n go tte n fr o m d e s t r o y e d co rpu s c l e s Thi s .

fo r m o f ir o n s ee m s t o b e m or e v a lu a bl e th a n t he i ro n c o m
p o u nd s in m e dici nes u se d fo r treati ng a n a em i a The b o dy s e em s .
 B L O OD As A T ISSU E 1 47

to be a bl e t o a s s im il a te it b e tt e r Wh e th er t he liv er die t is r e m e
.
-

di a l b e ca u s e o f t he i r o n p re s e n t o r wh e ther t h er e is a vit a m i n
,

p r ese n t t h a t s ti m ula t e s t he b o dy t o m a ke m or e r e d c orpus c le s ,

h a s n o t y et b ee n c o n c lu s iv e ly p r o v e d I n o r d er t o d e t e r m i n e
.

wh e t h er a p e r s o n h a s a n a e m i a a d ro p o f bl o o d is put o n a s lid e
,

whi c h is divid e d i n to s e c t i o n s by m a r k s e t c h e d o n t he s ur fa ce .

Th es e s p a ces a r e c a ll e d c o u n t i n g c h a m b e r s Th e n u mb e r o f r e d
.

c o r pu s cl e s a r e e s ti m a te d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e whi t e co r pu s c l e s p re s e n t .

Thi s is c a ll e d a bl oo d co u n t I f th e r e a r e t o o few r e d c o r pu s c l e s
.

in r e l a ti o n t o t he whi t e c o r pu s c l e s t he p e r s o n is s a id t o b e a n a e m i c
, .

Th er e is a l so a co l o r s c a l e u s e d t o t e s t fo r a n a e m i a .

The h a e m o gl o bi n in t he r e d c o r pu s c l e s r e a dily u n i t e s wi t h o xy
g e n a n d f or m s a n u n s t a bl e c o m p o u n d o xyh a
, e m o gl o bi n W h e n .

t he o xyge n c a r r i e r s p a s s c e ll s d e fi c i e n t in o xy ge n t he o xy h a e m o
-
,

g l o bi n will g iv e up it s o xy g e n s upply Th e .r e d c o r pu s c l e s o f m a n
a r e s m a ll e r th a n t he r e d c o r pu s c l e s o f n e a r ly e v e r y o th e r a n i m a l .

Thi s a ll o w s a gr e a t e r n u m b e r pe r giv e n v o lu m e a n d giv e s a gr e a t er

a b s o r bi n g s u r f a c e Thu s th e s e n u m e ro u s s m a ll c o r pu s c l e s c a r r y a
.

g r e a t e r s upply o f o xy ge n th a n if th e y w e r e l a r g e r .

The whi t e c or pu s cl e s a r e l a r ge r a n d l es s n u m e r o u s th a n t he r e d
co rpu s c l es B e c a u se t h e y a re c a p a bl e o f i n d ep e n d e n t m ot i o n
.
,

the y c a n forc e t h e i r wa y a m o n g t he c e ll s whi c h m a ke up t he w a ll s

,

o f c a pill a r i es a n d e s c a p e i n t o s u r r o undi n g ti s s u e s
, C e r t a i n o f t he
.

white c o rpu s c l es by m e a n s o f th e ir p r o t o pl a s m i c p r oce s s es e n

, ,

Whi t e co rpus cl e s ca n ma k
t h e ir wa y a m o n g th e c e lls in t h e wall s of ca pilla r ie s b y t h e ir in d e
e

pe n de n t m o t ion . k
Th e y ma y b e fo un d in t is s ue s wh e r e th e y ca n a t t a c I n va dm g b a ct e r ia .

ulf t h b ct i i bl d d o th e r t i ss u e s a n d di ges t th e m
g e a e r a n o o a n ,
.

Th e se a r e t he p ha goc ytes a n d t h e p ro c e s s is ph a go c y t o s i s I t is .

tho u ght th a t whit e c or pu s cl es o r i gi n a t e in ly m ph n o d e s a n d in t he

 14 8 B L OOD AN D ITS I M P OR TA N C E

s pl ee n th ro u gh m i t o ti c divi s i o n Wh e n a n i n f e c t i o n o cc ur s in t he
.

b o dy th e y m ul t iply in gr ea t n u m b er s a n d l a t e r di s i n tegr a te o r
,

p r o b a bly e s c a p e fro m t he bl oo d up on m u c o u s s u r fa c e s e s p e ci a lly ,

in t he i n t e s ti n e Wh e n .

white c o r pu s c l e s a r e de
s t r o y e d by b a c t e r i a t he ,

d e a d c o r pu s c l e s a r e c a ll e d
p u s A n a b n o r m a l in .

c r e a se o f whit e c o r pu s c l e s

in t he bl oo d u s u a lly i n di
ca t e s t he s e r i o u s n e s s o f
t he i n f e c t i o n a n d t he

Th e cell t k s xy g
a ei d b y th
o en d pu l
ca rr e a m o un t Of r e s i s t a n c e O i
e re co r s c es
an du it t b u
se f dfo th rn l f
oo gy or e r e ea s e o ener
fer e d by t he b o dy .

B loo d c lo t tin g Bl o o d pl a t e l e t s a r e ti n y bit s o f p r o t o pl a s m

.

f o u n d in bl oo d Th e y a r e s m a ll ce ll s but l a c k a n u c l e u s Th e i r
.
, .

o r i gi n is p r o b a bly s i m il a r t o t h e r e d c o r pu s c l e s Th e y a r e co n .

c e r n e d wi t h bl oo d c l o t t i n g whi c h t a k e s pl a ce wh e n bl o o d is e xp o s e d

t o a ir b e c a u s e o f w o u n d s o r h e m o rr h a ge s Bl o o d pl a t e l e t s dis
.

i n t e gr a te a n d giv e r i s e t o a s ub s t a n ce whi c h pl a y s a n i m p o r t a n t
p a r t in t h e c h a n ge o f t he liquid p r o t e i n fib r in o ge n a lw a y s p r e s e n t
, ,

in bl o o d t o a s o lid fo r m s t r a n d s o f fib r i n
, , C a l c iu m a l s o p r es e n t
.
,

in bl o o d is i n vo lv e d in t h e p r e c ipi t a t i o n o f t he fib r in o ge n
, The .

s t r a n d s o f t he fib r i n e n t a n gl e t h e bl oo d c e ll s a n d f o r m a j e llylik e

bl o o d c l o t Bl e e di n g m a y t hu s b e s t o pp e d The b o dy th e n r e
. .

p a i r s by buildi n g n ew ce ll s t he bl o o d v es s e l s fr o m whi c h t he bl o o d
, ,

is fl o wi n g Pe o pl e wh o se bl o o d d oe s n o t c l o t in t h e n o r m a l l e n gt h
.

o f ti m e o r wh o bl e e d p ro fu s e ly e v e n fr o m t h e s li ght es t w o u n d s a re

c a ll e d bl e e d e r s The di se a se is ha emop hilia a n d it is u s u a lly

.

h e r ed i t a r y .

B loo d gr o upin g The co m p os i t i o n o f hu m a n bl oo d is co n s t a n t

.
-

wi t h t he e xce p t i o n o f t he o xyge n a n d ca r b o n di oxid e c o n t e n t .

B ut s i n c e t h e s e r u m o f o n e p er s on m a y b e i n j u r i o u s t o th a t o f
15 0 B LOO D AN D I T S I M P O R TA N C E

d ea l ofh e a t is ge ner a t e d in a c tiv e ti s s u es s u c h a s m u s c ul a r ti s s u e

a nd t h e liv e r a n d t h e s u r plu s h e a t m u s t b e di s t r ibut e d t o p a s s iv e
,

ti s s u e s V er y li t t l e h e a t is ge n er a t e d in p a ss iv e ti s s u e s s u c h a s
.

b o n e s o h e a t m u s t b e s e n t t o t h e m by t he bl o o d wh e n n e e d e d
, .

Th e bl o o d s y s t e m m a y b e c o m p a r e d t o a h o t w a t e r s y s t e m The -
.

m u s cl e s a r e lik e li t t l e fur n a ce s in whi c h bur n i n g t a k e s pl a c e Thi s .

h e a t s t he s u rr o un di n g bl oo d As t h e bl oo d c i r c ul a t es it r a di a t es
.

h e a t t o t he t i s s u e s t h a t n ee d it a n d t hu s k e e p s t he t e m p era tur e o f
,

t he b ody co n s t a n t a t n in ety eight a n d s i x ten ths degrees F a h r e n h e it

-

( 9 8 6
°
W h e n g l a n d s giv e o ff s ec r e ti o n s a n d h a v e n o du c t s fo r

dr a i n i n g t h e s ecr e t i o n s t he bl oo d a b s o r b s th e m
, .

I n b r i e f t h e fu n c ti o n s o f bl oo d a r e n u t r i t iv e p r o t e c tiv e a n d
, , ,

e xcr e t o r y .Wh e n s c i e n t i s t s c a n s upply t he s a m e c o n dition s t o

t i s s u e s o ut s id e o f t he b o dy a s th o s e p r o vid e d by t he bl o o d ti s s u e s ,

c a n b e k e pt a liv e u n d e r e xp e r i m e n t a l c o n diti o n s o ut s id e o f t he

b o dy Thi s wa s o n e o f C a rr e ll s b ig a chie v e m e n t s f He expe r i

.
’

m en t e d fo r m a n y y ea r s b e f o r e h e wa s a bl e t o dupli c a t e t he c o n
dit io n s o ut s id e o f t he b o dy t h a t w e r e f o u n d in t h e bl o o d Wh en .

h e s u c cee d e d in d o i n g t hi s h e w a s a bl e t o gro w t i s s u e s o ut s id e o f
,

t he b o dy .H is w o r k h a s b ee n p r e vi o u s ly di s cu s s e d on p a ge 54 .

Q U E S TI O N S
1 . D e fi n e o xyge n a t e d a n d d e o xyge n a t e d bl o o d .

2 . Wh a t is defib r in a t e d b l o o d ?
3 . C o m p a r e a r t e r i a l a n d v e n o us b l o o d .

4 . C o m p a r e t he r e d a n d wh i t e c o r pus c l e s in a ppe a r a n c e s iz e , n um ,

b er , a n d f un c t i o n . Whe r e a r e t he y m a de a n d whe r e a re t he y de
ye d
s t ro

5 Give s ix f un c t i o n s o f bl o o d
. .

6 Why d o e s bl oo d c l o t ; why
. is bl o o d c l o t t i n g n e c es s a ry ?
 C H AP TE R X VI

CI R C ULATORY
S YS TE M

M a lpigh i s dra win g o f c ircula

l

An e a r lydra win g s h o w in g t h e ’

c ir c ula t io n o f t h e b lo o d . k
t ion o f a ch ic e m b r yo .

Wha t a re t he pa t hs f
o blood t hr ough t he body ? .
Wha t c a us es t he i
c r

l
cu a tion o
f blood ? Wha t is t he re la ti on o f circula tion to the cells ?

Pro b lem . The s tudy o f blood ves s els n

An a es t he t iz e a t a dpo le w it h a lit t le e t h er . Place t he t a dpo le in a Pe t r i

dis h in a lit t le w a t e r so t h a t t he t a il can b e m o un t e d un de r t he lo w po we r
of t he m icr o s c o pe . Do not k ee p t he t a dpole o ut o f w a t er m o re t h a n t e n o r
fi ft ee n m in ut es a t one t im e .

I . No t e t he blo o d fl ow n gi up s om e b loo d v l
e s se s an d do wn ot he r s .

A . S ugge s t a r e a s on fo r t h e par a lle l a rr a n ge m e n t o f t he blo o d ves se ls .

B . S ugges t a fun c t io n Of t h e c o n n e c t in g b lo o d e s s e ls v .

II . The la r ge e llipt ic al ce lls p a s s in g t hr o ugh t h e v e s s e ls ar e t he red c or

pusc les .

A . Wh a t is t h e v
a d a n t a ge o f h a in g v c o r pusc le s in t he s m a lle s t b lo o d
v e s s e ls p a ss c ells in a s in gle lin e ?
B . C o m p ar e t h e re d c or pus cle s of t he fr og wit h t h ose of m an .

III . Lo o k at t he s un o r a t a v er y b r igh t ligh t No t e t in y

.
p a r t ic le s p a s s in g
t hr o ugh a net wor k of t ub e s in y o ur ey e s . Th e s e ar e t he r e d c or p us c le s p a s s in g
t hr o ugh t iny blo o d v e s s e ls .

I n t hepl a n t a s y s t e m o f t ub es c a ll e d du c t s a n d s i e v e t ub e s dis
,

tr ibu t e s c e ll s a p I n t he hu m a n b o dy a n e t wo r k o f t ub e s m a ke s
.
,

up t he c ir c ul a t o r y s y s t e m fo r t h e di s t r ibuti o n o f bl o o d t h r o u gh o ut
t he b o dy M a t e r i a l s m u s t e n t e r a n d l e a v e t h e bl o od by m e a n s
.

15 1
15 2 C I R C ULA T O R Y SYST EM

o f o s m o s s , s n ce i i t he
bl o o d v e s s e l s a r e c l o s e d t ub e s B l o o d s up .

pli e s t he ce ll s w i t h buildi n g a n d fu e l m a t e r i a l s a n d co ll e c t s w a s t e s
fr o m t h e m ; t h e r e fo r e s o m e bl o o d v e s s e l s m u s t b e ti n y e n o u gh
,

t o ge t n e a r t o a ll t h e c e ll s Th e s e m i c r o s c o pi c bl o o d v e s s e l s t h e
.
,

c a pi lla ries c o n n e c t with l a r ge r a n d l a r ge r v e s s e l s t he a r te r ies a n d

, ,

vein s u n t il t h e l a r ge s t a r t e r ie s a n d v e i n s a t t a i n a S iz e o f o n e h a lf
'

i n ch in di a m e t e r .

P r ob le m . S tudy O
f t he hea r t .

S e c ur e fr o m t h e b ut c h er , t he h e ar t of an o x or o f a n y o t h er lar ge a n im a l .

I f t he s ch o o l is n e ar a s la ugh t e r h o us e ,
it m a y b e po s s ib le t o s e c ur e e n o ugh
s pec im e n s s o t h a t e a c h gr o up o f fo ur s t ude n t s m a y h a e o n e C ut t h e h e ar t s v .

lo n git udin a lly .

(These h e a r t s m a y b e k ept in for m a ldehy de for fur t her s t udy .
)
I . D e scr ib e t he co v er in g o f t h e h e ar t ( t he p er i ca r di um ) .

A . Wh a t is it s p ur po s e ?
B . E xpla in a ll a da p t a t io n s for t h is pur po se .

II . C o un t t h e n um b e r o f c h a m b e r s or s p a c e s in t h e h e ar t .

A . Th e upper s pa c e s a r e t h e right a n d left a ur icles ; t h e lo w er s p a c e s ,

t he r ight a n d left ven t ri cles D e s cr ib e t he s t r uc t ur e loc a t ion a n d s iz e o f
.
‘

, ,

a ur ic le s a n d v e n t r icle s .

B . D e scr ib e t he s t r uc t ur e t h at s e par a t e s t he le t f s ide o f t h e h e ar t fr o m

t he r igh t s ide .

0 . F in d t he m o v a b le fl a ps , k n o wn a s va lves , tha t se par a t e t he l

a ur ic e s

fr o m t h e v e n t r ic le s .

1 . D e s c rib e t he v lva es in t h e le ft s ide o f t h e h e a r t , in c ludin g in

y our de s c r ipt io n t h e n um b e r o f fl p m th d
a s, e o o f a t t a c hm e n t , a n d fun c
t io n . Ob s e r v e and de s cr ib e t h v lv
e i th
a es n e r igh t s ide .

a . Whe n
b loo d p a s s e s fr o m t h e a ur ic le s t o t he v e n t r ic le s , wh a t
e ffec t wo uld y o u e xpe c t it t o h a e o n t h e al es ? v v v
b . I f b loo d a t t em pt s t o pa s s fr o m the v til
en r c e s t o t he i
a ur c le s ,

wh a t e ffec t wo uld it h a v e on t he v lv
a es ?
0 . Wh a t m us t b e t h e n or m a l dir e c t io n of t h e flo w of b loo d ?
III . Na m e t h e t is s ue s t h a t lar gely c om pr is e t he w alls o f t h e he ar t .

A . C o m par e t h e t h ic k n e s s o f a ur ic le w alls w it h t h o s e of t he v e n tr ic le .

B . C o m p ar e t he t hi k c n e s s of t h e w a ll of t h e le t f v e n tr icle w it h o t her

w alls of t h e he ar t .

0 . Wha t is t h e r e la t io n o f t h ic k ness o f h e ar t m usc le t o it s ac t i v it y ?

154 CI R C U LA T OR Y SYST E M

t e ct ed fr o m fr i c ti o n by t he m o i s t m em b r a n o u s p e ri c a r di u m which
c o v er s it . The r ib s a n d b r ea s t b o n e fu r n i s h p r o t e c t i o n a ga i n s t m e
c h a n ic a l i n ju r y L a r ge bl o o d v e s s e l s c o ll e c t bl o o d fr o m a ll p a r t s o f
.

t he b o dy a n d r e tu r n it t o t he h e a r t ; o th ers t a k e bl o o d f r o m t he
h e a r t t o a ll p a r t s o f t he b o dy The h e a r t t i s s u e i t se lf ha s a n in
.
, ,

d ep e n d e n t bl o o d s upply c a ll e d t he coron a ry ci rcula tion Wh e n t he .

h e a r t is c ut l o n gi t udi n a lly it is f o u n d t o c o n s i s t o f f o u r c h a m b er s
, ,

a l e ft a u r i c l e a r i gh t a u r i c l e a l e f t v e n tr i c l e a n d a r i ght v e n t r i c l e
, , ,
.

A t hi c k m u s c ul a r p a r ti t i o n t h r o u gh t he c e n t er o f t h e h ea r t s e p a
r a t es t h e l e f t s id e fr o m t h e r i gh t s id e Th e a u r i c l e s r e ce iv e bl o o d
.

fr o m t he v e i n s a n d giv e it t o t he v en tr i c l e s Th e a c t o f r e c e ivi n g
.

bl o o d d o e s n o t r e qui r e m u c h w o r k s o t h e a u r i c l e w a ll s h a v e c o m
,

a ra t i v e l littl e m u s c l e in t h em T h e v e n tr i c l e s fo r c e t h e bl o o d
p y .

i n t o t h e a r te r i e s t o a ll p a r t s o f t h e b o dy I n Or d er t o a c
“

c o m pli s h t hi s pu m pi n g t h e v e n t r i c l e s h a v e v e r y t hi c k m us c u
,

la r w a ll s . Th e w a ll s o f t h e l e ft v e n t r i c l e a r e m u c h t hi c k er
t h a n t h e w a ll s o f t he r i ght v e n t r i c l e Th e y h a v e t o s e n d
.

bl o o d t o a ll p a r t s o f t h e b o dy whil e tho s e o f t he r i ght v e n t r i c l e

m e r e ly s e n d bl o o d t o t h e lu n gs S ep a r a ti n g t h e v en t r i c l e s fr o m
.

t h e a u r i c l e s a r e t r a pd o o r a rr a n ge m e n t s c a ll e d v a lv e s Th e s e .

a r e m a d e o f v e r y s t r o n g c o n n e c tiv e t i s s u e a tt a c h e d by c o r d s o f

t h e s a m e ti s s u e t o t he v e n t r i c l e s On t h e l e ft s id e th er e is a
.
,

v a lv e with t wo fl a p s a n d o n t h e r i ght s id e a v a lv e with th r ee

, ,

fl a p s Th e bl o o d p a s s e s fr o m t he a ur i c l e s t o t he v e n t r i c l es by
.
,

m e r e ly pu s hi n g a ga i n s t t h e v a lv e s I f t h e bl o o d b a c k s up du r i n g
.

t h e c o n t r a c t i n g o f t h e v e n t r icl e s t he v a lv e s fill up c l o s e a n d
, , ,

p r e v e n t t he r e tur n o f t h e bl o o d i n t o t he a u r icl e s Thu s t h e .

bl o o d is k ept m o vi n g in o n ly o n e di r e c ti o n .

Ar t e ri e s Th e tub e lik e bl oo d v e s s e l s whi c h c a rr y t he bl o o d

.

fro m t he h e a r t t o a ll p a r t s o f t he b o dy a r e c a ll e d a r t er i e s The .

l a r ges t o n e s b r a n c h fr o m t he v e n t r i c l e s a n d s ubdivid e i n t o s m a ll er
,

v e s s e l s u n til a n et w o r k o f v e r y fin e tub e s p r a c t ica lly m i c r o s c o pi c

, ,

is f o r m e d Th e s e co n n e c t with t h e c a pill a r i e s
.
The a r t e r i e s c a n
.
 V E I N S

ul
p mo n a r

a o r t a:

a rm

g as t r ic .

S p l e n t ca

m es e nt e r-iv

v
A dia gram of th e c ir cula t o ry s y s t e m in wh ich t h e b lo o d e s s e ls co n ta in in g a rt e r ia l b loo d ar e
co lo r e d r e d, th o s e co n ta in in v
g e n o us b lo o d a r e c o lo r e d b lue , a n d th e lym ph a t i c s a r e y e llo w
v
.

N ot e t ha t , in ge n e ra l , o n ly t h e a rt e r ie s c o n t a in a rt e r ia l b loo d, b ut t h e e in s c o m in g fro m th e
v v
lun gs ha e r e c e i e d a n e w s upply o f o xyge n a n d h e n c e a ls o c o n ta in o xyge n a t e d b loo d .

155
15 6 CI R C U LAT OR Y SYST E M

u s u a lly b e di s t i n gui s h e d f r o m v e i n s a n d c a pill a r i es by t h e p re s e n c e

o f c o n s id e r a bl e m u s c ul a r t i s s u e in t h e ir w a ll s E a r ly a n a t o m i s t s
'

.
,

w h e n di s s e c t i n g b o di e s f o u n d t h e s e tub e s e m pty a n d t h o u ght

,

t h a t t h e y w e r e s upp o s e d t o c a rr y a ir a n d t h e r e fo r e c a ll e d t h e m
a r t e r i e s ( a ir t ub e s ) E v e n t h e s m a ll e r a r te r i es h a v e m u s c ul a r w a ll s
-
.

a n d c a n con t r a ct a n d r el a x Th e a o r t a a n d it s b r a n c h e s a r e full o f
.

bl o o d a ll t h e t i m e Wh en t h e l ef t v en t r i c l e c o n tr a c t s t he bl o o d
.
,

c a n n o t m o v e f o r w a r d i n t o t h e c o m p a r a t iv e ly n a r r o w a r t e r i es f a s t

e n o u gh t o m a k e r o o m fo r t h e n ew s upply s e n t o ut by t h e v e n tr i c l e .

B ut due t o t he e l a s t i c ity o f it s w a ll s t h e a o r t a c a n e xp a n d a n d
, ,

r e ce iv e t h e i n c o m i n g bl o o d Th e i m pul se o f t h e bl o o d s e n t i n t o t h e
.

a r t e r i e s by t h e v e n t r i c ul a r c o n t r a c ti o n c a u se s a w a v e o f di s t en ti o n

t o t r a v e l a l o n g t h e bl o o d v e s s e l Thi s w a v e o f di s t e n t i o n is c a ll e d
.

t h e puls e Th e pul s e is t h e p a s s iv e s t r e t c hi n g a n d c on t r a c t i n g o f
.
-

t he e l a s ti c ti s s u e I f a n i n c r e a s e d am o u n t o f bl o o d is s e n t t o a
.

p a r t i c ul a r p a r t o f t he b o dy a t an y ti m e t h e a r t e r i e s c a n a lw a y s
, ,

a c c o m m o d a t e it b e c a u s e o f t h e e l a s t i c i t y a n d m u s c ul a r i t y o f th e ir

wa ll s Th e pul s e m a y b e fe lt wh e r e v e r a n a r t er y c o m e s n e a r t he
.

s u r f a ce o f t h e b o dy M o s t a r t e r i e s a r e d e e ply e m b e dd e d in o t h e r
.

t i s s u e s s o t h a t t h e pul se is n o t e a s ily n o t e d Ar t e r i e s r un n ea r .

t h e s ur f a c e in t h e wr i s t s n e c k a n d t e m pl e s ,
Pr o b a bly t he m o s t
, .

c o n v e n i e n t pl a ce fo r t a ki n g a pul s e is in t h e w r i s t .

P r ob l e m . S t udy o f t he p uls e r a te .

I . Pla c e t h e m iddle fi n ger o f t h e r igh t h a n d a b o ut t wo in c h es fr o m t he b a ll

of t he t h um b of t h e le ft h a n d, t h us lo c a t in g a p uls e . C o un t t he n um b e r o f

be a t s felt pe r m in ut e . This is c a lle d k

t a in g t he puls e rate .

II . R un up an d down s t a ir s t wo or t hr e e t im e s . Aga in t a k e t h e p uls e ra te .

A . Wh a t e ffe c t has e xe r c is e o n t he p uls e r at e ?

B . K ee pin g in m in d t h e fa c t t h a t t h e w a lls of t he h e ar t a n d a r t e r ie s

ha v
lar ge de po s it s o f m uscle a n d ela st ic
e fib er s , gi v e t he r e a son for t he
e ffec t o f e xer c is e o n t h e puls e r a t e .

0 . D isc us s t he b en e fi i l ff
c a e ect s o f exer c is e on t he ar t e r e si .

D . I f y o u ge t in s uffi i tc en e xe r c is e , wh a t e ffec t w o uld it e v e n t ua lly

ha v e o n t he h e a r t a n d ar t e r ie s ?
 CI R C U LAT OR Y SYST E M

a re v e r y t i n y in s iz e . Th ey ge t l a r ger a n d l a r ger a s n u m b e r s o f
t h e m j o i n t o ge th e r . Th e l a r ge s t o n e s e m p t y i n t o t h e h e a r t .

Th e i r w a ll s a r e c o m p o s e d o f e l a s t i c ,

c o n n e c t iv e a n d s o m e m u s c ul a r t i s s u e
, .

T h e r e m i ght b e a b a c k flow o f bl o o d -

in t h e v e i n s w e r e it n o t fo r t h e
v a lv e s th a t a r e fo u n d a l o n g t h e w a ll s
O f t he V CII I S These O p en I I I t h e
.

vi fl
.

B l oo d o w in g t h r o ugh e ns pa s s e s
v v
al e s Wh .h v lv ( l l I e Ct
en I l O f t h e b lO O d fl OW W hiCh
t ese a es are
‘

IS
bffbfii d izi g
l l t
i hl b ; li z
c cl e
zg z t o w a r d t he h e a r t I f bl o o d t e n d s
l l ac j e ’

c c n ot ar es e s t ni . to
m ane ” t ° “a ve r s e
flow
b a c k th e y o p en a n d p r e v e n t t he
'

, ,

bl o o d fr o m m o vi n g in t h e o pp o s i t e di r e c t i o n T h e s e v a lv e s m a y .

b e s ee n if y o u le t y o ur h a n d h a n g d o w n a n d s hut o ff t h e bl o o d ,

s upply by h o l di n g t h e w r i s t t i gh t ly Th e bl o o d will b a c k up .

a ga i n s t t h e m o u t h o f t h e v a lv e s a n d o p e n t h e m As bl o o d fill s .

t h e s e v a lv e s a S li ght di s t e n s i o n o f t h e v e i n will b e n o ti c e a bl e
, In .

s o m e o ld e r p e o pl e t h e s e v a lv e s a r e lik e ly t o t hi c k e n a n d s h o w a s
,

s w e lli n gs o n t h e b o dy S i n ce s o s m a ll a n a m o u n t o f m u s c ul a r ti s s u e
.

is p r e s e n t in t h e w a ll s v er y li t t l e m u s c ul a r c o n t r a c t i o n is p o s s ibl e
, .

Th e m o v e m e n t o f bl o o d in
t h e v e i n s is c a u s e d by t h e
h e a r t whi c h is a id e d gr ea t ly
by t he v a lv e s in t he v e i n s ,

by m u s c l e s a n d by t he ,

lu n gs The n e t w o r k o f
.

c a pill a r i e s f e e di n g t h e v e i n s

i n c re a s e s t he flo w j u s t a s
t r ibu t a r i e s t o a r iv e r c a u s e
t he HOW Of W3 t 6 r l lI t he
k
Th e va lve s in ve in s a re l i e t in y wa t ch -po c e t s If k
v v
.

riv er AS b r e a t hi n g t a ke s k
b loo d t e n ds t o fl o w b a c , t h e a l e s fill up an d c lo se
.

k v
t h e pa s s a ge ; t h us b lo o d is e pt m o in g in o n e dir e c t io n .

pl a c e p r e s s u r e o n t h e l a r ge
,

v e i n s in t he c h e s t is re l e a s e d . Thi s ca uses t he bl o o d t o fl ow up
th ro u gh t he v e i n s S ke l e t a l . m u s c l e s in a ll p a rt s o f t he b o dy
 C O U RS E OF TH E B LO O D 1 59

s qu ee ze t he v e i n s a s th ey co n tr a c t Thi s t o o fo r ce s t he bl o o d
.
, ,

On w a r d . I f a p e r s o n is i n a c tiv e fo r a l o n g t i m e t h e bl o o d in ,

t he v e i n s b ec o m e s s lu ggi s h Wh e n we s it s till for t o o l o n g a t im e

.
,

we sa y a f o o t h a s
”
go n e t o s l e e p .

Oth er s i gn s of

di s co m fo r t m a y ,

a l so , b e evid e n t
b e c a u s e t h e s kele
t a l m u s cl es a r e
not propell ing c a
pi l l a fi e

t h e bl o o d thr o u gh
t he v e i n s .

C our s e of th e v
On e b loo d e s s e l lea ds dire ct ly in t o a n oth e r Th e s t r uct ure of
.

t h e ir walls va ri es , h o we ve r .Th e s m a ll, m us cula r -wa ll e d a rt e r ie s

b loOd Th e S YS "
le a d in t o th e m e m b ra n o us ca pilla r ie s wh ich , in t ur n , le a d in t o th e
v
.

s m al le s t o f t h e e in s
t e mi c tion
.

c ir c ula .

The cir c ul a t i on o f t he bl o o d t h r o u gh t h e b o dy is e a s ily un d er

s t o o d a n d r e m e m b e r e d if w e k e e p in m i n d t h a t t h e s e qu e n c e

o f o r ga n s is fr o m t he l e ft v e n t r i c l e a rt er ie s c a pill a r i e s
, vein s
, , ,

a n d r i ght a u r i c l e B l o o d n ev er r e tu r n s dir e c tly t o t he s a m e

.

s id e o f t h e h e a r t it l e f t a n d t h e a u r icl e s do n o t c o n n e ct with

e a ch o th e r n o r do t he v e n tr i c l e s c o n n e c t with e a c h o th e r
, .

The l e ft v e n tr i c l e c o n tr a c t s a n d s e n d s t he bl o o d p a s t t he v a lv e s
i n to t he l a r ge a r t er y c a ll e d t he a or t a Thi s in tur n co n tr a c t s .
, ,

a n d s e n d s bl o o d thr o u gh s m a ll er a n d s m a ll e r a r t e r i e s t o a ll p a r t s

o f t he b o dy e xc ept t he lu n gs As t he a r t e r i e s ge t in a m o n g t h e
.

t i s s u e s o f t he b o dy t h e m u s c ul a r ti s s u e d e c r e a s e s u n t il t he w a ll s
,

o f t he bl o o d v es s e l s c o n s i s t o f a s i n gl e l a y e r o f c e ll s Th es e v e s .

s e l s a r e t he a r t e r i o l e s whi c h t er m i n a t e in t h e ca pill a r i e s Af t er .

g ivi n g up t h e n e e d e d m a t e r i a l s t o t h e c e ll s t h r o u gh t h e w a ll s o f
t he c a pill a r i e s a n d c o ll e cti n g e x c r e t i o n s f r o m t he c e ll s t he bl o o d
p a s s e s i n t o t i n y v e i n s As t he s m a ll v e i n s l e a d fr o mt he ti s s u e s
,

th ey j o i n a nd in cre as e I n s i ze u nt il t h ey fo rm t he t wo l a r ge s t
 160 C I R C ULA T OR Y SYST EM
‘

'

v e i n s in t he b o dy Th e v e i n s fr o m t he o r ga n s b e l o w t he h e a rt
.

d r a i n i n t o t h e l o w e r o r i n f e r i o r v e n a c a v a ; t he v e i n s f r o m
t h e o rga n s a b o v e t h e h e a r t wi t h t h e e x ce pti on o f t h e lu n gs
, ,

l ea d i n to t h e upp er o r s up er i o r v e n a c a v a B o t h o f th e s e l a r ge .

v e i n s e m p t y i n t o t h e r i ght a u r i c l e F r o m t h er e bl o o d p a s se s
.
,

t o t he r i gh t v e n t r i c l e Thi s c o m pl e t e s t h e s y s t e m i c c i r c ul a
.

ti o n Th e s y s t e m i c c i r c ul a ti o n e n a bl e s t he bl o o d t o s upply
.

t i s s u e s with n ee d e d m a t er i a l s a n d c o ll e c t e x c r e t e d m a t e r i a l s f r o m
th e m .

Th e pulm on a ry c ir c ula tion Th e r i gh t v e n tr i c l e c o n t r a c t s a n d

.

s e n d s t h e bl o o d i n t o t h e pul m on a r y a r t e r y whi c h divid e s i n t o t w o

s e t s o f b r a n c h e s o n e s e t go i n g t o e a c h lu n g
, I n t h e lu n gs t h e s e
.
,

a r t e r i es ge t s m a ll er a n d s m a ll e r u n t il t h e y l e a d i n t o t h e c a pill a r i e s

o f t h e lu n gs .Th e c a r b o n di o xid e c o ll e c t e d f r o m t he c e ll s is
, ,

g iv e n t o t h e lu n g s a n d a n e w s upply o f o xy ge n is a b s o r b e d t h r o u gh

t h e c a p ill a r y w a ll s Th e bl o o d t h e n t r a v els t h r o ugh v e i n s o f in

'

c re a s i n g s iz e u n til it r e a c h e s t h e l a r ge pul m o n a r y v e i n s whi c h t a k e ,

t h e bl o o d t o t h e l e f t a u r i c l e T hi s is c a ll e d t h e pul m o n a r y o r
.

lu n g c i r c ul a t i o n Th e pul m o n a r y c i r c ul a ti o n e n a bl e s t h e bl o o d t o
.

iv e up t h e c a r b o n di o xid e a n d t a k e in a n ew s upply o f o xyge n

g .

Th e port a l c ir cula t io n .

As t h e b l o o d p a s s e s
t h r o u gh c a pill a r i e s in t h e
s t o m a c h a n d s m a ll i n t e s

t i n e it a b s o r b s f o o d t h at
h a s b e e n di ge s t e d a n d
st an dardized i n to en d
Th e pa s s a ge wa y b e tw e e n th e l eft a ur icl e a n d p I O
‘
duC t S We r e a ll t hl S
v v v
.

l e ft e n t r ic l e is gua r de d b y a m it r a l , t wo- cuppe d al e

v He C t e d f o o d t o C H OUla t e
.

Th e pa s s a ge wa y b e tw e e n t h e le ft e n t r ic le a n d t h e CO
a ort a is al s o gua r de d b y a v v
al e B y th e ir a ct io n ,
amo u
un t l l ut l li z e d t h e
nts
v v
.

a l e s a ll o w t h e b l oo d t o fl o w in o nly o n e dir e ct ion .

o f n u t r i e n t s l n t h e bl oo d

w o uld v a r y co n s id e r a bly The n u t r i en t s in t h e bl o o d a r e k ep t

.

c o n s t a n t t o a l a r ge e x t e n t by t h e a c tivi t y o f t h e liv er Th e .
1 62 C I R C ULAT OR Y SYST EM

SPE CIAL F UN C TI ON S OF B LOOD

B L OO D G I VE S B L
OO D TA K ES

Wa t e r , o r ga nic sa lt s , ur e a , e xc e ss

h ea t
C a rb o n di o xide , w a t e r Oxy ge n
Wa t e r , ur e a
M a t eria ls for m a kin g di ges t iv e S e c r e t in , dige s t e d n ut r i

j uic es en t s , wa t er
E xc e ss pr o t e in , e xc e ss s uga r , Nee de d s uga r , ure a , e xce ss

se c r e t in , wo rn - o ut r e d c o r s uga r , a n d o r ga n ic s ub

p u sc le s ,
m a t e r ia ls fo r m a n u s t a n c es

fa c t ure of b ile

B lo o d fun c tion s . bl o o d c i r c ul a t e s t h ro u gh t h e v a r i o u s
As t h e
o r ga n s of t h e b o dy it giv e s up c er t a i n m a t e r i a l s a n d t a k e s in o t h er s
,
.

Th o s e fu n c ti o n s th a t t a k e pl a ce in a ll c e ll s a r e c a ll e d g e n e r a l fu n c

t ion s th o s e p e c uli a r t o a n y o r ga n a r e c a ll e d s p e c ific fu n c ti o n s .

As s i m il a t i o n a n d o xid a ti o n a r e a c tiviti e s p erf o r m e d in a ll c e ll s ;

t h e r e f o r e t h e v a ll n e e d f o o d a n d o xy gen a n d a ll giv e up c a r b o n
,

di o xid e w a t e r a n d u r e a t o t he bl oo d Th e s e a r e k n ow n a s
, , .

g e n er a l fu n c t i on s .S i n c e e a c h o r ga n h a s a s p e c i a l w o r k th e r e a r e ,

c er t a i n a c tivi t i e s p er fo r m e d by t he bl o o d in r e l a ti on t o th e s e
p a r ti c ul a r fu n c t i o n s I n t h e a b o v e t a bl e a li s t is s h ow n o f s p e c i a l
.

w o rk c a r r i ed o n by t he bl o o d in s o m e o f t he o rga n s .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S
1 . Co m pa r e a r t e r es ,i
ve i n s a n d c a pill a r i e s a s t o ( a ) p o s i t i o n
, s iz e , ,

()0 s t r uc t ur e,a n d ( )
d fu n c t i o n .

2 E xpl a i n h o w t o t a ke a p ul s e
. .

3 Tr a c e a co m pl e t e c ir c ul a t i o n n a m i n g in o r d e r a ll t h e b l o o d ve s
.
, , ,

s e l s t r a v ers e d fr o m t h e t i m e t he bl o o d l e a v es t he l e f t v e n t r i c l e un t il it

r e t u rn s .

4 Wh a t is t h e fu n c t i o n o f e a c h o f t h e s ys t e ms o f c i r c ul a t i o n ( a ) s y s
.

t e m ic (b) pul m o n a r y a n d (c) p o r t a l

, , .
 C H APT E R X VI I

S YS TE M

Lym ph tub e s . E nl a r ge d lym ph gla n d .

H o w wa s t he c i rcula t o ni of blood fi rs t dem on s tr a ted ? Wha t is the

i
rela t on o f lymp h to blood? Wha t efiec t ha s l
a co hol on the he a r t ?

H is toric a l s urve y of c ir c ula tion Th e s t udy o f t h e c ir c u

th e .

l a t i o n w a s o n e o f t he fi r s t bi o l o gi c a l i n v e s t iga t i o n s t h a t w a s c o n
duct e d e xp e r i m e n t a lly I n t he ea r ly s e v e n t ee n t h c e n tur y G a lil e o
.
, ,

t he I t a li a n phy s i c i s t h a d p er f o r m e d a n d o b s e r v e d e xp e r i m e n t s o n
,

f a lli n g b o di e s a n d Willi a m Gilb e r t O f E n gl a n d h a d e xp e r i m e n t e d

,

with e l e c t r i c a n d m a gn eti c a t t ra c ti o n s D ue t o th e i r w o r k a n d in
.

—
fl ue n c e Willi a m H a r v e y ( 1 5 78 1 65 7 ) b e ga n t o m a k e s o m e e xpe r i
m e n t a l i n v e s t i ga ti o n in bi o l o gy Th e G r e e k a n a t o m i s t G a l e n
.
,

( 1 3 1 —2 0 1 h a d t a u ght th a t th e r e w a s a n e b b a n d fl o w o f bl o o d
withi n b o th v e i n s a n d a r t er i e s th ro u gh o ut t h e b o dy H e t h o u ght .

tha t t he l e ft s id e o f t he h e a r t c o n t a i n e d bl o o d whi c h w a s vi t a
lized by a m ix t u re o f a n i m a l S pi r it s in t h e lu n gs
, Th e v e i n s w e r e
.

s upp o s e d t o c o n ta i n c r ud e bl o o d H e b e li e v e d th a t t he bl o o d
.

p a s sed fr o m t h e r i gh t t o t he l e ft s id e o f t h e h e a r t t h r o u gh v e r y
m i n u t e p o r e s in t h e p a r titi o n I t wa s a l s o s upp o s e d t h a t o n e ki n d
.

O f bl o o d fl o w e d f r o m t he liv e r t o t h e r i gh t v e n t r i c l e t o t h e lu n gs
, , ,

a n d t h e n t h r o u gh t h e v e i n s whil e a n o t h e r ki n d o f bl o o d fl o w e d
,

f ro m t he l e ft v e n t r icl e t o t he lu n gs a n d t h en t h r o u gh t he a r t e r i e s .

I n 1 5 1 0 Le on a r d o da V i n c i w r o t e a m a n u s c r ip t whi c h in c lud e d n o t e s
,

a n d dr a wi n gs o f t h e h e a r t a n d t h e bl o o d v e s s e l s He ha d s t udi e d
.

1 63
1 64 L Y M P H A T I C SYST EM

t he m o v e m e n t of t heh e a r t in livi n g pi gs a n d he expl a in e d h o w

t h e a o r t a le d f r o m t he h e a r t a n d b r a n c h e d a n d r a m ified thr o u gh

a ll p a r t s Of t h e b o dy .S o m e ti m e l a t er V e sa liu s a tt a c k ed o n e Of
,

G a l en s b e li e f s by d o ubti n g t he e xi s t e n c e o f p o r e s in t he p a r t iti on
’

in t h e c e n t e r o f t h e h e a r t . B ut p e o pl e w er e s till u n d e r t h e infl u
e n c e o f t r a di t i o n a l t e a c hi n g a n d w o uld n o t willi n gly di s c a r d t o o
,

m u c h o f t h a t whi c h h a d b e e n p r e vi o u s ly t a u ght I n his dis s ec

.

t i o n s V e s a liu s h a d n o t e d t h e p a r a ll e l a r r a n ge m e n t o f t h e a r t e r i e s
,

a n d v e i n s but h e s till did n o t o b s e r v e th a t t h e bl o o d m o v e d in a

,

c i r c uit An o th er i n v e s t i ga t o r C e s a lpin o in 1 5 7 1 v e n t u r e d t he
.
, , ,

o pi n i o n t h a t s o m e o f t h e bl o o d l e ft t h e h e a r t t h r o u gh a r t e r i e s a n d

r e tu r n e d by t h e v e i n s
,
o ut e xp e r i m e n t a ti o n
.H e s e e m s t o h a v e r e a s o n e d thi s o ut wi t h
. I n 1 6 1 6 H a r v e y s t a t e d th a t h e n o t o n ly
,

fa il e d t o fin d p o r es in t h e h e a r t t h r o u gh whi c h bl o o d p a s s e d
fr o m o n e s id e t o t h e o t h er b ut th a t t he p a r t iti o n o f t he h e a rt
,

w a s u nu s u a lly s o lid a n d c o m p a c t H e e x a m i n e d t he h e a r t
.

a c t i o n o f s o m e f o r t y diff e r e n t a n i m a l s a n d d e s c r ib e d t h e pul s a

t i on s. H e e x a m i n e d t h e c i r c ul a t o r y s y s t e m o f a d e a d m a n
by m a ki n g a n i n j e c t i o n o f w a r m w a t er fr o m t he pul m o n a r y
a r t e r y t h r o u gh t h e lu n gs i n t o t h e l e f t v e n t r icl e H e fi n a lly .

co n c lud e d a s a r e s ult o f his O b s e r v a ti o n s a n d e xp e r i m e n t a ti o n s

t h a t t h e bl o o d m o v e s in a c i r c ui t a n d th a t t h e b e a t i n g o f t h e
,

h e a r t s uppli e s t h e p r o p e lli n g fo r c e Al t h o u gh h e u n d er s t o o d t h a t
.

t he bl o o d m o v e d in a ki n d o f c i r c l e h e did n o t k n o w a b o ut t h e
,

c a pill a r y n e t w o r k c o n n e c ti n g t h e a r t e r i e s a n d v e i n s M a lpi ghi in

.
,

1 6 60 w a s t h e fi r s t t o o b s er v e with t h e a id o f l e n s e s th a t t he bl o o d
, , ,

m o v e d th r o u gh t h e c a pill a r i e s fr o m t he a r t er i e s t o t he v e i n s .

H a r v e y s w o r k w a s t h e r e s ul t o f r e a s o n i n g b a s e d o n t he o b s er
’

v a t io n s o f t h e s t r u c tu r e a n d pul s a t i o n s o f t h e h e a r t H e e xpl a i n e d
.

h o w t h e c o n t ra c t i o n o f t h e h e a r t f o r c ed bl o o d i n t o t h e a r t e r i e s a nd
h ow t hi s m o v e m e n t p r o du c e d t h e pul s e H e p o i n t e d o ut th a t
.

t h e a m o u n t o f bl o o d whi c h l e ft t h e l e f t v e n tr icl e o f t h e h e a r t in a
iv e n ti m e m u s t r e t u r n a n d b e s e n t o ut a ga i n b ec a u s e in a h a lf
g , ,
166 L Y M P H A T I C SYS T E M

near t he Va lv e s S i m il a r t o t h os e fo u n d in t he v e i n s a r e
hea r t .

a l o n g t h e la r ge r ly m ph a tic s a n d p r e v e n t t h e b a c k flo w o f t he ly m ph .

I n a dditi o n t o t he ly m ph a ti c s th a t d r a i n t he ti s s u e fluid t h e r e a r e ,

s o me c a ll e d l a c te a l s
th a t a r e in t he villi o f
t he s m a ll i n t e s ti n e .

Th e s e ly m ph a t i cs a id
in t he a b s o r pti o n o f di
g e s t e d n ut r i e n t s p a r ,

t ic ula r ly f a t s Af t er .

a m ea l t he l a c te a l s ,

a r e fill e d w ith a W hi t e

f a tty s ub s t a n c e At .

o th e r ti m e s t h e fluid ,

Liq uid m t i l k t h ugh t h w ll f pil l i

a e r a s s oa ro d
filll n g t h e l a c te a l s 13
e a s o ca ar es an
b th th t i u
a e e ll
ss Spe ce m s g th
. ll ll d
a ce s a on e ce s a r e ca e
lym ph p s Th x
a ce s . lym ph i g th
e e d up b y p i l
ce s s v er y S i m il a r t o t h e
s a e re s ec a
t ub lym ph t ub
es , A lym ph t ub i
es . h w i th di g m e s s o n n e a ra
t b p ll l t
ar bl d v l ( th i ta t i i di ly m ph in t h e o th e r
o e
a e o a oo
p es s e s re res en on s a

g mm t )
ra a ic
Ly m ph
.

ly m ph a t i c s .

is k ep t m o vi n g by t he c o n t r a c ti o n o f S k e l e t a l m u s c l e s s qu ee zi n g
t h e ly m ph a t i c s Thi s is S i m il a r t o t h e e ff e c t o f t h e s k e l e t a l
.

m u s cl e s o n t he v e in s The fl ow o f lym ph is a l s o c o n t r o ll ed by t he
.

m u s c ul a r m o v e m e n t s o f t he b o dy a n d by t he r e l e a s e o f p re s s u r e ,

o n t h e t h o r a c i c du c t du r i n g e a c h i n s pi r a ti o n Thi s r e l e a se c a u s e s .

t he ly m ph in v e s s e l s wh e r e t he p r e s s u r e is gr ea t e r t o fl ow i n t o t he ,

th or a c i c du c t .

Th e S p a c es fo r m e d b e t w e e n t h e m e m b r a n e s a n d t h e v a r i o u s
o r ga n s o f t h e b o dy whi c h th e y c o v e r a r e s i m il a r in s t r u c tu r e t o

ly m ph a t i cs a n d m a y b e th o u ght o f a s e xp a n d e d lymp h s pa ces

,
.

Th e fluid fo u n d in t h e pl e u ra l t h e p er i c a r di a l a n d t h e p e r i t o n e a l
, ,

s a c s is S i m il a r t o t h e ly m ph in t h e ly m ph a t i c s .

L ymp h n odes a r e e xp a n d e d p o r t i o n s o f t he ly m ph a ti c s f o u n d
in a ll p ar t s o f t h e b o dy L a rge c o ll ec ti o n s o f th e m a r e l o ca t ed
.

u n d er t h e a r m s a n d in t h e n e c k Oth er s in fe w er n u m b e r s o c cur .
, ,
 H Y G I ENE OF T H E C I R C ULATO R Y SYST EM 1 67

in m a n y h er p a r t s o f t he b o dy Th e y a r e m a d e Of fib r o u s
ot .

t i s s u e s i n ter s p e r s e d w i t h n u me ro u s S p a c e s I n th e se S p a c e s white
.
,

c o r pu s c l e s c o ll e c t a n d m ul t iply by divi s i o n B a c t e r i a a re fr e qu en tly

.

b ro u ght t o t he ly m ph n o d e s w h e re t h e y a r e d e s tr o y e d by th e ph a
,

t m killi - whi t pu s c l s w hi c h a r e f o u n d in s u c h n um
o
g y c e s g e
,
r n g e c o r e ,

b e rs in t he ly m ph n o d e s th a t t h e y h a v e li t t l e diffi c ul t y in d e s tr o y
in g b a c t e r i a Oc c a s i o n a lly b a c t e r i a es c a p e fr o m t h e n o d e s a n d
.
,

t r a v e l th r o u gh t he ly m ph i n t o t he bl o o d a n d thu s S p r e a d i n f e c t i o n s .

I f b a c t e r i a m ultiply r a pidly a n d c a u s e an i n f e c t i o n in a ly m ph
g l a n d , a w a ll o f ca l c iu m is s o m e ti m e s d e p o s i t e d a ro u n d t h e ger m s .

Thi s p r e v e n t s t h e b a c t e r i a f r o m e s c a pi n g i n t o t he s y s t e m A .

l a n d o f thi s ki n d c a n b e c ut o ut a n d th us t h e i n f e c t i o n is r e
g
m oved . A ly m ph gl a n d a c t s a s a S i e v e t o r e m o v e b a c t e r i a l a n d
fo r e i gn m a t er i a l s a n d thu s p r e v e n t s m a n y i n ju r i o u s s ub s t a n c es fr o m
e t ti n g i n t o t h e bl o o d a n d r e tu r n i n g t o t h e h e a r t T h e ly m ph
g .

l a n d s o f m i n e r s f r e qu e n tly b e c o m e c l o gge d wi t h di r t a n d th er e
g ,

fo r e b ec o m e gr e a t ly en l a r ge d
,
.

H ygie n e of th e c ir c ula tory s y s t e m Bl o o d v e s s e l s a r e k ept in

.

t o n e a n d t he bl o o d is k ep t c i r c ul a t i n g n o r m a lly by r e gul a r e x e r c i s e ,

f r e s h a ir go o d f o o d h o t a n d c o ld b a t h s a n d s uffi c i e n t s l e e p A l a r ge
, , , .

p a r t o f t he r e p a i r o f t he b o dy t a ke s pl a c e du r i n g s l e e p M a n y re d .

c o r pu s cl e s a r e m a d e a t t hi s ti m e I f o n e d o e s n o t ge t e no u gh s l e e p
.
,

p a ll o r m a y r e s ult whi c h is due t o a n i n s uffi c i e n t n u m b e r o f r e d c o r

,

p u s c le s T
. hi s m a y c a u s e a n a e m i a R e gul a r
. e x e r c i s e is b e tt e r th a n

S p a s m o di c e x e r c i s e Wh e n a p er s o n d oes n o t e x er c i s e s uffic i e n t ly
.
,

t h e h e a r t a n d a r t e r i a l m u s c l e s b e c o m e w e a k a n d t h e m u s c l e s a ll
t h r o u gh t h e b o dy l o s e th e i r t o n e An y u n u s u a l e x e r c i s e w ill t h e n
.

c a u s e p a lpi t a ti o n o f t he h e a r t V i o l e n t e m o t i o n s o v e r s t i m ul a t e t he
.

h e art a n d bl o o d v e s s e l s Oc c a s i o n a lly t hi s c a u s e s t h e r up t u r e
.
,

o f a bl o o d v e s s e l A vi o l e n t fit o f a n ge r h a s b e e n k n o w n t o c a u s e
.

a c o n diti o n o f t hi s ki n d .D r i n ki n g w a t e r is i n v a lu a bl e in a idi n g
t he bl o o d t o giv e o ff w a s t e m a t e r i a l s c o ll e ct e d f r o m t h e c e ll s i n t o ,

t he o r ga n s o f e x c r e ti o n ; n a m e ly t h e lu n gs S ki n a n d kid n ey s
, , , .
1 68 L YM P HA T I C S YS T E M

Th e cell s o f t he b o dy d e p en d up on t he c i r c ul a t o r y s y s t e m fo r
t he di s t r ibuti o n o f buildi n g a n d fu e l m a t e r i a l s The i m p o r t a n c e
.

o f t h e c i rc ul a t o r y s y s t e m is t h e r e f o r e a pp a r e n t
, ,
I f vi o l e n t phy s i
.

c a l e x e r c i s e t a k e s pl a c e S h o r t ly a f t e r a m e a l a gr e a t er s upply o f
,

bl o o d is s e n t t o t he wo r ki n g m u s c l e s a n d wi t hd r a w n fr o m t he di
g e s t iv e o r g a n s wh e r e e n e r gy i s n ee d e d I n di g e s t i.o n m a y r e s ult .

Wh e n bl o o d c o n ge s t s in v e i n s it c a u s e s t he ve i n s t o b ec o m e e n
,

la rge d a n d t h e se v e s s e l s a r e k n o w n a s va ricos e vein s Thi s c on .

diti o n fr e qu en t ly o cc ur s in p e o pl e who do n o t e x e r c i s e o r h a v e t o
s t a n d fo r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e T i gh t ga r t e r s will r e t a r d t h e c ir
.

c ul a t i o n o f t h e bl o o d a n d c a u s e c o n ge s t i on Th e a r t e r i e s o f m a n y
.

e ld e r ly p eo pl e l o s e th e i r e l a s t i c i t y T hi s m a y b e c a u s e d by t o o
.

m u c h phy s i c a l w o r k t o o m u c h m e n t a l w o r k o r by p o o r di ge s t i o n
, ,
.

C a l c iu m s a lt s m a y a c c u m ul a t e in t he w a ll s a n d c a us e th em t o
h a r d en Thi s c o n diti o n is kn o wn a s h a r d en i n g o f t he a r ter i es o r
.
,

a r t e r i o s c l er o s i s .

Wh e n c a pill a r i e s a r e b ro k e n but t he S kin is u n b r o k e n t he I nj u r y

, ,

is a b r ui s e . Al t e r n a t e h o t a n d c o ld a ppli c a t i o n s will u s u a lly h a v e a

s ti m ul a ti n g e ff e ct . Wh en t he S ki n a s w e ll a s t h e c a pill a r i e s a r e
b ro ke n t h e i n ju r y is a n a b r a s i o n I t s h o uld b e w a s h e d wi t h a n
, .

a n t i s e pti c a n d b a n d a ge d t o p r e v e n t i n f e c ti o n I f a r te r i e s a r e c ut
.
,

t h e bl oo d fl o w s in s pur t s ; p r e s s u r e m u s t b e a ppli e d b e t w e e n t h e
c ut a n d t h e h e a r t in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t l o s s o f bl o o d Thi s p r e s s u r e
.

is b e s t a ppli e d by m e a n s o f a t o ur n iqu e t whi c h s h o uld b e r e l ea s e d

e v e r y fe w m i n ut e s in o r d e r t o k e e p t h e bl o o d c i r c ul a t i n g in t h e lim b .

S t o ppi n g t he fl o w o f bl o o d will h elp t o c l o t t he bl o o d I f a vein .

is c ut t h e bl o o d fl o w s s m o o t hly
,
I n thi s c a s e t h e t o u r n iqu e t
.
,

S h o uld b e a ppli e d o n t h e s id e o f t h e c ut a w a y f r o m t h e h ea r t .

Th es e a r e fir s t a id m e a s u r e s o n ly a n d in c a s e o f a n i n j u r y t o a v e i n
‘

-
,

o r a r t e r y o f c o n s id e r a bl e s iz e a phy s i c i a n S h o uld b e c a ll e d t o t r e a t
,

t he c ut .

Alc oh o l is b e li e v e d t o i n ju r e t h e whi t e c o r pu s c l es to su c h a n ex
te n t th a t th ey l o s e th e i r a bili t y t o d e s t ro y ge r m s . It a l s o dil a t e s
 C H APT E R X VI I I

TH E S KI N

K I D N E YS

Ex c r e t o r y o r ga n o f P a ra m e Ex c re t o r y o r ga n o f e a rt h

c ium .

Wha t is t he n ec es s ity fo r exc re tion H ow a re wa s tes e lim in a ted fr om

t he body Wha t i s t he r e la ti o n o f t he s kin and kidn eys to exc r eti on

I mpo rt a n c e xc r e tion Th e w a s t e s f o r m e d in t he v a r i o u s
of e .

t i s s u e s a s a r e s ult o f o xid a t i o n a r e c a r b o n di o xid e w a t er o r ga n i c , ,

s a lt s a n d u r e a ( n i t r o ge n o u s c o m p o u n d )
,
Th e s e w a s t e s w o uld in .

t e r fe r e wi t h t h e n o r m a l fu n c ti o n s o f t h e c e ll s u n l e s s r e m o v e d a s
qui c kly a s f o r m e d Th e r e m o v a l o f th e s e wa s t e s is c a ll e d exc re
.

tion a n d t h e o r ga n s th a t e li m i n a t e t h e w a s t es a r e c a ll e d t h e est e r s
,

tory orga n s Th e i m p o r t a n ce o f a n e fli c ie n t s y s t e m o f e li m i n a ti o n
.

c a n n o t b e s u ffi c i e n tly e m ph a s iz e d C a r b o n di o xid e is e li m i n a t e d
.

c hi e fl y by t h e lu n gs a l t h o u gh s o m e is di s s o lv e d in w a t e r a n d
,

is e x c r e t e d by t h e s ki n a n d kid n e y s Wa t e r a n d s o m e s o lubl e .

s a l t s a r e e li m i n a t e d by t h e s ki n a s p e r s pi r a t i o n a n d by t h e kid ,

n ey s a s u r i n e S o m e w a t e r h o w e v e r p a s s e s o ut o f t h e lu n gs in
.
, ,

t he fo r m o f va p o r M o s t o f t h e u r e a is e x c r e t e d th ro u gh t h e
.

kid n e y s a s p a r t o f t h e u r i n e a n d a s m a ll a m o u n t t h r o u gh t he s ki n
,

as p a r t o f t he p er s p i ra ti o n .

P r ob le m . S tudy o f the s kin .

I . To uch t h e s kin an d de scr ib e h o w it fe els .

A . E xpla in t he s o ur c e o f t h e h e a t in t h e s ki
n .

B . Whe n one is e xe rc is in g vi o le n t ly , why do e s t h e S ki n b ec o m e m uch

w a r m er t h a n it do e s a t o t h er t im es ?
1 70
 ST U D Y OF TH E S K I N 17 1

II . D e scrib e t he s ki n of t he han d as it a ppear s t o t he ey e . Tiny s tr uc t ur e s

in t he dee per la y er s o f t he s in pus h up t he o ut er lay e r in t o lit t le r idge s k .

A N o t e t h e arr a n ge m e n t o f t h e lin e s o n t h e t ips o f t h e n ge r s p art ic u

. fi ,

larly t h e t h um b . D e scr ib e t he ar r a n ge m e n t .

B . M o is t e n t he fi n ge r s ligh t ly a n d, if c on v e n ie n t , t o uc h po wder e d car

b o n wit h it . The n pr e s s it o n c le a n b la n k pa per .

1 . Wh a t is t he im pr e s s io n c a lle d ?
2 . Wh a t use m ay fi n ge r pr in t s s er v e ?
C . E xa m in e y o ur s ki
n a n d o b s er v e wh e t h er it n or m a l ly h a s b r e a k s or

a b r a s io n s o n it . Wh a t is t he v a lue of a n un b r o k en S ki n ?
III . H o ld t h e h a n d o ut s t r a igh t an d t he n c lin ch t he fis t . D oe s t he s kin

a ppe ar dr y an d b r it t le or s o ft a nd fl e xib le ?
A . This c h ar ac t er is t ic is due t o o il s e cr e t e d in oi l gla nds in t h e s ki n .

B . D esc r ib e wh a t m a y h a v e h a ppe n e d t o c a us e dr y s ki n .

To uch y o ur t o n gue t o t h e b a c o f y o ur h a n d
IV . k . D e s cr ib e the t a st e .

This is due t o per s pir a t ion s ec r e te d b y s wea t gla nd s in t h e S ki n .

A . Why is t he per s pir a t io n n o t a lw ay s s ee n o n t he sk in ?

B . Wh a t c o n dit io n f a v or s t h e e v a por a t ion o f t he per s pir a t io n ?
C . Wh a t c o n dit io n hin der s t h e e v a por a t io n o f t he per s pir a t io n ?
D . Un der W h a t c o n dit io n s do we per spir e e xc e s s ive ly ? Why ?
V . I f we t -a n d-dr y -b ulb t h e r m o m e t e r s ar e a v a ila b le , p o ur a lit t le w a t er on

t he b ulb .

A . Aft er a fe w m in ut e s , rea d a n d r e c or d t h e t e m pe r a t ur e o f e a ch

t he r m o m e t e r .

B . Wh a t e ffe c t h a s t he e v a por a t io n o f m o is t ur e on t e m pe r a t ur e ?
C . Wh a t e ffe c t w o uld y o u e xpe c t t he e v a p o r a t io n o f per s pir a t io n t o
ha v e on t he t e m per a t ur e of t h e b o dy ?

VI . H o ld t he h a n d so t h a t t he b ac k of it is on a le v el w it h t he Not e
eyes .

t he ha i rs co v e r in g it . Th e s e h a ir s pr o b a b ly h e lp t o a b s or b pe r s p ir a t io n from

t he s ki n .

VI I . C it e som e e v id en ce s o f t he s ki
d ually pee lin g fr o m y o ur b o dy
n g a
r .

Thi s is t h e o ut er de a d ki s n c alle d t h e epider mis .

VI I I . Pr ic k th e S ki g n e n t ly w it h a pin . As a r e s ult o f t h e pin pr ic k t e ll

A . Wh at t wo se n s a t io n s m ay b e e xpe r ie n c e d b y t he n er v e e n din gs in
t he s ki n .

B . Wh a t o t he r s en s a t io n m ay b e e xpe r ie n ce d by s kin ?
IX S um m ar ize y o ur
. a n s we r s t o t he ab o v qu e e s t io n s by s t a t in g fo ur
fun c t io n s o f s in k .
172 TH E S K I N AN D K I DNE Y S

S truct ur e of th e s k in . The ki n is S a smoo th m o i s t fl exibl e

, ,

o rgan v a r yi n g fr o m on e o n e hu n d r e d t h to o n e t e n th o f a n i n ch in

t hi c k n e s s I t c on s i s t s
.

o f a n o ut er l a y er c a ll e d

t he ep idermis , and an

i n n er l a y er ca ll e d t he
a
pi a e r mi s
dermis . AS t he c ells

g w o u t i n t h e d ee p ro

e s t p a r t of t he epide r

m is l a y er th e y a r e ,

r a du a lly tr a n s f o r m e d
fa e r m is g
i n t o fla t s c a l es The .

o ut er m o s t l a y e r s a re

d ea d a n d a r e b e in g ‘

c o n s t a n tly r ubb e d o ff

-n e r v e t he s ur fa ce o f t he s ki n ‘
.
.

Th e d e e p e s t l a y e r o f
t h e e pid e r m i s c o n t a i n s

p gi m e n t ce ll s a n d is ,

Th uf
e s ll
r ace ce f th kis o t t ly w
e si g ca ll e d t h e M a lpi gh l a n
n a r e c on s a n e ar n or

w hi g E
as n Od an pl d by
a re ll u d
re th
a ce Bl d ce s n e rn e a oo
ki ; d t h v i u v di g l a y er a f t e r t h e s e l e n
.

l u i h th
ve s s e s n o r s e s n an e ar o s ner e en n s t e
i
c e ve diff t t im uli f m t h
e ren s vi m t ro e en ron en
t lS t W h o fi r s t o b s e r v e d
.

it . Th er e a r e n o r m a l pi gm e n t s in t hi s l a y e r whi c h a r e t h e b a s i s ,

fo r whit e y e ll o w r e d o r bl a c k s ki n c o l o r s o f v a r i o u s p e o pl e I n thi s
, , ,
.

l a y er m a y d ev e l o p d e p o s it s o f pigm en t whi c h a r e kn o wn a s f r e c kl e s ,
.

The d e r m i s is t h e t r u e S ki n I t is c o m p o s e d l a rge ly o f c on n e c
.

tiv e ti s s u e T i n y m u s c l es m a y r un th r o u gh t he d er m i s Th e s e
. .
,

by c o n t r a c ti n g will c a u s e t h e ti n y h a i r s in t h e e pid e r m i s t o s t a n d
,

er e c t .Th e y a l s o c a u s e t h e g o o s e fl e s h wh e n a p e r s o n i s c o ld .

T he c o n t r a c t i o n o f m illi o n s O f t i n y m u s c l e s giv e a li t tl e h e a t a n d ,

a t t he s a m e t i m e a w a r n i n g t h a t t h e b o dy is c o ld
, Th e d e r m i s is .

r i c hly s uppli e d wi t h bl o o d v e s se l s ly m ph v e s s e l s n e r v e s a n d h a i r , , ,

fo llicl e s The bl oo d v e ss el s ca r r y w a t er in whi c h u re a a n d c a r b o n

.
174 THE S KI N AN D K I DNE Y S
e x c re t e s o n a n a v e r a ge o f a qu a r t o f p e r s pi r a t i o n d a ily I n c a s e s .

o f kid n e y t r o ubl e it m a y r e li e v e t h e kid n ey s by s ec r e ti n g m o r e

,

w a s t e s The s ki n is a n o r ga n o f p r o t e c t i o n By m e a n s o f it s un
. .

b ro k en o ut e r d e a d l a y er o f epi
d e r m i s it p r o t e c t s t he u n d er lyi n g ,

livi n g d e r m i s f ro m a n e xces s ive

l o s s o f w a t er a n d f r o m t h e in
v a s io n o f ge r m s a n d dir t The .

s ki n is a n o r ga n o f s e n s a ti o n .

By m e a n s o f t he pa pill a e in t he
d er m i s it r e c e iv es s en s a t i o n s o f ,
Th e ki i
s n g s f f li g
an or Th an o ee n
d tem p e
erat u re
vi u
.

p r e s s r e p a l n a n l

p pill put u i t u h wit h u

°
a ae s n o c o r en ron , ’

i g p p i d t m
fiifiiulé
u
Th e s ki n is i n v a lu a bl e in e q ua liz
’ ’ s e ns n re s s re” a n’ an e ‘

in g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p r o p e r -

b o dy t e m p e r a t u r e I f t he b o dy is t o o w a r m a gr e a t er s upply o f
.
,

bl o o d is s e n t t o t he S ki n s o t h a t t he h e a t will r a di a t e I f t he b o dy .

is n o t s uffi c i e n t ly w a r m t h e bl o o d v e s s e l s in t he s ki n c o n t ra c t a n d
,

v er y li t t l e h ea t r a di a t e s o ut Th e e v a p o r a t i o n o f t he pe r s pira .

ti o n o n t he s ki n c oo l s t he b o dy .

H ygie n e of t h e s kin Wh e n t he w a t e r of t he p e r s pi r a t i o n e v a p
.

o r a t e s o r ga n i c s a lt s a n d u r e a c l o g t h e p o r e s
, Th e se w a s t e s c a n b e s t .

b e r e m o v e d by w a r m So a py b a t h s ,I f l e ft in .

t h e p o r e s t h e w a s t e s r es ulti n g f r o m pe r s pir a
, ,

ti o n giv e t he b o dy a n O bj ec t i o n a bl e o d o r A
, .

t e pid b a t h Sh o uld b e t a k e n a t l e a s t tw i ce a
w ee k C o ld S h o w er s a r e s ti m ul a t i n gt o t h e S ki n
.
,

m u s c l e s a n d t h e bl o o d v e s s e l s a n d if p o s s ibl e
, , , ,

S h o uld b e t a k e n d a ily D i r t m a y cl o g t h e .
P pill th t gu a a e on e on e

t i di g c on a n n e rv e en n s

p o r e s I n t h e s k i n a n d c a u s e bl a c kh e a d s I f t he whi h t m it t t . c ra n s as e
t im uum ’h b i S e ra n
S ki n is k e pt c l e a n
'

bl a c kh e a d s will n o t fo r m
, .

S o m e t i m e s b a ct e r i a c l o g t h e p o r es a n d c a u s e i n f e c t i o n s pi m pl es , , ,

o r p o s s ibly b o il s P i m pl e s S h o uld n o t b e pi n c h e d o r s cr a t c h e d
.

with t h e fi n ger s a s b r ui s e s m a y r e s ult a n d c a u s e m o r e s e r i o u s

 TH E K I DN E YS 17 5

i n fecti on s L et th e m h e a l n a t u r a lly
. or h a ve a phy s i c i a n c a r e
fo r t h e m Wh e n pi m pl e s b e c o m e
. ch r o n i c , t h e c o n di t i o n is

c a ll e d a c n e I f a c n e is
.

t r ea t e d in t i m e it c a n ,

b e c l e a r e d up c o m pl e t e ly .
a o r t a .

I f n o t it l ea v e s s c a r s
,

t ha t a re p er m a n e n t .

An y u n hygi e n i c c o n di t i o n
o f t h e b o dy is lik e ly t o
u r e t er

a ff e c t t h e S ki n I n ord er .

t o k e ep t h e s ki n in go o d
c o n diti o n hy gi e n i c s ug
,

g e s t i o n s co n ce rnin
g f o o d ,

w a t er r e s t e xer c i s e a n d
, , ,

s u n li ght S h o uld b e fo l
l o we d .

kd y i ne s ga t h e r li q ui d wa s t e s fr o m t h e b lo o d .

Th e k l dn e ys Th e or Th e s e m a t e r ia l s a r e pa s s e d t h r o ugh t h e ur e t e r s t o t h e
vi
.

b la dde r an d h e ld in t h is re s er o r r e a dy fo r e xc r e t io n .

ga n s th a t ex c r et e m o s t o f
t h e w a t er a n d u re a f r o m t h e b o dy a r e t h e kidn eys Th ey lie in .

t h e a bd o m i n a l c a vi t y in t h e s m a ll o f t h e b a c k a b o v e t h e w a i s t
li n e Th e y a r e b e a n sh a p e d wi t h t h e c o n c a v e s id e t u r n e d t o w a r d
.
-

t h e s pi n e Th e bulk o f t h e kid n ey is m a d e up o f s m a ll c o il e d
.

t ub e s tubules c l o s e ly p a c k e d , ,

t o ge t h e r a n d c o n t a i n i n g a l a r ge

n u m b er o f bl o o d v e s s e l s and ,

s o m e n e r v e s a n d ly m ph a t i c s .

Wa t e r u r e a a n d o r ga n i c s a l t s , ,

p a s s by m ea n s o f o s m o s i s i n t o
mid
’
i fhi f ift fi iififiii fiifi ififiéfi t he t ubul e s Th e s e t ubul e s
’
y a u ’ ‘
s s e o
l m k
se s a p ib l t h
es os s b pt i fw t
e
l e a d i n t o t W O t ub e s o n e
e a s or on o as es.
,

fro m e i t h er kid n e y t h e ureter s w hi c h a r e c o n n e c t e d t o a h o ll o w

, ,

m u s c ul a r s a c c a ll e d t h e bla dde r Th e kid n e y s s e cre t e u r i n e whi c h

.

p a s s e s d ow n t he u r e ter s t o t h e bl a dd e r Th e bl a dd e r s e r v e s a s a .
176 TH E S K I N AN D KI DNE Y S
r e s erv o i r fo r t he u r i n e u n t il it is e xp e ll e d fr o m t he b o dy Wh e n .

t h e bl a dd e r is m o d era t e ly di s t e n d e d it h o ld s a b o ut o n e pi n t
, Th e .

a v e r a ge qu a n t i t y o f u r i n e s e c r e t e d in t w e n t y f o u r h o u r s by t he -

a v e r a ge a dul t is a b o u t f o r ty o u n c e s o r li t er s The kid n e y s

, .

e li m i n a t e t o xi c m a t e r i a l s f o r m e d in t h e b o dy du r i n g ill n ess In .

r iddi n g t he b o dy o f it s p o i s o n s t h e kid n e y s a r e f r e qu e n tly da m

,

a ge d . I n o r d e r t o k e e p th e m in a s go o d c o n di t i o n a s p o s s ibl e ,

a b o ut s e v e n gl a s s e s o f w a t er s h o uld b e d r u n k d a ily Thi s will .

dilu t e a n y t o xi c m a t er i a l s p r e s e n t a n d k e ep t h e kid n e y s w e ll
w a s h e d To o m u c h a n i m a l p r o t e i n f o o d s h o uld n o t b e e a t e n a s
.

t h e kid n e y s m a y b e c o m e o v e r w o r k e d in e li m i n a ti n g t he u r e a a n
, ,

o xid a ti o n p r o du c t o f p r o t e i n s .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S
1 . Wha t is e x c r e t i o n ?
2 . N a m e t h e o r ga n s o f e x cr e t i o n an d di s c us s how e a ch o n e e lim i

nates w ast e .

3 . fo ur fun c t i o n s o f t he s k i n a n d e xpl a in t he w a ys in
N ame whi ch
t he S k i n is a d a pt e d t o pe r f o r m e a c h fun c t i o n .

4 D i s c u s s t he h y gi e n e o f t h e S ki n
. .

5 Wh a t un hygi e n i c h a b i t s m a y i n j ur e t h e s k i n ?
.

6 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n o f t h e wo r k o f t h e S k i n t o t h e w o r k
. of the
kid n eys ?
7 D i s c u s s t he v a l ue o f w a t e r t o t h e S k i n a n d kid n e y s
. .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY READ IN G
K imb D C ,
er, . . a nd Gr a y , C E
. .
, Te xtbook f Ana tomy
o a nd P hys i ology ( The
M a c m illa n
178 RE S P I RATI ON
is t a k e n fr o m t h e w a t e r whi c h is d r a w n i n t o t h e m o u t h a n d fo r c e d
o ut t h ro u gh t h e gill s R e s pi r a ti o n t a k e s pl a c e in e v e r y livi n g c e ll
.
,

but b re a t hi n g is o n ly p o s s ibl e in t h e hi gh er a n i m a l s t h a t h a v e lu n gs .

Th e a ir tub e s Th e o ut er o p e n i n gs o f t h e a ir t ub e s o f m a n a r e
.

t h e n os tri ls T h e s e l e a d i n t o t w o n a s a l p a s s a ge s t e r m i n a t i n g in t h e
.

th r o a t Ca vi t y The n a s a l p a s s a ge s a r e s p e c i a lly a d a pt e d fo r pr e
.

d ia

Th e b r e a t h in g o r ga n s o f m a n a r e a rr a n ge d in a co n t in uo us pa s s a ge w a y fr o m t h e n o s tr il s
t o t h e e n d s o f t h e b r o n c h ia l t ub e s
. Th e s e t ub e s s ub di vide a n d t e r m in a t e in ai r sa c s .

p a r i n g a ir fo r t he us e o f t h e b o dy Th e h a i rs in t h e n o se a c t a s a
.

fil t er t o ke e p du s t a n d o t h er f o re i gn p a r t i c l e s f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e
,

lu n gs Th e m u c o u s li n i n g a b s o r b s t he fin e f o r e i gn p a r ticl es a n d
.

i n hibit s t h e d e v e l op m e n t o f ger m s The m u c o u s li n i n g a l s o

.

m o i s t e n s t h e a ir V e r y dry a ir is i rr i t a ti n g t o t h e lu n gs
. .

The a ir is w a r m e d in t h e n a s a l p a s s a ge s by c o m i n g in c o n t a c t
with t he bl oo d v e s s e l s in t h e li n i n gs o f t h e n a rr o w p a s s a gew a y s .

Air th en p a s s es th r o u gh t h e gl o tt i s i n t o t h e la ryn x o r v o ic e b ox .
 TH E LU N G S 1 79

The l a r y n x c o n t a i n s s o m e t hi c k e n e d c a r til a ge p o pul a r ly c a ll e d

,

Ad a m s a ppl e whi c h p r o j e c t s s li ghtly o n t h e fr o n t o f t h e n e c k Th e

’
.
,

a ir p a s s e s d o w n t h e t ra c hea o r wi n dpip e i n t o t h e t w o b r a n ch es ,

t h e br on c hi whi c h s ubdivid e a ga i n a n d a ga i n in t o t he bron c hia l

,

tubes whi c h in t u r n e n d in s m a ll p o u c hlik e s a c s c a ll e d t h e a ir

,

s a cs. All of t h e a ir t ub e s a r e li n e d wi t h m uc o u s m e m b r a n e
whi c h wa r m s a n d m o i s t e n s t h e a ir . Th e t r a c h e a is li n e d wi t h
S p e c i a liz e d e pi t h e li a l c e ll s b e a r i n g h a ir lik e p r o c e s s e s o r c ili a. T h e se
c ili a a r e in co n s t a n t m o t i o n T h e i r fu n c t i o n is t o pu s h o r m o v e a n y
.

s o lid p a r t i c l e s in t h e a ir i n t o t he th r o a t wh e r e t h e y a r e e xp e ll e d
, , ,
.

T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s c a pill a r i es in t h e a ir s a c s .Th e w a ll s of
t he c a pill a r i es a r e m e m b r a n o u s a n d a ir e a s ily diffu s e s t h r o u gh
t h e m i n t o t h e bl oo d Th e r e d c o r pu s c l e s t a k e t h e o xy ge n f r o m
.

t h e a ir Thu s bl oo d b e c o m e s o xy ge n a t e d
. At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e
.
,

bl o o d giv e s o ut it s c a r b o n di o xid e The a ir s a c s m a y b e c o m

.

p a r e d wi t h ti n y b a ll o o n s The f a c t th a t t h e y a r e s o n u m er o u s a n d
.

a r e c a p a bl e o f s u c h i n fl a t i o n a ff o r d s a t r e m e n d o u s s u r f a c e fo r t h e

a b s o r p t i o n o f o xy ge n e v e n t h o u gh t h e lu n gs t h e m s e lv e s a r e f a i r ly

s m a ll . Th e l a r ge a b s o r bi n g s u r f a c e o f t he a ir s a c s m a k e s p o s s ibl e
t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t r e m e n do us n u m b e r o f c a pill a r i e s r u n n i n g t h r o u gh
‘

t he m . Th er e fo r e a gr e a t d e a l o f o xy ge n qui c kly p a s s es i n t o t h e
,

bl o o d a n d c a r b o n di o xid e p as s e s o ut Th e lu n gs c o n s i s t o f m il
.

li on s o f a ir s a cs a n d b ro n c hi a l t ub e s h e ld t o ge th er by c o n n e c tiv e
ti s s u e Th e m o i s t m e m b r a n o u s pl e u r a e co v e r t h e lun gs a n d pr e
.
,

v e n t f r i c t i o n dur i n g t h e b r e a t hi n g m o v e m e n t s .

D is e a s e s of t h e r e s pir a t or y tr a ct Th e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e
.

li n i n g t he ph a r y n x c o n t a i n s m a n y ly m ph gl a n d s a n d a t t he b a c k
a n d upp e r p a r t o f t he c a vi t y t h ere is a l a r ge m a s s o f t hi s ly m

h id t i s s u e D u r i n g i nf a n c y a n d c hildh o o d t hi s t i ss ue m ay
p o .

i n c r e a se gr ea tly a n d t he c hild is t h en sa id t o h a v e a den oids

,
.

Ad e n o id s a r e a m e n a c e t o h e a l t h Th e y m a y o b s t r u c t t he o p en i n gs
.

t o t he E u s t a c hi a n t ub e s a n d in s o m e c a s e s c a u s e d e a f n e s s
,
. Th e y
u s ua lly i n t er fe r e wi t h t he p a s s a ge o f a ir t h r o u gh t he n o se a n d
 1 80 R E S P I R ATI O N
n e ce s s i t a t e m o u t h b r ea t hi n g Thi s n o t o n ly a ll o w s du s t a n d o th er .

f o r e i gn p a r t i c l e s t o p a s s i n t o t he lu n gs b ut t e n d s t o a l t er t he s h a p e ,

o f t h e j a w s an d f a c i a l f e a t u r e s M a lf o r m a ti o n s o f t e e t h a r e fr e
.

qu e n t ly c a u s e d by a d e n o id s .

M o u t h b r e a t hi n g is u s u a lly
a fo r c e d b r e a thi n g a n d
fr e qu e n t ly a lt er s t he s h a p e
o f t he c h e s t .

I n t h e l ow er p a r t o f t he
Th i k d mu u m mb
c ene m y f m b
co s e m l t h r oa t
ra n e s o n e i t h e r s id e
a or a are
n or a
, ,

g wt h
ro k w s, d id
no i th b
n as a k f th eno l s, n e ac o e na s a

pas sa g w y eT il
a s th m l g w t h f lym
on s s are s m a ll m a s s e s O f ly m ph o i d
e nor a ro o

u m t h e th ” t
.

'

Dh d t
'

01 I ss e a
t i s s u e c a ll e d ton s i ls The
.

fu n c t i o n o f t he t o n s il s is n o t u n d e r s t o o d e x a c t ly Th e y a r e .

t h o u ght wh e n i n a n o r m a l c o n di t i o n t o h e lp p r o t e c t t h e b o dy
, ,

fr o m i n fe c t i o n by a c t i n g a s fil t e r s a n d p r e v e n ti n g t he e n t r a n c e
o f b a c t er i a I f t h e y b e c o m e i n fe c t e d wi t h b a c t e r i a l gr o w t h s t h e y
.
,

s er v e o n ly a s c e n t e r s o f i n f e c ti o n Wh en t h e y a r e i n fe c t e d t he .
,

p u s in t h e m p a s s es di r e c t ly i n t o t h e ly m ph a n d th e n i n t o t h e bl o o d .

Thi s m a y c a u s e s u c h c o n di t i o n s a s r h e u m a t i s m a n a e m i a o r pr o , ,

du c e a n u n d e s ir a bl e h e a r t c o n di t i o n I f t he t o n s il s b ec o m e m u c h .

e n l a r ge d th e y fill t h e t h r o a t c a vity a n d i n t e r f e r e wi t h t he p a s s a ge
,

o f a ir t o t h e lu n gs a n d o f f oo d t o t h e ull e t I n fl a m m a ti o n o f t h e
g .

to n s il s is c a ll e d ton s illitis
P r ob le m . S tudy of t he lun gs .

S ec ur e t he lun gs and w in dpipe o f a S he e

p or la m b fr o m t he b ut cher .

I . Tr y t o c ut t h e win dpipe or t r a ch e a .

A . D e s c r ib e t he s t r uc t ur e .

B . Wha t is t he v a lue o f t h e pr e s e n c e o f c a r t ila ge in t he t r a che a ?

C . D e s cr ib e t he a rr a n ge m e n t o f t he c ar t ila ge in t he t r a c he a .

II . Ob s er v e t he a ppe a r a n c e o f t h e lun gs .

A . D e sc r ib e t he o ut er s hin y c o v e r in g . D is c us s t he fun c t io n s of t he
co v e r in g .

B . D e s cr ib e t he s t r uc t ure o f t he lun gs , in cludin g t h e s h a pe , t e xt ur e ,

c o lor , a n d t is s ue s pr e s e n t .
1 82 RE S P I RATI ON
is ar c h e d a r o u n d t he l o w er p a r t Of t he h ea r t a n d l un gs Wh e n “

it s m u s c ul a r p o r ti o n c o n t ra c t s t h e di a ph r a gm fl a t t e n s a n d m o v e s
,

d ow n w a r d whil e t he r ib s a r e e l e v a t e d The s p a c e s b e tw e en t he
, .

r ib s a r e fill e d by m u s c l es Wh en t h e s e m u s c l e s r e l a x t he r ib s
.

r e t u r n t o th e i r o r i gi n a l p os iti o n Thi s r e du ce s t he c h e s t c a vity

.

fr o m S id e t o S id e The di a phr a gm no w r e turn s t o it s o r i gin a l

.

p o s iti o n a n d t he a bd o m i n a l w a ll s c on tr a c t a nd pu s h t he l i v er a n d
s t o m a c h a ga i n s t t h e di a phr a gm w hi c h c o n t r a c t s , p r e s s es a ga ins t
,

t h e lu n gs a n d in S O d o i n g pu s h e s o ut t h e w a ll s o f t he c h e s t
, ,

c a vi t y fr o n t a n d b a c k
,
T hu s t h e c h e s t c a vi t y is i n c r e a s e d in s iz e
.

f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m by t he c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e di a ph r a gm a n d ,

f ro m b a c k t o fr o n t a n d s id e t o s id e by t h e a c t ivi t y of t h e m u s c l es
b e tw ee n t h e r ib s .

T h e lu n gs a r e a s l a r ge a s t he c a vity t h e y o c c upy Wh e n t he .

c h e s t c a vi t y i n c r e a s e s in s iz e t h e lu n gs a r e n o l o n ge r p
,
re s sed

up on a n d S i n c e t h ey a r e s o m ewh a t e l a s t i c t h e y fill t h e S p a c e
, , ,

m a d e by t h e e xp a n di n g c h e s t Th e a ir in t h e lu n gs no w S p r e a d s
.

o ut t o fill t h e s p a c e f o r m e d by t h e e n l a r gi n g o f t h e lu n gs M o ve .

m en t o f a ir a lw a y s o c c u r s wh e n th e r e a r e diff e r e n c e s in p r e s s u r e .

As t h e a ir S pr e a ds o ut it s d e n s i t y b e co m e s l o w e r
,
Air r u s h e s in .

fr o m t h e o u t s id e t o e qu a liz e t h e p r e s s u r e T hi s is in s pir a tion o r .

t h e t a ki n g in o f a ir .Th e bl o o d v e s s e l s in t h e a ir s a c s a r e t hu s s up
pli e d wi t h a ir fr o m whi c h t h e h a e m o gl o bi n ex t r a c t s o xygen a n d
t o whi c h it giv es up c a r b o n di o xid e .

E xpi ra t i o n is t h e f o r c i n g o ut o f a ir I t is due t o t h e r e l a x a ti o n
.

O f m u s c l e s whi c h c r o wd t h e lu n gs i n t o a s m a ll e r S p a c e Air in t h e .

lu n gs is t h en d e n s er t h a n a ir o ut s id e a n d it is e xp e ll ed in o r d er t o
e qu a liz e t h e p r e s s u r e .Thi s is exp ir a ti on Th e t a ki n g in o f t h e
.

a ir t h e e x c h a n ge o f ga s es in t h e a ir s a c s a n d t h e givi n g o ut o f a ir
, ,

is b r e a t hi n g o r r es pira tion .

C ell r e s pir a ti on Wh e n t h e o xy ge n o f t h e a ir ge t s i n t o t he bl o o d
.
,

it is c a rr i e d t o t he ce ll s I t p a s s e s fr o m t he bl o o d th ro u gh t he
.

wa ll s o f t h e c a pill a r i e s t h ro u gh t he ly m ph S p a c e s a n d i n t o t h e c e ll s
,
.
 T HE RAT E O F RE S P I RA T I ON 1 83

Oxid a t i o n f o o d th e n t a ke s pl a ce r e l e a s i n g e n e r gy fo r c e ll
of t he ,

wo r k a n d f o r m i n g t he w a s t e s c a r b o n di o xid e w a t er a n d u r e a
, , , .

The c a rb o n di o xid e is giv e n o ff t o t he bl o o d R e spir a ti o n is o f .

t w o t yp e s e xt e r n a l r e s pi r a ti o n a n d i n t er n a l r e s pi r a ti o n
,
E xt e r n a l .

r e spi r a ti o n is c o n c e r n e d wi t h i n s pi r a t i o n a n d e xpi r a t i o n I n t er n a l .

r es pi r a ti o n i n v o lv e s t h e e x c h a n ge o f a ir b e t w e en t h e bl o o d a n d

ti s s u e s .

Th e r a t e of r e s pir a tion Th e a v e r a ge ra t e o f r e s pi r a t i o n fo r a n
.

a dul t is tw e lv e t o S ixt e e n pe r m i n u t e Thi s r a t e is p a r t ly d e t e r .

m i n e d by t h e a m o u n t o f c a r b o n di o xid e in bl oo d I f thi s a m o u n t .

r i s e s a b o v e a c e r t a i n p e r ce n t a ge t h e n e r v e c e n t e r s c o n t r o lli n g r e s

m
,

p ir a t io n a r e s ti ul a t e d a n d t hi s r es ul t s in d e e p e r b r e a t hi n
g a t a n

i n c r e a se d r a t e Thu s m o r e o xy ge n is o bt a i n e d a n d t h e c a r b o n
.

di o xid e is re m o v e d m o r e r a pidly Thi s e xpl a i n s t h e s e c o n d wi n d .

o f a thl e t e s D ue t o vi o l e n t e x e r c i se a gr ea t d e a l o f o xid a t i o n
.
,

t a k e s pl a c e c a u s i n g t h e a c c u m ul a t i o n o f c a r b o n di o xid e in t h e
,

bl o o d Th e n t h e n e r v o u s r e s p o n s e f o ll o w s i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s pi r a
.
,

t o r y r a t e a n d givi n g t h e a thl e t e m o r e o xyge n fo r r e l e a s i n g mo r e

e n e r gy The r a t e o f r e s pi r a t i o n m a y a l s o b e i n fl u en c e d by s t r o n g
.
, ,

e m o ti o n a n d by o ld a ge I n r es pi r a ti o n t h e lu n gs a r e n e v e r
.
,

e m p t i e d o f a ir ; o n ly a b o ut o n e t e n t h o f t he a ir is n o r m a lly

c h a n ge d with e a c h r e s pi r a t o r y m o v e m en t T hi s is c a ll e d tida l a i r . .

P r ob le m . M o difica tion s of brea t hin g .

I . An a ly z e t he t ype Of r e s pir a t io n , a n d n ext t o e a c h wr it e wh e t h e r it is

an in s pir a t io n or a n e xpir a t io n in e a ch o f t he fo llo w in g : y a w n in g S ighin g , ,

s n ee z in g, c o ugh in g, h ic c up in g, s o b b in g .

II . E xplain h o w t he c o n t r ol o f t h e dia phr a gm w ill pr o b a b ly s uppr e s s a n y

Th e a ir w e b r e a th e . I ns pi r e d a ir c o n t a n s a i b o ut per c e n t
oxy ge n 7 9 pe r c e n t n i t r o ge n a n d
, p e r c e n t c
,
a r b o n di o xid e :

E xpi r e d a ir c on t a i n s a b o u t p e r c e n t o xy g e n 7 9 p e r ce n t n i ,

tro ge n a n d , p e r c e n t c a r b o n di o xid e T h e s a m e a i r can b e .

b r e a th e d m a n y t i m e s b e fo r e t h e o xy ge n is e n ti r ely exh a u s te d .
184 R E S P I R AT I O N

Th ro u gh xp e r i m e n t a t i o n s c i e n t i s t s h a v e di s c o v e r e d th a t p e o pl e
e ,

a r e m o s t u n c o m f o r t a bl e in s t i ll a ir Un d e r t h e c l o t hi n g in c l o s e
.
,

c o n t a c t wi t h t h e s ki n is a bl a n k e t o f a ir
,
Thi s a ir a b s o r b s pe r
.

s pi r a t i o n b o dy o d o r s a n d t h e e x c e s s b o dy h e a t
, ,
I f t hi s a ir c a n .

n o t c i r c ul a t e it b e c o m e s m o i s t a n d t h e p e r s pi r a t i o n d o e s n o t
, ,

e v a p o r a t e a s it s h o uld I f a ir in a r o o m is s e t in m o ti o n by a n
.

e l e c t r i c fa n t h e c o n t a m i n a t e d a n d m o i s t a ir m o v e s
,
a n d c o o l er ,

a n d d r i e r a ir t a k e s it s pl a c e Thi s b r i n gs r e li e f t o t h e b o dy
. For .

y e a r s p eo pl e t h o u gh t v e n t il a t i o n c o n s i s t e d l a r ge ly o f ge t ti n g r id
,

23t
-
m h ea
.
r t
i s s ue. c el ls

Th e e xc h a n ge o f ca r b o n d io xid e a n d o xyge n b e t w e e n t h e a ir s a c s a n d b loo d ve s s e ls is e xt e rna l

r e s pir a t io n ; b e t we e n t h e c e lls a n d b loo d ve s s e l s it is k
n o wn a s in t e r n a l r e s pir a t io n
.

o f car b o n di o xid e N ow it is k n o w n t h a t v e n t il a ti o n p r o bl e m s
.

a l s o i n v o lv e t h e c o n t r o l o f b o dy o d o r s h e a t a n d m o i s tu r e, ,
.

Wh e n a ir is s e t in m o t i o n t he s t a gn a n t a ir is r em o v ed a n d
,

f r e sh a ir is b r o u gh t in c o n t a c t wi t h t h e b o dy Air t h a t is b e s t .

fo r b re a t hi n g s h o uld b e a t a t e m p er a t u r e f r o m a b o ut 65 d e gr e e s
t o 7 0 d e gr ee s I t m u s t b e S li gh t ly m o i s t m u s t b e m o vi n g a n d
.
, ,

m u s t b e f r e e f r o m du s t a n d i m pu r i t i e s Th e p ro bl e m o f v e n ti
.

l a ti o n is t o t r e a t t he a t m o s ph e r e o f a r o o m s o t h a t a ir will h a v e
a t a ll ti m e s t h e f o u r ch a r a c t e r i s ti c s m e n t i o n e d .
18 6 R E S P I RAT I ON

4 . D i s c us s t he m e c h a n i c s o f b r e a t h i n g
.

5 S t a t e t h e a i ms o f v e n t il a t i o n
. .

6 H o w wo uld y o u v e n t il a t e a r o o m ?
.

7 Wh a t c a us e s di s c o m fo r t in a p o o r l y ve n t il a t e d r o o m ?
.

8 I n a di a gr a m c o n t a i n i n g a c e ll , lym ph s pa c e , a n d a c a pill a r y
.

k
in di ca t e , by m e a n s o f a rro ws , h o w r es pi r a t i o n t a e s pl a ce
.

9 B uild a b o x t o ill us t r a t e a r o o m wi t h t w o wi n d o ws
. . M a n ipu
l a t e t h e win d o ws t o ill us t r a t e pr ope r ve n t il a t i o n C a n dl e s m a y b e
'

us e d t o S h o w t h e b e s t m e t h o d s o f v e n t il a t io n
.

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S

H o w e ll, W H , Textbook of P hys i ology (W B S a un der s

. . . .

Willia ms S F , H ea lt hful L ivin g (The M a c m i llan

,
. .
 C H AP TE R XX

M E TAB O L I S M

Ex e r c is e pr o m o t e s goo d m e t a b olis m .

Wha t is m eta bolis m ? H ow a r e the food n utr ien ts us ed in t he bo dy ?

M eta bolis m is t he t er m
u s u a lly a ppli e d t o a ll t he p r o c e s s e s whi c h
a r e c o n c e r n e d in t he buildi n g up a n d b r e a ki n g d o w n o f t h e p r o t o

pl a s m in a n o r ga n i s m I n S h o r t it is t h e s um t o t a l o f a ll t h e phy s i
.
,

c a l a n d c h e m i c a l c h a n ge s by whi c h t h e p r o t o pl a s m u t iliz e s f o o d ,

r e l e a s e s en e r gy a n d e li m i n a t e s w a s t e p r o du c t s in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n
, ,

re p a i r a n d p r o du c e m ore p ro t o pl a s m
,
Th e p r o c e s s es o f a b s o r p
.

t i o n a s s i m il a ti o n re s pi r a t i o n a n d e x c r e ti o n a r e ph a s e s o f m e t a b
, , ,

o lis m whil e di ge s ti o n m a y b e c a ll e d a s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s whi c h

,

m a k e s p o s s ibl e t he p r i m a r y a c t ivity o f a b s o r pti o n I f t he p r o c e s s

.

o f m e t a b o li s m is th a t o f s y n t h e s i s o r buildi n g up it is c a ll e d a n ,

a bo li s m b ut if t h e p r o ce s s is o n e o f t ea r i n g d o w n it is ka ta bo lis m
, ,
.

Wh e n t he buildi n g up o f p ro t o pl a s m is gr ea t er t h a n t he b r e a ki n g
d o w n gr o w t h t a ke s pl a c e
,

N o o n e fu n c ti o n o f t he b o dy c a n b e di s c u s s e d wi t h o u t re f e rr i n g
t o o n e o r a ll o f t h e o t h e r s b e ca u s e m a n y o f t h e fu n c t i o n s t a k e pl a c e
a t t he s a m e t i m e D u r i n g t h e a n a b o li c p r o c e s s o f a s s i m il a t i o n t he
.
,

k a t a b o li c p ro c e s s o f o xid a t i o n is a l s o b e i n g c a r r i e d o n in o r d e r t o
re l e a s e e n o u gh e n e r gy for t h e a s s i m il a t i o n a n d gr o w t h p ro c e s s es .

B efore o xid a ti o n is p o s s ibl e t he di ge s t i o n o f t he fo o d m u s t t a k e

,

pl a c e I n f a c t t he p r o c e s s o f m e t a b o li s m i n v o lv e s a ll t he phy s i
.
,

o l o gi c a l fu n c ti ons Of t h e b o dv a s w e ll a s t he s p e c i a l a c tiviti e s th a t

1 87
188 M E T AB O LI S M

t a k e pl a ce wi t hin t he c e ll s the m s e lv e s N o m a tt e r wh a t ki n d .

o f f oo d is t a k e n i n t o t he b o dy it m u s t fi r s t b e b r o k e n d o w n ,

i n t o a s o lubl e f o r m a n d a s s i m il a t e d by t he c e ll b ef o r e it c a n
, ,

b e co n v e r t e d i n t o t he ki n d o f ti s s u e n ee d e d .

M e ta b olis m of c ar b oh ydr a t e s All c a r b o hyd r a t e s a r e r e du c e d

.

t o s i m pl e s u ga rs glu c o s e o r ga l a c t o s e in t he di ge s t iv e p r o c e s s
, , ,

by m e a n s o f e n zym es Th e y a r e t h e n a b so r b e d by t h e c a pill a r i e s
.

in t he villi a n d s e n t t o t he liv e r by w a y o f t h e p o r t a l v e i n ; Th e
e x ces s s u ga r is t a k e n in by t he liv e r a n d s t o r e d th e r e a s a n in

s o lubl e f o r m o f c a r b o hyd r a t e k n o w n a s glycogen o r a n i m a l s t a r c h

,
.

M u s c l e c e ll s t o o s t o r e up s m a ll qu a n t i t i e s O f s u ga r s in t he f o r m
, ,

o f gly c o ge n Thi s gly c o ge n is th e n co n .

v e r t e d a s it is n ee d e d i n t o glu c o s e a n d
, ,

g iv e n t o t h e bl o o d T hu s t h e p e r ce n t a ge .

o f s u ga r in t h e bl oo d is k e pt c o n st a n t a t

to p e r ce n t . I f m ore c a r b o hy

nt h a n c a n b e u s e d o r s t o r e d
dr a t e s are eat e ,

t he s u r plu s t e n d s t o b e c o n v e r t e d irit o b o dy
fa t As t h e s u ga r c i r c ul a t es it is a b s o r b e d
.
,

in t he ti s s u e fluid a n d c ell s by m e a n s o f
osmos is H e r e it is o xidiz e d t o r e l ea s e
.

e n e r gy in t h e f o r m o f m u s c ul a r w o r k o r h e a t

t o k ee p t he t e m p e r a tu r e o f t he b o dy c o n
st ant I n t he o xid a ti on p r o ces s s u ga r is
.
,

c o n v e r t e d i n t o c a r b o n di o xid e a n d w a t e r .

Th e se w a s t e s a r e c a rr i e d by t he bl o o d t o
t he lu n gs S ki n a n d kid n e y s fo r e li m i n a ti o n
, ,
Th f d b u
e oodi b mb rn e n a o
l im t
c a or d th
e er angy fr o m t he b Ody
e e ner .

l d i
re ea s e fully d t
s care e er

mi dne Th . um b f e nl M e ta b o lis m of pr ot e in
er o ca Pr o t e i n s a r e de .

i h w i th f d t b l
or e s s o n n e oo a es
i f u
s o dni t hi m n s
c o m p o s
a nn e r
e d
.
by e n zy m e s I n t he d i ge s t i v e t r a c t

i n t o t he s i m pl e c o m p o u n d s a m i n o a c id s ,
-
.

T h e s e a r e a b s o r b e d i n t o t he bl o o d a n d f ro m t h e r e i n t o t he t i s s u e
fl uid a n d c e ll s T h e b o dy u s e s t h e v a r i o u s a m i n o a cid s fo r build
.
-
190 M E TAB O L I S M

fa s t as fo r m e d Th e s ulphur a n d ph o s ph o r u s a r e giv e n Off by

it is .

t h e e x c r e t o r y o r ga n s a n d t h e c a r b o n hyd r o ge n a n d o xy ge n c o m
, , ,

bin e a n d a r e s t o r e d in t h e liv e r in t he f o r m o f gly c o ge n Thi s s ub .

s t a n c e is t h e n r e l e a s e d a s t he b o dy n e e d s it .

M e t a b olis m of fa t s F a t s a r e a b sor b e d a s gly c er o l f a tty a c id s

.
, ,

a n d s o a p s by t h e l a c t e a l s o f t h e villi I n t he a b s o r p t i o n p r o c e s s
.
,

t h e y a r e r e a s s e m bl e d a s f a t s p r o b a bly by t h e e pi t h e li a l c e ll s in t h e
,

villi The a b s o r b e d f a t s t r a v e l t h r o u gh t he ly m ph a t i c s t o t he
.

th o r a c i c du c t whi c h e m p t i e s th e m i n to t he v e n o u s s y s t e m ju s t b e fo r e
d r a i n i n g i n t o t h e s up er i o r v e n a c a v a I n t hi s w a y t h e y b e c o m e a
.
,

p a r t o f t h e bl o o d Th e se f a t s a r e n o t in t h e o r i gi n a l f or m o f t he
.

fa t ; th e y a r e m a d e i n t o a fa t whi c h is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t he s p e c i e s
in whi c h t h e m e t a b o li s m is t a ki n g pl a ce Th e y a r e c a rr i e d t o t he .

c e ll s wh e r e th e y a r e bu r n e d a s fu e l whi c h s e r v e s a s a s o u rc e o f
,

e n er gy fo r m u s c ul a r w o r k a n d o t h e r a c t iviti e s Th e r e s ul t i n g .

w a s t e s c a rbo n di o xid e a n d w a ter a r e e li m i n a t e d by t h e o r ga n s o f

, ,

e xcr e t i o n S o m e fa t is u s e d t o build f a t ty t i s s u e a n d t he e xt r a fa t
.

is t h e n s t o r e d in t h e v a c u o l e s o f c e ll s in t h e f o r m o f d ro p s o f O il .

QU E S TI O NS
1 . Give a d e fi n i t i o n o f m e t a b o li s m .

2 . C l a s s ify t he f un c t io n s o f t h e b o dy i n t o a n a b o li c a n d k a t a b o li c
fun c t i o n s .

3 D i s c us s t he m e t a b o li s m o f s uga r ; o f p r o t e i n ; o f fa t
. .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S
B ur t o n -Opit z Textbook of P hy s i o logy (W B S a un der s
,
. .

H o we ll, W H Textbook of P hys io logy ( W B S a un de r s

. .
,
. .

M a r t in a n d We y m o ut h , E leme n ts of P hys io logy ( L e a Fe b iger ) .

M it c he ll, P H , Genera l P hys iology ( M c Gr a W -H ill B o o

. . k
 C H AP TE R XXI

L
D UC T E S S
G LAN D S

Th e t h y r o id gl a n d . An a dr e na l gla n d .

Wha t a re duc tles s gla n ds How do they afiect t he developm en t a n d t he

act ivity o f the body ? Wha t is t he s cien ti
fic fg
s ta tus o la n d gr afti n g?

Th e gl a n d s of b o dy t h a t h a v e a l r e a dy b e e n di s c u s s e d h a d
t he , ,

du c t s t o c o n v e y t h e i r s e cre t i o n s t o a n o u t er s u r f a c e s u c h a s t h e
,

m o u t h s t o m a c h o r S ki n
, , C e r t a i n gl a n d s in t h e b o dy h a v e n o
.

du c t s b ut p a s s t h e i r s e c r e ti o n s di r e c t ly i n t o t he bl o o d o r lym ph
,
.

Th e s e gl a n d s a r e c a ll e d en docr in e gl a n d s ( e n d o c r i n e is f r o m a G r e e k
w o r d whi c h m e a n s t o s e p a r a t e wi t hi n Th e s e gl a n d s m a n u
f a c t u r e s ub s t a n c e s whi c h go i n t o t h e bl o o d s t r e a m a n d a c t iv a t e
,

o r i n flu e n c e a n o t h e r o r ga n o r o r ga n s in t h e b o dy Th e s e m a n u
.

fa c t ur e d s ub s t a n c e s a re c a ll e d horm on es (fr o m t he G r ee k w o r d
m e a n in g t o e x c it e or aro use

I n te rn a l s e c r e tio n s The h o r m o n e s e c r e ti n wa s m e n t i o n e d
.

wh e n t he di ge s tiv e s y s t e m w a s s t udi e d I t is lib e r a t e d fr o m t he

.

w a ll O f t h e s m a ll i n t e s t i n e wh e n t h e a c id f o o d e n t e r s fr o m t he
s t om a ch I t is a b s o r b e d di re c t ly i n t o t h e bl o o d a n d is c a r r i e d t o
.

t h e p a n c r e a s a n d liv e r I t s t i m ul a t e s t h e s e gl a n d s t o a c t ivi t y s o
.

t h a t t h e bil e a n d p a n c r e a ti c jui c e i m m e di a t e ly s t a r t t o fl o w .

C a r e fully c h e c ked e xp er i m en t s h a v e p r o v en t h a t t hi s a c t ivity

a lw a y s t a k e s pl a c e F o r e x a m pl e a n e xp e r i m e n t w a s giv e n in
.
,

t he c h a p t e r o n di ge s t i o n t o S h o w t h a t s e c r e t i n t r a v e l s th r o u gh
t he bl oo d f r o m t he i n t e s ti n e t o t he p a n c r e a s An o th e r i n t e r e s t
.

in g e xp e r i m en t ha s b e en p er f o r m e d t o S h o w how di ge s tiv e j ui c e s
1 91
1 92 DU C T LE S S G LAND S

a re p r o du c ed S o m e o f t he m u c o u s m e m b ra n e o f t he s m a ll in
.

t e s ti n e wa s s c r a p e d o ff, tr ea t e d wi t h a c id a n d i n j e c te d i n t o t he
,

bl o o d I m m edi a te ly pa n .
,

c r e a ti c j ui c e fl o w e d The .

fl o w is th o u ght t o h a v e
b een effe c t e d by t he s ti m
ula t io n o f t he di ge s tiv e

g l a n d s by s e c r e ti n whi c h

w a s p r o b a bly f o r m e d f r o m
a n i n a c tiv e h o r m o n e in t he

m uc o u s m em b ra n e .

T he i n t e r n a l s e c r e ti o n s
e ” a re o f gr e a t i m p o r t a nc e in

b r i n gi n g a b o ut c o Or din a
t io n a m o n g t he v ar io u s
r
o g a n s I t is th o u ght by .

som e i n v e s ti ga t o r s t h a t
M os t of t h e duc t le s s gla n ds o f m a n a r e in dica t e d in
t h e ir a ppr o xim a t e po s it io n s
.
e V el
‘

y kl n d Of t l S S ll e m a y
iv e r i s e t o i n dividu a l s ub
g
s t a n c e s o r pr in c iple s whi c h p a s s di re c t ly i n t o t h e bl oo d a n d a ff e c t ,
‘

t h e ge n era l w o r ki n g o r m e t a b o li s m o f t h e b o dy N o t m a n y s tudi e s
.

h a v e b ee n publi s h e d c o n ce r n i n g ti s s u e s e c r e ti o n To d a t e in .
,

v e s t iga t io n s h a v e b e e n c o n fi n e d l a r ge ly t o t h e h o r m o n e s o f t h e

du c tl e s s gl a n d s .

I t is diffi c ult t o s e c u re t he i n t e r n a l gl a n dul a r s e c r e t i o n s o f hu m a n

b e i n gs in a pu re s t a te Th e r e fo r e o ur k no wl e d ge c o n c e r n i n g
.
,

th e m is b a s e d p r i m a r ily o n e xp e r i m e n t a ti o n o n l o w e r a n i m a l s ,

c h e m i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e gl a n d s a n d th e i r e x t r a c t s a nd of ,

t he bl o o d n ea r t he gl a n d s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e e ff e c t s r e s ulti n g
,

fr o m di s t ur b a n c e s o f t he du c t l e s s gl a n d s a n d e ff e c t o f di r e c t
,

i n j e cti o n s o f e xtra c t e d o r s y n th e s iz e d i n t er n a l s e c r e ti o n s .

Th e th yr oid T he thy r o id is o n e o f t h e du c t l e s s gl a n d s
. I t is .

s it ua t e d in t he n e ck a nd c o n s i s t s o f t wo divi s i o n s o r l o b es o n e o n ,
1 94 D UC T LE S S G LAND S

of t he b o dy a n d t he a f o r e m e n t i o n e d r e s ul t s di s a pp e a r e d a l t h o u gh
, ,

t he e ff e c t o f t h e gr a f t e d t hyr o id s w e r e o n ly t e m p o r a r y E xtr a c t s .

o f t h e thyr o id ti s s u e a r e n o w giv e n t o p e r s o n s wh o s e gl a n d s do

n o t f un c ti o n p r o p e r ly I n m o s t c a s e s t h e t r e a t m e n t is s u c c e s s ful
. .

Thy r o xi n p r o b a bly h a s s o m e e ffe c t up o n gr o wth a n d d e v e l o p

m en t o f o r ga n i s m s Gude r n a t c h whil e t e a c hi n g a t C o lu m bi a
.
,

Un iv er s ity h a s c a rr i e d o n a s er i e s o f i n t e r e s t i n g e xp e r i m e n t s o n
,

gl a n dul a r f e e di n g H e fe d t hyr o id gl a n d s ( o f diffe r e n t a n i m a l s )

.

t o v e r y y o u n g t a dp o l e s a n d t h e y p r o m p t ly w e n t t h r o u gh m e t a
m o r ph o s i s a n d b e c a m e fr o gs I n s o m e c a s e s t h e f r o gs w e r e n o
.

l a r ge r t h a n a b e e tl e Wh e n h e r e m o v e d t h e t hyr o id gl a n d fr o m
.

o t h er t a dp o l e s t h e y n e v e r b e c a m
, e f ro gs a lth o u gh t h e y gr e w l a r ge r
,

t h a n t h e u s u a l S iz e o f a t a dp o l e .

Thyr o id d e fi c i e n c y due t o d e ge n e r a t i o n o r a n o p e r a tiv e r e m o v a l

,

o f t h e gl a n d s ,in a n a dul t giv e s r i se t o dull n e s s a n d ge n e r a l

a p a t hy o r s lu ggi s h n es s The p e r s o n ge t s v e r y s t o u t a l t h o u gh his
.
,

a pp e tit e m a y b e di m i n i s h e d Th e h ea r t b e a t s s l ow e r t h e n e r v o u s
.
,

s y s t e m b e c o m e s s lu ggi s h a n d t h e ge n e r a l i n t e lli ge n c e is l o w e r e d
,
.

Thi s c o n di t i o n is e a s ily e xpl a i n e d by t h e S l o w r a t e o f o xid a t i o n .

Th e di s e a s e is c a ll e d m yxedema I f in a y o u n g c hild t h e t hy r o id
.

g l a n d s w a s t e a w a y h is h e a
, d a n d f a c e u s u a lly b e c o m e e n l a r ge d a n d ,

l o o k d e for m e d a n d his a bd o m en b e c o m e s s w o ll e n Th e m e n t a l
, .

f a c ulti e s a s w e ll a s t he phy s i c a l c h a r a c t er o f t h e s e s uffe r e r s S h o w

l a c k o f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d o f t e n l e a d t o a c o n diti o n o f idi o c y Thi s .

di s e a se is c a ll e d cretin is m a n d c hild r e n s u ffe r i n g fr o m it a r e c a ll e d

,

c retin s . Wh e n t hyro id e xt r a c t is fe d t o p er s o n s s uffe r i n g f r o m

m yx e d e m a o r c r e t i n i s m th e y u s u a lly i m p r o v e a n d s o m e t i m e s a r e
,

c o m pl e t e ly c u r e d p r o vid e d n o e s s e nt i a l o r ga n s h a v e b e e n a ff e c t e d
,
.

Thi s thyr o id t r ea t m e n t m u s t h o w e v er b e k e p t up i n d e fi n i t e ly
, ,

b eca u s e t h e p a ti e n t s gl a n d s a r e a t ro phi e d a n d will r e m a i n i n a c t iv e

’
.

I n s o me c o m m u n iti e s a l a r ge p e r c e n t a ge O f t h e p o pul a t i o n S h o w s
,

a n e n l a r ge m e n t O f t h e t hyr o id gl a n d s ; t hi s co n diti o n is k n o w n a s

en demic goi ter . I t is comm on in c er t a i n se cti o n s o f o ur c o u n t r y .

 TH E T H Y R OI D 1 95

On e m i gh t t hi n k th a t t h e t hyr o id is o v e r a c t iv e in e n d e m i c go i t e r ,
s i n c e it is e n l a r ge d H o we v e r t he r e v e r se is t r u e a s t he ge n e r a l
.
,

s ym p t o m s a r e t he s a m e a s in m yxe d e m a Thyr o id t i s s u e is r ic h in .

i o di n e Thi s is a co n s t i t u e n t a lw a y s p re s e n t in d r i n ki n g w a t er
.

o f l oc a li t i e s n ea r t h e s e a in s ea w e e d a n d in se a f oo d s S u c h a s
, ,

o ys t er s a n d cr a b s . Wh e n p eo pl e live in a r ea s r e m o t e fr o m t he -

s e a t h e y d r i n k gl a c i a l w a t er whi c h is p r a c t i c a lly l a c ki n g in i o di n e
,
.

E n d e m i c go it er is u s u a lly p r e v a l e n t in s u c h di s t r i c t s An e x a m pl e .

is o ur o w n G re a t L a k e di s tr i c t S t udi e s h a v e b e e n m a d e in m a n y
.

s c h oo l s in t h e se l o c a li t i e s I n orga n i c i o did e s h a v e b ee n a d m i n
.

is t e r e d t o t he c hild r e n a n d i o di n e h a s b ee n put in th e i r d r i n ki n g
wa t e r . Wi t hi n a S h o r t ti m e t he n u m b e r o f c a s e s o f go i t e r S h o w e d
a r e m a r k a bl e d e c r e a s e .H o w e v e r it is p ro b a bly u n wi s e t o f e e d
,

i o di n e a s a t r e a t m e n t t o a ll p e o pl e s uff e r i n g fr o m e n d e m i c go i t e r .

I n c a s e t he gl a n d is a l r e a dy e n l a r ge d t he i o di n e m a y s t i m ul a t e
,

t he gl a n d t o p r o du c e t oo m u c h thyr o xi n Thi s w o uld i n c r e a s e

.

t he m e t a b o li s m o f t h e b o dv Wh e n p e o pl e s u ffe r fr o m e xc e s s iv e
.

t hy ro id a c t ivity f o o d s c o n t a i n i n g i o di n e a r e O f t e n r e m o v e d f r o m
,

t h e i r di e t s . I n a ll c a s e s i o di n e S h o uld b e u se d o n ly up o n t he
a dvi c e o f a phy s i c i a n .

An e x ce s s iv e s ec r e ti o n o f thy r o xi n giv es r i s e t o a di se a se c all e d

exop ht ha lmic goi ter T he s y m pt o m s a re j u s t t he o pp o s i t e o f t h o s e
'

in u n d e r a c tivity o f t he gl a n d I n s t e a d o f a s tupid a p a t h e t i c c o n
.
,

diti o n th e r e is a r e s tl e s s n e r v o u s o n e Th e r e is a w a s ti n g a w a y o f
, .

t i s s u es in s pi t e o f a n e n o r m o u s i n c re a s e in f o o d c o n s u m p t i o n Th e .

pul s e a n d h e a r t a c t i o n a r e v er y r a pid a n d o ft e n i rr e gul a r The .

t hy ro id u s u a lly i n c re a s e s in s iz e a c c o m p a n i e d by a n a b n o r m a l
p ro t r u s i o n o f t he e y e b a ll s Th e r e a r e v a r i o u s tr e a t m e n t s t he m o s t
.
,

s u c c e s s ful b e i n
g co m pl e t e r e s t i n o r d er t o S l o w up m e t a b o li s m .

S o m e ti m e s X r a y s a r e u s e d t o c h e c k t he a c tivi t y o f se c r e ti o n a n d
,
-

s o m e t i m e s t he
gl a n d i s p a r ti a lly r e m o v e d A m o r e c o m .m o n

O p e r a ti o n is t he t yi n o ff t m p r a r ily o f o n e o f t h e bl o o d v e s se l s
g e , o ,

in o r d e r t o l e s s e n t he a m o u n t o f t h e s e c r e ti o n r e a chi n g t h e bl oo d .
196 DU C T L E S S G LA N D S

Th e pa r a th yr o id . Th e r e fo u r
ll s t r u c t u re s a t t a c h e d t o
a re sma

t he t hy r o id gl a n d s a n d w e i ghi n g in a ll a b o u t t w o gr a i n s
, Th e y a r e .

t he p a r a t hy r o id s (p a ra m e a n s near Th e s e a l s o p r o du c e a n , ,

i n t ern a l s e c re t i o n whi c h is r el a t e d t o t he c a l c iu m m e t a b o li s m .

Th e i r r e m o v a l o r a tr o phy gi v e s r i se t o t e t a n y a s udd e n c o n v ul
, , ,

s iv e c o n tr a c ti o n o f t h e m u s c l e s whi c h m a y r e s ult in d e a t h
, .

Th e i n j e c t i o n o f s m a ll d o s e s o f p a r a t hy r o id e x t r a c t u s u a lly r e s ult s
in t e m p o r a r y r e li e f The e ff e c t s o f t o o gr e a t a c t ivi t y o f t he
.

p a r a thyr o id s h a v e n o t
b e e n fully a s c er t a in e d a l ,

t h o u gh it h a s b e e n s h o w n

by C o llip th a t t he i n j e c t i o n
o f p a r a t hy r o id e x t r a c t i n t o

t h e bl o o d O f a na n i m a l will

i n c r e a s e t he c a l c iu m c o n "

t e n t o f t he bl o o d whil e t he
r e m o v a l o f a p a r t o f t he

p a r a t hyr o id t i s s u e will giv e

r i s e t o a c a l c iu m d e fi c i e n c y .

Pituitar y glan d Th e .

pituit a r y gl a n d w e i gh s
a b o u t o n e s ix t ee n t h o f a n

o u n ce a n d is l o c a t e d a t t h e

b a s e o f t he S kull G a l e n .

a n d V e s a liu s k n ew t h a t
t h e r e wa s a pi t ui t a r y gl a n d .

Th e y t h o u gh t it ha d s o m e

J u l f H di yo
t hi n g t o
rn a o er e t
d o with t he
Gia n t is m a n d dwa r fi s m a re pr o b a b ly due t o d e fe ct i e v S OCI
‘
t OI l Of t he 11 0 5 6 .

pit uit a ry gla n d?

( Pitui t a r y is fr o m t he
L a t i n w o r d pituita m e a n i n g phl e gm ) M o d er n e xp er i m e nt a t i o n
, .

h a s p ro v e d t h a t th e r e is n o s u c h c o n n e c t i o n o r r e l a t i o n s hip .

Th e r e s e e m s t o b e s u ffi c i e n t e vid e n c e t o j u s tify t he a c ce pt a n c e o f
1 98 DU C T LE S S G L AND S

s u ga r is th e n a v a il a bl e fo r o xid a t i o n in t he m u s c l e s Thu s t h e .

m u s c l e s m a y r e c e iv e a n a dditi o n a l s o u r c e o f e n e r gy Th e a m o u n t .

o f s e c r e t i o n fr o m t h e a d r e n a l gl a n d s is gr e a t ly i n c r e a s e d du r i n g

s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l e x c i t e m e n t s u c h a s f e a r a n d a n ge r I f a p er s o n .

is b a dly fr i gh t e n e d h e s e e m s t o h a v e u n u s u a l a bili t y t o e s c a p e
,

fr o m t he d a n ger T hi s is due t o t h e a c t ivi t y o f t he a d re n a l s

.

whi c h a re s ti m ul a t e d by t he e m o ti o n a n d t o t h e f a c t t h a t a d re n i n ,

is a b so r b e d i n t o t h e bl o o d s t r e a m in u n u s u a lly l a r ge qu a n t i t i e s .

Th e p o ur i n g o ut o f t h e h o r m o n e by t hi s gl a n d i n c r e a s e s t h e
b lOo d p r e s s ure s t r e n gt h e n s t h e h e a r t a c t i o n a n d c o n tr a c t s t h e
, ,

vi s c er a l a r t er i e s s o th a t t he bl oo d s upply t o t h e m u s c l e s is in
.

cre a s ed .At t h e s a m e ti m e t h e liv er is s t i m ul a t e d t o r e l e a s e m o r e

,

s u ga r th a n it w o uld n o r m a lly I n c o n se qu en c e t he bl o o d s upply

.
,

b r i n gs m o r e foo d t o t he m u s c l e s which a r e b e tt e r a bl e t o re s p o n d t o
t h e e m er ge n c y F a ti gu e t o o is p o s t p o n e d
.
, Thi s o f t e n e xpl a i n s
, .

t h e gr e a t s t r e n gt h p e o pl e h a v e du r i n g a n e m o t i o n a l c r i s i s Th e .

phy s i c a l e n dur a n c e o f t he d a n c i n g d er vi s h is a n e xa m pl e o f a d re n a l
a c t ivi t y I f phy s i c a l a c t ivity d o e s n o t r e s ul t f r o m s t i m ul a t i o n o f
.

t he a d r e n a l gl a n d a vi o l e n t n e r v o u s r e a c t i o n t a k e s pl a ce
,
P e o pl e .

S h o uld a v o id a s fa r, as p o s s ibl e S i t u a t i o n s t h a t will a r o u s e

,

vi o l e n t e m o t i o n s u n l e s s r e s ulti n g a ctivi t y is d e s i r a bl e S i n c e
,
.

bl oo d is withd r a w n f ro m t h e
vi s c e r a du r i n g vi o l e n t e m o
t i o n s gr a v e di ge s t iv e di s tu r b ,

a n ce s m a y f o ll o w I t ha s b ee n .

dem o n st ra t e d t h a t m e n t a l a o
t iv it y m a y b e s e r i o u s ly i n t e r
fere d wi t h c a u s i n g e xt r e m e ,

ll k th i l f
C t i g up
L g h
an
er a n
er
rof s o

p t f th
an s , a re a
wce

par
s,
o T
d
no
h ye
n as
ner v oe
u
a n cr e a s
snesss an
.
s o

t m ulm
Addi s on s di s ea s e c h a r a c
’
s ec r e e s '

t e r iz e d by gr e a t m u s cul a r w e a k n e s s d a r k e n i n g o f t h e s ki n lo w , ,

bl o o d p r e s s u r e fee bl e h ea r t a c t i o n a n d i n t e s ti n a l di s t u r b a n ce s is
, , ,

a t t r ibut e d by ,m a n y i n v e s ti ga t or s t o d e g e n e r a t i o n o r i n
,
j u r y o f
 O TH ER G LA ND S 1 99

t he a d r e n a l c o r t e x I t is a l m o s t a lw a y s f a t a l Re m o v a l o f t he
. .

a d r e n a l s in l o w e r a n i m a l s a lw a y s r e s ul t s in d e a t h .

The c o mm e r c i a l p r o du c t a d r e n a li n e is u s e d t o p re v e n t o r c he c k
, ,

bl e e di n g I t c a u s e s a t e m p o r a r y c o n s tr i c t i o n o f bl oo d v e s s e l s in
.

t h e a r ea whi c h re s ult s in c h e c ki n g t h e fl o w o f bl o o d
, I n o p er a .

t i o n s fo r t he r e m o v a l o f t o n s il s s u r geo n s o ft e n s p r a y t h e p a t i e n t s
’

t h r o a t with a n a d r e n a li n e s o lu t i o n b e f o r e t h e o p e r a ti o n in o r d e r ,

t o p r e v e n t a gr e a t l o s s o f bl o o d Thi s is k n o w n a s t he bl oo dl e s s
.

o p er a t i o n .

Th e pa n c r e a s Th e p a n c r e a s is a di ge s t iv e gl a n d s e c r e t i n g
.

p a n cr e a t i c j ui ce whi c h p a s s e s t h ro u gh a du c t t o t he s m a ll i n t e s
t i n e s wh e r e it a c t s up o n t he f o o d p a r t i c l e s c o m i n g f r o m t he
‘

s to m a c h The p a n c r e a s a l s o a c t s a s a du c tl es s gl a n d
. C er t a i n .

c e ll s e m b e dd e d in t h e p a n c r e a s c a ll e d t h e i s l a n d s o f L a n ge r h a n s
, ,

p r o du c e a s e cr e ti o n c a ll e d in s ulin whi c h co n t a i n s a h o r m o n e th a t
is a b s o r b e d di r e c t ly i n t o t h e bl oo d T hi s h o r m o n e s t i m ul a t es
.

t h e liv e r t o giv e up it s gly c o ge n At t he sa m e t i m e it a c c e l e r a t e s

.
,

t h e o xid a t i o n o f s u ga r in t h e t i s s u e c e ll s Thu s s u ga r is r e m o v e d
.

f r o m t he bl o o d a n d t he b o dy I f t h e i s l a n d s o f L a n ger h a n s l o se
.

t he a bility t o p r o du c e thi s s e c r e ti o n t he s u ga r is n o t u s e d a n d
,

s o m e o f t h e e x t r a s u ga r r e m a i n s in t h e bl oo d a n d s o m e is e x c r e t e d

with t he u r i n e The i n dividu a l d e v e l o p s a di s ea se k n ow n a s

.

dia betes D r F G B a n t i n g a n d his a s s oc i a t e s di s co v e r e d ( in

. . . .

1 9 22 ) t h a t t he i n s uli n o bt a i n e d fr o m t he n o r m a l p a n cr e a s o f
a n i m a l s w o uld p r o du c e a m a r k e d d e c r e a s e in di a b e tes s ym p
tom s . M u c h s uff er i n g h a s a l r e a dy b e e n l e s s e n e d th r o u gh t hi s dis
co v e r y .I n s uli n is a v a il a bl e fo r t re a t m e n t o f di a b e t e s a l t h o u gh
it is n o t c o n s id e r e d a c u r e I t s us e m u s t b e c o n t i n u a l s i n c e a s
.
,

y e t n o m e t h o d h a s b e e n di s c o v e r e d fo r s t i m ul a t i n
g t h e d e f e c t iv e

c o n diti o n o f t h e o r a n s o th a t it c a n m a k e it s o w n i n s uli n
g .

O th e r gla n ds Th e thymus is a s m a ll gl a n d in t he n e c k b e l o w
.

t h e t hyr o id I t p r o b a bly h a s a c l o s e r e l a ti o n t o gr o wth a n d

.

p o s s ibly t o s e xu a l d e v e l o p m e n t E xp e r i m e n t s s e e m t o p r o v e
.
2 00 DU C T LE S S G LAND S

t h a t it h e c k s fo r a t i m e t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he r e p ro du c tiv e
c

o r ga n s . I t is v e r y l a r ge in a y o u n g c hild but gr a du a lly r e du c e s in

,

s iz e du r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e u n t il it is v e r y s m a ll in a dul t s Th e pin ea l .

b o dy is a t t he b a s e o f t he b r a i n b e hi n d
a n d a b o v e t h e pitui t a r y E xt r a c t s fro m
.

3 t hi s gl a n d do n o t h a v e a n y o b se r v a bl e
e ff ec t Th e r e is s o m e e vid e n ce h o w
.
,

e v e r th a t t h e i n ju r y o r d e s t r u c t i o n o f
,

In a v y y u g i f t th t h ym u thi s gl a n d in y o u n g c hild r e n is u s u a lly

er o n n an e s

i di gly l g
s e xc e e n ar e’
fo ll o w e d by a b n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

B e n e a th t he di a ph ra gm b e hi n d a n d t o t he l e f t o f t he s t o m a c h
, ,

is t he s pleen I t i n c r e a se s in s iz e a ft e r a m ea l a n d r e a c h e s it s
.

m a xi m u m a b o ut fiv e h o u r s a ft e r di ge s ti o n Th en it s l o wly
.
“

d e c r e a s e s t o it s fo r m e r s iz e The c a u s e o f thi s a c tivi t y is n o t

.

k n ow n Thi s gl a n d p o s s ibly pl a y s a p a r t in t he fo r m a ti o n a n d
.

d e s tr u c ti o n o f r e d c o r pu s c l e s b e c a u s e qu a n t i t i e s o f t h e m a re
,

fo u n d in it I f t he s pl e e n is r e m o v e d fr o m a n i m a l s s uff e r i n g fr o m
.

o n e t yp e o f a n a e m i a s pl e n i c a n a e m i a b e n e fi c i a l r e s ult s f o ll o w
, , .

Th e r eproductive gla n ds a l so c a ll e d t h e go n a d s p r o du ce a se c r e
, ,

ti o n t h a t p a s s e s t h r o u gh a du c t a n d a n o th e r s e cr e ti o n th a t is a b
,

o r b e d di re c t ly i n t o t h e bl o o d C e r t a i n o f t h e c e ll s o f th e s e o r ga n s
.

m a k e t h e s e x c e ll s whi c h l e a v e t he gl a n d s t h r o u gh du c t s Thi s .

s e c r e t i o n is d e a l t wi t h in a l a t e r c h a p t e r o n r e p r o du c t i o n The .

n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e b o dy d e p e n d s up o n t h e i n t ern a l s e c r e

ti o n o f t he s ex gl a n d s I f t he m a l e s e x gl a n d s o r t e s t e s a r e r e
. .

m o v e d f r o m y o u n g a n i m a l s it m o difi e s t h e n o r m a l c o u r s e o f t h e i r
,

de v e l o p m e n t Thu s we h a v e t h e n o r m a l bull c o n t r a s t e d wi t h t he
.

m o difi e d o x a n d t he n or m a l s t a lli o n with t he m o difi e d ge ldi n g .

M o difi e d a n i m a l s n e v er a c qui r e c o m pl e t e s e c o n d a r y s e xu a l
ch a ra c t e rs .

The s e c o n d a r y s e xu a l c h a r a c ter s in m a n i n c l u d e t he b ea rd ,

a n d t he l a r ge l a r y n x whi c h a c c o u n t s fo r t he d e e p v o i ce Aft e r .

m a tu r i t y h a s b e e n a tt a i n e d t he c h a n ges t h a t fo ll o w t h e l o s s o f
,
 C H APTE R XX I I

TH E N E RVO US
S Y S TE M

M im o s a , a s e n s it i v e pla n t . A le a f t h a t ca t ch e s fli es .

H o w a re pla n ts a n d a n i m a ls a d j us ted to t he i r en vi ron m en ts ? Wha t is

t he s tr uc ture of t he bra i n ? Wha t a re f
t he un ction s o f t he bra in ? I s

p hr en o logy a s c i en c e ? Wha t s ci en ti fic s tudi es ha ve been m a de o

f the

n er vous s ys tem

I rri ta b ilit y . Pl a n t s and an

i m a l s m u s t a dju s t th e m s e lv e s t o t h e i r
e n vi r o n m e n t in o r d er t o s u r viv e D iff er e n t co n diti o n s in t h e
.

e n vir o n m e n t p r o v o k e r e s p o n s e s in o r ga n i s m s C er t a i n o f t he r e .

s po n s e s o f t h e a m oe b a w ere c o n s id e r e d in t h e di s c u s s i o n o n t he

fu n c t i o n s o f t he a m o e b a I f t h e r e s p o n s e is v er y d efi n i t e a n d wi t h
.

o ut e x ce p t i o n fo r a giv e n s ti m ulu s th a t r es p o n se is k n ow n a s a
,

tr o pi s m S u c h r e s p o n s e s a r e c h a r ac t e r i s t i c o f pl a n t s a n d of a n i
.

m a l s wi t h o ut a n e r v o u s s y s t e m I n a n i m a l s wi t h a n e r v o u s s y s
.

t e m if t he re s p o n s e is d e fi n it e m e c h a n i c a l a n d with o ut e xc e p
, , ,

ti o n t he r e a c ti o n m a y s till b e c a ll e d a tr o pi s m F o r e xa m pl e
, .
,

t h e s w a r m i n g o f t he b e e s t he flu t t e r i n g o f m o t h s a r o u n d a li gh t
, ,

a n d t h e bu r r o wi n g o f w o r m s i n t o t h e e a r t h a r e f re qu e n t ly c a ll e d

t r o pi s m s Wh e n a n a n i m a l h a s a w e ll d e v e l o p e d n e r v o u s s y s
.
-

t e m t h e r e s p o n s e s a r e m o r e v a r i e d a n d i n dividu a l
, Th e n e r v o u s .

s y s t e m go v e r n s a n d r e gul a t e s t h e r e s p o n s e s t o s t i m uli I n thi s .

l a tt er c a s e t he r e s p o n s e is c a ll e d a n e r v o u s r e a c t i o n i n s t e a d o f a
t r o pi s m The r e s p o n s e o f t he o r ga n i s m wh e t h er it is a n er v o u s
.
,

r ea c ti o n or a t r o pi s m is due t o t he a c t ivity o f t h e p r o t o pl a s m in t h e
,

202
 I R RI T A B I LI T Y 2 03

i n dividu a l c e ll s o f t h e a c t iv e o r ga n i s m Thi s p r o p e r t y o f p r o t o .

pl a s m is c a ll e d i r r i t a bili t y The p o s s e s s i o n o f t hi s p r o p e r ty e n a bl e s
.

a n o r ga n i s m t o m a k e t he a dj u s t m e n t s n e c e s s a r y fo r livi n g in c e r

t a i n e n vi r o n m e n t s S o m e s i m pl e e xp e r i m e n t s wi t h pl a n t s will
.

d e m o n s t ra t e t r o pi s m s .

P rob le m . Wha t r es p o n s e do es a l
p n t m a ke to
a s un light ?
Pr ep ar e a b o x wit h a s er ie s o f s h e l v e s a r r a n ge d a l t e r n a t e ly o n o ppo s it e s i de s
so t h a t t h ey o v er ap e a c h o t her
l . The s h el v e s s h o uld be se v er a l in c he s a p ar t

an d e xt e n d in t o t h e b ox a b o ut t hr e e fo ur t h s of t h e dis t a n c e . C ut a sm a ll
w in do w in t he s i e of
d t he b o x n e ar t he t o p . P la c e a pla n t in a s m a ll fl o we r

po t in t he b o t t o m of t he b o x . K ee p t h e pla n t w e ll w a t e r e d . Pla ce t he b o x
so t h a t t he w in do w fa ce s t he s unl igh t a n d le a v e it for t wo or t hr ee w ee k s .

I . A . D e s c r ib e t h e gr ow t h o f t he plan t ,
t e llin g h o w it diffe r s fr o m t h e n or m a l
or us ua l m e t h o d of gr o w t h o fa p la n t .

B . Wh a t w a s t he v a lue o f t he s hel v es in t he e xpe r im e n t ?

C . The r e s po n s e o f an or ga n is m t o ligh t is c a lle d p hotot rop is m ( a t ur n in g

'

t o ligh t ) . I s t he r e s po n s e o f t he sho o t of t he pla n t t o w ar d or a w a y r o m f

s un ligh t ?
D . Wh a t is t he v a lue of ph o t o t r o pis m t o a pla n t
?

Wha t i s t he difie r en t p a rts l

'

P r o b le m f f t t
‘

r es p o n s e o o o
. a
p a n

gra vity
Pr e p ar e and fill a po c k et gar de n or P e t r i dis h wit h m o is t co t t on , a nd pla c e
m us t a r d s e e ds in a r o w a cr o s s t h e m iddle of it . K ee p t he s a m e e dge o r s ide

of t he ga r de n up un t il t h e s e e dlin gs ha v e gr o wn t o b e t hr ee fo ur t h s o f a n in c h .

k fi v
Aft e r m a in g de n it e o b s e r a t io n s , t ur n t he gar de n t o a n a n gle of for t y -fiv e
k
de gr ee s a n d ee p in t his po s it io n un t il t he pla n t s h a e gr o wn a n o t he r t hr e e v
. k
fo ur t h s o f a n in ch The n m a e a s ec o n d e xa m in a t ion R e pe a t t his t hr e e o r .

fo ur t im e s , in e a ch c a s e w a it in g t h e n um b e r o f day s re qui r ed for t hr e e four t h s

of an ddit io n a l gr o wt h b e for e m a in g a de n it e c o n c lus io n a n d b e for e
in c h a k fi
t ur n in g a ga in k
B e sur e t o eep t h e m o is t ur e e e n ly dis t r ib ut e d t hr o ugh o ut
. v
t he c o t t on .

I . A . D e s c r ib e t he dir e c t ion o f gr ow t h o f t he r o o t ; o f t he shoo t .

B . Af t er y o ur fi r s t t ur n in g w h a t w a s t he r e s ult ? a ft er t h e seco n d , t hir d,

an d fo ur t h ? This r e s po n s e o f t h e pla n t t o gr a v it y is c a lle d geot r op is m .

0 . v
H o w do e s gr a it y a ffec t t he gr o w t h o f t he r o o t a n d o f t h e s ho o t ?
D . v
Wh a t is t he a lue o f ge o t r o pis m in a pla n t ?
2 04 TH E NE R V O US S Y S T E M

P r o b le m . Wha t i s t he res p o n s e o fp la n ts to w a t e r ?
1

Pr e p a r e a poc k et ga r de n fi ll d w it h
e cot t on . P la n t m us t ar d s ee ds in a v er t i

c al lin e a cr o s s the m iddle o f it . Wa t er t he ds b y m o is t e n in g t he c o t t o n o n

s ee

o ne s i e of d t h e gar de n . Tr y t o k e ep o n e p ar t o f t he c o t t o n a lwa y s m o is t a n d
t he o t h er p ar t dr y .

I . A . D e s c r ib e t h e gr o w t h of t he r oo t an d of t he s ho o t . A r e s po n s e to
w a t e r is c a lle d hydr otr op is m .

B . Wh a t is t h e v
hy dr o t r o pis m t o t he pla n t ?
a lue o f

v
C D e s cr ib e a n y e ide n c e in t he e xpe r im e n t t h a t s h ow s wh e t he r gr a it y
. v
or w a t e r is t h e s t r o n ge r s t im ulus .

D . I f yo u ha v v
e e er s e e n w illo w t r e e s gr o w in g a lo n g t he b an k of a ri v er ,

de s c r ib e h o w hy dr o t r o pis m t e n ds t o a ffe c t t h e ir gr o w t h ?

Th e u s e s of t r opis m s P l a n t s m a k e r e s p o n s e s t o o t h e r s t i m uli
. .

Th e r e s p o n s e t o c h e m i c a l s is C hemotropis m r e s p o n s e t o h e a t t her mo , ,

t rop is m a n d t o t o u c h o r c o n t a c t t higm o tr opis m

, ,
.

All t h e a c tivi t i e s o f livi n g pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s i n v o lv e a s e r i es o f

respon ses As w e h a v e a l r e a dy l e a r n e d t h e r e s p o n s e s o f pl a n t s a r e
.
,

d e fi n i t e fo r giv e n s t i m uli L e a v e s a l w a y s gr o w t o w a r d t he li ght

.
,

r o o t s gr o w t o w a r d gr a vity and ,

s t e m s gr o w a w a y f r o m gr a vity .

R e s p o n s e s a re divid e d i n t o t wo
ki n d s o f r e a c ti o n s o n e t o w a r d ,

t he f o r ce o r s t i m ulu s p o s i t iv e ,

t r o pi s m s a n d t h e o t h er r e a c ti o n s ,

a w a y f r o m t h e s ti m ulu s n e ga ,

t iv e t r o pi s m s I n ge n e r a l t r o
'

.
,

p is m s a r e p r o t e c tiv e W i t h o u t .

s u n li gh t t h e l e a v e s w o uld n o t b e ,

a bl e t o m a k e s t a r c h with o u t t he
pull o f gr a vity r o o t s w o uld b e ,

u n a bl e t o a n ch or t h e pl a n t in t he
r o u n d T r o pi s m s h e lp t h e o r
g .

Ligh t i fl u nth g wthe nc e sf pl t e

g a n is
rom m a k e ot h e b e s t p o s s ibl e
an s

d l v s tu
.

M t t m
os s e s ant w d t h l i gh t
ea e rn o ar e

an d l g a ar fl f u f
e a rea oi p ea d a d j u s t m e n t s t o I t s e n V 1r o n m e n t
s r a ce s e x os e .
.
20 6 TH E N E RVO US SY STE M

e i gh t e e n m o n t h s o ld t h e s e b o n e s h a v e gr o w n t o ge t h er fo r m i n g a ,

c o m p a r a t iv e ly fir m h a r d s t r u c t u r e Th e s pi n a l c o r d is p r o t e c t e d
, .

Wh e n th e po s it io n of v
t h e gr o w in g pla n t is c h a n ge d , gr a it y a ga in d e t e rm in e s t h e dir e c t io n of
t h e gr o wt h o f t h e r o o t a n d o f t h e s t e m .

by t h e s pi n a l o r v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n a n d m o i s t li n i n g m e m b r a n e s
s i m il a r t o t h o s e in t he s kull The v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n in a n a dul t
.
,

m a d e up o f tw e n ty s ix m o v a bl e b o n es c a ll e d v e r t e b r a e p er m i t s
-
,

fl e xibili t y a n d giv e s p r o t e c t i o n t o t he d e li c a t e s pi n a l c o r d i n c l o s ed
,
.

F r o m b o th t h e b r a i n a n d s pi n a l c o r d n er v e s e xt e n d t o a ll p a r t s o f
,

t he b o dy . Th e s e n er v e s a r e e m b e dd e d in o t h e r ti s s u es whi c h
a ff o r d t h e m p r o t e c t i o n .

Th e s truc tur e o f t h e b r a in The cerebrum . Th e l a r ge r p a r t .

o f t h e b r a i n is c a ll e d t h e c e r e b r u m I t is divid e d i n t o t w o h e m i
.

s ph e r e s . Th e o u t e r s u r f a c e t h e co r tex is c o m p o s e d o f gr a y m a t t er
, ,

( c e ll b o di es a n d s y n
a t i
n e
g ve .

apses) and shows

g e o t ro
p i s m . ,

m a n y i r r e gul a r c o n v o
lu t i o n s Un d er lyi n g .

t he c o r t e x a r e fo u n d
n er v e fib er s Th es e .

a r e a x o n s o f t he n e u

Th i pl t d t g i y t m g tiv ly ; t Th e y m a k e up
s an pres on s
vt
o ra : s e r
s, ne ons a e roo s ,

t v ly
,

p os i i e .

t he whi t e m a tter .

C e r t a i n d e fi n i t e a r e a s o f t h e c e r e b r u m a re c o n c er n e d wi t h d e fi n i t e
fu n c t i o n s Th e s e i n c lud e m o t o r a r e a s w hi c h c o n t ro l m o v e m e n t s
.
,
 TH E B RA IN 2 07

an d s en s or y whi c h a r e c o n c e r n e d wi t h s e n s a t i o n s C e n t er s
a r ea s .

o f s e n s a t i o n m o t o r a c t ivi t i e s s p e e c h
, , j ud gm e n t r e a s o n i n g m e m
, , ,

o ry , an d m any o t h er a c t ivi t i e s r e qui r i n g

t h o u gh t a r e l o c a t e d in t h e c e r e b r u m As s o .

c ia t io n u n i t s li n k t h e s e t o ge t h e r a n d m a k e

p o s s ibl e a ll ki n d s o f c o n n e c t i o n s L a t er in .
,

c o n s id e r i n g t h e a c t ivi t y o f t h e n er v o u s s y s

t e m t h e c er e b r urri will b e c a ll e d t h e third

,

level .

The b lum
c e r e el B e l o w t h e ce r e b r u m a n d
.

p a r t i a lly c o v e r e d by it li e s a s m a ll e r po r
t i o n o f t h e b r a 1 n t h e c er e b e llu m
, Thi s .

is t he c e n t e r o f m u s c ul a r c o or di n a t i o n a n d
m a i n t e n an c e o f b o dy e quilib r iu m I t m ay .

b e c a ll e d t h e s econ d level o f t h e c e n tr a l n er v
o us s y s t e m .

The m edulla o blon ga ta Th e b r a 1n i s

.

c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s pi n a l c o r d by m e a n s o f

t h e m e dull a o bl o n ga t a Thi s is r e a lly t h e

.

e n l a r ge d b e gi n n i n g o f t h e s pi n a l c o r d but is

c o n s id e r e d a p a r t Of t h e b r a i n I t is t h e
.

c r o s s i n g pl a c e fo r m o s t o f t h e i m pul s e s t o

a n d f r o m t h e n er v e s o f t h e b r a i n I t c on .

t a i n s t h e n er v e c en t er s whi c h go v er n b r e a th N t t h l t iv i f o e e re a e S ze o

th w bm m i h f th
in g r e gul a t e c i r c ul a t i o n a n d m a i n t a i n n or m a l b i e e n ea ° ° e
, , Th i l ra n s . e re s a c os e t e

l m“ b t w
t o n e o f t h e m u s c l e s in t he bl oo d v e s s e l s It .
i a f th e een F l e ° e

b um
.

d t ll g
cere r an in e i ence .

c o n t ro l s c er t a i n a c t s s u c h a s s n ee zi n g s w a l T h l w d
,
w i t h i e o er o n n e an

m l l th m ll th
a s ca e , e s a er e

l o wi n g v o m i t i n g a n d bli n ki n g
, , .
b um d th l w th
c e re r an e o er e

t ll g In e i en c e “

Th e S pin al c ord Th e s pi n a l c or d n e a r ly
.
,

c yli n d r i c a l in f o rm r u n s t h r o u gh t h e h o ll o w v e r t e b r a l c o lu m n
, .

I t is c o n n e c t e d wi t h t he b r a i n by t h e m e dull a o bl o n ga t a Th e .

s pi n a l c o r d s e r v e s a s a p a t hw a y fo r n e r v o u s i m pul s e s f r o m v a r i o u s

p a r t s o f t he b o dy t o a n d fr o m t he b r a i n a n d ha s c e n t er s o f s im pl e
,
208 T HE NE RV OU S S YS TE M

v o u s a c t iviti e s whi c h will n er

b e di s c u s s e d l a t e r N e r v e c e ll s .

(g r a y m a t t e r ) a r e f o u n d o n t h e

i n s id e o f t he c o r d a n d n er v e
fib e r s (whi t e m a t t er ) a r e fo u n d
on t h e o u t s id e Th e s pi n a l .

c o r d is c a ll e d t h e fi rs t level o f

t h e c e n tr a l n er v o u s s y s t e m .

C e llula r s t r uc t u r e of t h e
c e n tr a l n er v o u s s y s t e m Th e .

u n it o f s t r u c t u r e o f n e r v o u s

t i s s u e is a hi ghly s p e c i a liz e d
A ph t m i g ph f th pi l d h w
th ew h i t
o o

m
e tt
c ro

a th erut
ra

id
on
o

d th g ye o
e
c es

s
ll c
na
a
e, an
lled
cor
a e
s
n e
o
u r
ra
o
s
n I t C O H .

m tt i th f m f t i d p t i
t a i n s t h e c e ll b o dy p r o p e r t h e
a er n e or o a n e r or an o s e r or

hor n s , o n th i ide ns e .

c yton fr o m whi c h fin e p r o t o ,

pl a s m i c p r o c e s s e s (d e n d r i t e s ) e x t e n d On e o f t h e p r o c e s s e s m a y .

e x t e n d a gr e a t l e n gt h a n d is k n o w n a s t h e a x o n Th e d e n d r i t e s .

divide a n d wi t h b r a n c h e s fr o m o t h e r n e r v e c e ll s fo r m a m a s s o f
e x t r e me ly fin e fib e r s Th e gr a y m a tt e r o f t he b r a i n a n d s pi n a l
.

c o r d c o n s i s t s o f n e r v e c e ll s o r n e u r o n s C o ll e c t i o n s o f t h e s e a r e .

n er ve c en te rs . A
n u mb e r o f a xo n s
.

b a n ded t o ge t h e r
c o n s t i t u t e a n er ve .

N e r ve s t ra n s m i t
m e s s a ge s f r o m s e n s e
o r ga n s s u c h a s t h e

eye , to t he c e ll

b o di e s o f t he n e u
r o ns , or fr o m t he
c e ll b o di e s o f t he
n e u ro n s t o m u s c l e s Wh en t h e de n d r it e s of two n e ur o n s in t o c o n t a c t wit h
c om e

e a ch o t h e r , t h e y fo r m s y n a ps e s . N v
e rv e im pul s e s t r a e l fr o m

O I gl a n d s
‘
I n o r de r
. a xo n t o d e n d r it e a c ro s s o n e of th e j
m a n y un c t io n s o r s yna pse s .
2 10 THE NE R V O US S Y S T E M

of t he
b ra i n or s pi n a l c o r d a r e k n own a s ga n glia N e ur o n s are .

li n ke d to ge t h er by m e a n s o f i rr e gul a r p r o j e c ti o n s o f p r o to pl as m ,

d e n d r i t e s e s t a bli s hi n g s yn a p s e s , .

Th e n a t ur e o f th es e co n t a c t s is
n o t kn o w n Th e y m a y b e c o m .

p a re d wi t h co n t a c t s m a d e by t wo
e l e c t r i c a lly c h a r ge d wi r e s Th e .

t yp e o f e n e r gy e s t a bli s hi n g t h e

c o n t a c t s in a s y n a p s e is n ervous

en ergy .

Autonomi c n er vo u s s ys t e m .

T hi s s y s t e m is a lso c a ll e d t he
s ympa t hetic s ys tem or se lf -
a ctin g

s ys tem
fr o n t Of t he s pi n a l
. In
c o rd a n d lyi n g p a r a ll e l t o it o n
,

e i t h e r s id e o f t he v er te b r a l c o l

um n a re t wo r o w s o f ga n gli a
, ,

c o n n e c t e d wi t h one a n o t her bv
n e r v e fib e r s C e r t a i n l a r ge ga n .

g li a c a ll e d p le xu s ,a r e a l so p art ,

o f t hi s a ut o n o m i c s y s t e m Th r e e .

Th ute a mi ono u y t m
c n e rvo i t ofs s t h e pl e xu s a r e t h e c a r di a c
s e con s s s
of i f g gli
a ser es o m t f whi h
an a, os o c a re

i lud d i t w
nc e n h i t h t li
o c p ll
a nsl t pl a e xu
e s i n
a ra t hee tho o r a c i c c a vity t h e ,
th pi l
e s lum
na co Th n t d e s e a re c o nn e c e
l pl xu i t h bd m i l
.

wit h i th s o a r e s n e a o n a
t
n e rv e c e n e r spi l d
n e s na cor
Av y l g
.

d u p i d g gli i
c a vi t y a n d t h e hyp o ga s t r i c pl exu s
er ar e an n a re an on s
ca ll d
e pl u
a ex s. ,

in t he p e lvic c a vi t y but t h e y ,

c o n n e c t wi t h m a n y o th e r s m a ll ga n gli a in t h e t h o r a c i c a n d a b

do m in a l r e gi o n s The a ut o n o m i c s y s t e m tr a n s m it s s o m e o f t he
.

di s tur b a n c e s o f t he c en tr a l n e r vo u s s y s t e m t o t he h e ar t gl a n d s , ,

a n d i n v o lu n t a r y o r pl a i n m u s c l e s S i n c e t h e vi s c er a ( i n t e r n a l
.

o r ga n s ) in ge n e ra l a r e m a d e up o f s m o o t h m u s cl e it f o ll o w s t h a t

—
,

t he s o c a ll e d a ut o m a ti c m ec h a n i s m s o f t h e b o dy s u c h a s t he b e a t , ,

in g o f t he h ea r t t h e c o n t r a c ti o n a n d dil a ti o n o f t he m u s cl e s a n d
, ,
 S T UDI E S OF T H E NE RVO US S Y S T EM 211

t he ti on s o f v a r i o u s gl a n d s
se cre ,

a r e l a r ge ly u n d er t he c o n t r o l o f
t he a u t o n o m i c s y s t e m E m ot ion s .

a ff e c t t he a u t o n o m i c s y s t e m and ,

c o n se qu e n t ly c i r c ul a t or y a n d gl a n

dul a r di s tu r b a n ce s f o ll o w o r a c
co m p a n y e m o t i o n s I f a pl e xu s is
n e r ve s
.

i n j u r ed a vi o l e n t r e a c t i o n in c e r
,

t a i n i n t e rn a l or ga n s w o uld n a t u
r a lly f o ll o w .

S tu die s of t h e n e r v o u s s ys te m .

Th g gli
S c i e n t i s t s h a v e b e e n a bl e t o s h ow y t m
f th ut mi v u e an a o e a on o c ner o s
t d with t h
'

s t l s e are c on n e c e e cen ra

th a t th ere a r e m a n y s i m il a r iti e s in u y t m by v fi b r n e rv o s s s e ner e e s.

t he n er v ou s s y s t e m s o f m a n a n d o th er v er t e b r a t e s Pro b a bly .

o n e o f t h e o u t s t a n di n g diffe r e n c e s is t h e f a c t t h a t m a n s c e r e
’

b r u m is ge n e r a lly l a r ge r a n d h e a vi e r p r o p o r t i o n a t e ly th a n t h a t, ,

p a r t o f t h e b r a i n o f a n v l o w e r a n i m a l Th e l o w e r d o w n t h e .

n e t : P o m

Th e r e a re t h r e e t y pe s o f n e ur o n s . S o m e ta k e s e n s o ry s t im ula t ion s in t o t h e b o dy , o th e r s

ta k e m ot or o r gla n dula r s t im ula t io n s o ut t o m us c l e s orgla n d s t o b r in g a b out a r e s po n s e A

v
.

k
t hir d t y pe , n o wn a s t h e a s s o c ia t i e n e ur o n , m a y l ie b e tw e e n t h e o t h e r t wo t y pe s of n e ur o n s and

s e t up c o n n e c t io n s b e tw e e n t h e m .
2 12 TH E N E RVO US SY S T E M

an im al is in t he l ifi c a t i o n t he s m a ll er is t he ce re b r u m
s ca e o f c a s s l .

’
Th e c o n v o lu t i o n s o r c r e a s e s in m a n s b ra i n a r e m o re i n t r i c a t e .

a n d d e e p e r t h a n t h o s e f o u n d in l o w e r a n i m a l s Th e s e c o n v o lu.

t i o n s giv e gr e a t e r b r a i n s u r f a c e a n d c o n t a i n m o r e fu n c ti o n i n g

n e uro n s S c i e n t i s t s o n c e t h o u gh t th a t o n e m a n wa s m o r e i n t e l
.

lige n t th a n a n o t h e r b e c a u se o n e h a d a h e a vi e r b r a i n t h a n t he
o t h er . B ut thi s d o e s n o t s e e m t o h o ld t r u e The b r a i n o f .

C uvi e r a gr e a t s c i e n ti s t w e i gh e d a b o u t f o u r p o u n d s whil e th a t
, , ,

o f G a m b e t t a a F r e n c h s t a t e s m a n w e i gh e d o n ly t w o a n d a h a lf
, ,

p o un d s S i n ce m e n t a l d efe c tiv e s h a v e b een f o u n d with b r a i n s

.

w ei ghi n g m o r e th a n f o u r p o un d s w e i ght a l o n e d o e s n o t m e a n
,

e v e r ythi n g The s iz e a n d w e i ght o f a p er s on m u s t b e t a k en i n t o

.

a c co u n t wh e n c o n s id e r i n g w e i gh t o f b r a i n s .

N e ur o n s n e v er i n c r ea se in n u m b e r Th e o nly gr ot h p o s s ibl e
.

is t he s e tti n g up o f c o n n e c t i o n s o r s y n a p s e s a m o n g t he di ffe r e n t
n e uro n s Th e m o r e c o n n e c ti o n s o r s y n a p s e s t h a t a r e m a d e t h e
.
,

g r e a t e r will b e t h e n u m b e r o f m en t a l p r o c e s s es whi c h is a f a,c t o r

in d e te r m i n i n g t he i n t e lli ge n c e o f a n i m a l s The a bility t o m a k e

.

co n n e c ti on s e a s ily s e em s t o b e a n i n h e r ite d c h a r a c t e r Thi s m a y .

a c co u n t fo r t h e f a c t t h a t so m e f a m ili es h a v e m e m b e r s m o r e i n t e l

lige n t th a n th ose o f o th e r f a m ili e s .

On e o f t he m e th o d s o f s t udyi n g t he n e r v o u s s y s te m is th r o u gh
e xp e r i m e n t a t i o n wi t h l o w e r a n i m a l s F l o u r e n s a n d o t h er s h a v e
.

o b s er v e d th a t if t h e c e re b r u m o f a pi geo n is r e m o v e d t h e pi geo n ,

l o s e s a ll v o lu n t a r y o r c o n s c i o u s a c t i o n I t will n o t m o v e t o w a r d
.

fo o d n or a w a y fr o m d a n ge r H o w e v e r if food is put i n t o it s
.
,

m o uth it will s w a ll o w
, Wh e n t he c e r e b e llu m a l o n e is r e m o v e d
.
,

b a l a n ce a n d c o Or din a t io n b e c o m e di s tu r b e d The pi ge o n if .
,

pl a ce d o n t he e d ge o f a t a bl e will f a ll I t ha s diffi c ulty flyi n g b e

, .

c a u s e o i a l a c k o f b a l a n c e a n d m u s c ul a r c o or di n a ti on I t s v o lun .

t a r y a c tivi t i e s h o w e v e r a r e i n t a c t I t e xp er i e n c e s d e s i r e for food

, ,
.
,

fe a r o f d a n ger a n d o t h e r s e n s a ti o n s I f t he m e dull a is r e m o v e d
,
.
,

r e s pir a t o r y c i rc ul a t o r y a n d h e a r
, ,
t a c ti o n s c ea s e a n d t he bi r d di e s .
 THE NE R V O U S S YSTEM

’
Th e y t h o u gh t p er s o n s a p t itud es a n d t r a i t s of c h a r a ct er
th a t a

co uld b e t o ld f r o m t h e s w e lli n gs o v e r t h e s e v a r i o u s a r e a s I f one .

m a n h a d a s w e lli n g o v e r t h e vi s i o n a r e a t h e y a s s u m e d t h a t h e
,

c o uld s e e b e t t e r t h a n a n o t h e r I f h e h a d a hi gh f o r e h e a d t h e y
.
,

r e a s o n e d t h a t his p o w e r s o f j ud gm e n t m u s t b e b e t t e r Thu s t he .

p s e ud o s c i e n c e o f ph r e n o l o gy a r o s e Ph r e n o l o gy a s s u c h h a s
-
.
, ,

b ee n di s p r o v e d C a re ful i n v e s t i ga t i o n s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e b r a i n
.

d o e s n o t c o n f o r m e x a c t ly t o t hes h a p e o f t h e s kull a n d t h a t bu m p s
o r e n l a r ge m e n t s o n diff e r e n t h e a d s a r e u s u a lly m a lf o r m a t i o n s o f

t h e s kull a n d n o t b r a i n e n l a r ge m e n t s .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D SU GG E S T IO NS
1 W a t is a
. h s t i m ul us ? Wh a t is a r e s po n s e ?
2 D is c us s a n e xp er i m e n t ill us t r a t i n g p h o t o t r o pi s m ; ge o t r o pi s m
’

hy d r o t r o p i s m .

3 Wh a t is t h e v a l ue o f t r o p i s m s t o t he pl a n t ?
.

4 S t a t e t h e diffe r e n c e b e t w e e n a t r o pi s m a n d a n e r vo us r e a c t i o n
. .

5 N a m e a fun c t i o n o f t he c e n t r a l n e r vo us s y s t e m
. .

6 D i s c us s t h e pr o t ec t i o n o f t he b r a i n a n d s pi n a l c o r d
. .

7 D e s c r i b e t h e s t r uc t ur e a n d t h e fun c t i o n o f t h e c e r e b r um
.

8 D i s c us s t h e fun c t i o n o f t h e c e r e b e ll um ; t h e m e d ull a o bl o n ga t a ;
.

t he s p i n a l c o r d .

9 D e s c r i b e in d e t a il t h e un i t o f s t r uc t ure o f t h e n e r v o us s y s t e m
. .

1 0 D r a w a n d l a b e l a n e ur o n
. N a m e a n d d e n e t hr e e t ypes o f
. fi
n e ur o n s .

11 . Wh a t a re n er v d ga n gli a ?
e c e n t er s a n

12 . C o m p a r e t h e b r a i n o f m a n w i t h t h e b r a i n o f l o we r a n i m a l s .

13 . D i s c us s t w o w a y s o f s t ud y i n g t h e n e r v o us s y s t e m .

14 . D es c r i b e t he s t r uc t ure a n d f un c t i o n o f t he a ut o n o m i c n er v o u s
s ys t e m .

S U PP L E M E N T A R Y R E AD I N GS
G a t e s , A I E lem e n ta r y P s yc hology (The M a c m illa n
. .
,

M c D o uga ll, W , Outline of P s yc hology ( C h ar le s S cr ib n e r s S o n s )

’
. .
 C H APT E R XX I I I

An c i e n t id e a of th e h uma n P re s ent id e a of th e h um a n
ner v o us s ys tem . n e rv o us s y s t e m .

Wha t m en ta l a c tiviti es a r e lea rn ed a n d w ha t a r e in s tin c tive ? Wha t

is a ha bi t ? Wha t i s t he bes t m et ho d fo r lea rn in g fa c ts ?

Wh e n w e r e di s c u s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t i m uli wa s
t r o pi s m s ,

s tr e s s e d As in pl a n t s a n d l o w e r a n i m a l s it is a s t i m ulu s in a
.
,

hi gh er a n i m a l t h a t s t a r t s t he n e r v o u s i m pul s e whi c h r e s ult s in a

t ypi c a l r e a c t i o n Th i s I m pul s e m a y b e a n y o n e o f t h r ee t yp e s o f
.

m e n t a l a c t ivi t i e s : ( 1 ) in born a utom a tic ( 2 ) a cqui red a utom a tic , ,

a n d ( 3 ) vo lun ta r
y .

R e fl e x a cti vi ti e s Th e re a r e c er t a i n m o t i o n s a n d a c t s th a t a
.

b a by p er for m s s o o n a f t er it is b o r n Th e s e r e s p o n s es a re s i m pl e
.

r eflexes o r in b o r n a u t o m a ti c a c t ivi t i e s Th e c hild d o e s n o t h a v e t o

.

l e a r n o r a c qu ir e th e m S o m e o f th e s e r e s p o n s e s m a y i n vo lv e t h e
.

b r a i n whil e o th er s a r e c o n tr o ll e d o n ly by t he s pi n a l c o r d Th e
, .

c hild c o m e s i n t o t h e w o r ld e qu i pp e d with
p r e f or m e d c o n n
-
e c t i o n s

o r t e n d e n c i e s t o c o n n e c t i o n s in his n e r v o u s s y s t e m I n o t he r wor d s
.
,

n e r v o u s p a t hw a y s o r p att e r n s a r e a l r e a dy s e t up A n ew b o r n .
-

b a by t h a t ha s n o t l e a r n e d t o t hi n k will pull h is fo o t a w a y if
p r i c ke d wi t h a pin He will s n e e z e if his n o s t r il s a r e ti c kl e d wi t h a
.

fea th e r a n d will gr a s p a fi n ger if it is pl a c e d o n t he p a l m o f his t i n y

,

h a n d E a c h o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e giv e n s t i m ulu s is a r e fle x
. .

I f a p e r s o n s wi n gs o n e le g f r e e ly o v e r t he o th e r a n d t a p s it ju s t
2 15
2 16 NE R V O U S RE A C TI ON S

b e l o w t he k n ee c a p t he t a p will c a u s e t he k n e e t o j er k I n thi s
, .

e xp e r i m e n t t h e s t i m ulu s is r e c e iv e d by a n e r v e e n di n g in t h e s ki n
, .

Th e s t i m ulu s s t a r t s a n i m pul s e whi c h t r a v e l s a l o n g a s e n s o r y

n e u ro n i n t o t h e s pi n a l co r d Th e r e t h i s s e n s o r y n e u r o n li n k s up
.
,

with a n o utgo i n g m o tor n e u r o n by m e a n s o f a s y n a p s e Th e o ut .

g o i n g n e u ro n c o n v e y s t h e i m p u l s e t o a m u s c l e in t h e l e g whi c h ,

c a u s e s t h e k n ee t o j e r k I n s o m e wa y t h e in go i n g s e n s o r y s t i m ulu s
.
,
-

is c h a n ge d i n t o a n o u t go i n g m u s c ul a r re a c t i o n Th e s e n s e o r ga n s .
,

in thi s c a se t o u c h s p o t s in t he s ki n re c e iv e t he s t i m ulu s a n d a r e ,

t he r e ce pt o r s .Th e m u s c l e e ff ec t s t he r e a c t i o n a n d is t he e ffe c t o r .

Th e p a t hw a y o f t he re c e p t o r c o m p o s e d o f t h e a ffere n t a xo n a ffe r
, ,

e n t c yt o n s y n a p s e e ffe r e n t c yt o n e ff e r e n t a x o n a n d t h e e ff e c t o r
, , , ,

ma k e up t he re fl e x a r c An y r e fl e x a r c i n v o lvi n g t h e c e n t r a l
.

ne r v o u s m e c h a n i s m b e gi n s a n d e n d s in t h e o u t e r p a r t o f t h e b o dy .

Type s of r e s pon s e s T he s i m pl e s t r es p o n s e a c tivi t i es i n v o lv e a t

.

lea s t t wo n e u r o n s E xp e r i m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e wi t h fro gs
.

wh o s e b ra i n s h a v e b een s e v e r e d f r o m th e i r s pi n a l c o r d s Such .

f r o gs l o s e a ll c o n sc i o u s a c tivi t i es but a r e s till c a p a bl e o f m a ki n g

,

cer t a i n r e fl e xe s I f t he t oe is pi n c h e d t he leg is withd r a w n ;

.
,

vi o l e n t pi n c hi n g c a u s e s a di s ti n c t ju m p I f a p a p er we t wi t h .

dilu t e a c e t i c a c id is pl a ce d o n t he S ki n o f t he le g t h e fro g m a k e s ,

m o v e m e n t s t o b r u s h o ff t h e p a p er .

I f t he f oo t o f a s l ee pi n g b a by is ti c kl e d t h e f o o t is wi t hd r a w n , .

Thi s is a r e a cti o n or r e fl e x o f t h e fi r s t l e v el Th e i m pul se c a us e d .

,

by t he s ti m ulu s p a s s e s i n t o t h e s pi n a l c o r d a n d o ut a ga i n wi t h o u t
,

in v o lvi n g a n y o th e r c o n n e c t i o n s Th e k n e e j er k is a n o t h er e x
.

a m pl e o f a r e fl e x o f t he fi r s t l e v e l B ut if t he bl ow o n t he k n e e
.
,

is s e v e r e e n o u gh t he p e r so n m a y ga s p o r s c r ea m o r b a l a n ce him
, ,

s e lf t o p r e s e r v e his e quilib r iu m H e m a y e v e n S h o w a n i n cr e a s e d
.

h ea r t b e a t The ce n t e r s o f r e s pi r a t i o n a n d c i r c ul a ti o n a re s t im u
.

l a t e d a n d b a l a n c e a n d c o or di n a ti o n a r e b r o u ght i n to t he a c ti o n
, .

T hi s r e s p o n se is o f t he s e c o n d l e v e l A n u m b e r o f n eu r o n s e n t e r
.

i n t o thi s a c tivity S o m e o f t h e m a r e s en so r y a n d a gre a t m a n y

.
2 18 NE RV O US RE A C T I O N S

nor sme ll any foo d Th e

i m a l h a s e vid e n tly a c qui r ed a n ew re
. an

flex p a thTh e a c qui r e d r e a c t i o n is con di tio n ed up o n a m e m o r y

.

a sso c i a t i o n whi c h c o n
n e c t s t h e p r e s e n ce o f a

c e r t a i n p e r s o n wi t h t h e

e a t i n g o f fo o d
c e r e b r um
.

I n a n o t h er e xp e r i m e n t ,

a b e ll w a s r un g a n d e x ,

a c t ly t wo m i n u t es l a t e r

f o o d w a s giv e n a do g .

Ul t i m a t e ly a f t e r t h e ex ,

p e r im e n t h a d b e e n c on

t in ue d a l o n g t i m e t h e ,

’
s a liv a fl o w e d in t h e d o g s

Th t h e l v l
re e f th evu ytm
e s o h w
e ner
m o
o
u t h s
e x a c t ly t W O mm
s s e are s o n
h Th fi t l v l i i t h
er e pi l d th d
u t e s a f t e r t h e r i n gi n g O f
e rs e e s h e s na c or e s e c on
'

l v l i i th t h i d l v l i i th
.
,

e e s n b llum
e cere d th e . an e r e e s n e

cere b um r
t h e b e ll e v en t h o u gh n o
fo o d w a s giv e n Thi s c o uld b e c a r efully m e a s u r e d b e c a u s e o f
.

a li t t l e t ub e t h a t w a s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e du c t l e a di n g f r o m t h e

s a liv a r y gl a n d o f t h e do g S a liv a c o uld b e s ee n fl o w i n g fr o m t h e

.

du c t e x a c t ly t w o m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e r i n gi n g o f t h e b e ll S p a r r o w s .

u s u a lly build n e s t s in t h e gu t t e r s a n d h o l e s in b a r n s a n d h o u s e s .

Buildi n g t he n e s t is i n b o r n b ut buildi n gs h a v e n o t e xi s t e d a s l o n g ,

a s n e s t buildi n g s o n e s t i n g in h o u s e s m u s t h a v e b e c o m e c o n di t i o n e d
-
,

by buildi n gs C o n di t i o n e d .

r e s p o n se s d ep en d up o n
a s so c i a t i o n s f o r m e d in t h e

c erebr u m I n ) ll I y t o a I'
'

fl f th fi t l v l th t f t l i “
n a re ex o e rs e e e ce n e r o co n r o s

ce r t a i n p a r t o f t h e c e r e
th pi l d T h i i t h im pl t t yp f
e S fl na cor s s e
,

s es e o re e x.

i u u ll y v y im pl
.

Th p e res ons e s s a er s e.

b r u m o f a do g wi t h a c o n
dit io n e d r e s p o n se h a s c a u s e d t he a bili t y o f t he a n i m a l t o r e sp o n d t o
t h e s t i m ulu s t o b e e n t i r e ly d e s t r o y e d .

The o r i gi n a l r e fl e xe s th a t a r e a p a r t o f t he o r ga n i s m a t bi r t h a r e
 VO LUN T A R Y A C T IV I T I E S 2 19

e vid e n tly not fixe d a n d i n v a r i a bl e but a r e fl e xibl e a n d m o difi a bl e

a n d m a y b e c o m e c h a n ge d or c o n di t i o n e d by f a c t o r s in t he e n vi r o n

m en t . The o r ga n i s m b e gi n s t o m u le sc

r e l a t e f a c t o rs in t h e e n vi r o n m e n t

t o his a c t ivi t y Thi s r e s ul t s in

.

t h e c h a n gi n g o f t h e o r i gi n a l r e
fle x . C er t a in a c t s m a y b e c on
s c io us ly i n hibit e d t h a t is di , ,

v e r t e d o r bl o c k e d F o r e x a m pl e
.
,

a c hild i n s t i n c t iv e ly m a k e s k n o w n

h is w a n t s by c r yi n g H e h a s .

l e a r n e d t h a t wh e n he cr i e s he h a s ,
e
ff ct o r e

a lw a y s b e e n pi c k e d up On e da y. I p f th,
d l v l
n re s t ons e o e s e co n e e , c e n e rs

i th pi l d d m id b i
n e S i na c or an -
ra n e xe r c s e
h e fin ds th a t cr y i n g d o e s n O t t l A um b f t ivi t i
c on r o will
. n er o ac es t e

ult s
b r i n g t he d es ir e d a t t e n ti o n H e
'

s t o p s a f t e r a whil e a n d in t i m e l ea r n s t o e xp r e s s h is w a n t s in
, , ,

a n o t h e r wa y Th e c h a n gi n g is due t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s
. I t p r o b a bly .

e xpl a i n s t h e b e gi n n i n g o f t h e lea rn in g p roces s o r con s cio us a cts .

Volun ta ry a c tiviti e s An y a c t i n v o lvi n g will o r t ho u gh t is a

.

v o lun t a r y a c t The n a m e v o lu n t a r y r efer s t o t he will All

a c t iviti e s e x ce pti n g t h e s o —
. .

, c a ll e d i n h e r i t e d r e a c t i o n s p e r fo r m e d ,

for t h e fi r s t t i m e a r e v o lu n t a r y a c t s o f t h e will Wh e n t he .

a c tivi t y r e qui r es a tten tion m emory j udgm en t o r as s ocia tion a

, , , ,

g r ea t m a n y a s s o c i a t iv e n e u r o n s a r e u s e d F o r e x a m pl e t h e h a
. n d ,

is put in w a t e r a n d is h e ld th e r e whil e a d e c i s i o n is m a d e a s t o
w h e t h e r t h e w a t e r is o f t he d e s i r e d w a r m t h Th e n t h e h a n d is .

wi t hd r a w n The s e n s a t i o n is r e c e iv e d by t he s ki n a s t he re ce p t o r
. .

Th e i m pul s e t r a v e l s a l o n g a n a ff e r e n t a xo n t o t he s pi n a l c o r d up t o ,

t he b r a i n . A n u m b e r o f n e u r o n s l o c a t e d in t h e b r a i n a r e s t i m
ula t e d b r i n gi n g a b o u t a c o n di t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d re s ul t i n g
, ,

in a t t e n ti o n M e a n i n g b e c o m e s a t t a c h e d t o t he s e n s a t i o n t h a t h a s
.

b e e n r e c e iv e d a n d a m e n t a l d e c i s i o n is p o s s ibl e A c o m p a r i s o n m a y .

b e m a d e with p re vi o u s w a t er u s ed in w a s hi n g ; t he th o ught m a y
220 NE RV O US RE A C T I O N S

occ ur t h a t i n ju ry will r e s ult in ca s e it is t o o ho t ; a con s id er a ti o n

o f t h e f a c t th a t c o ld w a t er will n o t c l ea n s e m a y b e i n v o lv e d .

F i n a lly a d ec i s i o n is m a d e Th e n a c o n n ec ti o n is m a d e with a
.

m o t o r n e uro n The i m pul s e go e s d o w n t he e ffer e n t a xo n t o t h e

.

m u sc l e s in t he h a n d a n d t he a r m whi c h a r e t h e e ff e c t o r s o f t h e ,

ac t ivi t y a n d t he h a n d is wi t hd r a w n f r o m t he w a t er I n m a ny .

i n s t a n c e s t he l e a r n i n g o f f a c t s s u c h a s r ul e s o f gr a mm a r is im
,

p o s s ibl e wi t h o ut a tt e n ti o n At t e n ti o n is p a r t ly d e p e n d en t up o n
.

i n b o r n t e n d e n c i e s a n d p a r t ly up o n a c qui r e d h a bit s The m o re .

c l o s e ly t h e a c t ivi t y is r e l a t e d t o t h e c hild s lif e a n d t he m o r e

’

a s so c i a ti o n s he c a n m a k e t h e e a s i e r it will b e fo r h im to r e m e m b e r
,

t he f a c t s F o r i n s t a n c e if a c hild liv e s in a c i t y it will b e e a s i er

.
, ,

fo r him t o u n d e r s t a n d t he p r o bl e m s o f c ity go v e r n m e n t a n d tr a ffi c
c o n diti o n s t h a n fo r t h e c hild w ho ha s a lw a y s liv e d in a r ur a l
,

c o mm u n ity .

Ac q uir e d a utom a tic a o

t iviti e s Ac tivi t i e s whi c h .

a r e l ea r n e d in a p e r s o n s
’

lifeti m e but h a v e b e c o m e ,
’

a u t o m a t i c th r o u gh r epe
’

t ition a r e a cqui r e d a ut o
“

p m a ti c a c tiviti e s F o r ex
r e s o n s e .

a m pl e b r u s hi n g t h e t e e t h ,

is a n a c t th a t h a d t o
b e le arn ed By di r ec ti n g .

1 8 2 T e 3 0 0 1 1 ;

a tt e n ti o n a n d th o u ght o n

t he a c ti o n t he fi r s t few
t im e s t he t eet h w er e
A th i d l v l
r -
p e u e u l res ti i
on s eb r u sh ed
s es ne
d e fi n it e
ra
t ech
c o nn e c on s n
th b
e i
ra n P y h l gi t thi k th t ll l
. s c o o d s s n a a e a rn e rea o
,

ti
on s a r e d p d t up
e en ti t b li h d i th
en n 1q ue a n d 5 10 1] w e r e s oon
o n c o nn e c on e s a s e n e
b i l v l
ra n e e .

g a i n e d T h e r e ce pt o r .

w a s t he gu m s o f t he m o u t h Whe n t he t o o t hb r u s h w a s pl a c ed
.

in t he m o u t h a s e n so r y a x o n t oo k t he i m pul se i n t o a s e n s o r y
,
2 22 N E RVO U S R E A C T I O N S

a ct ivi t y Th er e will t h e n b e a tt e n di n g r e s pi r a t o r y Ci r cul a to r y

.
, ,

a n d gl a n dul a r a c t ivi t i e s . F o r e x a m pl e a r a bbi t s ees a c a t a n d

,

t r i e s t o e s ca p e
. Th e s e n s o r y s t i m ulu s is t h e s i ght o f t h e c a t whil e
t he r ea c ti o n is t h e m o t o r a c t o f e s c a p i n g B e c a u s e fe a r a tt en d s
.

t hi s v o lu n t a r y a c t t he a ut o n o m i c c e n t e r s o f t he r a bbi t a r e s ti m
,

ula t e d a n d t h e i r r e s ul t i n g a c t ivi t i e s f a v o r t he r e s p o n s e o f o ut

wi t t i n g t he c a t The b r o n c hi a l t ub e s o f t he fr i gh t e n e d r a bbi t a r e
.

r e l a x e d a n d r a pid b r e a t hi n g is m a d e e a s i e r Th e c o n t r a c t i o n o f
.

bl o o d v e s s e l s in t he vi s c e r a a n d t he i n c r e a s e d h e a r t a c t i o n fo r c e s
m o r e bl oo d i n t o t h e s k e l e t a l m u s c l e s Thu s e x t r a o xy ge n a n d
.
,

fu e l a re s uppli e d t o t h e m u s c l e s Th e t n er v e s s t i m ul a t e t he
.

a d r e n a l gl a n d s whi c h p o u r o ut t h e i r s e c r e ti o n i n t o t h e bl o o d ,

c a u s i n g t h e liv e r t o giv e up m o re s u ga r i n t o t h e bl o o d a s w e ll a s ,

i n cr e a s i n g t h e e n du ra n c e a n d s t r e n gt h o f t he m u s c l e s an d r e du c i n g
t h e a c t ivi t i e s o f di ge s t i o n . The r a bbit h a s m o r e e n e r gy t h a n
n o r m a lly a n d is a bl e t o r un f a s t e r f r o m t h e c a t whi c h is a c t iv a t e d

pu r e ly by t he i n s t i n c t o f hu n t i n g B ut if t he c a t is a r o u s e d by
.
,

a s t r o n g f e e li n g o f hu n ger w e w o uld fin d in h e r a c t ivi t i e s v e r y

,

s i m il a r t o th o s e in t h e r a bbi t . I n t hi s c a s e t he p r o b a bili t y o f
,

e s c a p e b y t h e r a bbi t w o uld b e l e s s en e d .

Th e n a tur e of t h e n erv e im pul s e Th e n a tu r e o f t h e n e r v e

.

i m pul s e is n o t fully u n d e r s t o o d Th e s p e e d wi t h whi c h it t r a v e l s

.

a l o n g a m o t o r n e r v e fib e r is a b o u t t h r e e hu n d r e d a n d n i n e t y f ee t
‘

p e r s e c o n
. d Th e t i m e e l a p s i n g b e t w e e n t h e a ppli c a t i o n o f a

s t i m ulu s a n d t h e re s p o n s e v a r i e s in diff e re n t i n dividu a l s a n d in

t h e s a m e i n dividu a l u n d e r di ff e r e n t c o n di t i o n s I t d e p e n d s up o n
.

t h e s t r e n gt h o f t h e s ti m ulu s . I f t h e s t i m ulu s is v er y s t r o n g t h e
r e s p o n s e will b e p r o m p t . I f t h e s t i m ulu s is w ea k t he r e s p o n s e
is n o t m a d e o r is m a d e v er y S l o wly T h e t i m e o f r e a cti n g is
.

d e p e n d e n t up o n t h e n a t u r e o f t he s t i m ulu s F or e x a m pl e t he .
,

r e s p o n s e t o a p e r s o n w a lki n g t o w a r d y o u is quit e diff e r e n t f r o m

t h e r e s p o n s e giv e n wh e n a n a u t o m o bil e c o m e s t o w a r d y o u Th e .

t i m e is a l so a ff e c t e d by t he n u m b er o f s y n a p s es thr o u gh whi c h t h e
 IM P O RTAN C E OF RE A C T I O N S 22 3

st im ulu s ha s t o p a s s I f t h e n e r v o u s p a t hw a y is l o n g a p r o p o r
.
,

t io n a l l e n gt h o f t i m e is r e qui r e d fo r a r e s p o n s e R e m o vi n g y o ur
.

h a n d fr o m a h o t s t o v e r e qui r e s l e s s t i m e t h a n d e c idi n g w hi c h Wa y
-

t o j u m p wh e n y o u fin d yo u r s e lf in t h e p a t h o f a f a s t m o vi n g c a r .

Th e im po rt an c e of r e a ction s Th e p a t t e r n s o f b e h a vi o r f o r m e d
.

a l m o s t i m m e di a t e ly a f t e r bi r t h a r e c a ll e d i n s t i n c tiv e o r i n n a t e a c t s .

T h e s e i n c lud e t h e a voiding r ea c tion s s u c h a s s t r u ggl in g w h e n

h e ld a n d wi t hd ra wi n g f r o m or r e j e c t i n g a n yt hi n g t h a t is c a u s i n g
,

di s c o m fo r t a s m o vi n g t he le g if it is b e i n g pi n c h e d ; a n d t h e
,

a pp ro a c hin g rea c ti on s or m o v e m e n t s c a u s e d by hu n ge r a n d by t h e

s t i m ul a t i o n o f c e r t a i n s e n s i tiv e p a r t s o f t h e b o dy s u c h a s t i c kli n g
, ,

t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f e e t or r ubbi n g t h e b a c k Th e s e r e a c t i o n s o r
.

e s t a bli s h e d p a t t e r n s a r e fr e qu e n t ly m o difi e d t o m e e t c h a n gi n g

c o n di t i o ns F or i n s t a n ce a s m a ll c hild will u s u a lly pu s h a w a y

”

.
,

o r s t r ik e a t a p e r s o n wh o a n n o y s h im but l a t e r h e will m o dify

,

his t e n d e n c y b e c a u s e t h e gr o up h e liv e s in d e m a n d s a diff e r e n t

m et ho d of r e a ct i o n H e will l e a r n t o r e s p o n d t o r e a s o n a n d n o t
.

f o ll o w his i n s t i n c tiv e d e s i r e t o fi gh t .

H a b it fo rm a t ion Wh e n v o lu n t a r y a c tivi t i e s a r e m a d e h a bitu a l

.
,

t h e y a r e p er f o r m e d m o r e e a s ily a n d qui c kly Wh e n c o m pl e t el y

.

e s t a bli s h e d t h e y a c t t h e s a m e a s i n s ti n c t s
, Wh en a c t ivi t i e s b e
.

co m e h a bit s t h e b r a i n is n o t n e e d e d a n d it is th e n s e t f r e e t o m a k e

n ew r e s p o n s e s o r a c t ivi t i e s Thi s r e s ul t s in t h e gr o w t h a n d de
.

v e lo p m e n t o f t h e m i n d o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s I f t he a t t e n t i o n w e r e
.

c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e d a ily p e r f o r m a n c e o f b r u s hi n g t h e t e e t h ,

d re s s i n g w a lki n g a n d o t h er n e c e s s a r y a c tiviti e s t he m i n d w o uld

, , ,

b e o c c upi e d c onti n u o u s ly o n a c t s t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y fo r m e r e
e xi s t e n c e . Th e p o s s es s i o n o f u s e ful h a bi t s s e t s t he m i n d fr e e t o
a t t e n d t o t h e ga i n i n g o f n e w k n o wl e d ge I n dividu a l p r o gr e s s
.

m a y b e s a id t o b e d e p e n d e n t up o n t he a bili t y t o a c qui r e h a bi t s .

T h e r e a r e t h ree r ul e s fo r m a ki n g c o n s c i o u s a c t ivi t i e s s u c h a s ,

c o m bi n g t h e h a i r o r s t a r t i n g a n a u t o m o bil e
, h a bi t u a l F i r s t
, .
,

th e r e m u s t b e co n cen tr a ti o n o n t he p e r fo r m a n c e o f t he a c t
.
.
22 4 N E RVO US R E AC T I ON S

Wh e n th er e is l d e s i r e t o build t he h a bi t it is m o re e a s ily
a r ea ,

fo r m e d S e co n d t he a c t ivi t y m u s t b e re p e a t e d a n u m b e r o f t i m e s
.
,

u n d er e x a c tly t he s a m e c o n di t i o n s p e r m i t t i n g n o e x c ep t i o n s t o t he
,

p er fo r m a n ce Thi r d t h e a c t b e c o m e s a u t o m a t i c m o r e qui c kly if

.
,

f e e li n gs o f s a t i s f a c t i on a t t e n d t he p e r f o r m a n c e I f a n y a n n o y a n c e .

a c c o m p a n i e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e it d e l a y s t h e f o r m i n g o f t h e h a bi t
, .

I f e x c e p t i o n s a r e m a d e in t h e t yp e o f r e a c t i o n j ud gm e n t a ga i n ,

e n t e r s i n t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d it c o n t i n u e s a s a t h o u gh t ful a c t

ra th e r t h a n a h a bi t u a l o n e I n p e r f o r m i n g t h e a c t e a c h ti m e in
.

e x a c tly t h e s a m e w a y t h e s a m e n e r v e p at h is t r a v e r s e d
, Th e n .

wh e n t he s t i m ulu s is r e c e iv e d t he i m pul s e goe s m o r e qui c kly o v e r

,

t he p a thw a y a n d s y n a p se s c o n n e c t up wi t h gr e a t e r f a c il i t y
, .

I n o r d e r t o b r e a k a b a d h a bi t t h e r e m u s t fi rs t b e a s i n c e r e d e s i r e
,

t o ge t r id o f it Th e a c t ivity m u s t b e b r o u gh t b a c k t o c o n s c i o u s
.

n e s s s o t h a t t h e will m a y b e di r e c te d o n b r e a ki n g it F o r e x a m pl e .
,

in o r d er t o b re a k t he h a bi t o f bi t i n g t h e n a il s r e d p e pp e r m a y b e put ,
.

un d er t he n a il s T he s h a r p bi t i n g e ff e c t o n t he t o n gu e w ill b r i n g
.

t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h e f a c t th a t t he n a il is in t he m o u t h E a ch t im e .

t h e p e r s o n r e a liz e s t h a t t h e n a il is in t h e m o u t h h e m u s t t a k e it ,

a w a y fr o m t he t e e t h a n d t h e r e m u s t b e n o e x c e p t i o n t o t hi s r ea c

t io n . Th e p e r s o n wh o s a y s h e c a n n o t b r e a k hi m s e lf o f a b a d
h a bit m e a n s he d oe s n o t w a n t t o b r e a k it I f t he gr ow t h o f t h e .

n a il a n d t h e i m p r o v e d a pp e a r a n c e o f t h e h a n d b r i n gs s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

t h e h a bi t o f r e f r a i n i n g f ro m bi t i n g t h e n a il s will b e m o r e s p ee dily
e s t a bli s h e d. Th e m o s t e ff e c tiv e w a y o f b r e a ki n g a b a d h a bi t is
t o s ub s titut e a goo d h a bi t whi c h will b e m o r e s a t i s fyi n g th a n t h e
b a d h a bit . F o r e x a m pl e if a b o y h a s f o r m e d t he h a bit o f s t a n di n g
,

o n a s t r e e t c o r n e r in t h e e v e n i n g h e m a y fin d th a t j o i n i n g a n ,

a thl e ti c c lub will b e s o s a t i s fyi n g t o h im b e c a u s e o f it s a c tiviti e s ,

a n d c o n ge n i a l c o m p a n i o n s t h a t in a s h o r t ti m e h is o ld h a bit h a s
,

l o s t it s i n flu e n c e a l t o ge t h e r I t is n o t wi s e t o e v e r p e r fo r m a n
.

idl e o r vi c i o u s v o lu n t a r y a c t fo r if a s y n a p s e h a s o n c e b ee n e s
,

t a b lis h e d b e t w e e n t w o n e u r o n s in p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t it is e a s i e r ,
226 NE R V OU S R E A C T I ON S

4 . To whi c h a c t ivi t y is a t r o pi s m c o m p a r a bl e ?
5 . D r a w a n d l a b e l a di a gr a m o f a r e fl e x a c t ivi t y .

6 . E xpl a i n a n d give a n e x a m pl e o f t he c o n di t i o n e d r e fl e x . Wh a t
s c i e n t i s t h a s b ee n i n ve s t i ga t i n g it ?

k
7 H o w c o uld y o u m a e l e a r n i n g t o s wim a h a b i t ?
.

. q
8 M a k e a l a b e l e d di a gr a m o f a n a c ui r e d a ut o m a t i c a c t ivi t y .

k
9 E xpl a i n h o w t he h a bi t o f bi t i n g t h e n a il s m a y b e b r o e n t hr o ugh
.

(a ) i n h i b i t i o n (b) s ub s t i t u t i o n E xpl a i n wh i c h m e t ho d is t he m o r e
, .

d e s ir a b l e m e t ho d .

1 0 Why is it p os s i b l e fo r pe o pl e t o b r e a k t h e m s e lv e s o f b a d h a bi t s
.
,

if t he y h a ve a n e a r n e s t d e s ir e t o do s o ?
1 1 D i s c us s t h e a dva n t a ge s a n d di s a dv a n t a ge s o f a d o p t i n g a c hild
.

o f s ix m o n t h s ; o f fi v e y e a r s ; a n d o f f o ur t e e n y e a r s o f a ge .

12 Giv e e x a m pl e s , fr o m y o ur o w n e xpe r i e n ce , o f h a bi t f o r m a t i o n
.
,

a n d di s c us s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a t t i t ud e a s a n a id a n d a s a n i n t e r f e r e n c e
.

1 3 Wh a t is t he v a l ue o f a h a b i t o f r e gul a r i t y ? Of co n ce n t r a t i o n ?
.

Of t h o r o ughn e s s ?
1 4 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n b e t we e n h a bi t f o r m a t i o n a n d v o c a t i o n a l
.

s uc c e s s

15 . Wh a t is i m po r t a n c e o f vo lun t a r y a c t ivi t i e s ?
t he
16 . Wha t is t he f un c t i o n o f t he a u t o n o m i c s ys t e m ?

17 . D i s c us s
t h e v a l ue o f b a s i n g e d uc a t i o n o n w h a t a c h ild w a n t s
t o k n o w r a t h e r t h a n o n w h a t a n a d ul t t hi n k s h e o ugh t t o k n o w ? S h o ul d
a c h ild s t udy o n ly t ho s e t h i n gs h e w a n t s t o k n o w ?

1 8 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t a n d a t t e n t i o n t o un d e r s t a n di n g ?
.

S U PP L E M E N T A R Y R E A D I N G
S ee C h a pt e r xxn .
 C H APTE R XX I V

S om e l i k e t o pa in t O th e rs j
e n o y a s wim .

Wha t ha ve ps yc ho logis ts foun d between in telligen ce a n d s uc

r e la tion

ces s ? H o w ca n t he n er vous s ys tem be kept in good con dition ?

Wha t ma y be t he efiects of worry fea r , temper , a n d in tros pection ?
'
-

The bili t y t o m e e t a n d s o lv e t he p r o bl e m s o f o n e s life with o ut ’

a

n ee dl e s s w or r y l e a d s t o s e r e n i t y co n t e n t m e n t a n d h a ppi n e s s
, , , .

Th e s o lu t i o n o f p r o bl e m s b r i n gs a j o y o f a c hi e v e m e n t th a t is c o n
duc iv e t o gr e a t e r s u c c e s s Th e b o y wh o s e p r o bl e m s a r e d ec id e d
.

fo r him d oe s n o t fin d t he c o n t e n t m e n t n o r a c hi e v e t h e p o i s e t h a t
is a tt a i n e d by t he b o y who f a ce s a n d s o lv e s h is o w n p r o bl e m s .

Po i s e is u s u a lly c o n s id e r e d o n e o f t h e c o n s ti t u en t s o f s u c c e s s in .

t he v a r i e d a n d co m pl e x lif e o f t he p r ese n t da y .

I n te llige n c e I n telligen ce m a y b e d e fi n e d a s t he n a t iv e c a p a c i t i e s
.

o f a p e r s o n t o l ea r n t o r e a s o n t o e x e r c i s e m e n t a l c o n t r o l a n d t o
‘

, , ,

’
s o lv e his lif e s p r o bl e m s C a n a c hild b e a pp a r e n tly dull o r b a c k
.

w a r d for a n u m b e r o f ye a r s a n d s udd e n ly b e c o m e hi ghly in t elli

g e n t ? S c i e n tifi c e xp e r i m e n t a ti o n s ee m s t o p r o v e t h a t c e rt a in

m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s a r e n a t iv e o r i n b o rn I f a c hild o f s ix y e a rs o f
.

a ge is fo i md e xp e r i m en t a lly t o b e o f a v e r a ge i n t e lli ge n ce wh e n
, , ,

m e a s u r e d by c e r t a i n t e s t s h e will wi t h v e r y r a r e e xc e pti o n s b e
, , ,

f o u n d t o h a v e a v er a ge i n t e lli ge n c e a t s e v en y e a r s e i ght y e a r s a n d , , ,

in f a c t a ll t h r o u gh his lif e
, I f a c hild o f s ix y e a r s te s t s b e l o w a v e r
.

a ge t h e c h a n c es a r e th a t h e will r e m a i n a t th a t l e v e l a ll th r o u gh lif e
,
.

227
228 M EN TA L H Y G I ENE

The i tifi c m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n t e lli ge n ce m o s t f r e qu e n tly us ed

sc en ,

as i nd ividu a l t e s t s is a s e r i e s o f p e r fo r m a n c e t e s t s a r r a n ge d in t he
,

o r d e r o f diffi c ul t y Th e .

fi r s t o f s u c h t e s t s wa s
w o r ke d o ut by t wo F r e n c h
p s y c h o l o gi s t s A l f r e d ,

B inet a nd Theodore
Simon Th e s e t e s t s h a v e .

b e en r e vi s e d by diff er e n t ,

p er s o n s in Am e r i c a a n d ,

a m o n g th e s e r e vi s i o n s is

on e by T e r m a n k n o wn ,

Th e Ar m y Al ph a t e s t wa s gi e n t o v m e n in
as The S ta nfo r d RQ M S ZON ,

t h e Un it e d S t a t e s a r m y in t h e W o r l d W a r t he B in e t- S i mon S c a le
s is t e d o f 2 1 2 q ue s t io n s . G v
.I t con
r a d e A wa s gi e n t o t h o s e
f
O .

l i n c lud e s t e s t s o f
a n s w e r in g c o r r e c t ly 1 3 5 o r m o r e o f t h e 2 1 2 q ue s t io n s ; Thl S s ca e
gra de B fo r 1 0 5 t o 1 3 4 c o r r e c t a n s w e r s . A wa s e a r n e d
b y o nl y of t h e m e n . m e m o r y l a n gu a ge C O I I l
C o m pa r e t h e r e s ul t s a t t a in e d ,
b y th e o t h e r gr o ups o f m e n a s s h o wn in t h e t a b l e
pr ehe n s i o n S i z e of vo c a b
.

ul a r y kn o wl e d ge o f f a m ili a r t hi n gs jud gm e n t a n d m a n y o t h e r
, , ,

St a nd
’
m e n t a l t a s k s t h a t a r e a p a r t o f e v e r y c hild s e xp e r i e n c e .

a r d s t o S h ow wh a t c hild r e n o f c e r t a i n a ge s s h o uld k n o w h a v e b ee n
, ,

e s t a bli s h e d by c o m p a r i s o n s o f t h e re s ul t s o r r a t i n gs m a d e by c hil

d r e n o f d e fi n i t e a ge s in a ll s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y F o r i n s t a n c e
t h e r e a r e a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f qu e s t i o n s t h a t a s ix y e a r —
.
,

o ld c hild is -

s upp o s e d t o a n s w e r c o rr e c t ly I f a p a r t i c ul a r c hild o f s ix a n s w e r s
.

l es s t h a n thi s s c o r e h e is s a id t o h a v e a m en ta l a ge M A o f fo ur
, ,
. .
,

o r fiv e o r wh a t e v e r a ge t h a t s c or e is s upp o s e d t o m e a s u r e
,
I f he .

a n s w e r s m o r e t h a n t h e r e qui r e d n u m b e r h e m a y h a v e a m en t a l ,

a ge o f s e v e n e i gh t , o r e ven m o r e , Thu s t h e r e a r e t e s t s r a n gi n g
.

in diffi c ul t y fr o m tho s e fo r a t hr e e y e a r o ld c hild t o t h o s e giv e n

- -

t o a n a dult F o r t h e p ra c t i c a l pu r p o s e o f m e a s u r i n g p ro gr e s s in
.

s c h oo l t h e in telligen ce quo tien t I Q is u s e d ,

Thi s is o b t a i n e d by
, .

dividi n g a c hild s m e n t a l a ge by h is a ge in y e a r s Thi s qu o t i e n t

’
.

will Us u a lly re m a i n f a i r ly c o n s t a n t f r o m y e a r t o y e a r fo r his m e n ,

230 M E N TA L H YG I E NE

whi c h t h e y c a n a c hi e v e s u c c e s s .

I f a c hild is p er m i t t e d t o f a il
t e r m a f t er t er m h e f a ll s i n t o ,

a n a t ti t ud e o f m i n d whi c h de

s t r oys his c o n fid e n c e a n d h e
m a k e s o n ly a h a lf h ea r t e d -

e ff o r t t o s u c c e e d H e ge t s t he .

h a bit o f f a ili n g The pupil s .

w ho r ea c h hi gh s c h o o l a r e t o ,

a cer t a i n e xt e n t a s e l e c te d ,

g r o up b e c a u s e t h e dull e s t pupil s ,

h a v e b e c o m e di sco ur a ge d a n d
Th l g m u l
e e f f hl y k ill d f g i
sc e o a t
res e ro s a

tac h d t
e l vo a It ie t im ul t d t h
er. ugh t h
s s d r o pp e d o ut E du c a t i o n r e
a e ro e .

ner v by m
e f m k
eans o d b a k l t i s ult s in t h e r ow t h o f e x e r i
a e an rea e ec r c ‘

c u rre nt At i g f th ra c n t ti
o i m d e c on ra c on s g s a e p
v lvi g d um At fi t t h
.

t ti
o r m e n t a l a ge but
on a r e o n r rs e c on r a c on
n ot
i v y d id d
.

en ce
.

,
s er ecd gul
e an S l wly t h
re ar. o e re
mu l
n a t iv e a bili t y
s p on s e d u t il t h
ecrea s e s n t e sc e c ea s e s o

reac t R t w h i g t h m u l will t t
. es or as n e sc e s ar
.

th e re sp w b ut i
on s e a n e h t t im f t igu
, n a s R e la t ion of in t e llige n c e t o
or e a e

a g i i
a n s a
pp t a ren .

v o c a t i on s I n dividu a l s wh o .

r a t e low in t h e i n t e lli ge n c e t es t s a r e n o t n e c e ss a r ily u n d es i r a bl e , ,

m e m b e r s o f s oc i e t y Th e r e a r e r e l a t iv e ly few c hild r e n s o dull t h a t

.

th e y c a n n o t s u cc e e d in s o m e li n e o f w o r k M a n y f a ilu r e s a n d .

m u c h di s c o n t e n t a r e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t b o y s a n d gir l s s o m e ti m e s
e n t e r v o c a t i o n s t h a t r e qui r e t o o m u c h o r t o o lit t l e i n t e lli ge n c e in

r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r m e n t a li t y .

R e cor d m a de on a r e v lvi
o ng drum b y a s t im ul a t e d fr o g s m us cle
’
.

In xp er i m e n t c o n du c t e d by J K F l a n d er s a n d r e p o r t e d by
an e . .

T e r m a n t he i n t e lli ge n ce o f a gr o up o f e m pl o y ees o f a n e xp r e s s
,

c o m p a n y w a s t e s t e d T h e s e p e o pl e w er e e m pl o y ed t o do wo r k
.

th a t r e quir e d a b o ut t he s a m e l ev el of m en t a l a bility I t wa s .
 A H E A L TH Y M I N D 23 1

fo u n d t h a t t h e i r i n t e lli ge n c e t h a t is t h e i r I Q r a n ge d fr o m s ixt y
, ,
. .
,

t wo t o o n e hu n d r e d a n d f o u r Thi s w o r k c o uld h a v e b ee n d o n e
.

e ffi c i e n t ly by p e r s o n s wi t h s c o r e s o f n i n e t y C W Wa u gh ga v e . . .

i n t elli gen c e t e s t s t o e i gh t y t wo s t r e e t c a r m ot or m e n a n d c o n
- -

duc t o r s Th e i n v e s ti ga t i o n s h o w e d a r a n ge o f i n t e lli ge n c e f r o m
.

s ix t y fiv e t o o n e hu n d r e d a n d t e n
-
A s c o r e o f e igh t y t o n i n e t y
.
g

w a s p r o b a bly s u ffi c i e n t for a p e r s o n t o do t hi s t yp e o f w o r k w e ll .

Th o s e wi t h hi gh er i n t e lli ge n c e did n o t do m o r e w o r k n o r do it
m o r e e ffi c i en t ly t h a n th o s e o f l o w er i n t e lli ge n c e On e o f t h e .

m e n s c or i n g lo w h a d a s er i o us a c c id en t o n h is c a r I t is a .

f a ir ly w e ll e s t a bli s h e d f a c t t h a t a m o t o r m a n o r c o n du c t o r wi t h
-

an I Q o f l e s s t h a , s e v e n t y fiv e is a s a r ul e -
a n u n s a fe r i s k
g , ,
. .

Th e r e is a b ig e c o n o m i c l o s s t o t h e c o m p an y a s w e ll a s t h e i n di
,

vidu a l in em pl o yi n g m e n of hi gh i n t e lli ge n c e t o do w o r k th a t
,

c o uld b e d o n e a s w e ll by m e n wi t h l e s s i n t e lli ge n c e E du c a t o r s .

s h o uld di r ec t t h o s e s t ud e n t s o f hi gh e s t I Q r a t i n gs i n t o li n e s o f w o r k
. .

whi c h will r e qui r e s up er i o r i n t e lli ge n c e a n d t h o s e o f m e di o cr e 1n ,

t e llige n c e l o w I Q ,
i n t o li n e s
. .
,

o f w o r k fo r whi c h t h e y a r e

fi t t e d At p r e s e n t t h e r e is
.
,

t o o gr e a t a w a s t e o f m e n t a l
a bili t y by m e n a n d w o m e n

filli n g p o s i t i o n s t h a t co uld b e
co m p e t e n t ly fill e d by p e rs o n s

of les s a b il i t y S t ud e n t s
.

s t udyi n g p ro f e s s i o n a l s ubj e c t s

s h o uld b e th o s e o f f a ir ly hi gh

i n t e l l i ge n c e r a t h e r t h a n
m e r e ly t h o s e with m o n e y
ti d ll (B ) h w f w h m ti ro a c
e n o u gh t o pa y fo r s u c h t r a i n
re n e rve ce s o s e er c

g ul th t d v ll (A )
ran es an a res e ner e ce .

in g .

A h e a lth y m in d . T he n er v o u s s y s t e m like t he o t h er s y s t e m s
,

of t he b o dy , is ke pt in t h e b e s t p o s s ibl e c o n di t i o n if t he b o dy is
232 M EN TA L H Y G I EN E

k e p t h e a l t hy by fr e s h a ir go o d ,

f o o d s l e e p r e s t s u n li gh t a n d , , , ,

e xe r c i s e Th e n e r v o u s s y s t e m .

is p r o b a bly m o r e s e n s i t iv e t o
t he l a c k o f a ny o n e o f t h es e
c o n di t i o n s t h a n a n o t h
y er s y s

t e m in t h e b o dy A c h a n ge o f .

a c t ivi t y is f r e qu e n tly b e n e
fic ia l Ot h e rwi s e a per so n .
,
.

m a y b e c o m e phy s i c a lly a s w e ll
as m e n t a lly f a t i gu e d t hu s ,

g r e a t ly r e du c i n h
g is e ffi c i e n c y .

E v e r y p er s o n s h o uld h a v e a
h o bby a n d f o ll o w it a s m u c h a s
I dl d
ene ss t b i goe s ti f ti
no f r n y p o s s ibl e A h o bby t h a t t a ke s
sa s ac on or an .

g t l
r ea gt h f t im
en I t i f q u t ly t h
o e. ult
s, re en , e res

of b d h b it
a d u u lly if
a s an t lw y s al d t
,
h i m o ut o f d o o r s i s m o re de
no a a s, ea s o

mmi ye C e nc
s i r a bl e t h a n o n e th a t k ee p s
'

him i n d o or s P e o pl e wi t h h o bbi e s a r e u s u a lly a bl e t o m a k e us e

.

o f th e i r l e i s u r e t i m e in a w a y t h a t is e n j o y a bl e a s w e ll a s b e n e

fic ia l t o t h e m .

F a tigue Pr o l o n ge d o r co n ti n u e d c o n t r a c ti o n s o f m u s c l e s in
.

a n y ki n d o f w o r k r e s ul t in f a t i gu e Thi s c o n di t i o n is a l m o s t
.

a lw a y s f o ll o w e d by a s t e a dy d e c r e a s e in e ffi c i e n c y Th e f e e li n g o f .

f a t igu e is v er y c o m pl e x a n d is o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s u c h m e n t a l
s t a t e s a s l a c k o f i n t e r e s t l a c k o f will p o w er a n d di s t a s t e fo r t h e
, ,

w o r k Wo r k d o n e u n d e r c o m pul s i o n u s u a lly r e s ul t s in f a t i gu e
.

m o re r e a dily t h a n wh e n i n t e r e s t is a p a r t o f t he w o r k Thi s is o n e .

r e a so n why ev e r y o n e s h o uld do t h e ki n d o f w o r k whi c h h e re a lly

lik e s .

E xp er i m e n t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t if s o m e bl o o d o f a f a t i gu e d a n i m a l
is i n j e c te d i n t o a r e s t e d o n e s i gn s o f f a t i gu e a r e p r o m ptly p r o du c e d
,

in t he s ec o n d a n i m a l F a t i gu e is p r o b a bly due t o a n a c c u m ul a
.

ti o n o f w a s t e s ub s t a n c e s in t he c ell s a n d in t he bl o o d r e s ul t i n g f r o m ,
23 4 M EN T A L H Y G I ENE

e x a m pl e p e o pl e w o rr y wh e t h e r o r n o t it will r a i n ; wh e t h e r o r n o t
,

t h e y will b e s t r u c k by li gh t n i n g ; wh e t h er o r n o t t h e y will b e hit

v
T h e fr a m e o f m in d wit h wh ic h o n e e n t e r s in t o a n a c t i it y dir e c t ly a ffe c t s t h e r e s ul t s Ch e e r
v
.

fuln e s s t owa r d s dut y is a de s ir a b l e a t t it ude t o c ult i a t e a s i t t e n ds t o b r in g a b o ut gre a t e r

‘

e fi cie n cy a n d m e n ta l po is e .

by a n a ut o m ob ile I f a c o n di t i o n is r e c o gn iz e d a s b e y o n d c o n t r o l
.
,

t h o u gh t o f it s h o uld b e put o ut o f m i n d
.
N o t hi n g c a n b e d o n e
.

a b o u t it . M e n t a l e n e r gy s h o uld n o t b e w a s t e d .

An o t h e r t yp e o f w o r r y is c l o s e ly a ki n t o f e a r S o m e p e rs o n s a r e
.

a f ra id t h e y will n o t p a s s a n e x a m i n a t i o n ; o t h er s a r e a f r a id o f t h e

d a r k o r o f a n e i ghb o r s c r i t i c i s m s Th e o n ly w a y t o c o n t r o l t h e s e
,
’
.

w o rr i e s is t o f a c e t h e m fa i r ly a n d t hi n k t h e m t h ro u gh t o a c o n c lu “

sion . I n p r a c t i c a lly e v e r y c a s e t h e f e a r o r w o rr y w o uld n o t e xi s t if

,

t h e p ro bl e m h a d n o t b ee n a v o id e d in t h e b e gin n i n g F o r e x a m pl e
.
,

t he r e fu s a l t o s t udy will in m o s t c a s e s r e s ul t in a f e a r o f f a ilu r e

, , .

Wh e n c hild r e n f a c e t h e p a i n ful c o n s e qu e n c e s o f c o n du c t a c ce p t ,

f a ilu re o r bl a m e a t f a ce v a lu e d e c id e a b o u t p r o bl e m s r a t h e r t h a n
,

e v a d e i s s u e s f a c e t h e i r diffi c ul t i e s s qu a r e ly a n d m a k e a d e c i s i o n
, , ,

th e y a c hi e v e m e n t a l p o i s e I f t h e n er v o u s e n e r gy c o n s u m e d in fea r
.

w ere put i n t o s o lvi n g t he p r o bl e m it w o uld b e u s e d t o a b e tte r

,

a dv a n t a ge a n d t he p ers o n w o uld b e h a ppi e r I f o n e is a f r a id o f

.

f a ili n g in a n e x a m i n a ti o n he s h o uld fin d o ut t he c a u s e o f h is fe a r
,
.

Po s s ibly t he s o luti o n is t o w o r k h a rd e r
, Po s s ibly t h e pupil is
.
,
 M E N TAL D ISO R D E R S 23 5

b ey o n d his gra d e I f s o he s h ould r e c o gn iz e t he c o n di t i o n s a n d

.
,

a s k t o b e d em o t ed Th e e ff e c t o f t he f a ilu re is w o r s e t h a n t he
.

d e m o t i o n I f a fr a id o f t he d a r k o n e s h o uld i n v e s t i ga t e t h e d ar k
.
,

pl a c e a n d s e e h o w u n r e a s o n a bl e is t h e fe a r I f t h e m i n d is k e p t .

o c c upi e d wi t h u s e ful a n d c h e er ful t h o u gh t s fe a r s a n d w o rr i e s ,

di s a pp ea r F e a r s in c hild r en a s w e ll a s in o ld er p er s o ns m a y b e
.

o v e r c o m e by a qui e t r e a s s u r a n c e a n d a r e a s o n a bl e s y m p a t h e t i c ,

i n v e s t i ga t i o n .

B a d temper is fre qu e n tly a n e x c u s e fo r i n e ffi c i e n c y I t is a w a y .

o ut o f a n a n n o yi n g s i t u a t i o n I f i n s t e a d o f givi n g w a y t o m o o di
.
,

S t r on g e m o t io n s are fr e q ue n t ly s h o wn in fa c ia l e xpr e s s io n s. N ot e t h e fa c ia l e xpr e s s ion s in

th e pic t ur e a n d t r y t o d e t e r m in e wh a t e m o t io n is r e gis t e r e d in e a ch .

ne s s o r t e m p e r a m e n t , t he p ers o n t r i e s t o u n d e r s t a n d t he diffi c ul t y
f
c o n ro n t n g i him a n d t r i e s t o thi n k out a s o luti o n , a n o r ma l r e
 236 M E N T A L H Y G I E NE

s po n s e will fo ll o w Th e s e n o r m a l r e s p o n s e s h e lp t o d e v e l o p
.

p r o p er a t t i t ud e s I f o n e o n c e r e c o gn iz e s th a t b a d t e m p e r is
.

fu t il e th a t it is w a s t e ful o f e m o t i o n a n d t h a t it i n t e r fe r e s wi t h s a n e
, ,

r e a s o n i n g h e will o v e r c o m e it
,
I t is p a r t i c ul a r ly v a lu a bl e t o t hi n k
.

thin gs thr o u gh t o a c o n c lus io n a n d t o kee p a s e n s e o f hu m o r Th e s e

'

a r e i n v a lu a bl e in o v e r c o m i n g n e r v o u s di ffi c ul t i e s a n d buildi n g up

a n o pti m i s ti c vi e w o f lif e .

I n tros p ec tion s a re u s u a lly t o b e a v o id e d in a d o l e s c e n ce Wh en .

o n e thi n k s a b o ut hi m s e lf it is f r o m s o e m o t i o n a l a n d p r e judi c e d a
,

vi e wp o i n t t h a t a f a i r j ud gm e n t c a n n o t b e m a d e D a y d r e a m s .

m a y b e c o n du c iv e t o s u c c e s s Th e y m a y m a k e o n e a m biti o u s a n d
.

s pu r him o n if h e d r ea m s o f a c hi e v e m e n t s B ut if i m a gi n a r y
, .
,

s li gh t s a r e e x a gge r a t e d a n d dw e l t up o n s u c h t hi n ki n g l e a d s t o
,

m e n t a l di s t u r b a n c e s S o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e wi t h o t h e r child r e n p a r
.
,

t ic ula r ly in f r e e pl a y is e s p e c i a lly d e s i r a bl e in o r d e r t o h e lp a
,

c hild a dj u s t hi m s e lf in t h e s oc i a l gro up in whi c h h e m u s t liv e .

A feelin g of inferiori ty is a s y m p t o m c o m m o n t o a di s t u r b e d
n er v o u s s y s t e m Wh e n c hild r e n a r e l a u gh e d a t o r s pu r n e d o r t o o
.
, ,

s e v e r e ly c r i t i c iz e d t h e y l o s e th e i r s e lf c o n fide n c e a n d th e ir s e lf
,
-

r es p ec t . T hi s f ee li n g o f i n f e r i o r ity i n hibi t s e ff o r t a n d c a u s e s dis

s a t is fa ct io n u nh a ppi n e s s a n d p o s s ibly f a ilu r e Re s p o n s ibiliti e s
, ,
.

s h o uld b e giv e n s u c h c hild r e n C o n fid e n c e r e s p e c t a n d wh o l e

.
, ,

s o m e c o n s id e r a t i o n s h o uld b e s h o w n t h e i r e ff o r t s s o t h a t t h e y will ,

m a k e p ro p e r e ffo r t s t o w a r d s u c c e s s C hild r e n s h o uld b e a bl e t o

.

t a k e e ffe c tiv e a c t i o n wh e n n e c e s s a r y .

S elf pity a n d la ck of c onfi den ce a r e a l s o u n d e s i r a bl e

-
Th e y m a y .

c o m e fr o m tr yi n g t o a c c o m pli s h t hi n gs th a t a r e t o o di ffi c ul t o r a r e
b e y o n d t he m e n t a l a bili t y T a lki n g o v e r p r o bl e m s wi t h a p er s o n
.

wh o s e jud gm e n t is v a lu a bl e a n d w o r t hw hil e o f t e n h e lp s t o di r ec t ,

a p e r s o n s a c t iviti e s a l o n g t he p ro p e r li n e s I t r e du c e s s t r a i n a n d
’
.

w o r r y a n d p r e v e n t s t h e r e p re s s i o n o f t h o u gh t .

E ffe ct s of To b a c c o a n d Al c oh o l o n t h e N e rv o u s S ys t e m Th e r e .

is a di s t i n c t i o n t o b e m a d e b e tw e e n t h e e ffe c t s o f t o b a c c o up o n
238 M EN T A L H Y G I ENE

9 Wh a t is t he va l ue Of p l a y le a ders hip fa n d s uc c e s s t o a c hild ?

,

10 .Why do s o m e p e opl e di s li k e t he i r w o r k ? I s it pos s ib l e t o re m

e dy t h i s co n di t i o n ?

11 .C r i t i c iz e t h e h abi t o f d e b a t in g w i t h o n e s e lf wi t h o u t c o m i n g t o
a de ci s io n .

S U PP L E M E N T A R Y R E A D I N GS
B ur nh a m , Wm H e nr y , The N o r ma l M ind (D Apple t o n a n d
. .

G a t e s , Ar t h ur I , P s yc ho logy for S tude n ts of E duc a tio n C h a p x iii

.
,
. v
M a c m illa n C o m p a n y ) .

J v
Ro b in s o n , a m e s H ar e y , M i nd i n t he M a ki n g ( H ar pe r B r o s ) .

Ter m a n , L M , I n telligenc e of S c hool C hildren (H o ugh t o n , M iffi in

. .

Wigga m , Alb er t E dw a r d, E xp lo ri ng Your M ind (D Apple t o n a n d

.
 C H AP TE R X X V

H OW
LI FE B E G AN

L o uis P a s t e ur . H is fl k as v fl
o f n ut r it i e uid .

Wha t wa s on e f
o t he a n c i en t idea s o f t he or igin of life ? H o w an d
by w ho m wa s t he t heor y of s p o n ta n eous gen e r a ti o n dis p roved? H o w
do s om e s cien tis ts f
o to- da y exp la in t he o r i gi n o f life ?

Th e anc ie n t ide a of th e o r i gin of life At t h e t i m e o f Ar i s t o t l e .

,

a n d fo r m a n y c e n t u r i e s f o ll o w i n g t h e w o r k o f t hi s G r e e k t e a c h e r

a n d phil o s o ph e r t h e r e w a s a t h e o r y
, s upp o r t e d by s c i e n t ifi c m e n
, ,

c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r i gi n o f lif e a n d k n o w n a s s pon ta n eo us gen er a tion

, .

Ac co r di n g t o t hi s t h e o r y livi n g t hi n gs r o s e s p o n t a n e o u s ly f r o m
,

n o n livi n g m a t e r i a l s
-
B ee s w e r e s upp o s e d t o c o m e fr o m t h e d e a d
.

b o di e s O f y o u n g bull s ; y o u n g r a t s c o uld b e m a d e t o a pp e a r in a
b o x c o n t a i n i n g s o il e d r a gs a n d wh e a t gr a i n s ; h o r s e h a i r s in w a t e r
w o uld t u r n t o w o r m s a n d m i c e a n d o t h e r a n i m a l s ca m e f r o m t he
m ud o f t he r iv e r N il e D e w w a s s upp o s e d t o giv e r i s e t o i n se c t s
.
,

a n d r a i n w o uld b r i n g fro gs I n s t e a d o f i n v e s t i ga t i n g wh e t h e r
.

t hi s w a s t h e w a y lif e or i gi n a t e d p e o pl e s p e c ul a t e d t h a t it m u s t b e
,

t r u e a n d s c o r n e d a n y o n e w h o d o ub t e d it Th e u n b e li e v e r s w er e
.

t o ld t o go t o t h e N il e a n d s ee t h e fi e ld s s w a r m i n g wi t h m i c e b e go t
fro m t he m ud whi c h w a s d ep o s i t e d wh e n t he N il e o v er flo we d it s
ba nks .

E xpe rim e n ta l e vide n c e F r a n ce s c o R e di a n I t a li a n phy s i c i a n

.
, ,

( 1 6 29 w a s o n e o f t h e fi r s t p ers o n s t o c o n du c t a s e r i e s o f
e xp e r i m e n t s t o t est s c i e n t ifi c a lly
, t he t h e o r y O f s p o n t a n e o u s
,

2 39
2 40 H OW L I F E B E G AN

ge n e r a t o n i . He ha d
ti c e d t h a t fl i es w er e u s u a lly s ee n a b o ut
no

m e a t a n d th o u gh t th a t t h e r e m i gh t b e s o m e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w ee n
,

fli e s a n d t h e m a g
go t s whi c h w e r e
s upp o se d t o r i s e

spon t a n e o u s ly
fro m t he m e a t .

As a re s ul t o f
t hi s O b s e r v a t i o n ,

he put s o m e m ea t
in t h r e e diff er e n t
j ars On e O f .

U i g t hi impl p im t R di t t d di u i wh i h d d
s n s s e ex e r en e s ar e
these a Jars sc
w a s
s s on c en e

v th w f t h b li f f p t u g ti
,

with t h e o er ro o e e e o
l e f t u n co v ered
s on a ne o s e n e ra on .

o n e wa s c o v er e d with p a r c h m e n t a n d t h e t hi r d w a s c o v e r e d wi t h ,

a fin e ga uz e I n t h e fi r s t j a r t he m e a t s p o il e d ; m a ggo t s a n d
.
, ,

l a t er flie s a pp ea r e d in t he m a s s I n t he p a rc h m e n t c o v e r e d j a r t h e
, .
-
,

m e a t put r efie d but n o m a ggo t s a pp e a r e d

, I n t he ga uz e c o v e r e d .
-

j a r
, t h e m e a t p ut r e fie d a n d fli e s l a id e ggs up
, o n t h e ga uz e T h e s e .

e ggs p r o du c e d m a ggo t s whi c h l a t er d e v e l o p e d i n t o fli e s T h e r e fo r e .

,

R e di co n c lud e d t h a t m a ggo t s O f fli e s c o uld n o t h a v e o r i gi n a t e d

f ro m d ec a y e d m e a t a l o n e but fr o m f er t il e e ggs l a id t h e r e by o th e r
,

fli e s th a t w er e a t t r a c t e d by t h e O d or N o e ggs w er e f o un d n e a r .

t h e s e c o n d j a r a s t he p a r c h m e n t k ept t h e o d o r f r o m e s c a pi n g .

R e di d e c id e d t h a t life m u s t c o m e f r o m p r e exi s ti n g lif e H e pe r .

f o r m e d o t h er e xp e r i m e n t s a n d c o n c lud e d th a t in c a s e s wh e n lif e
s e e m e d t o h a v e b e e n p r o du c e d f r o m d e a d m a tt e r t h e r e h a d a lw a y s

b ee n t he i n t r o du c ti o n o f m a t e r i a l fr o m livi n g o r ga n i s m s .

Le e uwe nh o ek s c on tr ib ution Aft er Re di s e xp er im e n t s t he

’
.
’
,

qu e s ti o n o f t he o r i gi n o f life wa s a ga i n di s c u s s e d M a n y p eo pl e .

w er e willi n g t o a c ce pt t he e xpl a n a ti o n th a t t he livi n g thi n gs th e y

c o uld s e e s u c h a s r a t s a n d fr o gs m u s t o r i gi n a t e fr o m o t h er livi n g
, ,

thi n gs I n 16 8 7 L e e u we n h oek p e r fe c t ed t he mi c r o s c o p e a n d dis

.
,
2 42 How L I F E B E GAN

M any i
sc enti s t s w er e n ow willi n g t o a c c e p t t he f a c t t h a t livi n g
o rga n i s m s did n o t o r i gi n a t e s p o n t a n e o u s ly .

Th e r e viva l of th e di s cu s s ion Af t e r s o m e y e a r s o f p r a c ti c a lly

.

n o di s c u s s i o n o n t h e s ubj e c t F o u c h e t in 1 8 59 s udd e n ly r e viv e d t h e

, , ,

c o n t ro v e r s y H e b e li e v e d t h a t s p o n t a n e o u s ge n e r a t i o n w a s On e
.

o f t h e m e a n s e m pl o y e d by n a t u re fo r t he p r o du c t i o n o f livi n g

t hi n gs s o h e s e t o ut t o p r o v e it
,
H e fill e d a b o t t l e wi t h b o ili n g
.

w a t e r a n d i n v e r t e d it wi t h t h e m o u t h o f t he b o t t l e u n d e r m e r c u r y .

Th e n by m e a n s o f a d e liv e r y t ub e h e i n t ro du c e d o xy ge n t h r o u gh
, ,

t h e m e r c u r y i n t o t he b o t t l e o f w a t er Th e o xy ge n gr a du a lly dis
.

pl a c e d s o m e o f t he w a t er By m e a n s o f a p a i r o f f o r c e p s whi ch
.
,

h e h a d fi r s t h e a t e d h e th r u s t s o m e h a y t h r o u gh t h e m e r c u r y i n t o
,

t h e b o ttl e Th e h a y t oo h a d b e e n c a r e fully h e a t e d t o a v e r y hi gh
.
, ,

t e m p er a tu r e Th e h a y fl o a t e d in t he w a t e r in t h e b o t t l e in t h e
.
,

o xy ge n a t m o s ph e r e hI ic r O Or ga n is m s a pp e a r e d in gr e a t n u m b e r s
. .

Lo uis P a s te ur e n te r s t h e c on t r ove r s y A F r e n ch s c i e n t i s t .
,

Lo ui s Pa s t e u r t h o u ght th a t Po uche t h a d n o t s e t up his e xp e r i m e n t

,

c a r e fully e n o u gh a n d t h a t ge r m s m u s t h a v e e n t e r e d wi t h t h e o xy ge n

o r hay F o u c h e t a s k e d h o w it w a s p o s s ibl e fo r a ir t o c o n t a i n s o
.

m a n y ge r m s t h a t th e y d e v e l o p e d in e v e r y o r ga n i c m a t er i a l He .

s a id t h e a ir w o uld b e m i s ty wi t h t h e m P a s t e u r b e ga n t o w o n d e r
.

wh e th er ge r m s m i gh t n o t b e m o r e n u m e r o u s in s o m e a ir t h a n in
o th e r a ir .

I n o r d er t o i n v e s t i ga t e t hi s Pa s t e u r fill e d a n u m b er o f gl a s s
,

fl a s k s wi t h a liquid t h a t w o uld e a s ily s p o il H e b o il e d t h e liquid .

a n d s e a l e d t h e fl a s k s whil e t h e liquid w a s s t ill b o ili n g He o pened .

s o m e o f t h e b o t tl e s in diff e r e n t pl a ces wh e r e t h e r e w e r e p e o pl e

a n d du s t .H e th e n s e a l e d t h e fl a s k s a ga i n a n d in a ll c a s e s o r ga n ,

i s m s a pp e a r e d H e n e xt w e n t t o t he Alp s t o i n v e s t i ga t e a ir a t a n
.

a ltitud e s o hi gh th a t it w o uld b e f r e e f r o m du s t H e w e n t t o t he .

M e r de Gl a ce hi gh up in t he Alp s H e o p e n e d t w e n t y o f t he
,
.

fl a s k s t h a t h a d b e e n c a r e fully p r e p a r e d a n d i m m e di a t e ly s ea l ed ,

th e m a ga i n S ub s e qu en t ly m i c r o or ga n i s m s a pp e a r ed in o n ly o n e
.
,
 PA S T E U R EN T E RS T H E C O N T R O VE R S Y 43

fl a s k Pa s t e ur c o n clud ed t h a t t he a m o u n t o f du s t a n d ger m s
.

in di ff er e n t l o c a li t i e s m u s t v a r y .I n r e p o r ti n g thi s e xp e r i m e n t
t o t h e F r e n ch Ac a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s h e s t a t e d th a t t h e R u dy
,

o f t h e ge r m s whi c h a c c o m p a n i e d du s t m i ght l e a d t o a k n o wl e d ge o f
'

t h e o r i gi n o f v a r i o u s di s e a s e s . B ut t he c o n c e pt io n of ge r m s a n d
di s e a s e w a s s o v a gu e th a t n o a tt e n ti o n wa s p a id t o thi s s t a t e m en t .

Whil e Pa s t e u r w a s co n du c t i n g h is e xp er i m e n t s i n t he Alp s ,

Po uch e t w a s t e s t i n g a ir in S i c ily o n M t E t n a a n d o n t h e s e a
, .
,
He .

fo u n d m i c r o or ga n i s m s in a ll his a ir t e s t s M a n y p e o pl e b e li e v e d
.

in t he v a lidi t y o f F o u c h e t s w or k r a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f P a s t e u r s
’ ’
.

On e s c i e n t ific j o u r n a li s t w ro t e th a t Pa s t e ur s w o r k w a s t o o f a n t a s ti c
’

t o b e e xa c t .

Th e n Po uch e t d e c id e d t o r e p ea t Pa s t e u r s e xp e r i m e n t Ae c o m
’
.

p a n ie d b y t w o o t h er s c i e n ti s t s , h e d e p a r t e d fo r t h e A lp s wi t h a

n u m b e r o f n a r r o w n e c k e d fl a s k s fill e d wi t h h a y i n fu s i o n
-
At t h e .

f o o t o f a gl a c i er o f t he M a l a d e tt a 3 00 0 m e t e r s a b o v e t he s e a l e v e l
, ,

he o p e n e d f o u r o f h is fl a s k s . Th e n t h e t ub e s w e r e c a r e fully s e a l e d .

M i c r o or ga n i s m s s o o n a pp e a r e d in t h e fl a s k s Po uc he t th e n c o n .

c lud e d S i n c e th e r e w a s n o du s t a t t h e pl a c e wh e r e h e h a d o p e n e d
,

t he fl a s k s t h a t a ir did n o t b r i n g in t h e g
, erm s but th a t th e y
,

m u s t a r i s e by t h e m s e lv e s f r o m t h e o r ga n i c m a t e r i a l .

Th e d e b a t e b ec a m e s o h ea t e d th a t t he Ac a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s
a pp o i n t e d a c o mm i s s i o n t o e x a m i n e t he e xp e r i m e n t s o f P a s t e u r

a n d Po uch e t .B o th s c i en t i s t s w e re i n vi t e d t o p r e s en t t h e ir exper i
m e n t s but P o uc h e t s a id t h e w e a th e r w a s s o c o ld th a t it m i gh t
,

c o m p r o m i s e h is r e s ul t s .S om e ti m e l a t e r P a s t e u r w a s i n vit e d t o
,

g iv e a l e c tu r e o n s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a ti o n a t a s c i e n t ifi c m e e t i n g a t

t he S o r b o n n e A th e a t r i c a l p e rf or m a n c e c o uld n o t h a v e d r a wn a
.

l a r ge r c r owd E v e ry sea t in t h e r oom wa s t a k en a n d m a n y

.

s c i e n ti s t s a n d s tud e n t s w e r e th e r e Pa s t e ur s i m ply a n d c a r e
.

fully p er f orm e d h is e xp er i m e n t s e xpl a i n e d th em a n d p r es en t ed

, ,

h is c on c lu s i on s H e e xpl a i n e d t o t h e a udi e n ce th a t b o ili n g

.

d e s tr oy e d t he ge rm s but if a ir e n t er e d a ft er t he b o ili n g it c a r r i e d
, ,
24 4 H OW LI FE B E G AN

in m or e ge rm s a n d t h e o r ga n i c m a t e r i a l w o uld th e n d eco mp o s e a nd
s h ow n u m e r o u s m ic r o Or ga n is m s I f c a re were t a k e n th a t n o
.

a ir e n t e r e d n o o r ga n i s m s a pp e a r e d H e r e p e a t e d P o uc he t s fi r s t
’
.
,

e xp e r i m e n t a n d s h ow ed a s o u r c e o f p r o b a bl e e r r o r I n a d a rk e n e d .

r oom h e di r e c t e d a b e a m o f li gh t up o n t h e a pp a r a t u s a n d t h e
,

a udi e n ce s a w th a t t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e m e r c u r y w a s c o v e r e d wi t h

du s t p a r ti cl e s P a s te u r s h ow e d th a t wh en t he f or c ep s w er e
.

plun ge d thr o u gh t h e m er c u r y th e y t o o k s o m e of t he du s t p a r t i c l es ,

wi t h th em H e t h en e xpl a in e d t h a t t he fl o a ti n g p a r ti c l e s of du s t
.

c on t a i n e d livi n g ger m s L a t er t he C o m m i s s i o n d e c id e d th a t t he
.
,

c on t e s t s h o uld b e s e t t l e d by o n e e xp e r i m e n t P o uch e t w a n t e d .

m or e . Th e C om m i ss i o n r e fu s e d a n d ga v e it s d e c i s i o n in f a v o r o f
Pa s t e u r .

J o h n T yn da ll I n 1 8 7 6 J o h n T. y n d a ll a n E n g,li s h phy s i c i s t , ,

publi s h e d t he r e s ult s o f h is e xp e r i m e n t s H e h a d d e vi s e d a v e r y .

e l a b o r a t e b o x o r c h a m b e r w hi c h e n c l o s e d a v o lu m e o f a ir Thi s .

w a s s o r e gul a t e d t h a t a n y
p a r ti c l e s fl oa t i n g in t h e a ir
w o uld s e ttl e a n d b e h e ld o n
a s t i c ky s ub s t a n c e s u c h a s ,

gly c e r i n e s p r ea d o v e r t h e ,

S id e s o f t h e b o x T y n d a ll .

p a s se d a p ow e r ful b e a m o f
li gh t th r o u gh a n o p e n i n g
in t h e b o x t o m a k e s u r e
t h a t n o f r e e du s t p a r t i c l e s
w er e p r e s en t in t he a ir I f .

Ty d ll pp
’
tu add d fu th
a ra d t s wh i h a e r er a a c

e e
n a

h l p d di p v t h s
s

th ro y e f p t e u g
du
e or
s
o
t s
p a r t i c l e s w ere p r e s e n t
on a n e o s e n e ra

f th
tion . I d t ify t h
en di
fl t p t e pp tu
i
e ren
t h e a ir t h e b ea m O f
ar s o e a a ra s

gv
n ,
f m th d
. .

ro e pt e s c ri th t
i on t i en in e ex .

l i gh t w o u l d i l l u m i n a t e
th e m Th e n he a ppli e d h e a t t o t he t e s t tub e s o f n utr itiv e fluid s
.

th a t w ere s u sp en d e d in t he b ox Th e s e fluid s c o n s i s t e d o f m u t t o n .

b r o t h turn ip b ro th a n d fluid s fr o m o t h er pl a n t s a n d a n i ma l s
, ,
.
 C H APTE R XXV I

AS E XUAL
RE PR OD UCTI ON

A mos s ca ps ul e . O b e lia fo r m in g b ud s .

Wha t is as exua l r ep ro duction ? Wha t kin ds f

o orga n is ms repr oduce

as exua lly ? Wha t a re s ome of the as exua l m ethods f

o rep r oduc tion ?

Only liv in g thin gs h a v e t he p ow er t o p r o duce n ewor ga n i s m s

s i m il a r t o th e m s e lv e s S c hl e id e n S c hw a n n a n d o th e r s c i en t i s t s
.
, ,

s h ow e d t h a t c e ll s livin g u n i t s o f lif e c a m e o n ly fr o m p r e exi s t i n g

, ,

ce ll s. Thi s p r oc es s of a c e ll o r c e ll s p r odu c i n g o th er c e ll s is c a ll e d
r e p r o du c t i on I t is a p r o c e s s p ec uli a r t o livi n g o r ga n i s m s
. I cic le s .
,

c r y s t a l s s t a l a c t i t e s a n d s t a l a gm i t e s m a y gr o w by t i n y a dditi o n s t o
, ,

t he o u t s id e . Th e s e a ddi t i o n s a r e kn ow n a s a c c r e t i on s Aft e r .

a c c r e t i o n h a s go n e o n fo r s o m e t i m e p a r t s m a y b re a k o ff
,
Thi s .

typ e of gr ow t h a n d divi s i o n is fu n d a m e n t a lly diff e r en t fr om t he

g r o w t h a n d divi s i o n th a t c o m e fr o m withi n a livi n g ce ll A giv e n .

o r ga n i s m c a n n o t liv e f o re v e r ; t h e r e f o r e n a t u r e h a s p r o vid e d b y
, ,

r e p r o du c ti o n a m ea n s o f c o n t i n ui n g t h e s p e c i e s
, .

Th e n e c e s s ity fo r divis ion I n livi n g c e ll s p a r t i c l e s o f f o o d

.
,

m a t e r i a l ar e t a k e n i n to t he c e ll b o dy a n d m a d e i n t o c e ll m a t e r i a l ,

p r o t opl a s m by t he p r o c e s s o f a s s i m il a ti o n Thi s a dditi on a l p r o t o

,
.

pl a sm c a u s e s t he ce ll t o gr ow The c e ll gr ow s uht il it b e c o m es s o
.

l a r ge t h a t t h e r e is n o t en o u gh s u rf a ce t o e n t f oo d for

t he i n c r e a s e d m a s s Of p r o t o pl a s m By . dividin g in
h a lf t w o m o r e s u rf a c e s m a y b e o bt a i n e d t h r o u gh
, ,

b e a b s or b e d fr om t he o ut s id e After dividi n g
.
,

246
 RE P R O DUC T I O N BY B IN ARY F ISSI O N 247

ta k e s in f o o d fr o m t h e o u t s id e gr ow s t o it s m a xi m u m s iz e a n d
, ,

th en divid e s a ga in I n t he S im pl e r a n i m a l s a n d pl a n t s a f t er r ep r o
.
,

du c t i on t he n ew c e ll s m a y se p a r a t e a n d go a b o ut a s s i n gl e i n di vid
,

ua ls o r t h e y m a y c li n g t o ge th er I f t h e y c li n g t o ge th er e a ch a c t s
.
,

a s a s e p a r a t e i n dividu a l i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e o t h e r .

R epr o du ction b y b in ar y fi s s ion The s i m pl e s t o f a ll pl a n t

.

o r ga n i s m s b e l o n g t o t h e T h a ll o phyt a As p r e vi o u s ly m en .

t io n e d t h e y a r e di s ti n gui sh e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r o f h a vi n g n o
,

divi s i o n i n t o r o o t s s t e m s a n d l e a v e s
, , Th e t h a ll o phyt e s a re .

—
divid e d i n t o t w o s ub gr o up s : t h e fu n gi t h a ll o phyt e s l a c ki n g
-

c hl o r o phyll s u c h a s b a c t er i a y e a s t s a n d m o ld s ; a n d t h e a l ga e
, , ,

t h o s e h a vi n g c hl o r o phyll s u c h a s P l e u r o c o c c u s a n d S pi r o gy r a
, .

B a c t er i a S h ow li t t l e differe n ti a ti on o f s tr u c tur e Th e y c o n s i s t .

o f a m a s s o f p r o t o pl a s m wi t h n u c l e a r m a t er i a l s c a t t er e d th r o u gh

t h e c y t o pl a s m Th e y a r e s u r r o u n d e d by a t hi n c e ll w a ll
. B ac .

t er i a r e p r o du c e by s pli t t i n g in h a lf t hu s f o r m i n g t w o n ew i n di ,

v idua ls . D ur i n g r e p r o du c ti o n t h e n u c l e u s e l o n ga t e s a n d divid e s
, .

A c e ll w a ll is f o r m e d b e tw ee n t h e t w o n u c l e i c u t ti n g t h e c e ll in ,
'

h a lf Pr o b a b ly t he divi s i o n o f t h e n u c l e u s is a lw a y s a m i t o t i c
.

divi s i o n S om e t i m e s t he n ewly fo rm e d c e ll s r e m a i n a t t a c h e d ;
. .

Of t e n th e y s e p a r a t e Thi s t yp e o f
.

r e p r o du c t i o n is bi n a r y fi s s ion .

M a n y o f t h e a l ga e r e p r o du c e
m u c h lik e b a c t er i a Pl e u r o c o c c u s
.

is f o u n d o n t he s h a dy m o i s t s id e s ,

of t ree s r o c k s , a n d s t u m p s e v er y
,

wh ere E a c h pl a n t is a s in gl e cell
.

c o n s i s t i n g o f a c e ll w a ll c y t opl a s m ,

a n d n u cl eu s I t m a k e s it s o wn
.

f o od r e a c h e s a m a xi m u m s iz e a n d
, ,

divid e s The r e s ul t i n g c e ll s e i t h er
.

s ep a r a te or r em a in in c lu s t e r s
G m m uup mm
.
0

giiifiif iif
er s l r n co on s

The c ell s o f S pir o gyr a divid e by te a

2 48 AS E X UA L R E P R O D UC T I O N

bi n a ry fi s s i on . I n S pi r o gy r a , t he m it o ti c fi gu r e i s c l e a r ly s e e n
wh en p r o p er ly t i
s a ne d . As t he ce ll s of S pi ro gy r a divid e t h e y ,

A yea s t c e ll ta k es in foo d and gr o w s a b ud wh ic h e n l a r ge s a n d pr o duc e s o th e r b uds . Th is

r e s ul t s in a c h a in o r gr o up o f y e a s t c e lls .

c li n g t oge t h er en d t o e n d a n d f o rm a l o n g fil a m e n t E a c h c e ll .

is a n i n d e p en d en t o r ga n i s m Am i t o s i s divi s i o n w i t h o u t a s pi r e m e
.
, ,

is v er y i n fr e qu e n t Th e r e is d o ub t a s t o wh e t h e r a m it o s i s is e v er
.

a m e th o d o f r e p r o du c ti o n in a n y n o r m a l a n d h e a l t hy c e ll .

M a n y o n e ce ll e d a n i m a l s s u c h a s t h e Pr o t o z o a r ep r o du c e by
-

fi s s i on I n t he a m oe b a t h e n u c l e u s divid e s m i t o t i c a lly t he
.
, ,

c yt o pl a s m c on s tr i c t s b e tw e e n t h e t w o n u c l e i a n d t w o n ew c e ll s ,

a r e f o rm e d The P a r a m e c iu m t o o r e p r o du c e s by a lik e m e t h o d
.
, ,
.

Th e m i c r on u c l e u s e l o n ga t e s c on s t ri c t s and divid e s
,
T he ,
.

m a cr o n u c l e u s r e s e m bl e s a d e ge n e r a t iv e n u c l e u s in t h a t it d ivid e s
a m i t o t i c a lly I t f re qu e n t ly di s i n t e gr a t e s a n d di e s
. Th e n t h e .

m i cr o n u c l e u s build s a n ew m a cr o n u c l e u s AS t h e c y t o pl a s m .

c o n s t r i c t s a n ew m o uth gr o o v e a n d gull e t a pp ea r in o n e s id e o f
, , ,

t he o r ga n i s m A n ew v a c u o l e a pp e a r s a t t he e n d of e a c h n e w
.

c e ll . The c y t o pl a s m divid es c o m pl e t e ly a n d t h e t w o n ew P a r a
m e c ia s wi m a w a y f r om e a c h o t h e r
'

R e pr o ductio n b y b u ddin g An o t h e r typ e o f r ep r o ducti on f o u n d

.

a m o n g s i m pl e o r ga n i s m s is buddi n g .

P r ob le m . S tudy of buddin g in yea s t cells .

B re a k a s m a ll p a r t o f a c o m pr e s s e d yeas t ca k e in t o a dilut e so lut io n

of m o la s s e s . S t ir and t h e n le t t he m ixt ur e st and in a w a r m pla ce o v er n igh t .

M o un t a dro p of t he m a t e r ial un der t he lo w pow e r and t he n t he high po we r o f

t he m ic r o sc o pe .
 25 0 A S E X UA L R E P R O DU C T I O N

B uddi n g is n o t f o r m o f r e p r o du c t i o n a s bi n a r y
as c om m on a

fi s s i on Buddi n g
. a n d bi n a r y fi s s i o n a r e t yp e s o f r e p r o du c t i o n

f o u n d o n ly a m o n g t h e S i m pl e s t of pl a n t s
a n d a n im a l s .

R e pr o duction b y m e an s of s por e form a

ti on A t hi r d t yp e o f r ep r o du c t i o n f o u n d
.

a m o n g S i m pl e o r ga n i s m s is s por e fo rm a

ti on I f y e a s t c e ll s a r e s ubj e c t e d t o a n
.

u n f a v o r a bl e c o n di t i o n o f h e a t f o o d o r , ,

w a t e r t h e y s o m e t i m e s go t h r o u gh a n o t h e
, r

t yp e o f r e p r o du c t i o n E a c h y e a s t c e ll will .

Ph t m i g ph f h y d
o o cr o ra o a ra
N t t h b ud t ill t t h d t d e v e l op a n u n u s u a lly t h i ck w a ll The
.

o e e s s a ac e o .

the or igi l na im l an a
n u c l e u s a n d c y t o pl a s m b r e a k up i n t o t h r ee
.

t o e i gh t p a r t s V er y Of t e n o n ly fo u r p a r t s a r e f o r m e d E a c h of
. .

t h e s e p a r t s is k n o w n a s a s p o r e Th e s p or e s will r e m a i n in t he
.

sp o re c a s e t h e t hi c k e n e d c e ll w a ll u n til t h e s u r r o u n di n g c o n di
, ,

t i o n s b ec o m e f a v o r a bl e fo r t h e m t o liv e a l o n e Th e n t h e s p o r e .

c a s e will a b s o r b w a t er bu r s t a n d t h e f ou r y e a s t c e ll s will c o m e
, ,

o ut . E a c h w ill f ee d gr o w a n d r e p r o du c e ,
Thi s t yp e o f p ro pa
,
.

ga t io n a c c o m pli s h e s p r o t e c t i o n a s w e ll a s r e p r o du c ti o n .

D ue t o l a c k Of c hl or o phyll y e a s t c ell s a r e u n a bl e t o m a k e th e i r
,

o w n f o od Th e y d e p en d up o n f o o d a l r e a dy m a d e
. Th e i r f o o d .

c o n s i s t s o f f r ui t jui c e s a n d o th e r s u ga r s o luti o n s I f m ola s ses .

s o luti o n p r e s er v e d fr ui t gr a p e j ui c e o r a n y
, , ,

o t h e r s w e e t f oo d is l e ft e xp o s e d t o t h e a ir wild ,

y ea s t pl a n t s in t h e fo r m o f s p o r e s will se t t l e
, ,

o n t he s u r fa c e a nd m ul t iply r a pidly Th e Y t ll ft f m .
ea s ce s o en or

g up f f u p a ro o o r s ore s

y e a s t c e ll s giv e o ff en zym e s whi c h a tt a c k t he Th l t v

.

u f ese as o er a n n a
bl p i d d t th vo ra e er o an a e
s u ga r b r e a ki n g I t d o w n i n t o a l c o h o l a n d c a r
, p p tim b k f m ro er e r ea ro
th p E h e s ore ca s e ac
b o n di o xid e Thi s p r o ce s s o f y e a s t a t t a c ki n g p
.

.
b m y t s o re e co es a eas

pl t an
s u ga r a n d c o n v er t i n g i t i n t o a l c o h o l a n d c a r b o n
O O 0
o

di oxid e is kn ow n a s fermen ta tion Bubbl e s of c a r b on di o xid e .

m ay b e o b s er v e d in f er m en t e d s oluti ons The t e s t p e r fo r m e d in .

 R E P R O DU C T I ON B Y S P OR E F OR M AT I ON 25 1

e l em en t a ry s c i en ce m a y b e u se d t o S h ow th a t th e s e bubbl e s a re
ca r b on di o xid e Th e a l c oh o l m ay b e r e c o gn iz e d by t he o g
. l or .

Th e p r o c e s s o f f er m e n t a t i o n a lw a y s a c c o m p a n i e s t h e r ep r o du c t i o n
o f y e a s t pl a n t s S i n c e t he y e a s t s a r e d e p en d e nt up on n o n livi n g
.

o r ga n i c m a t e r i a l for f o o d th e y a r e c a ll e d s a prop hytes , .

P r o b le m . S pore for m i
a t on i n mold .

P la ce a i
p e ce of b re ad o n se v er a l t h ic k n e s se s o f well- m ois t e n ed filt er p a p er

or b lo t t in g pa per on a l
p at e . E xpo se t he b r e a d t o t he a ir , s pr in kl e it w it h dus t ,
or infe c t it wit h m old s por e s . Co v er wit h an in v er t ed gl a s s dis h t h a t is r a ise d
up on on e si de t o a dm it a lit t le a ir . B e s ur e t h e b r e a d do e s n ot dry . M o is t ur e ,

a lim it e d a m o un t o f a ir , w ar m t h , an d o r ga n ic m a t er ial are n e c e s s ar y for t he

gro w t h of m olds
The h a iry gr o w t h t h a t a ppe ar s on t h e b r e a d is o n e t y pe
. Of

m o ld, t he b re a d m o ld . k
I t t a e s fro m o n e t o fo ur day s t o gr o w t h ese pla n t s .

M o un t a m in ut e a m o un t of t h e h a iry s t r uc t u
re un der t he low po wer of t he
mi cr o s c ope .

I . D e s cr ib e t he sh a pe a n d c o lor o f t he c ells Of t he m old .

A . Ar e t her e any cro s s w a lls t o t h e c e lls ?

B . D O t he c e lls b r an ch or n o t ? T he s e c e lls a r e k n o wn a s hyp hae .

C . Th e m a t o f c e lls is k n o wn as t h e m ycelium . T he t hr e ad s t h a t ar e

ac t i e ly v fe edin g a n d gr ow in g ar e c a lle d t he v e ge t a t i v e hyph a e .

II . Try t o m o un t a pie ce Of m o ld t h a t w a s a c t ua lly e m b e dde d in t he b r e a d .

A . The a n c h o r in g r oo t li k e s t r uc t ur e s a r e c a lle d r hiz oi ds . B y m e an s of

t h e s e , t he m o ld gi v e s o ut e n zy m es t h a t dis s o l v e s o m e of t h e b re a d . Th e
dis s o l v e d b r e a d is t he n a b s o rb e d a s fo o d b y t he m old .

I . Ob s er v e t he s t r uc t ur e Of t h e n io ld a n d e xpla in why it is pr o b .

a b ly a s a pr o phy t e .

II . D is c us s t h e differ e n ce b e t w ee n t he m old a n d S pir o gyr a in t ype s

o f n ut r it io n ?

III . When t he m old is t hr e e or fo ur day s o ld ,

n ote t he t iny dar kb o die s th a t
a ppe ar . M o un t a b it of t h e m old s t r uc t ur e , in c ludin g se v er a l o f t h e s e b o die s ,
un der t he lo w po wer of t h e m icr o s c o pe . B e s ur e n ot to t a k e t o o gr e a t a m as s
of m a t e r ia l .

A . D e s cr ib e t he s t r uc t ur e o f o n e of t he s m a ll b la c kb o die s . Thi s is a

s po ra ng ium ..

B . D e s cr ib e t he s tr uc t ur e t h a t h olds t he spor a n gium . This is a rep ro

Lo c a t e a b ro k en s po r a n gium . D e scr ib e t he s tr uc t ur e s e sc a pin g

252 A S E X U A L R E P R O DU C TI O N

fr om t he s po r a n gium . The se are k n o wn a s sp ores . E ach lit t le s pore is

c a p a b le o f pr o duc in g a n e w m o ld pla n t .

D . D r aw a com ple t e a n d a b r oke n s por a n gium '

.

I L ab e l s por a n gium s pore a n d r epr o duc t ive

.
, , hyph a .

p or a n gi um s o m e A s

t i m e s f orm s a t o n e en d
o f t h e hyph a The pr o .

t opla s m wi t h in thi s e n d
b r ea k s i n t o a gr e a t m a n y
t i n y s t r u c tu r e s s p ore s , .

Wh en r ip e thi s fr ui t in g
,

b o dy o r s p o r e c a s e t he ,

s p o r a n giu m b r e a ks o p e n
e i l h yph d v l p
,
A n a r a a
p gium
e f uit i g b dy
e o s a s o ra n or r n o
d h p tt
.

Th i t u tu
s s r
p d u c d d
rei p t hro p a
ce s a nn t e Ss o r e s s
e rs e s c a e r e s ore s .
.

Th e s p o r e s c a n o utl a s t
u n fa v o ra bl e c o n di t i on s D u r i n g u n f a v o r a bl e c o n di t i o n s t he m o ld
.
,

is in a d or m a n t o r r e s t i n g s t a ge in t h e s p o r e I f it s e ttl e s o n f o o d .

a n d th e r e a r e p r o p er c o n di t i o n s o f m o i s t u r e a n d w a r m t h th e n t he ,

s p o r e s will d e v e l o p i n t o n e w m o ld pl a n t s Th e n a m e fo r s o m e m o ld s .

is mildew C e r t a i n o f t h e m o ld s as t he p owd er y m ild e w th a t gr o w s

.
,

o n t h e lil a c liv e a n d s e c ur e t h e ir n o u r i s h m e n t fr o m livi n g o r ga n i s m s

, .

An o r ga n i s m th a t ge t s n o u r i s h m e n t fr o m a livi n g pl a n t o r a n i m a l ,

a n d giv e s n o t hi n g in r e t u r n is a pa r as ite
‘

.
,

P r ob l e m . S tudy f
o s po r a n gi a in va r i o us

types of mo lds .

I . Let a peele d b a n a n a s t a nd in a co v er e d dis h

for for t y -e igh t h o ur s . Whe n it s h ow s a m o ld

gr ow t h , e xam in e it wit h t h e micr o s c o pe for fr uit in g

b o die s or s po r a n gia .

II . B r in g t o c la s s s a m ple s of v a r io us ki n ds o f
m olds or m ilde ws . E xa m in e t he m un de r t he m ic r o
T h is Ph o t o mi cr o gr a ph S h ows
n o t o nly a la r ge s po ra n gi um ,
sc o pe for t he fr m t i n g b o di e s o r s por a n gi a .
b ut c e r ta in o f t h e s po r e s a r e
a ls o in fo c us C o m pa re t h is
A . Draw as m a n y di ffe r e n t t y pe s o f s po
illus t ra t ion m m t h e dia gra m
r a n gia a s y o u ha v e ob s er v ed .
a t t h e t o o o f t h e pa ge
254 AS E X U A L R E P R O DU C T I O N

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S T I O N S
1 . Wh a t is t he p urp o s e o f r e pr o d uc t i o n ?
2 . D i s c us s bi n a r y fi s s i o n .

3 . Give e x a m pl es o f o r ga n i s m s t h a t r e pr o d uc e by bi n a r y fi s s i o n .

4 . D i s c us s r e pr o d uc t i o n b y buddi n g I ll us t r a t e in t wo o r ga n i s m s. .

5 . S e t up a n e xpe r i m e n t t o ill us t r a t e fe r m e n t a t i o n .

6 . D i s c us s s p o r e fo r m a t i o n in y e a s t ; in m o lds
-
.

7 . B e s id e s r e pr o d uc t i o n w h a t is a n o t h e r pur p o s e o f s p o r e fo r m a
,

t ion
8 . C o m pa r e an d cont ra s t b i n a ry fi i ss on , b uddi n g, a n d sp or e fo r m a
t ion .

9 . C o m pa re a s a pr o phy t e an d a p a r a s it e w i t h an i
o r ga n s m t ha t
ma k es it s own fo o d . Gi v e e xa m pl e s .

S U PP L EM E N TA RY R EAD I N G
k
At in s o n G F College Textbook of B ota n y (H e nr y H olt
—
. .
, ,

G a ge r , C S Gene l B o y ( P B l ki S ) h
’
ra . ta n
.
,
a s t o n s o n c a p s xv xxv .
, . .

Gr e a e s v ,
J
E a n d E O E lem e n ta r y B a c te r iology (W B S a un de r s ) , c h a p
. . . .
,
. . . vi
.

H o lm e s S ,
. J
Ge n e r a l B iology (T h e M a c m illa n c h ap x . .
 C H APTE R XXVI I

VE GE TATI VE
PROP AGATI O N

L ea f with lit tl e pla n t s A s a n dwo r m wi t h b uds .

Wha t is vegeta ti ve p p g
r o a a t o n i
? Wha t p r o c e s s es i n a n i ma s l m a y be
com p a r a ble to vegeta ti ve ro a
p p g ation f
o p la n t s ?

An i n dividu a l o r ga n i s m b e gin s it s i n d e p e n d e n t life wh en it

b e c om e s s e p a r a t e d fr o m a p r e exi s t i n g i n dividu a l R o o t s s t em s .
, ,

a n d e v e n l e a v e s s o m e t i m e s d e v e l o p i n t o n e w pl a n t s a l t h o u gh ,

o r di n a r ily t h e i r fu n c t i o n s a r e fo r pu r p o s e s o f n u t r i t i o n a n d n o t

r e p r o du c t i o n Wh e n a p o r t i o n o f a pl a n t o r di n a r ily u s e d for
.
,

n u t r i t i on is s e p a r a t e d a n d u s e d fo r re p r o du c ti o n t h e p r o c e s s is
, ,

c a ll e d vegeta ti ve p ropa ga tio n V e ge t a t iv e p r o p a ga t i o n is a n a s e xu a l

.

m e t h o d o f r e p r o du c t i on Us u a lly o n ly o n e o r ga n i s m c o n t r ibu t e s
.
,

t o t h e p r o p a ga t i o n o r c o n t i n u a n c e o f t he lif e o f t he o r ga n i s m .

M a n m a k e s us e o f v e ge t a t iv e re p r o du c t i o n t o p r o du c e n ew s p e c i e s
r a pidly . Wh en t he m e t h o d o f r e p r o du c t i o n o f a pl a n t is d e vi s e d
by m a n it is c a ll e d a n a r t ifi c i a l m e t h o d o f p r o p a ga t i o n ; wh e n it
,

is f o u n d in n a tur e it is c a ll e d a n a t u r a l m e t h o d
, .

Ar tifi c ia l m e t h o ds of v e ge ta tiv e pr opa ga tion Cuttin gs . H i gh e r .

p l a n t s m a y b e p r o p a ga t e d by c u t t i n g pi e c e s of s t e m s fr o m t he
pl a n t a n d pl a n t in g t h e se c u t t i n gs in m o i s t s a n d or w a t e r I f a .

twig is c ut fr o m a will ow tr e e a n d t he c ut e n d pl a c e d in w a te r or
,

m o i s t s o il r o o t s will u s u a lly d e v e l o p fr o m t h a t e n d w hil e bud s

,

, ,

will d e v e l o p fr om t h e o th er p a r t s o f t he c u t t i n g E a c h c u t ti n g will
.

p r oduc e t he m i s s in g p a r t s a n d gr o w i n t o a c om pl e t e i n d e p en d en t ,

2 55
256 VE G E T A TI VE P R O P A G A T I ON

pl an t G er a n iu m s a n d o t h e r h o u s e pl an t s a r e u s u a lly p r o p a ga ted
.

in t hi s w a y s i n c e t h e y m a y b e p r o du c e d m u c h m or e qui c kly fr o m
cutti n gs o r s lips t h a n fr o m

t he ge r m i n a t i o n o f s e e d s .

Ano th e r a dv a n t a ge o f s lip
pl a n t i n g is th a t o n e is us u
a lly s u r e t o gr o w a pla n t tr u e

t o t h e typ e f r o m whi c h t he
s lip w a s t a k e n Th e s ee d s
.

o f pl a n t s do n ot a lw a y s
d e v e l o p i n t o pl an t s e x a ctly
l ik e t h e o r ga n i s m s f r o m
whi c h th ey w er e ga th er e d .

Regen era tion T h e r e is a .

A piece o f t m ut f m
s e c ro t i l
cer a n
p t d pl
an s d
an
t y p e
a ce
O f P r o a ga t mn f o u n d
p
m i "
a m o n g c e r t a i n a n i m a l s th a t
i w t
n a er s d Win n
sa n

is s o m e w h a t s i m il a r t o c u t t i n gs o f pl a n t s I t is p o s s ibl e fo r m a n y
.

o r ga n i s m s t o r e p r o du ce l o s t p a r t s a n d r o w in t o c o m pl e t e i n divid
g
n a ls. Th e c o m m o n e a r t hw o r m is a go o d e x a m pl e I f a wor m
.

is c ut t h r o u gh t h e m iddl e e a c h h a lf m a y d e v e l o p t h e m i s s i n g p a r t s
,

a nd ea ch p ar t m a b e c o m e a c o m pl e t e w o r m C e r t a i n fl a t w o r m s
y .

m a y b e divid e d i n t o s e v e r a l p a r t s a n d e a c h p a r t will b e c o m e a
c o m pl e t e i n dividu a l S p o n ges a r e p r o p a ga t e d by c u t t i n g a s p o n ge
.

i n t o m a n y s e c ti o n s a n d s o wi n g t h e o c e a n fl o o r with th em E a c h .

s e c ti o n will d e v e l o p i n t o a c o m pl e t e o r ga n i s m Th e r e gr o w t h o r
.

r e p r o du c ti o n o f t h e p a r t s o f a n o r ga n i s m whi c h h a v e b e e n l o s t o r

d e s tr o y e d is c a ll e d r egen era ti on I f s o m e a n i m a l s s u c h a s c ru s t a
.

c e a n s ( l ob s t er s c r a b s s h r i m p s ) a n d e c hi n o d e r m s ( s t a r fis h e s
, ,
sea ,

u r c hi n s s e a c u c u m b er s ) l o s e o n e o f t h e i r a pp e n d a ge s o r r a y s th e y
, ,

a r e a bl e t o r e ge n e r a t e t h e s e p a r t s S o m e ti m e s a l o b s t e r is s ee n
.

wi t h o n e c l a w m u ch l a r ger t h a n t h e o th e r Thi s p r ob a bly i n di

.

ca t es t h a t t he s m a ll e r is a s e c o n d gr o wth t h e fi r s t h a vi n g b e e n
,

l o s t in a fi gh t o r t h r o u gh a n a c c id e n t .
 58 VE G E TA T I VE P R OPA GA TI ON

gra ft
p r oc e s s o f
. D ur i n g t he
u n i t i n g t he t wo s t e m s m u s t b e ,

c l o s e ly b o u n d t o p r e v e n t th e m

fro m b r e a ki n g a p a rt A co a t of .

g r a f t i n g w a x p r o t e c t s t he r e gi o n

o f c o n t a c t f r o m a n e x c e s s iv e l o s s

o f s a p a n d e v a p o r a ti o no f w a t er ,

a n d f r o m c o n t a c t with s p o r e s o f

fu n gi S u c c e s s ful gr a f t i n g is a c .

c o m pli s h e d on ly b e tw e e n m e m

b e r s o f t h e s a m e o r c l o s ely
r el a t e d s p e c i e s S t e m gr a fti n g is .

c o m m o n ly u s e d in p r o p a ga ti n
g
fr ui t t r e e s .

G r a f t i n g is a l s o d o n e by , ,

f g f g
“
c le t r a t in m e a n s o f buds A bud o n a s t r ip .

T wig m y b
s a g fted tra
g t h e i oof b
e aerr k wint h i t s u n d e r lyi n g ca m
m ’m w y ’S a s ‘

biu m l a y e r is c ut f r o m a b r a n ch
a n d is i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e s li t in t h e b a r k o f t h e s t o c k s o t h a t t h e t wo

c a m biu m t i s s u e s a r e in c l o s e c o n t a c t Th e p r o c es s o f bi n di n g a n d
.

w a xi n g is S i m il a r t o t h a t u s e d in s t em gr a f t s F r uit s n ut s a n d .
, ,

fl o w er s a r e o b t a i n e d m o r e r a pidly by gr a ft in g t ha n by t he pl a n t
'

in g o f s e e d s Th e gr a f t will p r o b a bly a lw a y s b r e e d t r u e t o t h e
.

s ci o n typ e C o n s e qu e n t ly
.
,

a s in t h e c a s e O f p r o p a ga

t i on by c utti n gs a ho r t ic ul ,

t u r i s t is s u r e o f t he r e s ult o f
t h e gr a f t if it is s u c c es s ful
,
.

G r a f t i n g is a l s o a m e th o d o f
p r op a ga ti n g s e e dl e s s f r uit s 1;
n.

S e l on .

I f a s e e dl es s f r uit ha s b e e n
S h l d b udd g ty p f g ft g
ie Th b ud fin is a e o ra in e o

p r o du c e d by pl a n t b r e e di n g th d i d v i t y i i t d i t
.

, e e s re lit i th b k
ar e s ns e r e n o a s n e ar

f th t k I t i th b u d t igh tly t k p i
o e s oc . s en o n o ee n

it I S p r op a ga t e d v e ge t a pl u t il h li g d g wt h t k pl a ce n ea n an ro a e a ce .
 B UD G R AF T I N G 25 9

t iv e ly by gr a f t i n g E v e r y p o s s ibl e t r e e o f t he s a m e o r c l o s e ly
.

r e l a t e d s p e c i e s m a y b e m a d e us e o f in gr a f t i n g I f a t r ee is f o u n d
'

t o p r o du c e i n f e r i o r f r ui t i n s t e a d o f up r o o t i n g it a n d pl a n t i ng n ew
,

s e e d s a s c i o n f ro m a t r e e t h a t p r o du c e s go o d f r ui t m a y b e gr a ft e d
,

o n t h e i n f er i o r t r e e I f t he gr a f t i n g is s u c c e s s ful t h e o r i gi n a l t r ee
.
,

will in t he fu t u r e p r o du c e t he
, ,

i m p r o v e d v a r i e t y Va r i et i es o f
.

t h e Old Wo r ld gr a p e h a v e b e en
r a f t e d o n t h e s t o c k o f t h e wild
g
g r a p e a
,
n d f r o m t hi s c o m bi n a t i on

w e h a v e O b t a i n e d t h e diff e r e n t
t yp e s o f gr a p e s f o u n d in o ur
c o u n t r y t o da y -
. Th e r oo t s o f
t h e Old Wo r ld gr a p e a r e ea s ily

i n j ur e d by a r oo t l o u s e b ut ,

t h e r o o t s o f t h e wild gr a p e a r e
n o t a ff e c t e d by thi s i n s e c t Be .

s id e s t h e wild gr a p e s a r e h a r dy
,

a n d a r e a bl e t o gr o w w e ll in t hi s

c li m a t e .By gr a fti n g it h a s b e e n
,

p o s s ibl e t o p r o du c e gr a p e vi n e s
th a t a r e i mm u n e fr o m des t r uc
ti o n by t h e l o u s e a n d y e t yi e ld
,
T gu g ft i g i ty p
on mm
e raly u d n s a e co on se
t he d e s i r e d typ e o f gr a p e
.

.
Th im p t t f tu e h i ll g ft i g
or a n ea re e re , a s n a ra n ,

i t b i g th m b ium l y f t k
A t y p e O f gr a ft l n g I S fr e
s o r n e d
ca a ers o s oc an
'

i t g th s c on o e er .

qu e n tly u s e d by s ur ge o n s in a n i
mals . B ut h er e gr a fti n g is a typ e o f r e gen e r a t i on a n d n o t o f r e
, ,

p r o du c ti o n . I n m o s t c a s e s gr a f t i n g is o nl y u s e d wh e n t i s s u e s a r e
,

s e v e r e ly i n j ur e d . F o r e x a m pl e if c o n s id e r a bl e s ki n h a s b e e n de
,

s t r o ye d by a bu r n s m a ll s e c t i o n s o f s ki n a r e r e m o v e d f r o m o th er
,

p a r t s o f t h e b o dy a n d gr a ft e d o n t h e i n j u r e d a r e a Thi s gr a ft e d s kin .

r o w s o v e r t h e i n j u r e d a r e a a n d t hu s r e p a i r s t h e t i s s u e I f a b on e
g .

in t he b o dy is t u b e r c ul a r s e c t i o n s o f h e a l t hy b o n e f r o m a no th e r
,
2 60 VE G E TA T I VE P R O P AG ATI O N

part o f t he o r ga n s m i
m a y b e gr a ft ed on t o t he
di s e a s e d b o n e B ut t o .
,

a l a r ge e xt e n t gr a fti n g,

Of t i s s u e s b o ne s a nd
, ,

e v e n o r ga n s is s till in

a n e xp e r i m e n t a l s t a ge

a n d h a s n o t p ro v e n s uc

c e s s ful in a ll i n s t a n c e s .

N a tur al m e th o ds of
v e ge ta t ive pr opa gation .

L a yerin g a n o t h e r ,

m e th o d Of p r o p a ga ti o n ,

O ft e n o c curs with o ut
L a y e r in g fi
is a m o di ca t ion o f c ut t in g I t c on s is t s in
t he a s s I S t a n c e Of m an
v
.

b e n din g do wn a s t e m a n d c o e r in g it with e a r th .D eep

n o t c hi n g o r r in gin g t h e b a r k o f t h e pa r t b ur ie d us ually
a I] y C a S e S t h e
I 11 m
h a s t e n s t h e r o ot in g o f t h e s t e m .

b r a n ch e s o f a t re e o r
b r u s h m a y b e n d d o wn u n til th e y co m e in c o n t a c t with t h e so il .

S o m e ti m e s th e y b e c o m e c o v e r e d wi t h s o il I f t h e r e is s u ffici e n t
.

wa r m t h a n d m o i s t u r e in t h e s o il t h e b r a n ch e s will d e v e l o p r o o t s
,
.

F r equ e n t ly a f t e r d e v e l o pi n g r oo t s t h e y b r e a k o ff f r o m t h e t r e e
, ,

a n d f o r m a n e n ti r e ly n e w pl a n t Th e r a s pb e r r y wi t h it s a r c hi n g
.
,

s t e m s illu s t r a t e s thi s typ e

,

o f p r o p a ga ti o n .

Run n ers a r e b r a n c h e s
th a t t r a il a l on g t h e gr o u n d .

Som et im es t he e nd s or
,

j o i n t s o f t h e s e b r a n ch e s
c o m e in di r e c t c o n t a c t with

moist soil R o o t s and

.
,

fi na lly a Sh oo t d e v e l op a t
,

thi s p o i n t for m i n g a n ew
,
Wh u f u d i pl t th y m y b u d
en r nn e r s ar e o n n an s , e a e se

p l a n t S t r a wb e r r i e s a s
.
, y d pid m th d f p p g t i
a s a n ea s an ra e o o ro a a on.
2 62 VE G E T AT I VE P R OP A G ATI O N

ye s in t he tub er s a r e r e a lly bud s Wh e n u s e d fo r p r o p a ga t i o n

e .
,

”
t h e p o t a t o is c ut s o t h a t e a c h s e c t i o n h a s a t l e a s t o n e e ye .

Th e s e s e c t i o n s c a n b e pl a n t e d a n d e a c h bud o r e y e will d e v e l o p a
r o o t s y s t e m a n d a n a er i a l

s tem E a c h t ub e r c a n .

bud s o r eye s it h a s .

N o u r i s h m e n t in t h e f o r m
o f s t a r c h is s t o r e d in t h e

t ub e r a n d f e e d s t h e gr o w
in g pl a n t u n til it s l e a v e s
A wh l b ulb d th ti f t w b ulb
s h wo n
o e
N t th
. h t t m
o e
ut an

e s or
e

s e
c
d th thi k fl h y l v
s ec

an
a r e
on
p r
e
o d u
o
c e d
c
o

es
s o me s

ea
a re

es
.
“

m g d m u “th t m
t i m es wh e n p o t a t o e s a r e
a‘ ‘ e n e S e '

k e pt in a d a m p c e ll a r t he e y e s a b s or b m o i s t u r e a n d b e gi n t o
,

d e v el o p i n t o s t em s .

B ulbs A bulb c o n s i s t s o f a m o difi e d u n d e r gr o u n d s t e m

.
-
.

Le a v e s t hi c k e n e d wi t h s t o r e d f o o d s gr o w fr o m t hi s s t e m a n d
, ,

c l o s e ly o v e r l a p e a c h o t h e r t o f o r m t h e s c a l e s o f t h e bulb A .

t er m i n a l bud gr o w i n g f r o m t h e t ip o f t h e s t e m is in t h e c e n t er
o f t h e s c a l e lik e l e a v e s I f a bulb is c ut t h e p a r t s o f a n e n t i r e
.
,

pl a n t m a y b e s e e n Wh e n pl a n t e d t h e e m b r y o s t e m a b s o r b s
.
,

fo o d fro m t h e i n c l o s i n g t hi c k e n e d l e a v e s s p r o u t s a n d d e v e l o p s , ,

i n to a n e l o n ga t e d s t e m b e a r i n g t r u e l e a v e s AS t h e s t e m .

e l o n ga t e s it s e n d s up t h e l e a v e s a n d fl o w e r bl o s s o m a b o v e t h e
,

gr o u n d Th e t r u e l e a v e s m a n uf a c t u r e m o r e f o o d t h a n i s n e e d e d
.

a n d t h e s u r plu s is s e n t d o w n t o t h e u n d e r gr o u n d s t e m wh e r e it -
,

is a ga i n s t o r e d t o f o r m a n o t h e r bulb S om e t i m e s m o r e t h a n .
,

o n e bulb will b e f o r m e d On i o n s t ulip s a n d s o m e lili es a r e

.
, ,

e x a m pl e s o f pl a n t s th a t m a y b e p r o p a ga t e d by bulb s A c ol .

l ec ti o n o f bulb s m a y b e s e e n in t he n a r c i s s u s Bulb s a r e fre .

qu en t ly dug up f ro m t he s o il s o t h e y Will n o t fr e e z e in wi n t er .

B e f o r e t h e y a r e a ga i n pl a n te d th e y a r e s ep a r a t e d f ro m e a ch ,

o t h e r a n d pl a n t e d s i n gly .
 Q UE ST I O N S 2 63

In a ll t he
f o r m s Of p r o p a ga t i o n di s c u s s e d t he c o n t i n u a n c e o f ,

t he s p e ci es is i n s u r e d On ly o n e o r ga n i s m is i n v o lv e d in t he
.

p r o c e s s A p a r t o f o n e or ga n i s m p r o p a ga t e s a n e n t i re n ew OFga n
.

is m . C o n se qu e n t ly t h e y a r e a ll f o r m s o f a s exua l r ep roduc tio n .

QUES T I ONS AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 Wh a t
. is ve ge t a t ive pr o pa ga t i o n ? Why is it a m e t ho d of re

p o
r du c t i o n ?

2 . fi
N a m e t hr e e a r t i c i a l m e t ho d s o f v e ge t a t ive pr o p a ga t i o n .

3 . S e t up a n e xpe r i m e n t t o ill us t r a t e pr o pa ga t i o n by c ut t i n g .

Wh a t i s t he va l ue o f c ut t i n gs ?
.

4 .

5 . D i s c us s r e ge n e r a t i o n .

6 . D e vi s e a n e xpe r i m e n t t o S h o w h ow gr a f t i n g is d on e .

7 . N a m e a n d d e s c r i b e fiv e n a t ur a l m e t h o d s O f v e ge t a t ive pr o pa
ga t io n .

8 . D i s c us s t wo m e t h o d s of ve ge t a t ive pr o pa ga t i o n by o ve r
gr o un d -

s t e ms .

9 D i s c us s t hr e e m e t h o d s o f ve ge t a t ive pr o p a ga t i o n b y un d e r
.

g r o un d s t e m s .

1 0 S e c ur e a n d br i n g t o c l a s s , s o m e pl a n t s t h a t pr o p a ga t e b y
.
,

l a y e r i n g by r un n e r s a n d b y r h iz o m e s
, ,
.

1 1 P l a n t a t ub e r a n d a b ul b a n d o b s e r ve t he i r gr o w t h
. D ra w .

t he m in v a r i o us s t a ge s o f gr o w t h .

S U PP L E M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S

G a ge r C S , Ge ne ra l B ota n y (P B lakis t o n s S o n
’
. . .
,

Tr a n s e a u E N Ge ne ra l B ota n y (Wor ld B o o
,
. .
, k
 C H APT E R XXVI I I

S E XUA L
RE P RO D UC TI ON

M a t ur a tio n o f a n e gg. M a tura t io n o f a s pe rm .

Wha t is Wha t a re s om e digere n t types of s exua l r epro duction

'

s ex ?

S e x ua l r e pr o duc t ion in m old . I n m a n y or ga n i s m s i n s t e a d o f a ,

s i n gl e o r ga n i s m d e v e l o pi n g di r e c t ly f r o m a h a lf o r a p a r t o f a n o t h e r

o n e t w o s p e c i a l c e ll s f r o m diff e r e n t o r ga n i s m s u n i t e t o f o r m o n e
,

c e ll
. Th e c e ll r e s ul t i n g f r o m t hi s u n i o n d e v e l o p s i n t o a n ew
o r ga n i s m . Th e t wo c e ll s t h a t u n i t e a r e c a ll e d ga m etes a n d t h e ,

c e ll f or m e d a s a r e s ul t o f t h e u n i o n is c a ll e d a zygote Th e fo r m a
.

t i o n o f a zy go t e is c a ll e d s exua l r ep roduc tion C er t a i n l o w e r pl a n t s

.

r e p r o du c e b o t h a s e xu a lly a n d s e xu a lly N o r m a lly t he b r e a d m o ld

.
,

r e p r o du c e s by a s e xu a l s p o re s Wh e n gr ow t h co n diti o n s a r e
.

u n f a v o r a bl e a s e xu a l m e t h o d o f r ep r o du c t i o n m a y o cc u r in t hi s
,

o r ga n i s m . Tw o t h r e a d s o r hyph a e o f m o ld pl a n t s will gr o w
t o w a r d e a c h o t h e r u n t il t h e t ip s m ee t A c e ll w a ll f o r m s n ea r t h e
.

e n d o f e a c h t ip c u t t i n g o ff a p a r t o f t h e p r o t o pl a s m a t t h e e n d o f
,

e a c h hyph a Th e s e a r e S i m il a r in s iz e a n d a pp e a r a n c e a n d a r e
.
,

k n o wn a s t he ga m e t e s Th e i n t e r v e n i n g w a ll s b e t w ee n t he ga m e t e s
.

a r e di s s o lv e d a n d t h e c o n t e n t s o f t he t w o c e ll s i n t e r m i n gl e A .

thi c k w a ll d e v e l o p s a r o u n d t he fu se d m a t e r i a l t he zygo t e As t he
, .

zygo t e gr ow s t he o ut er w a ll b e c o m e s bl a c k The s t r u c tu r e in t hi s
.

s t a ge is c a ll e d a z ygos po re Un d e r f a v o r a bl e c o n di t i o n s t h e zygo t e
.

g e r m i n a t e s a ,
n d d e v e l o p s i n t o a n e w pl a n t .

Wh e n t he u n i t i n g ga m e t e s o f a n o r ga n i s m a r e v e ry s i m il a r in
.

s iz e a n d a c t ivi t y t h e i r u n i o n is c a lle d c onj uga tion

,
~
Th e r e f o r e a
.
,

2 64
 66 S E X UA L T I ON

b r id ge a ll t h r o u gh t h e ,

t he c e ll s in t h a t fila
m e n t a r e a c t iv e c e ll s .

I f o n e i n dividu a l in a
fil a m e n t is a p a s s iv e
c e ll a ll o th e r c e ll s o f ,

t h a t fil a m e n t a r e p as ;

s iv e o r r e c e i v m g c e ll s .

T h e r e is m o r e phy s i o
l o gi c a l differ e n t i a ti o n
in t he S pi ro gyr a th a n
in t he m o ld in th a t ,

t h e ga m e t e s b e h a v e

Th m t b
ere see tws diffo t te i f b
o d m ld
e r en
diff e r e n tly
s ra n s
Th
o
e ac
rea o
.

call d plu
e d mi us an Th h yphn f u li k
s. t ie tt t tiv
a o
e ga m e t e s m ay b e
n e s ra n s a ra c

ea ch th o d yg p
er an z f m d
os ore s a r e or e .

c o m p a r e d t o m a le ga m

etes o f hi gh e r pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s t h e p a s s iv e o r r e c e ivi n g ga m
, ,

etes t o fem a le ga m etes

, Aft e r t h e zy go s p o r e s a r e f o r m e d t h e
.
,

fil a m e n t S h e a t h b r ea k s d ow n t he c e ll w a ll s di s i n t e gr a t e a n d t h e
, ,

zygo s p o r es f a ll t o t he b o t t o m o f t h e p o n d T h e y s t a y in a do r .
,

m a n t c o n di t i o n u n t il t h er e i s s uffi c i e n t w a t e r a n d w a r m th t o pr o

Wh e n two t h r e a ds o f S pir o gyr a lie pa ra lle l t o e a c h o t h e r , a d

ja c e n t c e ll s m a y s e n d o ut li t tl e t ub e s w hi c h m e e t Th e cr o s s
v v
.

wa ll s in t h e tub e s b e c o m e dis s ol e d, l e a in g a n un o b s t ruc t e d

b r idge v
Th e e n t ir e c o n t e n t s o f o n e c e ll ( a ct i e ga m e t e ) will pa s s
v v
.

o er and m in gl e with t h e c on t e n t s o f t h e o t h e r c e ll ( pa s s i e ga m
e te ) . Fus ion t a k e s pla c e a n d a zygo s po r e is fo r m e d I f o n e c e ll
fil v fi v
.

in a a m e nt ha s a m o in g ga m e t e , t h e c on t e n t s of a ll th e c e ll s o f th a t la m e n t b e h a e in
a s imila r wa y .
 R E P R O DUC T I O N I N PA R AM E C I U M 2 67

m o t e t h e i r ger m i n a t i o n Th e n e a c h . zy go s p o r e a b s or b s w at er ,

br e a k s t he zy go s p o r e c a s e , a n d f o r m s a n e w fil a m e n t a s a re s ul t

of bi n a r y fi s s i o n Th e r e li k e o r xso gom et e
.

is e n o u gh s t o r e d f o o d in
t he zy go s p o r e t o s t a r t t h e

g e r m i n a t i o n a nd s u s t a in

lif e u n t il t he fil a m e n t c a n
ma ke I t s Own f oo d E h f th ac ll wh i h fu
o e ce du i g s jcug t i sei r n c on a on s
’

k w no g m t n as aWh a ye e .l y lik t h y
e n ve r n ea r a e e are

S e xu a l r e pro ducti on in ll d i g m t
ca e C
so a j ug t i
e es i th
. onult of t h
a on s e res e
fu i fp t s on o ll f t har ll
or a t t o fi g mt
e ce co n e n s o so a e es .

P ar a m e c ium . P a r a m ec i a Th ult f t h u i
e res i
o e
yg p n on s a z os or e .

or di n a r ily r e p r o du c e a s e x

ua lly by bi n a r y fi s s i o n Oc c a s i o n a lly s e xu a l r e p r o du c t i o n t a k e s
.
,
'

pl a c e Two c e ll s lie n e xt t o a n d in c o n t a c t wi t h e a c h o t h e r
. .

At t he p o i n t o f c o n t a c t t h e c e ll m e m b r a n e s di s s o lv e Va r io u s .

c o m pli c a t e d c h a n e s t a k e pl a c e in t h e n u c l e i o f t h e t w o a n i m a l s
g .

The m a c r o n u c l e u s in e a c h b r ea k s up a n d di s i n t e gra t e s Th e .

m i c r o n u c l e i go t h r o u gh a n u m b e r o f divi s i o n s a n d fi n a lly o n e
fra gm e n t o f e a ch m i c r o n u c l e us p a s s e s o v e r a nd u n i t es wi t h a
fra gm e n t o f t he m i c r o n u c l e u s in t h e o pp o s i t e c e ll Af t er t hi s .

m u t u a l e x c h a n ge a n d fu s i o n o f m i c r o n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l t h e t w o ,

P a r a m e c i a s e p a r a t e a n d t he m i c r o n u c l e u s
,

o f e a c h go e s t h ro u gh fu r t h e r c o m pli c a t e d

divi s i o n s whi c h r e s ul t in t h e fo rm a t i o n o f
,

b o t h a m i cr o n u c l e u s a n d a m a c r o n u c l e u s
’

Th e c o n ju ga t i o n o f t he P a r a m e c ia s e em s '

t o b r i n g a b o ut a r e n e w e d vi go r I n cer . .

t a i n s p e c i e s c o n ju ga t i o n m a y o c c u r o n c e in
e v e r y t wo o r t h r e e hu n d r e d ge n e r a t i o n s ,

A ph t m i
o o cr o g ph
ra h wi g
s o
a l t h on
u gh th e s e s a m e S p e c i e s m a y liv e a v e r y
th “P m i
e a ra
l o n g t i m e p r o vidi n g c o n di t i o n s a r e f a v o r
ec a'
,

a bl e wi t h o u t e v e r r e p ro du c i n s e xu a lly
, g .

C e r t a i n r e c e n t e xp e r i m e n t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e e n vi r o n m e n t
affe ct s t he vit a lity o f t he Pa r a m e c iu m By remo vi n g w a s t es a n d
.
2 68 S E X UA L R E P R O DU C T I ON

by kee pi ng p r op er foo d p re s e n t th o u s a n d s o f ge n er a ti o n s h a v e,

b e e n p r o du c e d fro m a s i n gl e h e a l t hy i n dividu a l o f a c er t a i n s p ec i es .

Un d e r t h e se c o n diti o n s c o n ju ga ,

t i o n ha s n o t t a k en pl a ce b e tw ee n
a n y t wo a n i m a l s but c er t a i n in ,

t e r n a l c h a n ge s o c c ur r e d whi c h
w er e o b s er v e d a n d d e s cr ib e d .

S e x ua l r e pro duc tion in h igh e r

plan t s a n d a nim al s I n t h e s e xu a l .

m e t h o d o f r e p ro ducti o n o f t he
S pi r ogyr a t he e n ti r e c e ll a c t s a s
,

t h e ga m e t e I n t h e P a r a m e c iu m .
,

Th ph t m i
e o o g p h
cr o f ram l d ou lat u Soim pyl
c a P a
re r t O f t h e m i cr o n ucl e u s
W hi h b w
c S v l yg p
° s se e ra z °s °r e s
a c t s a s t h e ga m e t e but lik e s iz e d
'
“

-
,

p o r ti o n s o f t he m i c r o n u c l e u s u n i t e Wh e n ga m e t e s a r e s i m il a r t h e y
.

a r e k n o w n a s is oga metes o r lik e ga m e t es I n m o s t hi gh e r pl a n ts

.

a nd a nim al s c er t a i n s p e c i a liz e d o r ga n s p r o du ce c e ll s t ha t f o r m
,

g a m e t e s .T h e r e a r e t w o ki n d s o f g a m e t e s On e a v e r y s m a ll
.
,

c e ll u s u a lly e quipp e d with a m o til e t a il is c a ll e d t he m icr o ga m

,

e t e o r t h e s perm ce ll The o th e r typ e o f r e p r o du c tiv e c e ll is t he

.

r e c e ivi n g o r p a s s iv e c e ll I t is l a r ge r a n d is
.

c a ll e d t h e m a c r o ga m e t e o r egg I t u s u a lly .

s t o r e s f o o d p a r t i c l e s c a ll e d y o lk gr a n ul e s .

Wh e n t he e gg is r ip e a s p er m m a y p e n e t r a t e
,

t he e gg . The n u c l e u s o f t h e s p e r m fu se s
wi t h t he n u c l e u s o f t he e gg Thi s p r oc e s s .

is c a ll e d fer tiliza tion Th e c e ll f o r m e d by

.

t h e u n i o n o f t h e e gg a n d s p e r m c e ll is
k n o w n a s a zygo t e .

ffifiiééifififg
‘l
ffipiiigif fi
h
fi
‘ ’
M atura ti o n E v e r y s p ec i e s o f a n o r ga n
. o

ti d yg p m on a n z °s ° s'
is m ha s a c o n s t a n t n u m b er o f c h ro m o s o m e s .

T he n u m b e r is a lwa y s t h e s a m e fo r th a t s p e c i e s D u r i n g f er tili .

z a t io n,
w h e n t w o c ell s u n i t e t h e n u m b e r o f c h ro m o s o m e s w o uld
,
 2 70 S E X UA L RE P R O D U CTI O N
p r o du c t i o n o f t h e m a t u r e e ggs is c a ll e d oogen es is All o f t he .

s p er m a t o z o on s o r s p e r m s o f a s p e c i e s a r e o f t h e s a m e s iz e a n d

s t r u c tu r e All m a y fu n c t i o n
. E a c h o f t h e m h a s a t a il lik e .
-

s t r u c t ur e o f c yt o pl a s m c a ll e d t h e fl a ge llu m By m e an s o f t h e fla .

g e llu m t h e s p e r m s a r e

a bl e t o m o v e a b o u t .

Ooge n e s i s is e s s e n t i a lly
t h e s a m e a s s p e r m at o
M y p m f im l m y wim b ut t h m t u
o a
l ll
an s er s o an a s gg a s o e a re e .

g e n e s I S n e a r ge c e
O p m p th ll m m b f th d
‘

ne s er t t e n e ra e s gg
e ce e ra n e o e e an

h m m
I S t he r e a l l
i i th i f u Th dd d
l Ct
car r e s n s ca s e, o r c ro os o es e s e ar e a e
I l l ll g
’

t th i du d
.

o e
'

eum b i th
ce u l un f ther m tu n gg e n c e s o e a re e .

Th u i e f p m
n on o d gg wit h t h
s er t ani g f the igi l
g a m e t e C a ll e d
e r e s or n t h e m a o e or na
,
n um b f igh t h m
er o m
e i f t il i t i
c ro oso es s er za on .

t u r e e gg I t cont ai ns .

t he f o o d s upply o r y o lk I n t h e p r o c e s s o f m a t ur a t i o n o f t h e e gg
.
,

t h r e e m i n u t e c e ll s k n o w n a s p ola r bodi es a r e t h r o w n o ff
‘

F e rt iliz a t io n Af t er t h e m a t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s
. t h e ga m e t e s ,

for m e d f r o m t h e p r i m a r y s e x c e ll s a r e r e a dy fo r u n i o n o r f e r t iliz a
t i on Th e s p e r m is a lw a y s in a m o i s t e n vi r o n m e n t a n d by m e a n s
.

o f it s fl a ge llu m s wi m s t o t h e e gg I n s o m e e ggs t h e r e is a s m a ll .

o p e n i n g in t h e m e m b r a n e c a ll e d t h e m i cr opy le Th r o u gh t hi s .

o pen i ng o n e sp erm e n t er s Wh e n a n e gg l a c k s t he m i cr o pyl e a

.
,

s p e r m p e n e t r a t e s t h e pl a s m a m e m b r a n e Th e h e a d o f t h e s p e r m .

c o n t a i n s t he n u c l e u s Th e fl a ge llum o r t a il o f t he s p e r m is u s u a lly
.

l e f t o u t s id e o f t h e e gg Af t e r a s p e rm n u c l e u s en t e r s t h e e gg a
.
,

c h e m i c a l c h a n ge t a k e s pl a c e wi t hi n t h e c e ll m e m b r a n e Thi s .

p e rm a n e n t ly s e a l s t he e gg s o t h a t n o m o r e s p e r m s c a n e n t e r .

Th e n u c l e u s o f t h e e gg a n d o f t h e s p e r m fu s e T he e n t r a n c e o f .

t h e s p e r m r e s t o r e s t h e o r i gi n a l n u m b e r o f c h r o m o s o m e s in t he

e gg c e ll M it o s i s o f t he f e r t iliz e d e gg t h e n t a k e s pl a c e I t di ffe r s
. .

fr o m t ypi ca l m i t o s i s in t h a t h a lf t h e n u m b e r o f c h ro m os o m es
ca m e f r o m t h e s p e r m a n d h a lf c a m e f ro m t he e gg Th e ch r o m o .

s o m es a r e s a id t o b e te r n a l a n d m a te r n a l in o r i gi n I m m e di a t e ly
"
p a .
,

m it o ti c divi s i o n o r c lea va ge t a k e s pl a c e a n d t wo c e ll s a r e f o r m e d ,

e a c h with t he s a m e n u m b e r o f c h r o m o som es a s t h e s p e ci e s ,
 P AR TH E N O G ENE S I S 27 1

to which t he p a r e n t s b e
l o n ged F r o m h e r e o u t he
.

c e ll s c l e a v e o r S pli t a ga i n

a n d a ga i n by m i t o s i s u n t il

e n o u gh c e ll s a r e f o r m e d t o

t a ke o n t h e s h a p e of t he

pl a n t o r a n i m a l e m b r y o .

Th e y o lk in t h e e gg s up
’

pli e s f o o d fo r t he r a pidly
dividi n g c e ll s F e r t iliz a
.

t i on p r o du c e s a v a r i e t y o f

ch ar a ct e r s by c o m bi n i n g
T h e pa r t h e n o ge n e t ic fr o gs pr o duc e d e xpe r im e n t a lly
ch r o m o s om e s fr o m diffe r J
b y a c q ue s L
o e b r e s e m b l e d n o r m a l fr o gs in t h e ir a p

e nt i n dividu a l s Thi s r e .
pe a r a n c e .

s ult s in t he p o s s ibili t y of s li gh t or r e a t
g
diff e r e n c e s a m o n g o ffs pr i n g .

P ar t h e n o ge n e s is . I t ha s
been s t at ed
t h a t t he e nt r a n c e o f a s p er m in t o an
.

e gg s t i m ul a t e s a c h e m i c a l c h a n ge in t h e

m e m b r a n e w hi c h s e a l s t h e m i c r o pyl e ,

a n d s t i m ul a t e s t h e e
gg t o go t h r o u gh
r e p e a t e d divi s i o n s Th e l a t e J a c qu e s
.

L o e b for m e r ly a t t h e Ro c k e fe ll e r I n s t i
,

t u t e c a r r i e d o n a s e r i e s o f e xp e r i m e n t s
,

t o i n v e s t i ga t e t h e n a tu r e o f t h e f e r t ili

z a t io n p r o c e s s H e p r i c k e d t h e e ggs
.

o f s e a u r c hi n s wi t h a n e l e c t r i c n e e dl e

a n d f o u n d t h a t t hi s b r o u gh t a b o u t a

m e m b r a n e a c t ivi t y a n d t h e e gg b e ga n
S pr in g a n d s um m e r a ph ids or pla n t
l ic e a r e W in gl e s s fe ma l e s w h ic h pr o t o cl e a v e H e n e xt f o u n d t h a t c e r t a i n
.

duc e yo un g, pa rt h e n o ge n e t ic a lly , e ve r y
1 0 t o 2 0 da ys . I n t h e a ut umn , m a l e s c h em i c a l s ca u s ed t h e s a m e r e s ul t s .

a re pr o duc e d, m a t in g o c c ur s , a n d fe r

v
t ili z e d e ggs a r e la id wh ic h la s t o e r t h e Thi s p r o c e s s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he
win t e r a n d h a t ch in t o fe m a l e s t h e fol
lowin g s pr in g .
e gg wi t h o u t t h e e n t r a n c e o f a s p e r m
2 72 S EX UA L RE P ROD U CTI O N
is kn own as p a rt he n o gen es is . Lo e b s u c c e e d e d
d e v el o pi n g pa r in ,

S e v er a l r e a c h e d t he t a dp ol e s t a ge
’
t h e n o gen e t ic a lly fr o gs e ggs ,
. .

A fe w gr e w t o b e n e a r ly a dult in a pp e a r a n c e a n d t h en di e d .

Th e i r d e v e l o p m e n t wa s i n c o m pl e t e P a r t h e n oge n e ti ca lly d e v e l
.

o p e d o r ga n i s m s m a y h a v e o nl y h a lf t h e n u m b e r o f c h r o m o s o m e s

c o m m o n t o t h e s p e c i e s s i n ce n o s p e r m c h r o m o s o m e s a r e p r e s e n t
, .

Th e p r o ce s s h a s n e v er b e e n p e r f o rm e d e xp e r i m e n t a lly in a n y , ,

o r ga n i s m hi gh e r t h a n t h e fr o g I t s o m e t im e s o c c ur s in n a t u r e
.

in c er t a i n o f t h e i n s e c t s a nd c e r t a i n w o r m s .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 . Wha t is t he diffe r e n c e b e t we e n se xua l a nd a se xu a l r e pr o duc

t ion
2 .D i s c us s s e xu a l r e p r o du c t i o n in t he m o ld ; in t he S pi ro gy r a .

3 . j
S t a t e a diffe r e n c e b e t w e e n c o n uga t i o n in m o ld a n d S pi r o gyr a .

4 .D is c us s s e xua l r e pr o d uc t i o n in P a r a m e c i um .

5 .Wh a t is t he va l ue o f s e xua l r e pr o d uc t i o n in t he life hi s t o ry o f

t he P a r a m e c iu m .

6 C o m p a r e fe r t iliz a t i o n wi t h c o n uga t i o n
. j .

7 D i s c us s s pe r m a t o gen e s i s ; O oge n e s i s
. .

8 Wh a t is t he pur po s e o f m a t ur a t i o n ?
.

9 S t a t e t wo c e llul a r a c t ivi t i es o f t he e gg t ha t a l wa ys fo ll o w t h e
.

e nt r a n c e o f s pe r m .

1 0 S t a t e t wo di ffe r e n ces b e t we e n a n u n fer t iliz e d a n d a f e r t iliz e d

.

e gg .

11 . Wha t is p a r t he n o ge n e s i s ? D i s c us s som e e xp er i m en t s t h a t h a ve
be e n c ar r i e d o n in p a r t h e n o ge n e s i s .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E AD I N G

k
At in s o n , G F , A College Te xtbook of B ota n y (H e nr y H olt
. .

G a ger C S Gene ra l B ota n y ( P B lakis t o n s S o n

’
. . .
, ,

Ho lme s , S J A n I n troduc tion to Gene ra l B iology (H ar c o ur t , B r a ce

.
2 74 R E P R O DU C T I ON OF H I G H E R P LA N T S

III . S ha k e s om e polle n fr o m t he a n t h er o n to a gla s s s lide . M o un t un der

t he m icr o s c o pe .

A . H O W m a ny ce lls ma k e up e ach po lle n gr a in ?

B D es cr ib e t he s ha pe c o lor a n d s t r uc t ur e of po lle n
.
, , .

C D r a w a n d la b e l s e v e r a l po lle n gr a in s e n la r ge d t e n t im e s
. .

IV . Clit at h in c r o s s s e c t io n o f t he o v ar y o f t he pis t il E xa m in e . it wit h a

h a n d le n s
A; The s e e dli e k s t r uc t ur e s a r e t he ovules . No t e t h a t t he o v ul e s ar e

v v
‘

ed
'

a t t ach t o t he
g
o ary w a ll a n d ar e n o t lo o s e in t h e oThe p ar t o f
a ry .

t he o v ar y w a ll t o w hic h t he o v ul es ar e a t t a c h e d is c a lle d t he p la ce n ta .

V . Pla ce an o v ul e on a gla s s s lide . Co v er it wit h a co v er gla s s a n d c r us h it

by c ar e fully p r e s s in g do w n wit h t he co v er l
g ss
a .

D o e s a n o v ule c o n s is t Of o n e or m o r e c ells ?
'

A .

B . No t e a c e n tr a l s tr uc t ur e This is t he em bryo s ac c o n t a in in g t he egg

.

0 . Dr aw t he o ut lin e o f a n o vule s h o win g t he po s it io n Of th e e m b ry o

s ac .

S tr uctur e fl o w e r c o n s i s t s o f a ca lyx ma d e up
of t h e fl ow e r . Th e
o f s e p a l s a n d a c o r olla m a d e up of p e t a l s Whil e t he e s s e n t i a l .

o r ga n s a re r ip e n ~

in g t h e y a r e pr o ,

t e c t e d fr o m r a i n ,

in s e ct s a n d cert a i n ,

m e c h a n i c a l i n ju r i e s
by t h e t i gh t ly e n
f o ldi n g c a lyx a n d
c o r o ll a Th e wh o l e .

s t r u ct ur e com a

p r i s e s t h e bud As .

t he e s s e n t i a l o r ga n s

r ip e n t he c a lyx ,

a n d c o r o ll a u n f o ld
Th ti l
e es sen g f th p du ti
a orf h gh ans pl t th
or e re ro c on o 1 er a n s ar e e

t m
s a d pi t il
en s a n A y g s th s. p l dp t l and
cc e s s o r e xp o s e
or a n s a ret he e se a s an e a s.

Th p l
e se f ld t h
a s ti fl w f m i g b ud Th u t h
en o e en re o er, or n a . s e

or g p t ct d wh il th y
ans a r e ip
ro e i g eTh p t l t e m a t u r e d pl S t l lS a n d
e are r en n . e e a s ar e re

q u tl y h wy
en d tt
s o t i t T hi m y
an a ul t i p ll i
ra c ti ns e c s . s a res n o na on .

Th t m
e s a p du p ll
ens d th pi t il p du
ro ce ul o s t a m en s
en an e s ro ces ov es . .
 P RO DU C T I O N O F TH E M A LE GAM E T E 2 75

P ro b l e m . Wha t efiect has a s uga r s o luti on on

po llen gr a ins
M ak e up c a n e s ugar s o lut io n s o f t hir t y - fiv e per ce n t ,

t e n pe r c en t , an d t hr ee pe r cent . Ta k e t hr e e h a n gin g- b

dr o p gla s s s lide s a n d o n ea c h o n e lay a co v er gla s s fr o m

t he c en t e r of whic h h a n gs a dr o p o f s ugar s o lut io n con

t a in in g s om e po lle n . Us e a differ e n t s uga r s o lut io n for

e a c h s lide . S e al t he co v er S lip a ir t igh t by m ean s
‘

Of

v a s e lin e .
(P e t r i dis he s o r Sy r a c us e w a t c h c ry s t als m ay ,

a ls o be
, us e d ) D iffer e n t p olle n r e q uir e s differ e n t
.

c o n c e n t r a t io n s o f s ugar s o lut io n in or de r t o gr o w . A
t hr ee-pe r -c e n t s ugar s o lut io n is us ua lly
'
n ee de d for t ulip,
n ar c is s us , a n d o n io n ; fi ft ee n pe r ce n t for s w e e t pe a a n d
n a s t ur t ium Le t t he pr e p ar a t io n s
. s t a n d for o n e o r t wo

day s . Then m o un t un de r t he m ic r o s c o pe .

I . D e s cr ib e t he s h a pe o f t h e po lle n gr a in s whe n fi
r st

pr o duc e d b y t he a n t her .

II . D e scr ib e wh a t h a s h a ppe n e d t o t h e gr a i n s .

A . Th e s e o ut gr o w t h s ar e c a lle d p ollen tubes

B . D e s cr ib e t he fo o d for t h e po lle n t ub e s whic h

y ou ha v e gr o wn .

III . C ar ef ully cr us h t h e t ip O f a r ipe s t igm a o n a

gla s s s lide a n d m o un t un der t he m ic r o s co pe .

A . D O y o u fin d a ny p o lle n gr a in s h er e ?
1 HO W did t h ey ge t o n t he s t igm a ?
.

B . DO any po llen gr a in s S h ow po lle n t ub es ?

1 . I n whic h dir e c t io n ar e t hey gr o win g ?
2 . Whe r e m us t t he ge r m in a t in g po lle n t ub e s
Ob t a in t he ir fo o d ?
IV . D r aw a nd la b e l a ger m in a tin g po lle n gr a in .
A po ll e n gr a in h a s tw o
n uc l e i, o n e a t ub e n u
c l e us , t h e o t h e r a ge n e r
P r o ductio n of t h e m a le gam e te . Po ll e n is v
a ti e n uc l e us
. As t h e
po ll e n gr a in form s t h e
p r o du c e d in t h e a n t h er Of t h e s t a m e n C e r t a i n .
poll e n t ub e , m a l e ga m
e t e s ( t h e s p e rm n ucl e i )
c e ll s in t h e a n t h e r go t h r o u gh a m a t ur i n g a r e pr o duc e d fro m t h e

p r o c e s s in w hi c h r e du c t i o n divi s i o n t a k e s pl a c e v .
ge n e r a t i e n ucl e us.

M a tu r e p o ll e n n u cl e i c o n t a i n o n e h a lf t he n u m b e r o f c h ro m o s o m e s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t he o th er ce ll s o f t h a t p a r t i c ul a r pl a nt Wh e n .
276 R E P R O DU C T I O N O E H I G H E R P LA N T S

m a t u r e , t he ip e r ant h e r o f t he s t a m e n s pli t s a n d s c a tt e r s t he
p o ll e n . Age n c i e s , s u ch a s wi nd i n s e cts o r w a t e r m a y a s s i s t in
, , ,

v
C om pli ca t e d n ucl e a r di is ion s in t h e e m b r y o s a c o f t h e o vul e o f a pla n t r e s ul t in t h e for m a t io n
o f e igh t n ucl e i , o f whi ch o n e is a n e gg n uc l e us a n d t w o a r e po la r n uc l e i T h e tw o pola r n uc l e i lie .

n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c e ll T h e e gg n ucl e us is t h e fe ma l e ga m e t e
. .

sc a tt e r i n g t he p o ll e n Wh e n p o ll e n r e a c h e s t he s t i gm a o f t h e
.

pi s til it m a y b e c a u gh t a n d h e ld by h a i r y o u t gro wth s p a r t i c ul a rly

,

a d a p t e d for th a t pu r p o se The s t i gm a t h e n s e c r e t e s c er t a i n
.

n ut r i e n t m a t e r i a l s whi c h t h e p o ll e n a b so r b s Af t e r t hi s p o lli n a .

ti o n t h e p o ll e n gr a i n ge r m i n a t e s by s e n di n g o ut a s l e n d e r th r ea d
‘

lik e t ub e The p o ll e n t ub e .

r o w s d o w n t h r o u gh t he pi s t il
g
a nd p e n e t r a t e s t he o vul e
t h ro u gh a n o p e n i n g c a ll e d t h e

mic ropyle As it gr o w s c e r .
,

t a i n n u c l e a r divi s i o n s t a k e
pl a c e whi c h p r o du c e t wo s perm ,

n uc lei Th e s p e r m n u c l e i with .

t h e i r r e du ce d n u m b e r o f c hr o
m o som e s a re t h e m a le ga metes
pl a n t o f t he
P r o duction of t h e fe m ale
A ph t mi o o g ph f p t f
cro r a vul h w
o a ar o an o e s o

i g th
n u l i i
e n th
c e mb y
n e eC mp it gr a m
o e t e
s ac. E a
o c h o vul e
a re I n t h e .

with t h di g m t t h t p f t h p g
e a ra a e o o e a e
o v a r y I S f o r m e d a s t he o ut
.

r o w t h o i a f e w ce ll s f r o m t h e o v a r y w a ll O n e O f t h e c e ll s in
g .

t he i n t e r i or o f t h e y o u n g o vul e a pp e a r s l a r ge r a n d r i c h e r in
278 R E P R O DU C T I O N OF H I G H E R P LAN T S

t he p r o c e s s o ffer tiliza tion Th e .

u n i o n o f t he s p erm a n d egg n u
cl e i f or m s t h e on e celled embryo -

whi c h de v e l op s i n t o a t i n y
pl a n t The u n i o n o f t he o t h er
.

s p e rm n u c l e u s a nd t he polar
n u c l e i f o r m s t h e c e ll th a t s t a r t s
c l eu

"
t ot
1
7g e,
t h e en dos perm whi c h is t h e f o o d
s upply o f t h e ti n y pl a n t Thi s .

d o ubl e fe r t iliz a t i on r e s ul t s in t he
fu t u r e pl a n t a n d it s f o o d s upply .

F orm a tion of th e s e e d a n d

I n t h e pr o c e s s offe r tiliza t ion in a o w e r a fl Th er e a r e ducts go i n g

s pe rm n uc l e us un i t e s wit h a n e gg c e ll n ucl e us
t o fo r m th e e m b r y o o f t h e fut ur e pla n t Th e .
fr om t he pl a n t t hr o u gh t he .

o t h e r s p e rm n uc l e us uni t e s w it h a pa ir o f
nuc l e i, th e pol a r n uc l e i Thi s la t t e r un ion t e
v
.

s ult s in t h e e n do s p e rm n ucl e us which di id e s

a n d , in t im e , fo r m s t h e fo o d s upply fo r t h e
e m b r yo D o ub l e fe r t il iza t io n is c h a r a c t e r is t ic
fl
.

of ow e r in g pl a n t s .

pl a cen t a Of t he o v a r y t o t he o vul e .

F o o d p a s s e s th r o u gh t h es e du c t s ,

whi c h n o ur i sh e s a n d e ff e c t s t he
r a pid divi s i o n o r c l e a v a ge O f c e ll s

in t he t i n y e m b r y o in t h e o vul e .

At t he s a m e ti m e t he e n d o s p e r m ,

t i s s u e o f t he o vul e gr ow s r a pidly a n d
s t o r e s t h e futu r e f oo d s upply fo r t he

em b r y o .As t he e m b r y o d e v e l o p s
i n t o a m a n y c e ll e d s t r u c t u r e dif
-
,

fer e n t ia t io n Of t h e c e ll s s e t s in a n d
t h e fi s t root o r hypocotyl t he fi rs t fl w
r Aft
,
er fe rt iliza t ion k
t a e s pla c e in a
o e r , t h e p e ta l s , s t a m e n s , a n d fr e q ue n t ly

bud or plumule , an d t he s ee d lea ves t h e s t i gm a s o f t h e pis t il d ry a n d ge n e rall y

fa ll o fl Th e e m b ry o a n d e n dos p e rm d e
v v
.

o r cotyledon s a re f o rm e d Th e en e l o n a n d t h e o ul e c oa t s gr o w t o a cc o m

m
.

o da t e t h e in c r e a s e d s iz e o f t h e s e e ds .

do spe rm d e v el o p s a t t he same ti me . Th e po d w ith it s co nt e nt s is t h e fruit .

 F O RM ATI O N OF TH E S E E D AN D F RU I T 2 79

I n t he gr a i n s , t h e en d o sp e rm is a w ell d e v e l op ed l o c a liz e d a n d
-
, ,

e a s ily id e n t ifi e d s t r u c t u r e in s e e d s s uch b ea n s p e a s a n d m a n y
, ,

n ut s t he c o t yl e d o n s p o s s e s s
,

t he f o od s upply fo r t he d e v e l
Op i n g pl a n t .

Whil e t h e e m b r y o a n d e n d o
s p e r m a r e d e v e l opi n g t h e o vul e
,

co a t s a b s or b f o o d f r o m t he
duc t s a n d d e v e l op in t o s eed
coa ts . The r ip e n e d o vul e a n d
it s c o n t e n t s c o n s t i t u t e t h e s eed .

The ova ry wa ll gr o w s t o a c c om
m oda t e t h e d e v e l o pi n g s e e d s
a n d f o rm s t h e fr uit . The fr uit
p r ot ec t s t he s e e d s u n til t h e y
are comp l e t e l y d e ve l o p e d .

F r ui t s a r e fr e qu e n tly a d a pt ed
t o di s p e r s e t he r ip e s e e d s .

Th ese s e e d s e s ca p e fr om t he
fr ui t a n d t he e m b r y o s t h ey c o n
,

t a i n will d e v e l o p i n t o n e w G iv t hen p pe diti

rO er f m i tu
c on d
on s o o s re an

w m th
ar w pl
, a net will d l p f m th
an mb y
e ve o ro e e r o

pl t if th y f a ll o n m o i s t
a n s e i t
n h d
e see W h i h f t h c
g o f t h pl
e or t i ans o e an s s

d v l p d f m t h h yp
.

,
e e o e ro t yle o co

s o il o f proper t em p e r a tu r e .

The fr ui t is a r ip e n e d o v a r y a n d it s c o n t e n t s t oge th er wi t h a n y ,

o th er p a r t o f t h e pl a n t t h a t h a s r ip e n e d with it
‘

Wh en t he b ea n s ee d is pl a n t e d it a b s o r b s w a t er a n d s en d s a
, ,

littl e a r c h e d s h o o t t he hyp o c o t yl i n t o t he gr o u n d The l ow er

, ,
.

s e e d or r a di c l e f o r m s t h e r oo t s y s t e m As t he upp e r p a r t o r
.

tr ue hyp oc o tyl s tr a i ght en s out it b r i n gs t he plu m ul e a b o v e t he

,

g r o u n d . T hi s f o r m s t h e s t e m a n d l e a v e s T h e. c o tyl e d o n s f ee d

t he ti n y pl a n t u n til it s l ea v e s a r e a bl e t o m a k e s uffi c i e n t fo o d t o
c a r r y o n t h e lif e p r o c e s s . Th e c o tyl e d o n s m a y e i t h e r r e m a i n u n d e r
u n d b lif t e d i n t o t h e a ir by t he gr o wth o f t h e hyp o c o tyl
g r o o r e .
 RE P R OD U C T I O N OF H I G H E R P LAN TS

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S

. v
1 N a m e t he p a r t s o f a fl o we r a n d gi e t he f un c t i o n o f e a c h .

2 Wh a t do we m e a n b y s e lf a n d c r o s s p o lli n a t i o n ? Wh a t a r e
.
-

s o m e a ge n t s o f c r o s s -p o lli n a t i o n ?
'

3 Will t he p o ll e n o f a d a i s y ge r m i n a t e o n a r o s e ? H o w do y o u
.

kn o w ?
4 Give t he h i s t o r y o f t he po ll e n gr a i n fr o m t he t i m e it is pr o
.

duc e d u n t il it fun c t i o n s .

5 Give t he h i s t o r y o f a n o v ul e un t il f e r t iliz a t io n t a e s pl a c e
. k .

6 D i s c u s s t he fe r t iliz a t i o n o f a n o vul e
. .

7 H o w m a n y s e e d s c a n p o s s ibly b e pr o d uc e d in a n y pl a n t ?
. .

8 Wh a t t hr e e pr o ce s s e s a re n e c e s s a r y fo r t he f o r m a t i o n o f a s e e d ?
.
.

9 D i s c us s t he d e ve l o pm e n t o f a s e e d a n d a fr ui t
. .

1 0 D i s c us s t he a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e fo ll o wi n g pl a n t s fo r di s pe rs i n g
.

t he i r s e e d s : m a pl e , e lm , t h i s t l e , B id e n s pe a , a ppl e
, .

1 1 Give e x a m pl es O f s e e d s o r fr ui t s di s p e r s e d by ( a ) wi n d ;
.

(b) a n i m a l s .

1 2 C ut a l o n gi t udi n a l s e c t i on o f s o m e fr ui t ( a p pl e , c uc u m b e r , w a t e r
.

m e l o n , pe a ) .
, k
D r a w a n d l a b e l s e e d s e e d s t a l , pl a c e n t a , o va r y wa ll .

13 Pla n t a b ea n s e e d
. . Wh e n it a ppe a r s a b o ve gr o un d , u pro o t it
a n d dr a w . L
a b e l hyp o co t yl , pl um ul e a n d c o t yl e d o ns
,
.
2 82 R E P R O DU C T I O N O F A N I M A LS

ga m e e s t f r o m t h o se t h a t p r o du c e f e m a l e ga m e t e s Am on g t he .

fr o gs fi s h e s a n d o t h e r l ow er a n i m a l s t h e r e is li t t l e e xt e rn a l m o r
, , ,

p h o lo g ic a l diff e r e n ce in s e x b u t t h e hi,gh er s p ec i e s o f a n i m a l s s h ow

e x t e r n a l diff e r e n c e s I n a ddi t i o n t o t h e s tr u c tu r e s th a t a re di r e c t ly
.

r e l a t e d t o p r o du c i n g a n d di s c h a r gi n g ga m e t e s di s ti n c t c h a r a c t er ,

is t ic s a r e f ou n d in o th er p a r t s o f t h e b o dy Th e m a l e s o f m a n y .

s p ec i e s o f bi r d s c a n b e e a s ily r e c o gn iz e d by t h e c r e s t s o n t h e h e a d s

a n d S pu r s o n t h e l e gs The m a l e bi r d s a r e u s u a lly m o r e ga yly

.

c ol o r e d a n d h a v e s w e e t er s o n gs t h a n t h e f e m a l e bi r d s
'

Am o n g m a n y m a m m a l s ( a n i m a l s t h a t a re w a r m bl o o d e d -
,

c o v er e d wi t h h a i r a n d s u c kl e t h e i r y o u n g) t h e r e a r e u s u a lly di ffe r
, ,

e n c e s in h o r n s s iz e o f b o dy h a bi t s v o i c e t e m p e r a m e n t a n d in
, , , , ,

t er e s t s . C o n t ra s t t h e m a l e r e i n d e e r wi t h t he do e Th e m a l e is a .

hu ge a n i m a l wi t h t re m en d o u s ly l a r ge an t l er s H e is a vi c i o u s .

fi gh t er a n d p r o t ec t s t he do e S he l ac k s a n t l e rs is p r op or ti o n
.
,

a t e ly s m a ll a n d S l e n d e r a n d u s u a lly d e p e n d s up o n t h e m a l e for
,

p r o t e c t i o n Th e diff e r e n c e s ju s t n o t e d a re c a ll e d t he s econ da ry
.

s exua l c ha r a c ters o f r e i n d e e r s .

S pa wn in g o f fr o gs F e r t iliz a t i o n t a k e s pl a c e in a n i m a l s in a
.

wa y v e r y s i m il a r t o pl a n t s Th e ga m e t e s m a t u r e a n d a r e t h en
.

b r ou gh t t o ge t h er in a wa y p e c uli a r t o t h e o r ga n i s m D iffe re n t .

V . Y . Z o ol o gi c a l S oc .

Th e lio n e s s an d lio n s h ow in t e r e s t in g s e c o n da r y s e xua l c h a ra c t e r s . N ot e t h e h uge h e a d a n d

s h a ggy m a n e o f t h e lio n .
 S P AW N I N G OF FROGS 2 83

S p e c i e s o f f r o gs r e a ch
m a t u r i t y in diff e r e n t
.

p e r i o d s o f t i m e At .

m a t u r i t y t he f em a l e
,

fr o g l a y s fif t y o r a
‘

hu n d r e d e ggs ova in , ,

t h e wa t e r E a c h o vu m
.

c o n s i s t s Of a t i n y c e ll

s u rr o u n d e d by y o lk o r

f oo d whi c h is c o v er e d
"

w i t h a ge l a t i n Ou s
coa t i n g .Th e a dul t
m a l e fr o g di s c h a rge s
s p e r m s i n t o t h e w a t er .

Th e s e s p er m s a r e m o
t ile , swim m ing b)

m ea n s o f t i n y t a il s .

I f a s p e rm c o m e s in
c o n t a c t wi t h a n e gg ,

I t p en e t r a t e s t h e e gg T h w pl id i di p it i ei co ily di t i gui h d f m
,
ac n s os on, s ea s s n s e ro

th it b l d f q u t ly d g u b ull
e e xc a e an re en an e ro s .

m em b r a n e a nd , t he
n u c l e i o f t h e e gg a n d s p e r m u n i t e in t h e f er t iliz a t i o n p r o c e s s I f t he .

e ggs a r e n o t f er t iliz e d t h e y s o o n die a n d di s i n t e gr a t e

,
I f sp erm s , .

do n o t r e a c h e ggs t h e y t o o a r e w a s t e d
, , Th e f e r t iliz a t i o n Of
, .

t he f r o g s e ggs is e xt e rn a l t o t h e b o dy a n d t a k e s pl a c e in t h e
’
~

w a t er . Thi s diff e r s f r o m t h e pl a n t wh e r e f e r t iliz a t i o n wa s in

t e r n a l t a ki n g pl a c e in t he o v a r y o f t h e pi s t il
,
Af t e r f e r t iliz a t i o n .
,

t h e ge l a t i n o u s s h e a t h s o f t h e f r o g s e ggs a b s o r b w a t e r a n d s w e ll
’ “

Thi s m a ss o f f o a m y m a t e r i a l i n s u r e s s o m e d e gr ee o f p r o t e c ti o n
a a i n s t e n em i es F i s h o r o th e r f r o gs c a n n o t r e a dily s w a ll o w t hi s
g .

hu ge m a s s Of ge l a t i n o u s e ggs
“
.

F i s h s p a w n in a w a y v e r y s im il a r t o f r o gs T h e y u s u a lly go t o .

qui e t sh a ll ow w a t e rs for sp aw n i n g a lth o u gh a fe w sp e ci e s o f

, ,
28 4 R E P R O DU C T I O N O F AN I M A LS

Fis h s e l dom s h o w s e con da ry s e x c h a ra c t e r s .

v
Th e s e x o r ga n s a r e t h e o a ri e s in t h e fe m a l e , a n d
t h e t e s t e s in t h e m a l e v
Th e o a r y pr o duc e s n u
.

m e ro us o va , e a c h of whic h c o n t a in s a y ol a n d a k
n uc l e us . T h e t e s t is pr o duc e s n um e r o us s pe r m s ,
e a c h o f whi c h h a s a n ucl e us , a h e a d , a n d a

m o t il e t a il .

r iv er fish s p a wn in t he o c e a n S o p ow er ful is t h e u rge t o s p aw n

.

in n a tu ra l s p a w n i n g gr o u n d s th a t t h e s a l m o n s will l ea p f a ll s o r
,

a r tifi c i a l b a rr i e r s in t h e i r e ff o r t s t o r e a c h qui e t w a t er o n t h e i r w a y

fr om t he d e e p s e a M a n y die o f e xh a u s ti o n on th e i r wa y if t h e y
.

m ee t t o o m a n y Ob s t a c l e s Th o s e th a t s ur m o un t t he b a rr i er s us u
.

a lly die s o o n a f t er s p a w n i n g .

P r oductio n of e ggs . C e r t a i n o r ga n s o f t he fr o g a r e s p e ci a liz e d

fo r t he p ro du c t i o n o f ga m e t es I n t he f e m a l e t he t wo ova ri es
.
,

s e c r e t e hu n d r e d s o f t i n y o v a T h e o va r i e s m a y b e c o m p a r e d t o
.

t he o v a r i e s or p i s til s o f fl o w e r s whi c h p ro du c e e gg c e ll s . Ov a r i e s
a r e c o m m o n t o a ll f e m a l e s in t he a n i m a l ki n gd o m Th e o v a o f .

t h e f r o g go th r o u gh a m a t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s in whi c h t he n u m b e r o f
ch r o m o s o m e s is r edu c e d o n e h a lf Thi s p r o c e s s r e s ul t s in t he
.

p r o du c ti o n o f m a tu r e ga m e te s The m a t u r e o va r e a c h t he b o dy
.

ca vity o f t h e fr o g a n d t h e n p a s s t h r o u gh t h e t ub e s c a ll e d oviducts
i n t o t he c l o a c a Th e y l e a v e t he c l o a c a by m e a n s o f a n o p e n
.

in g a t t h e p o s t e r i o r e n d o f t he f e m a l e f r o g s b ody a n d p a s s i n t o
’

t he s u rr o u n di n g w a t e r .O va a re ch a r a c t e r iz e d by t h e i r c o m p a r a
286 R E P R ODU C T I ON OF AN I M A LS

ce ll s k n o wn a s t he bla s tula The bl a s t ul a pu s h e s in j u s t a s a r ubb e r

.

b a ll m a y b e d e n t e d in by pu s hi n g o n o n e s id e A d o ubl e l a y e r e d .
-
,

mb b la s t ul a
e r
‘ y o
f
o

Th e e m b ry o b e gin s a s a s in gl e fe r t iliz e d e gg v
T h is di id e s t o fo rm t wo , t h e n fo ur , a n d cl e a v
G
.

a ge c o n t i n ue s un t il a gr e a t m a n y c e ll s a r e fo r m e d r a dua ll y difi e r e n t ia t io n s e t s in a n d s pe c ia l
.

i ze d s t r uc t ur e s may b e r e c o gni z e d . Th us th e va r io us o r ga n s o f t h e o r ga n is m d e ve lo p .

c p Sha
u -
pd u ct u r e k n o w n a s t h e ga s tr ula is t hu s f o r m e d Th e
e st r .

e m b r y o is n o w t w o l a ye r e d Th e o u t e r l a y e r is t h e ec toderm t h e in
-
.
,

s pe rm
g g n er l a y e r t h e en do de rm A m id
s: i
.

'
d le l a ye r t h e m es ode rm s o o n
j r f g
e t il e g , ,

cl e a v a a pp e a r s b e t w e e n t h e e c t o d e r m
g e

b la s t u l a a n d t he e n d o d e r m Th e f o ld e d .

e d ge s o f t he g a s t r ul a gr o w
towa r d e a c h ot h e r fo rm i n g a
I ,

m to e z r m 1728 8 06 3 1 1 1
1 e n d o d e r m ti n y m o u t h M a
.
r k e d diff e r .

q ei a f m i s m us h le s e n t i a t io n n o w s t a r t s a n d f o r m s

t y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s ti c t a dp o l e
gg g a g c
.

n e r vo u s
S t- s te m P a n ° m s T h ki d n er v o u s s y s t e m
g g b n a as e s n a n

a r e f o r m e d f r o m t he e c t o d e r m .

The di ge s t ive a n d r e s pi r a t o r y
Th f t il
e er b
gg y e e p t d ,di i ire d
ea et i s y s t e m
v s ons a ns a r e f o r m e d
c er a n f r o m t h e
ch ang b es,m th
eco g t ul w it h it t h
es e as rp a s re e r1

m yg ml y
ar er Fu t h diff
a e rs . ti ti
r d
er d e n
eren
d o d e r
a
m T
on an
h e e x c
e r e t o r y I C .
,
‘

I pm t g d th y t m
ve O en o e s on a n g e or
p r o du c t iv e m u s c ul a r S k e l e t a l
an s s e s a r1s e .
, , ,

a n d bl o o d s y s t e m s f o r m f r o m t h e m e s o d e r m D ur i n g t hi s d e v e l o p .

m e n t t h e y o lk is e n ti r e ly a b s o r b e d by t he a c t iv e ly dividi n g c e ll s .
 L I FE H I S T OR Y O F THE F RO G 287

Life his tor y of t h e fr og . Th e little t a dp o l e t h e n h a t ch e s fr o m

t h e ge l a t i n o u s e gg . F o r t he fi r s t t w o o r t h r e e d a y s it r e m a i n s ,

at t ac h e d t o gr a s s by
a s u c k e r lik e m o u t h -
.

Th e n it b e gi n s t o
f e ed o n a l ga e a n d
o t h er v e ge t a b l e
m at t er Wh e n fi r s t
.

h a t c h e d it h a s ex ,

te r n a l g ill s whi c h ,

g r o w o ut i nto long ,

branching t uft s .

La t e r fo ur p a i r s O f
,

i n t e r n a l gi l ls are

fo r m e d a n d t h e ex

t er n a l gill s are ah

s or b e d Th e hi n d .

li m b s s o on a pp e a r ;
l a t e r t h e f o r e li m b s
,

d e v el op Th e t a il
.

t h e n d e c r e a s e s in s iz e
a n d is gr a du a lly a b

s or b ed Th e gill s
.
,

too , a r e ab s orb ed .

a n d lu n s a r e f or m e d N Y Z b l gt l 8
g . . o o ca 00 .

Th f g fi t h t h f m th gg i t h f m f t dp l
t o t a k e t h e i r pl a c e
e ro rs a c es ro e e n e or o a a o e

G du l h g t k pl wh i h t f m it i t t h dult
.

.
ra a c an es a e ace c ra n s or n o e a

f b dy f m i ll d m t m ph
Th e t w o c h a m b e r e d f g
- Th i h g ro . s c ian e o o or s ca e e a or os s .

h e a r t o f t h e t a dp o l e b e c o me s t he t h r e e c h a m b e r e d h e a r t o f t h e fr o g -
.

F i n a lly t h e fo r m r e s e m bli n g t h a t o f t h e a dul t f r o g is a c qui r e d .

R e pr o ductio n of oth e r a n im a l s T h e r e p r o du c t i o n o f a ll hi gh e r .

a n i m a l s is s i m il a r t o t h e r e p r o du c ti o n o f t h e f r o A ll f m a l e s
g e .

h a v e o v a r i e s p r o du ci n g e ggs a n d m a l e s h a v e s p er m a r i e s or t e s t e s
,

p r o du c i n g s p er m s The s p e r m s f e r t iliz e t h e e ggs a n d t h er e by

.
2 88 R E P R O DU C T I O N O F AN I M A LS

cau se t h e f o r m a ti o n of em b ry o s . Sp e r m ce ll s
ke p t m o i s tm us t b e
in o r d e r t o fu n c t i o n . In t h e c a s e o f f r o gs a n d fis h f e r t iliz a t i o n is ,

extern a l a n d t h e w a t e r k e e p s t h e c e ll s

moist I n t h e c a s e o f a n i m a l s t h a t do
.

n o t liv e in t h e w a t e r s u ch a s i n s ec t s , ,

bir d s o r m a mm a l s t he e gg c e ll is r e
, ,

t a in e d wi t hi n t h e b ody o f t h e f e m a l e ,

a n d t h e u n i o n o f t h e e gg a n d s p e r m is

in tern a l Thu s t h e d a n ge r o f t h e ga m
.

e t e s d r yi n g is a v e r t e d Th e e m b r y o .

d e v e l o p s o ut s id e Of t h e b o dy wh e n t h e
fe r t iliz a t i o n is e xt e r n a l The w a t e r .

a l so k e e p s t he d e v e l o pi n g e m b ry o
m oist Wh en t h e f e r t iliz a t i o n is i nt er
.

n a l t h e e m b r y o m a y p a r t i a lly d e v e l o p
,

o r m a y c o m pl e t e ly d e v e l o p wi t hi n t h e

b o dy O f t h e f e m a l e F o r e x a m pl e t h e .
,

e ggs o f t he i n s e c t s s t a r t d e v e l o pi n g
wi t hi n t h e f e m a l e b ut l a t e r t h e y a r e de
,

p o s i t e d in t h e gr o u n d o r o n pl a n t s a n d
t he d e v e l o p m e n t c o n t i n u e s t h er e
M us eum of Na t ura l H i s tor y
.

A mer .

I n t h e b ir ds , t h e o r igin a l e gg c e ll
a n d y ol k b e co m e s ur r o un de d b y
- s h e ll
o t h e r m a t e r ia l s d ur in g t h e pa s s a ge
do wn t h e o iduc t v . I t b e co m e s s ur
r o un de d b y a c oa t in g o f a l b um e n ,

t h e whi t e o f t h e e gg, w h ic h is s e
v
c r e t e d b y t h e gla n d s o f t h e o iduc t .

A lim e c o a t in g wh ic h fo r m s t h e s h e ll
is th e n s e c r e t e d a r o un d t h e wh o l e
mas s .

I n t he ca se of bi r d s ,
A s e c t io n t h r o ugh a c h ic k en s
’
e gg s h o w s t h e t in y em

t he b r y o s t a r t s a n 1 n b y t t h d t t h y lk S u u di g t h y lk i th
em r o a ac e o e o . rro n n e o s e

l b um w hi h p t t t h
a mb y f m h k
en Twc ro e c s e e r o ro s oc . o
t erna l devel opm ent th i m m b .
w it h i t hnh ll f m
e i h mb t
ra n e s n e s e or an a r c a er a

d on e en
Th e f e r t iliz e d e gg r e
.

c e iv e s a hu ge d e p o s i t o f y o lk t h e n a lbu m e n is s p r e a d a r o u n d it
, ,

a n d fi n a lly it is e n v e l o p e d in a h a r d s h e ll o f li m e Th e y o l k .
290 R E P R O DU C T I O N OF A N I M A LS

2 da y s 5 da y s

1 0 da y s

2 0 da y s

v k
As d e e l o pm e n t o f t h e e gg t a e s pl a c e , m o r e a n d
m o r e difi e r e n t ia t io n oc c ur s k v
Th e y ol s e r e s a s t h e
.

foo d for t h e d e v e l o pin g o r ga n is m . Fir s t t h e c ir

c ula t ing s y s t e m m a y b e r e co gn i z e d , l a t e r t h e h e a d ,
lim b s , a n d o t h e r or ga n s Wh e n t h e a nim a l i s c o m
v
.

k
pl e t e ly d e e l o pe d , it pe c s it s wa y o ut o f it s s h e ll .
 Q UE S T I O N S AN D S U G G E S TI ON S 29 1

p ar t s o f t he m o t h er whi c h t he d e ve l opi n g e m
i
o r ga n s m , t h r o u gh

b r y o s a r e fe d I n t h e c a s e o f m a n y pl a n t s duc t s a n d S i e v e t ub e s
.
,

p a s s t hr o u gh t h e pl a c e n t a a n d t h r o u gh t h e s ee d s t a lk a n d thus
c a rr y n o u r i s h m e n t t o t h e s e e d I n t h e c a s e o f m am m a l s t h e .
,

bl o o d v e s s e l s o f t he e m b r yo e x t e n d i n t o t h e pl a c e n t a th r o u gh
a c o r dlik e s t r u c t u r e s o m e w h a t s i mil a r t o t h e s e e d s t a lk .

QU E S T I O N S AND S UGG E S T I O N S

1 . N a m e t hr e e differe n ce s b e t w e e n s e e d s a n d e ggs .

2 . D e s c r i b e t h e S pa w n i n g o f fr o gs .

3 . G ive t h e fo ll o w i n g fa c t s c o n ce r n in g t he r e pr o d uc t i o n o f t he fr o g
r e pr o d uc t ive o r ga n s , t h e n a m e s Of r e pr o d uc t iv e ga m e t e s , w h e r e fe r t i

k
liz a t io n t a e s pl a c e ( us e t h e w o r d e x t e r n a l o r in t e r n a l ) w h e r e t he ,

v
o r ga n i s m d e e l o ps , a n d t h e fo o d o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g e m b r y o .

4 D i s c us s t he c o m pl e t e d e ve l o p m e n t o f t h e fr o g e m b r y o
”

. .

5 N a m e t h e ge r m l a y e r s o f t h e e m b r y o a n d s t at e t h e o r ga n s d e ve l
.

O pi n g fr o m e a c h l a y e r .

6 Us i n g t he o ut li n e h e a di n gs give n in ues t i o n 3 , ll in t he o ut
. q fi
lin e for a fl o we r , b i r d , a n d m a m m a l .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E A D I N G S

At wo o d Wm H a n d H e is s E lwo o d D E duc a ti ona l B iology (P B la kis t o n

’
, . .
, ,
.
, . s

S on CO ) .

H a upt Ar t h ur W , F unda me n ta ls of B iology (M cG r a w H ill B oo

, .
-
k
H o lm e s S ,
. J
Ge ne ra l B i ology ( H ar c o ur t B r a c e
.
,

Je we t t F G , The N e xt Gene ra ti on ( G in n a n d C O
. .
,
.

S c o t t G e o r ge G The S cie nc e of B i ology (T Y C r o we ll

—
. .
, ,

Wigga m A E F r uit of t he F a mi ly Tree (B o b b s M err ill C O

,
.
,
.
 C H APT E R XXX I

PROTE CTI ON
OF YOUN G

Th e ca t ta k es ca r e o f it s k
T h e y o un g a n ga r o o in i t s
ki t t en . m o t h e r s po uc h
’
.

Wha t i f fi s p ri n g li ves to m a turi ty ? Wha t i s t he l i

'

r
p po o r t o n o o r e a t on

of t he
pe r i o d o f a do les cen ce to len gt h f
o life ? Do l
al an im a ls ta ke
c a re o f t hei r youn g? Wha t an im a ls s ho w t he gr ea tes t p a r en ta l in
s tin ct ?

We h a v e a l r e a dy l e a r n e d th a t a ll
pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s s t a r t life a s
s i n gl e c e ll s I n s o m e s p e c i e s t hi s S i n gl e c e ll is a s p o r e in o t h er s
.
,

a zy go s p o r e a n d in s t ill o t h e r s a f e r t il e e gg
, Wh e t h e r t h e c re a .

t u r e is a Pa r a m e c ium o r a n e l e ph a n t it s t a r t e d lif e a s a s i n gl e c e ll
'
, .

Th e offs prm g o f s im pl e orga n is m s Wh e n a n a m o e b a a b a c

.
,

t e r ium o r a n y o t h e r o n e c e ll e d o r ga n i s m divid e s i n t o t wo n e w
'

-
,

c e ll s ,t h e p r o du c t i o n o f t h e n ew i n dividu a l s m a r k s t h e dis a p

p e a r a n c e o f t h e p a r e n t I t is i m p o s s ibl
. e for t h e d a u g h t e r c e ll a n d
t h e m o th e r c e ll t o e xi s t a t t h e s a m e t i m e Y e t it w o uld n o t b e t r u e
.
,

t o s a y t h a t t h e m o th e r c e ll di e s fo r t he p r o t o pl a s m o f whi ch it
,

c o n s i s t e d c o n t i n u e s t o liv e in t h e t w o n e w d a u gh t e r c e ll s E a ch .

o f t h e y o u n g a m o e b a s is qui t e a s c a p a bl e o f t a ki n g c a r e o f i t s e lf

a s is t h e O ld e r i n dividu a l f r o m whi c h e a c h ca m e E x ce p t fo r t h e .

g r o wth in t h e c o m p a r a tiv e ly s h o r t ti m e b e tw e e n o n e c e ll divi s i o n

a n d t h e n e xt whi c h in t h e c a s e Of s o m e o r ga n i s m s w o uld b e o n ly
,

a b o ut t w e n ty m i n u t e s t h e y o u n g i n dividu a l is in e v e r y w a y lik e
,

t he full gr o wn i nd ividu a l
-
Th e re is p r o b a bly s o m e diffe r e n c e in
.
, ,

s iz e h o w e v e r
,
.
294 P R O T E C TI O N O F Y O UN G

Fr uit s a n d s e e ds a r e fr e q ue n t ly fo r di s pe r s a l fr o m t h e pa r e n t pl a n t
a d a pt e d k
W in gli e a n d
fl
.

fe a t h e ry s t r uctur e s a r e a da pt a t io n s fo r win d di s pe r s a l ; b a r b s a n d s w e e t e s h y pa r t s a r e a da pt a
t ion s fo r dis pe r s al b y a n im a l s .

p o i n t a n d th e n s t o p s A s ur plu s of n o ur i s hm e n t in t he f or m
.
,

o f e n d o s p e r m o r c o t yl e d o n s m a y b e s t o re d a b o ut t h e y o u n g e m
,

b ry o . Addi t i o n a l pro tec t iv e c o v e r s ge n e r a lly gr o w a b o u t t h e s ee d

.
.

All o f t h e s e p r oc e s s e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a r e c l e a r ly rel a t ed t o pr o
t e c t in g t he y o u
'

n g pl a n t a n d s upply in g it wi t h n o u r i s h m e n t t h a t

it c a n use un til it d e v e l o p s t he l e a v e s whi c h m a k e it s own f ood .

The see d c o v e r o r t he fr uit o f t e n p o s s e s s e s a v a r i e ty o f s t r u e

, ,

tu r e s s u c h a s wi n gs sti c k er s fl e shy pulp o r d ow n whi c h a id t h e

, , , ,

y o u n g s ee d t o tr a v e l s om e di s t a n c e fr o m t he p a r en t pl a n t Th e s e .

s t r u c tur e s a r e a l s o t h e r e s ult o f p a re n t a l a c t ivi t y a nd t h e y c on ,

t r ibut e t o c o ndi t i o n s th a t m a k e fo r t he f a v o r a bl e gr o w t h o f t he
y o un g pl a n t I f the y o u n g pl an t s w er e t o gr ow t oo c l o s e t o t he
.

p a r e n t pl a n t t h ey m i ght n o t s ec u r e s uffici en t s u n li ght fo r s t a rc h

,

manufa cture nor eno u gh m inera l s f rom t he s o il for p r ot e i n ma n

 I NFA N C Y t
A M ON G L O WE R A N I MA L S 2 95

ufa c t ur e . Th e d is p r o t e c t e d whil e wi t hin t he fr ui t I t h a s

se e .

b e e n s up pli e d wi t h f o o d whi c h it c a n us e l o n g a f t er it h a s l e ft t he
o va ry , a n d it h a s b e e n s uppli e d by t h e p a r e n t pl a n t with s o me

a d a p t a t i o n in o r d e r t o ge t a w a y t o a m o r e f a v or a bl e e n vir o n m e n t .

I nfan cy am on g lo we r a n im a ls F r o gs fis h a n d o th e r w a t er
.
, ,

a n i m a l s u s u a lly p r o du ce l a r ge n u m b e r s o f e ggs a n d s p e r m s a n d

di s ch a r ge t h e s e i n t o t he s u rr o u n di n g w a te r Pr o b a bly m a n y t h o u
.

s a n d m o r e s p e r m s th a n e ggs a r e p r o du ce d E v e n t h o u gh a l a r ge
.

p r op o r t i o n o f t he e ggs m a y b e c om e fer tiliz e d m o s t o f t he sper m s ,

die a s t h e y gr e a t ly o u t n u m b er t he e ggs Pr o b a bly o n ly a s ma ll

.

p r o p or t i o n o f t he fe r t iliz e d e ggs e v e r ge t fa r b ey on d t he e a r li e s t
s t a ge s o f d e v e l o p m e n t Th e y a r e fr e qu e n t ly d e v o u r e d by a n i m a l s
in t h e w a t e r . B e c a u s e f er t iliz a t i o n t a k e s pl a c e l n t he w a t e r a n d
t h e e m b r y o s d e v e l o p e x t e r n a lly a gr e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e y o u n g
,

die o r a r e d e s tr o y e d .

H A r m s t ro n g R o b er ts

v
.

Th e m o th e r h e n wa t c h e s o e r , s h e lt e r s , a n d h e lps th e c hi c k s ga t h e r foo d .
2 96 P R OT E C TI ON O F Y OUN G

Th e r e is v e ry littl e c a r e of t he y o u n g a m o n g t he l ow er a n i m a l s
s u ch as f rogs a n d fi s h e s . In m a n y c a s e s t he p a r e n t di e s b e f o r e
t he e gg h a s h a d t i m e t o h a t c h .

The f er t iliz e d e ggs a r e u s u a lly

l e ft u np r o t ec t e d I n a n o c c a s i o n a l
.

s p e c i e s th er e is s o m e e vid e n c e o f

wh a t m a y b e c a ll e d p a r en t a l c a r e .

F o r e x a m pl e i n s om e fi s h e s t he
, ,

p a r en t m a y fin d a p r o t e c t e d s p o t ,

a s un d e r a r o ck a n d la y a m a ss ,

o f e ggs Th e s a l m o n a n d o t h e r
.

fis h t h a t s p e n d p a r t o f t h e i r liv es ,

in s a lt w a t e r a n d p a r t in fr e s h
w a t e r m i gr a t e m an y m il e s up l a rge
,

r iv e r s a n d d e p o s it e ggs in s h a ll o w

m ww
w a t er fa r fr o m t h e ir n a t ura l en
M us eum , N a t ura l

Th e fe mal e lo b s t e r ca rr ie s th e e ggs whil e em l e s . Y et ) Of t he on e 01

‘
t wo
v eggs la l d b y ea c h f e m a l e
t h e y a r e d e e l o pin g S pe c ia l h a ir s a t t a c h e d
.

m l lll OI l
t o t h e a ppe n da ge s o f t h e a b do m e n s e c r e t e ;

“ gg “
31533 o n ly a v e r y few will e v e r r ea c h
e s

m a tu r ity Am o n g t h e c r u s t a cea n s
.

( l o b s t er s c r a b s s h r i m p s ) t h e f em a l e s o m e ti m e s p r o du ce s a s ticky
,

fluid a b out t he e ggs As t h e e ggs c o m e o ut o f t he b ody a n d b e

.

c o m e f e r tiliz e d t h ey a re a t
,

t a c he d t o t he swi mm e r e t s o n
"

t he a bd o m en o f t h e f e m a l e
a n d rem a i n th ere u n til t he
e m b r y o s a r e r e a dy t o h a t c h .

Am o n g t h e m o llu s k s ( o y s t e rs
Th f m l yfi h t lye i eh gga e cra s no on c a rr e s er e s
a n d c l a m s ) t h e f er tiliz e d e ggs tt h d t th wimm a tac b ut b y t igh t
e o i g e s e re s , s ra en n

h bd m d w vi g t h
er a wim m ot b i g
en a n a n e s ere s r n s
r e m a l n W l t h I n tll e c a v I t y 0 f
.

th gg i t t wit h upply f xy g
e e s n co n a c a s o o en.

t he mo th er s m a n t l e a n d s o
’

a r e p r o t ec t e d by t h e s h e ll u n til t h e y o u n g h a tch a n d a r e a bl e t o

s wi m .
29 8 P R O T E CTI ON OF YO UN G

fir st fewd a y s o n r i c h f o o d p r o duce d in t h e s t o m a c h of c e r t a i n o f
t he w o r k e r b ee s t h a t a c t a s n u rs e s L a t er t h ey a r e fed wi t h a
.
,

fi
Th e digge r wa s p lls h e r ne s t wit h s pid e r s s t un g in s uc h a w a y a s t o pa ral y z e a n d pr e s e rv e
'

th e m An e gg is lai d o n e a c h s pi de r ; wh e n t h e la r va h a t c h e s i t i s w e l l s upplied wi t h fo o d
. .

m ix t u r e Of p o ll en a n d h o n e y . C er t a i n o f t he w or ke r b e e s a ct a s

so ldi er s to gu a r d t h e hiv e .

I n fan cy am o n g b ir ds . Am on g t he bir d s
i n dividu a l
, t he n ew

r ece iv e s a l a r ge a m o u n t o f p r o t e c t i o n a n d f o o d fo r a v e r y l o n g

p er i o d Aft er f er t iliz a t i o n whi c h t a k e s pl a c e i n s id e t he m o t h er

.
, ,

t he e gg i m m e di a t e ly s t a r t s t o d e v e l o p Th e y o lk a n d a lbu m e n
.

re p r e s e n t l a r ge f oo d s uppli e s a n d t h e s h e ll is a n e ff e c tiv e pr o t e c
,

t i on . Af t er t he e gg is l a id in a s p e c i a lly m a d e n e s t t he d e v e l o p ,

in g e m b r y o is k e pt w a r m by t h e p a r en t s b o dy Thi s is kn ow n
’
.

a s i n c ub a t i o n I t m a k e s p o s s ibl e a s a f e a n d r a pid d e v e l o p m e n t
. .

B o t h t he p a re n t s o f m a n y s p e c i e s Of bi r d s t a k e p a r t in t h e
n e s t buildi n g in p r o t e c ti n g t h e n e s t a n d in i n c ub a t i n g t h e e ggs
-
, ,
.

Wh e n t h e y o u n g o f s o m e s p e c i e s c om e o ut o f t h e e ggs t h e y a r e ,

fully d e v e l o p e d a n d v er y m u c h lik e t he a dult The y o u n g chi c k .

,

fo r e x a m pl e b e gi n s t o w a lk a n d t o pi c k up f o o d p a r ti c l e s a l m o s t
,
 I NFA N C Y A M O N G M AM M A L s 2 99

i mm edi a t e l y Am o n g o t h er bi r d s s u c h a s r o bi n s a n d e a gl es t h e
. , ,

y o u n g bi r d s a r e qui t e h e lpl e s s Th e f e a t h e r s h a v e n o t d e v e l o p e d
. t
‘

t h e e y es a r e c l o s e d a n d t h e n e s t li n gs a r e n o t a bl e t o f ee d t hem?
,

s e lv e s . Th e p a r e n t s fly a b o u t gat h e r i n g i n s e c t s fis h l a m b s o r , , ,

wh a t e v e r it is t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e ir f o o d Th e y b ri n g t hi s f o o d .

h o m e t o t h e n e s t li n gs Th ey p ro t e c t t h e m fr o m o th er; a n i m a l s
.

a n d te a c h t he m in due t im e h o w t o fly a n d ge t f o o d fo r t h e m
~

, ,

s e lv e s . On ly w h e n t he y o u n g a r e s tr o n g e n o u gh t o fly a n d f o r a ge
fo r t h e m s e lv es a r e th e y put o ut o f t h e n e s t B i r d s la y c o m p a r a .

t iv e ly fe w e ggs b e c a u s e due t o i n t e r n a l f e r t iliz a t i o n a n d p a r e n t a l

,

c a r e e a c h e gg p r o du c e d is a l m o s t s u r e t o d e v e l o p i n t o a y o u n g
,

a nim al .B i r d s u s u a lly la y o ne e gg a t a t i m e a n d wh e n t h e n u m b e r ,

th a t is u s u a l for t he p a r t i c ul a r v ar i e ty
o f b ir d is re a c h e d t h e p a r e n t s s t a r t
'

t o i n c ub a t e t he e ggs C o m p a r e t hi s
.

n um b e r o n e t o s ix t e e n wi t h t h e m il
, ,

li o n s o f e ggs p r o du c e d by t h e s a l m o n
a n d t h e l a c k o f p a re n t a l c a re a f t e r

t h e s a l m o n e ggs a r e l a id a n d s p r a y e d
wi t h m ilt .

I nfa n cy a m on g m a mm a ls Th e .

e m b r y o o f a m am m a l is p r o t e c t e d by ,

t h e m o t h er s b o dy a l o n ge r ti m e t h a n
’
,

th a t o f a n y o t h er a n i m a l D u r i n g .

t hi s p e r i o d d e v e l o p m e n t goe s o n
, ,

a n d a t bi r t h t h e y o u n g is e a s ily r e c
,

o gn iz a b le a s b e l o n gi n g t o a p a r ti c ul a r C f y u g i ft h w a re o o n s o en s o n

bi d T h t il bi d w v l b
Th e embry o s 0 f d1ffe r e n t
o r s . e a or r ea e s an e a
S pe c I GS
.

.
t h gi g t i wh h th or a e
gg an n ne s n ic e e s

h t h d d th y u g d fare a c e an e o n ca r e or
s p ec i e s ta ke v a r y l n g l e n gt h s O f t l I I l e
.

B th t h m t h d f th bi d b do e o er an a er r s r oo

t o d evel o p
v
The r ab b ft d e v e l o p s th th k p th th m O f g f f d wh il
o er e . ne o ra es or oo e
tli g w m
'

e o er ee s e nes n s ar .

fr o m t he fe r t il e e gg i n threew e e k s a n d
t h e n is b o r n ; t h e hu m a n b a by n ee d s a b o u t n i n e m o n t h s ; a n d t h e
e l e ph a n t a b o u t t w o y ea r s Thi s s h o w s re m a r k a bly r a pid d e v e l o p
.
300 P RO T E CTI ON OF YOUN G

N Y . . Zob l oaic a l S oc .

Of c e
ll s c o n s id e r i n g t he f a c t th a t
m ent
e a c h a n i m a l o r i gi n a te d a s a s i n gl e
“

fer t iliz e d c e ll .

N Y Z b l gi l S
. . o o ca
Th e k a n ga r o o a n d t he o th e r m a r
oc .

s upia ls , p o u c h a n i m a l s giv e bi r th t o t he y o u n g whil e th e s e a r e

,

s t ill p o o r ly d e v e l o p e d Th e b a bi e s c r a wl i n t o t h e p o u c h o n t h e
.

m o th er s a bd o m e n Th e s ki n li n i n g t hi s p o u c h c o n t a i n s gl a n d s
’
.

th a t s e cr e te a m ilky fluid by m ea n s o f whi c h t he y o u n g k a n ga

roos f ee d . All f e m a l e m a m m a l s h a v e w e ll d e v e l o p e d m ilk gl a n d s
-

a n d n o r m a lly s u c kl e t h e i r y o u n g fo r a l o n g o r s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e .

S o m e m a m m a l s a r e a bl e t o s t a n d o r w a lk i m m e di a t e ly a ft er
bir t h Thi s is t r u e O f t he c a lf a n d Of gr a zi n g a n i m a l s ge n er a lly
. .

Am o n g o t h e r s p ec i e s t he n ew b o r n y o u n g is c o m pl e t e ly h e lpl es s
,
-
.

The ki t t e n d o e s n o t o p e n it s e y e s fo r s e v er a l d a y s The hu m a n .

N Y
. . Zob l oai ca l S oc .

C ar e of youn g r e a c h e s it s h eigh t s am ong th e ma m ma l s .

30 2 PRO T E CTI ON OF YOUN G

TAB LE OF AD OLE SC EN C E

A NM L
I A G ROW I N G P E R I OD LE N GTH OF L I F E

I . E le ph a n t ( As ia t ic or F ull gr o w n b ut n ot fully 7 0 t o 8 0 y e ar s .

I n dia n ) m a t ur e at y e ar s 25 .

F v
ull igo r a n d s t r e n gt h
at 35 .

4 t o 6 y e ar s . 20, v er y r ar ely 3 5 t o 40 .

3 t o 4 y e ar s . 18 to _ 30 y e ar s ;
r ar e ly to 4 0 y e ar s .

4 C a t t le 3 t o 4 ye ars 14 t o 2 0 y e a r s
”

. . .

5 . S hee p I t o 2 y e ars . 6 t o 1 0 y e ar s .

6 . P ig 1 t o 2 y e ar s . 6 t o 12 y e ar s .

7 . D og 2 y e ar s . 12 y e ar s .

8 . Nor wa y Ra t ( M us 1 4 m o n t hs . 3 y e ar s .

n or v e gic us )

9 . C at l t o 2 y e ar s . 12 y e a r s .

10 . Lion 3 t o 4 y e ar s . 1 2 t o 20 y e ar s .

11 . M an 2 0 t o 2 5 y e ar s . 65 t o 7 5 y e ar s .

C o m pile d b y D r C . . V . N o b ac k , N e w Y or k Z o o lo gic al P ar k .

r e ga r d t o t he p ro l o n ga t i o n o f i n fa n c y I n ge n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t is .
,

fo u n d t o b e m o r e r a pid in w a r m c o u n t r i e s t h a n it is in co ld e r
r e gi o n s F o r thi s r e a s o n m a t u r i t y in p r a c t i c a lly a ll f o r m s is
.
, ,

r ea c h e d a t a n e a r li e r a ge a m o n g p e o pl es in t he t r o pi c s a n d s e m i

tr o pic s t h a n a m o n g th os e who liv e in t e m p er a t e a n d c o lder c o u n

t r i e s Thi s h o w e ve r c a n n o t b e a c c ept e d with o ut a d m itt i n g a n
.
, ,
 DEVE LOP M E N T OF P A R EN TH OO D 3 03

e x ce pti o n The E ski m o s fo r e x a m pl e m a tur e in gen er a l a t a n

. , , , ,

e a rli er a ge t h a n t he E n gli s h Th e r e a r e n o d o ubt o th e r f a c t or s

.
, ,

( M a da m e L e B r un a nd h e r da ugh t e r ) .

All t hr ough th e a ge s , a r t is t s , in th e ir wo r s k o f ar t , ha v
e e xpr e s s e d m o th e r
lo v e a n d t h e d e p e n de n c e o f c hildr e n .

th a n cli m a te th a t i n flu e n ce d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a tur ity I t is .

p r o b a bl e th a t n utr iti o n ha s a n i n flu e n c e Th e r e is a l s o a n o th er
.

s id e t o b e c o n s id e r e d fo r r a pid d e v e l o p m e n t o r e a r ly m a tu r i n g is
, ,

g e r a lly c o n n e ct e d wi t h r e l a tiv e ly s h o r t e n e d du r a ti o n o f life

e n ,
.

The a v e r a ge l e n gth o f life a n d t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l n u m b er o f p eo pl e

Of a dv a n c e d a e a r e u s u a lly t i t h o s e c o m m u n it ies t hat
g g r e a e r n

g iv e t h e c hild r e n a l o n ge r p e r i o d i n whi c h t o d e v e l o p p r o t ec t th e m ,

m or e c o m pl e t e ly fr o m v a r i o u s d a n ge r s a n d l oo k a ft e r th e i r n ee d s
,

m o r e th o ro u ghly .

D e ve lopm e n t of par e n th oo d Am o ng t he s i m pl e s t orga n i s m s

. ,

t h e r e is n o p e r i o d o f lif e c o rr e s p o n di n g t o p a r e n t h o o d At a c e r t a i n .
3 04 P R OT E C T I O N OF Y O UN G

ph ase in t he o r ga n s m s
i gr o wth ,
it divid e s i n t o t wo p a r t s I n t he .

a c t o f r e p r o ducti o n it e n d s it s o wn e xi s t e n ce
, Am o n g t he hi gh e r
.

o r ga n i s m s e s p ec i a lly b ir d s a n d m a m m a l s
, r e p r o du c t i o n o f n ew
,

i n dividu a l s is ge n e r a lly r e p e a t e d for a l o n g or sho r t p er i o d o f

yea r s A c o n s id er a bl e p or t i o n o f t he i n dividu a l s a c tiviti e s h a s
.
’

t o do wi t h p r e p a r i n g fo r a n d c a r i n g fo r t he y o u n g I n man .

ki n d p a r en th o o d Oft e n m a kes a gr e a ter d em a n d up o n t h e i n divid

,

ua l th a n j u s t m a ki n g a livi n g On t h e o th e r h a n d t he i n crea s e d
.
,

a c tiviti es Of a dult s for t he y o u n g m a k e p o s s ibl e fo r e a c h ge n e r a

ti o n a b ett er p r ep a r a ti o n a n d a r i ch er e quip m e n t fo r lif e S o .

m u c h th a t c o n c e rn s a n d s o m u c h th a t is Of v a lu e t o hu m a n s lie
b e y o n d t he p r o bl e m s o f m a ki n g a livi n g in t he m a t er i a l s e n se .

QU E S T I O N S AN D S UGG E STI O N S
1 . Wh a t a r e t he a dva n t a ges t o a s p e c i e s in pr o du cin g e ggs of
s e e d s ? Wh a t di s a dva n t a ge s ?
2 E xpl a i n t he n e c e s s i t y for s u c h a t r e m e n d o us ly l a r ge e gg pr o du c
t i o n a m o n g fis h a s c o m
.

p a r e d w i t h t h e s m a ll p r o d uc t i o n a m o n g bi r d s .

3 H o w c a n a n o r ga n i s m m a k e pr o vi s i o n fo r Off s pr i n g t h a t it ca n
'

n e ve r s e e or k n o w ?

4 Wh a t a r e s o m e o f t he a dva n t a ge s Of pr o l on ge d i n fa n c y ? Wh a t
.

a r e s o m e di s a dva n t a ge s ?

5 H o w m a y a n i m a l s t h a t l o o k a ft er t he ir yo u n g b e n e fi t fr o m s uc h
.

a c t ivi t i e s

6 H ow c a n pl a n t s b e s a id t o t a ke c a re o f t he i r y o un g ?
.

7 Wh a t a r e s o m e o f t h e d a n ge r s fr o m wh i c h t h e yo un g o f pl a n t s
.

m us t b e pr o t e c t e d ?
8 Wh a t a r e s o m e o f t h e d a n ge r s fr o m wh i c h t h e y o un g Of a n i m a l s
.

m us t b e pr o t e c t e d ?
9 D i s c us s wh e t h e r o r n o t a ki t t e n s d e ve l o pm e n t c a n b e h u rr i e d
’
.

by for c in g it s eye s o pen ?

1 0 D i s c us s wh e t he r t he r e is a n y w a y o f h a s t e n in g o r s l ow in g up t he
.

de ve l opm e n t o f a pl a n t or a n a n i m a l ?
1 1 M a ke a s p e c i a l r e p o r t o n t h e b re e di n g h a bi t s o f t he s t i ckle
.

b a ck or s o m e o t h er n e s t b uil di n g fis h
-
.

1 2 Give a r e p or t o n t he m i gr a t i o n s a n d b r ee di n g h a bi t s o f t he
.

s a l m on o r o f t he e e l .

13 . Give a r epo r t on t he b re e di n g ha b i t s o f t he o bs t e t r i c a l t o a d
a n d co m p a re t he s e w i t h t h e b r e e di n g h a bi t s O f co m m o n t oa d s .
 C H AP T E R XXX I I

C H ARACTE R
OF O FF S P RI N G

M us eum of Na t ur a l H i s t ory M us eum of Na tur a l H i s t or y

Tur tl e E gg
s. D in o s a ur E ggs.

Wha t c ha ra c ters c a n he in he rited ? Wha t is t he l i

re a t o n of en viro n

men t to her edity ? Ca n a p e r s o n c o n s ci o us ly i nfluen ce his in he r i t

a n ce ? Wha t co n s ti tutes go o d e n vi ro n m e n t ?

Va r ie ty in protopla s m Th e f a c t t h a t t h e
. livi n g m a t t er of a ll
pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s is p r o t o pl a s m , h a s a l r e a dy b e e n di s c u s s e d All .

p ro t o pl a s m is a lik e in c e r t a i n O f t h e e l e m en t s t h a t c o m p o s e it ; it
is a lik e in it s gro w t h by a s s i m il a t i o n it s s e n s i t iv e n e s s t o s t i m ul a
,

ti o n s a n d it s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e s t i m ul a t io n s Y e t p r o t o pl a s m o f
, .

o n e s p e c i e s is diff er e n t f r o m th a t O f a n o t h e r The p r o t o pl a s m
.

Of a s qu a s h s ee d for e x a m pl e
, d e v e l o p s o n ly i n t o a s qu a s h vi n e
,

a n d n e v e r i n t o a r o s e bu s h n e v e r i n t o a c a n a r y
, The p ro t o pl a s m
.

o f a wr e n s e gg d e v e l o p s i n t o a w r e n n e v e r i n t o a will o w t r e e n o r
’
,

a w o lf . T h es e di ffe r e n c e s a r e t h o u gh t t o b e l o c a t e d in c er t a i n
p a r t s Of t he c h ro m o s o m e s c a ll e d gen es Th e s e ge n e s a r e t he r e a l
.

c a rr i e r s o f h ere di t a r y t r a i t s By a ge n e is m e a n t t h e p a r t o r u n i t
.

fa c t or o f t he c h r o m o s o m e whi c h is s upp o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t a n
,

h e r e dit a r y c h a r a c t er The d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he o r ga n i s m d e p e n d s
.

l a rge ly up o n t he ch a ra c t er d e t er m i n er s o f t he ge n e s
-
.

A m a n y c e ll e d o r ga n i s m gr o w s by t h e i n dividu a l c e ll s dividi n g
-

m it o ti c a lly .I n thi s m it o ti c divi s i o n ea c h c h r o m o s o m e s pli t s i n t o

,

t wo p a r t s e x a c tly a lik e . He n c e t he ch r o m o s o m e s in a ll c ell s

,

306
 VA R I E TY IN P R O T OP LA S M 307

d er iv e d fr o m o n e ce ll will b e a like The s qu a s h s ee d co n t a i n s .

p r o t o pl a s m t h a t is a c o m bi n a t i o n o f t he p r o t o pl a s m Of t he p a r e n t
pl a n t s Th e p r o t o pl a s m in t he f er t il e e gg o f a fr o g is a p a r t
.

a n d a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f t he p r o t o pl a s m o f t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e f r o g .

E a c h ki n d O f p r o t o pl a s m c o n t i n u e s t o b e m u c h t he s a me ge n er a ,

ti o n a f t e r ge n e r a t i o n .

Th e r e is n o diffi c ulty in r e co gm z rn g m a pl e tr ee s b e c a u s e a ll ,

m a pl e t r ee s r e s e m bl e e a c h o t h e r B ea n pl a n t s r es e m bl e be a n
.

pl a n t s E l e ph a n t s re s e m bl e e l e ph a n t s All t he i n dividu a l s Of a
. .

s p e c i e s a r e m u c h a lik e Y e t n o t w o i n dividu a l s a r e e v e r e x a c tly

~

a lik e .We m i ght c a ll by n a m e a n d k n o w s e v e r a l hu n d r ed s o f t h e

*
E X AM P LE S OF C H R O M OS O M E NU M B E RS
in An im a ls a n d P la n t s )
(

MM O N N ME E NTI F I C N ME G I N B O DY I N G AM
CO A SCI A R O UP
CE LL S E TE S

S p o n ge S y c a n dr a r a p h a n us
H y dr a H y dr a fus c a
E a rt hwo r m L um b r ic us h e r c ul e us
S n a il fr e s h w a t e r vv
P a ludin a i ip a r a
v
,

C r a y fis h C a m b a rus ir ilis
M a l a r i a l m o s q uit o A n o p h e l e s p un c t ip e n n i s
H o us e m o s q uit o C ule x p ip ie n s
H o us e fl y M us c a do m e s t ic a
S t a r fis h v
A s t e r i a s ul ga r is
R a n a c a t e s b ia n a
C hi c k en G a llus do m e s t ic us
F e lis c a t us 35 and 36 17 and
18
C a n is fa m ilia r is 21 a nd 22 10 an d 1 1
E q uus c a b a llus
M a c a c us r h e s us

H om o s a p ie n s

S p ir o gy r a n e gle c t a T h a ll o p h y t a
S p h a gn um s q ua r r o s ium B ry o p h y t a
P t e r is a q uil in a P t e r i do p h y t a
v
P in us s y l e s t r is G y m n o s p erm a e
P is um s a t i um v An gio s p e r m a e
v
T r it ic um ulga r e A n gi o s p e r m a e
Ze a m a y s A n gio s p e r m a e

* R e p r in t e d b y p e r m is s io n fr o m W ils o n : T h e C e ll in D e vle op m e n t and H e r ed it y ( 1 9 2 5 ) b y

T h e M a c m illa n Co .
3 08 C HA R ACT E R OF O FF S P R I NG

pupil s Of o ur s c h ool S ci en ti s t s di s ti n gui s h in a lik e m a n n er th o u

.
, ,

s a n ds o f i n dividu a l s o f o n e s p e c i es o f a pl a n t o r a n i m a l The s e
‘

I nt er n a t i o n a l News S e r vi c e

Va r ia t io n s
in t h e h e a ds o f b ir ds All t h e b ir ds in
.

t h e pic t ur e m a y b e de s c e n da n t s o f t h e s a m e o r igin a l
a n c e s t or C o m pa r e th e s e wit h o t h e r s t h a t y o u n o w
. k .

a re a ll e n o u gh lik e t o b e c l a s s e d a s i n s e c t s pi ge on s o r d a hli a
a , ,

pl a n t s ; b ut e a c h is diff er e n t in s o m e w a y fr o m a ll t h e o t h er s .

Th e p r o bl e m s o f t h e s e lik e n e s s e s a n d di ff e r e n c e s a r e t he p r o bl em s
O f h e r e di t y . Th e s t udy O f h e r e di t y i n c lud e s a s t u dy o f a ll t h e
v a r i o u s c h a r a c t er i s t i c s in t h e o ff s p r i n g t h a t a r e m o r e o r l e s s s i m il a r
t o t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s o f t he a n c e s t or s .

E n vir onm e n t in fl u e n ci n g de ve lopm e n t I n dividu a l s of t he

.

s a m e S p e c i e s m a y diff e r b ec a u s e a ll do n o t h a v e e x a c tly t h e s a m e

c o n di t i o n s du r i n g t h e i r e a r ly d e v e l o p m e n t D iff e r e n ce s in t e m
.

p e r a t u r e i
, n t h e r e l a t iv e a m o u n t Of m o i s t u r e in t he c h a r a c t er o f
,

w e a t h e r or of f o o d m a y c a u s e pl a n t s t o b e s tu n te d o r s l ow t o
,

fl ow er in o n e r e gi o n wh en c o m p a r e d wi t h t he S i m il a r pl a n t s of
a n o t h er r e gi o n . A m or e a bu n d a n t s upply o f m i n e r a l s a lt s o r m or e ,

s u n s hi n e a t c er t a i n p e r i o d s m a y p r o du ce pl a n t s t h a t a r e s om e
,

wh a t b e t t e r de v e l o p e d t h a n o t h er s gr o w n fr o m t he see d s o f t he
s a m e p a r e n t pl a n t . E v e r y f a r m e v e r y r o a d s id e a n d e v e r y c ity lo t
, ,

fu r n i s h e x a m pl e s o f pl a n t s th a t h a v e t h r iv e d b e tte r o r w or se th a n
t h e i r n e i ghb o r s b ec a u s e o f v a r i a t i o n s in t h e i r e n vi r o n m e n t s
, .

Te m p er a tu r e m o i s tu r e li gh t a n d f oo d a r e s o m e o f t he f a ct or s
, , ,

th a t i n flu en c e t he d e v el op m en t of a n i m a l s a s w ell a s o f pl a n t s .

Th e m a l e o f t h e E u r o p e a n b ullfin c h h a s a b r i ght r e d b r ea s t ; t h e
f em a l e is en t i r e ly b r ow n I f t he m a l e bi r d is fed o n h em p seed it s
.
,

p liI m a g e c h a n ge s t o a dull c o l o r s i m il a r t o t h e f e m a l e A m o n g h o n ey .
3 10 C HA RA CT E R O F O FF S P R I NG

o r ga n s mi in qu e s t i o n will b en efi t Will o n e .

s y s t e m o f t r a i n i n g m a k e a ll i n dividu a l s m u s i

c al,
O r qui c k a t fi gu r e s ,
o r s killful in a t h

le t ic s ? I f S O a n d if it is d e s i r a bl e t he s y s t e m
, ,

s h o ul d b e i n v e s t i ga t e d a n d a ppli e d t o a ll

c hild r e n .

All o f t h es e e x a m pl e s a n d o t h e r s whi c h
,

t h e y m a y s u gge s t a r e p r o o f t h a t pl a n t s a n d
,

a n i m a l s a r e i n flu e n c e d by wh a t h a pp e n s t o

th em T he s e di ffe r e n c e s th a t d e p e n d up o n
.

t he e n vi r o n m e n t a r e k n o w n a s va ri a ti o n s .

B e c a us e t h e y a ffe c t t h e b o dy c e ll s o f t h e
o r ga n i s m s a n d n o t t h e ge r m c e ll s th e y a r e

a l s o c a ll e d s oma ti c (b o dy ) va r i a ti on s Th e y .

a ff e c t t h e i n dividu a l wi t h o ut a ff e c t i n g t o a n y ,

e xt e n t t h e O ff s p r i n g o f t h a t i n dividu a l
, .

An c e s try infl ue n c e s de v e lopm e n t The .

c a r e ful f a r m e r o r a n i m a l r a i s e r h a s l e a r n e d
Fr e n ch po o dl e
t o s e l e c t t h e s e e d s for his pl a n t i n g o r t h e ,

a n i m a l s whi c h h e is t o us e fo r b r e e di n g .

L ar ge s e e d s a r e m or e va lu a bl e t h a n s m a ll
seeds , e s p e c i a lly wh e n a s e e d c r o p s u ch a s ,

b e a n s o r p e a s is d e s i r e d A h e a l t hy c ow
,
.

t h a t giv e s a r e l a t iv e ly l a r ge a m o u n t o f m ilk

is a m o r e p r o m i s i n g m o t h e r fo r go o d c a lv e s
t h a n a c o w t h a t yi e ld s o n ly a s m a ll qu a n t i t y

Air e da l e E n gl i s h s e tt e r

All do gs pro b a b ly o r igin a t e d

 A N C E S TR Y I NFLUEN C E S DEVE LO P M EN T 3 11

o f m ilk . Th e
bili t y t o p r o du c e a l a r ge
a

qu a n t i t y o f m ilk is a t r a i t t r a n s m i t t e d
fr o m p a r e n t t o o ff s p r i n g I f t h e fa r m e r
.

is i n t er e s t e d in e ggs for m a r k e t h e ,

s e l e c t s h e n s t h a t la y o v e r 2 00 e ggs a
E n glis h b ulldo g
ye a r a n d u s e s t h e s e e ggs fo r h a t c hi n g
,

pur p o s e s Th e s e O ff s p r i n g wi t h a few
.
,

e x c ep t i o n s a r e go o d e gg l a y e r s
,
-
Thi s .

t r a i t t oo s e e m s t o b e a n h e r e di t a r y o n e
, ,
.

F o r c e n t u r i e s t h o s e e n ga ge d in pla n t
, ,

a n d a n i m a l i n du s t r i e s h a v e s e l e c t e d t h e
S c o t ch t e r r ie r
b e s t i n dividu a l s a n d t h e b e s t s ee d s fo r
co n t i n ui n g o r i m p r o vi n g t h e i r s t o c k .

C e r t a i n diff e r e n c e s a re f o u n d a m o n g
c o t t o n pl a n t s a n d c o r n pl a n t s am ong ,

c o w s a n d h o r s e s a m o n g hu m a n b e i n gs
, ,

a n d in f a c t
, a m o n g a ll o r ga n i s m s th a t
,

s e e m t o h a v e n o t hi n g t o do wi t h t h e

ki n d o f t r e a t m e n t t h e y ge t S o m e c o t
G
.

r e y h o un d
t o n pl a n t s p r odu c e l o n g fib e r s a n d
o t h e r s s h or t fib e r s b e c a u s e t h e y c o m e
,

f r o m c e r t a i n s t o c k Th e y b e l o n g t o a
.

p a r t i c ul a r b r e e d S om e c a lv e s b e c o m e
.

H o l s t e i n c ow s a n d o th e r s b e c o m e J e r s e y
c ow s ,
no m a t t e r h ow t h e y a r e fe d .
D a c h s h un d

S t B e rnar d
. Am e rica n fox h oun d
fro m th e sa me a n ce s t or .
3 12 C H AR AC T E R OF OFF S P R I NG

I n t he -s a m e i n c ub a t o r u nd e r lik e c o n diti o n s o f m o i s tur e a n d

,

t e mp er a tur e s om e e ggs h a t c h i n t o Rh o d e I s l a n d Re d s a n d s o m e
,

i n t o Plym o uth Ro c k s .

On e h o r s e is s a id t o in
h er it a d efi n it e c o a t c ol o r ,

a cer ta i n s h a p e o r t he ,

a bili t y t o r un r a pidly o r

to pull h ea vy l o a d s .

Th e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e p a r t
o f h is b r e e d Th e J Ohn .

s o n child r e n a r e k n o w n

t o b e t a ll a n d t h e B r o w n
c hild r e n a re S h or t al ,

t h o u gh th e y a ll s e e m t o
b e giv e n go o d f o o d a n d
care Th e y i nh e r it th e i r .

s t a tu r e I n a dditi o n t o .

a n ythi n g in t h e e n vi r on

m e n t whi c h m a y infl u ,

e n ce t he qu a liti e s o r
c h a r a c t er i s t i c s Of i n di
v idua ls t h e r e is s o m e ,

thi n g with whi c h t he

Af t M g er or a n

Th ugh ro fulcar e p im t ti
ex d fi it
er p t
en a f
i n dividu a l is b o r n
on , e n e
S om e
ar s o
.

h m m i t h f uit fl y h v b
c ro os o es n e r f u d t b a e
t hi n g t h a t i n flu e n c e s his
e en o n o e t e
l t d t d fi it
a e o e t u tu
n e s r S i t i t h v m pp d
c re s . c en s s a e a e on

th h m
e c ro m os o f t h f uit fl y t h l
es o e ti r f th g d e v e l o p m e n t a nd m a ke s
e oca on o e ene s

t i d fi it
,

wh i hc ca rr
y c er a n h e t n e c a rac e r s .

him diffe r e n t fr o m o th e r s
t h a t liv e in t he s a m e e n vi r o n m e n t T he c h a r a c t e r s t h a t a r e .

i nh er e n t in t h e i n dividu a l a r e k n ow n a s germin a l va ri a ti on s Th e y .

a r e a p a r t O f t h e a n c e s t r y b e c a u s e th e y a r e in t h e ge n e s O f t he

c hr o m o s o m e s in t h e f e r tiliz e d c e ll Th e y c a n b e t r a n s m itt e d f r o m .

p a r e n t t o Off s p r i n g b e c a u s e th e y a r e a p a r t o f t h e ger m pl a s m in t he
e gg a n d S p e r m .
3 14 C H A RA C T E R O F O FF S P R I NG

fr i gh t e n e d by a fir e I f t he .

bi r t h m a r k ha s h a i r gr o wi n g o n
it t he e xpl a n a t i o n giv en is t h a t
,

a m o u s e fr i gh t e n e d t h e m o t h e r

b e f or e t he c hild wa s b or n .

S t r u c t ur a l c h a n ge s c a n n o t b e
p r o duc e d in a child by m a t e r
n a l i m pr es s i o n s or m en t a l ex

p e r ie n c e s o f t he m o t h e r Th e .

phy s i o l o gi c a l e xp l a n a t i o n of
V y im il t w i gi l
er s ar n r s.
bi r th m a r k s is th a t a n u m b er o f
s m a ll bl oo d v es s e l s o f t h e

S ki n of a n ew b o r n i n f a n t -

h a v e r e m a i n e d dil a t e d in a
p ar ti c ul a r s p o t Thi s is a .

s om a t i c n ot a r m in a l
g e ,

var i a t i on .

Th e c h a r a c t e r s c o m
b in ed in t he c hr o m o s o m e s
.

du r in g t he u n i o n o f t he
S p er m a n d e gg a r e t he
ch a r a c t er s t h a t will de
v e lO p in t he c hil d If .

m u s i ca l a bili t y is in o n e o f
t he ge n e s it will b e p r e s ,

en t in t h a t O f t h e o ff
s p ri n g I f n o t n o a m o un t
.
,

of p r a c t i c e o n t he p ar t O f

t h e p a r e n t will d e v e l o p t he
t a l en t The o n ly s t r uc .

tur a l ch a n ges m a d e in t he
m m 0 m m; O ff s p r i n g a r e t hose t h at
t ph t g ph f th
A r e cen o o ra o m i d t i l t wi
e sa e Iti en ca ns s
v y difi ult t di ti gui h f m th th c a n b e a fie C t ed by go o d
.

er c o s n s on e ro e o e r.
 D I FFE R EN C E S AM O N G O FF S P R I N G 3 15

or p o or n ut r i t i o n o r t o xi c m a t e r i a l s o f o n e s o r t o r a n o t h e r On ly .

by a ffe c t i n g ge r m c e ll s c a n t he c h a ra c t e r o f t he o ff s p r i ng b e c o n
tr o ll e d o r c h a n ge d Re c e n t ly it h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t in
.
,

t e r n a l s e c re ti o n s c i r c ul a t i n g in t he bl o o d o f t he pa r e n t m a y a ff e c t
t he ge r m c e ll s Thu s if a m o t h e r s t hy r o id is o v e r a c t iv e a n d t o o
’
.
,

m u c h t hy r o xi n c i r c ul a t e s in t he bl o o d t h e ge r m c e ll m a y b e ,

a ff e c t e d in s u c h a wa y t h a t a b n o r m a li t i e s in t h e d e v e l o pi n g O f f
s p r i n g a r e fr e qu e n t ly b r o u gh t a b o u t .

D ifl e r e n c e s am on g o fl S prin g I t h a s lOn g b e e n k no w n t h a t
’
.

c er t a i n c h a r a ct e r i s t i c s o r qu a li t i es r e a pp e a r in s u cc es s i ve ge n e r a
ti o ns Wh y do n o t a ll t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p a r e n t s r e a pp e a r ?
.

I f e a c h n e w i n dividu a l w e r e m e r e ly a p o r t i o n o f a n O ld e r i n dividu a l ,

it c o uld r e a dily b e s e e n h o w t h e c h a ra c t er s w o uld c o n t in u e f r o m o n e

g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e xt W h e n pl a n t s a r e p r o p a ga t e d by c u t t i n s
.
g
o r by gr a f t s ,
t h e pl a n t s t hu s p r o du c e d r e m a i n r a t h e r u n if o r m .

Wh er e r e p r o du c t i o n is s e xu a l t wo ge r m c e ll s t he ga m e t e s c o m e
, , ,

fr o m diffe r e n t s o u r c e s E a c h ger m c e ll c a r r i e s m a n y qu a l
.

i t i e s th a t a r e ch a r a c t er i s t i c Of t he p r o t opl a s m o f e a c h p a r e n t .

Th e s e qu a li t i e s r e a pp e a r with a c e r t a i n d e gr e e o f p r o b a bility a n d in
r e l a ti o n s hip a ft e r t h e t w o ge r m c e ll s h a v e u n i t e d E a c h i n dividu a l .

r es e m bl e s b o t h p a r e n t s b ut n e ce s s a r ily a l s o diff e r s fr o m b o th
, , ,

Wh e n t wo c o in s a re t o s s ed a gr e a t t wo t a il s t ur n up 2 5 % o f t h e t im e s , tw o h e a ds
n um b e r o f t im e s ,
tur n up 2 5 % o f t h e t im e s a n d o n e h e a d a n d o n e t a il turn up 5 0 % o f t h e t im e T hi s o c c urr e n c e
.

is ca ll e d th e la w of c h a n c e I n th e fe w m a t c hin gs s h o wn in t h e dia gr a m , th e r e s ul t w o ul d pr o b
.

a b ly no t b e a s n e a r th e 2 5 50 2 5 r a t io a s is pic tur e d Th is illus t ra t e s t h e la w o f ch a n c e ( pa ge

.
, ,

s and c
’
p a r e n t s A c hild m a y h a v e b r o w n e ye s lik e t he m o t h e r
. ur ly
h a i r lik e t he f a t h e r s Offs p r i n g Of t he s a m e p a r e n t s
’
. l
a so diffe r
3 16 C H AR A C T E R OF O FF S P R I NG

fr o m e a c h o t h e r S o m e a r e t a ll a n d s o m e a r e s h o r t s o m e a r e
.
,

blu e e y e d a n d s o m e a re b ro w n e y e d Thi s will b e e xpl a i n e d l a t e r

- - . .

We h a v e l e a r n e d t h a t
a p r o c es s c a ll e d m a tu r a

t i o n o r r ip e n i n g o c c u rs
in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
m a t u r e ge r m c e ll s in t h e
p a r e n t o r ga n i s m Thi s .

m a tu r a ti o n o f t he ge r m
ce ll s a cco un ts fo r t h e
diff e r e n c e s a m o n g o ff
s pr ing Chr om o s om es .

Wh p en ll d d w
ea s are r o i li d pl e t h ugh o a r e th o u ght t o p o s s e s s
n an nc ne an e ro a
s m ll p i g g i t
a O en n il t h y li
a a nsup i p nai v y 0 0 m b l n a t I l S 0 f Ch a r
s, e ne n ens n a er .

d fi it d Wh thi p im t i p f m d
‘

e n e or e r. en s ex er en s e r or e , a
s ort i g ut k
n w
o m l di t ib ut i
no n a s a n or u F w a on , o c c
d
s r rs . e

p f u d i th
e a s ar e o
,

dpn m y i th
n e en t Th i a
ens ,
c t e r
an
e t er
n
m m e r s
e cen er.
c a ll e d s
-

illu t t th l w f h di u d p 317
s ra es e a o c an c e,
g e
sc
ne
sse
s T h on
e s e g e
.
n e s a
.
r e .

f o u n d t o b e in p a i r s in t h e p r i m a r y s e x c e ll s D u r i n g t h e m a t u .

r a t i o n p r o c e s s r e du c t i o n t a k e s pl a ce
, I n r e du c ti o n o n e m e m b er .
,

o f e a c h p a i r goe s t o a giv e n ge r m c e ll C o n s e qu e n tly e a c h ger m .

,

c e ll h a s o n e h a lf t h e n u m b e r o f c h r o m os o m e s f o u n d in t h e pr i

m a r y s e x c e ll I f t h e p r i m a r y s e x c ell h a d a p a i r o f c h a r a c t e r
.

d e t er m i n er s fo r ey e c o l o r o n e o f t hi s p a ir c a rr i e s blu e a n d t h e ,

o t h e r b r ow n t h e c hr o m o s o m e c o n t a i n i n g t h e ge n e fo r blu e e y e s
,

w o uld go t o o n e ger m c e ll a n d t he c h r o m o so m e c o n t a i n i n g t he
g e n e fo r b r o w n e y e s w o uld gO t o a n o t h e r g e r m ce ll A p r i m a r y .

s e x c e ll m a y h a v e t w o c h a r a c t e r s fo r a p a r t i c ul a r t r a it but a ge r m ,

c e ll o n ly h a s o n e a n d is pu r e in r e ga r d t o a n y p ar ti c ul a r t r a i t .

C o n s e qu e n tly t h e s a m e o r ga n i s m m a y p r o du c e ger m c e ll s wi t h
,
’

u n l ik e c h a r a c ter s The s p er m c e lls o f t he m a l e a r e n o t id e n t i c a l ;

.

e ggs t oo h a v e diff e r e n t c h a r a c t er d e t e r m i n e r s o r ge n e s in th e m
, ,
- .

Wh e n t he s p e r m a n d e gg m e e t in t he p ro ce s s o f fe r tiliz a t i o n t h e ,

c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e f e r t iliz e d e gg d e p e n d up o n t h e ch a r a c t e r s in t h e

g e n e s in t h e c o m bi n e d c h ro m o s o m e s o f b o t h t h e s p e r m a n d e gg .
 C H APTE R XXX I I I

H E RE D I TY

G r e go r M e n de l Th om a s H un t M or ga n

Wha t a re M en del s ’
la ws of in her ita n ce ? H o w we r e t hey fo r mula ted
D o t hes e la ws o f in her ita n ce ho ld tr ue fo r a ll p la n ts a n d a n ima s l ?

I t ha s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t r uly h e r i t a bl e t r a i t s o r ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s
O f a n i n dividu a l a r e c o m p a r a tiv e ly i n d e p e n d e n t O f e a c h o t h er a n d

m a y he i n h er i t e d i n d e p e n d e n t ly T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e c a ll e d
.

un it c ha r a c ters I f t h e m e m b e r s o f a p a i r o f u n i t c h a r a c t e r s m ee t
.

in a n O ffs p r i n g e a c h m e m b e r r e t a i n s it s id e n t i t y a n d e a c h c h a r
,

a c t e r o f t h e p a i r m a y b e s e p a r a t e d in s ub s e qu e n t ge n e r a t i o n s The .

fo ll o wi n g illu s tr a t i o n is a n e x a m pl e o f t he b e h a vi or o f a p a i r o f u n i t
c h a r a c t er s .

I n c om pl e te dom in a n c e Th e r e a r e t w o di s t i n c t ki n d s o f An d a
.

lu s i a n fo wl s o n e h a vi n g whi t e f e a th e r s s pl a s h e d w i t h bl a c k ; a n d
,

t h e o t h e r bl a c k f e a t h e r s
, Th e bl a c k fo w l s a r e k n o w n a s pu r e bl a c k
.

b e c a u s e fo r ge n e r a t i o n s th e i r a n c e s t o r s h a v e b e e n bl a c k h a v e
, , ,

m a t e d a n d h a v e giv e n r i s e t o o n ly bl a c k d e s c e n d a n t s
, Th e .

s pl a s h e d whi t e f o w l s a re k n o w n a s pu r e w hi t e ; t h e i r a n c es t o r s
-

w er e whi t e t h e y b r e d wi t h whi t e a n d h a v e a l w a y s p r o du c e d whi t e

, ,

O ff s p r i n g .A f o wl f r o m e a c h gr o up w a s s e l e c t e d a s a p a r e n t .

Th e y w er e m a t e d f e r t il e e ggs w e r e l a id a n d i n c ub a t e d a n d t h e
, ,

o u t c o m e o f t h e e xp e r i m e n t a w a i t e d Wo uld t he c hi c k e n s b e bl a ck
.
,

o r whi t e o r a m ix t u r e O f t h e t w o c o l o rs ?
, Al t h o u gh t he e xpe r i
m e n t w a s r e p e a t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e r e s ul t s w e r e a lw a y s t he s a m e
, .

3 18
 I N C OM P LE T E D O M I NA N C E 3 19

All t he y o u n g c hi c ks w er e a qu eer m ixtur e Of m o ttl e d bl a ck a n d

white which is kn ow n a s blu e Th e y w er e m ixtu r e s a n d n o t pur e
.

b r e d like th e ir p a r e n t s Wh e n t he m em b er s o f a p a i r o f wid e ly
.

differ e n t u n it c h a r a c t e r s in t hi s e x a m pl e bl a c k a n d whit e f ea t h e r s
, , ,

m ee t in a n offs p r i n g t h e O ff s p r i n g is c a ll e d a hybrid
,
E vid e n tly.
,

n e ith e r t h e bl a c k n or t h e whi t e c h a r a c t e r c o uld m a s k o r d o m i n a t e

‘

t h e o th e r a n d a bl e n di n g t oo k pl a c e
,
Th e bl e n di n g o f a p a ir o f
.

c h a ra c t e r s is c a ll e d in comp lete domin a n ce .

N e xt t he i n v e s t i ga t o r s wi s h e d t o di s c o v e r wh a t t h e d e s c e n d a n t s
,

o f t h e hyb r id s w o uld b e lik e On ly blu e An d a lu s i a n fo wl s hyb r id s

.
, ,

we r e ch o s e n fo r t hi s p a r t O f t h e e xp er i m e n t Thi s hyb r id ge n er
‘

a t i o n is kn o w n a s t h e F 1 gen era tion o r t h e fi r s t fili a l ge n e r a t i o n It .

wa s fo u n d th a t t h e O ff s p r i n g o f hyb r id s v a r i e d in c o l o r S o m e w e r e .

blu e like t h e i r p a r e n t s s o m e w e r e whi t e lik e o n e gr a n dp a r e n t a n d

,

so m e w e re bl a ck lik e t h e o th e r gra n dp a r e n t Wh e n a l a r ge n u m b er
.

o f th e m w e r e e x a m i n e d it w a s f o u n d th a t t h e di ff e r en t c o l or s o f
,

t he c hi c k s a lw a y s o c c u r r e d in t he s a m e p r o p o r ti o n F or e v e r y t w o
.

chicke n s th a t w er e blu e like t héir p a r e n t s th e r e wa s o n e bl a c k

,

a n d o n e whit e c hi c k e n I n o th e r w o r d s 2 5 p er c e n t w er e bl a c k
.
, ,

2 5 p er c e n t w e r e w hit e a n d 5 0 pe r ce n t w er e blu e Thi s ge n er a

, .

ti o n in whi c h th e r e w a s a re v er s a l t o a n ces tr a l typ e by t he s egr e

,

ga t io n o f t h e o r i gi n a l u n it c h a r a c t e r s is kn o w n a s t he s econ d fi lia l
,

o r t h e F 2 gen er a tion . E vid e n tly t he o r i gi n a l c h a r a c t e r s m u s t h a v e

,

reta in ed t heir iden tity S i n ce s o m e o f t h e O ff s p r i n g S h o w e d o n e c h a r

a c t e r a n d o th e r s s h o w e d t he o pp o s i t e c h a r a c t e r .

The n e xt s t e p in t he e xp er i m e n t wa s t o fin d wh a t w o uld h a pp e n
wh e n t he diffe r e n t m e m b e r s o f thi s m ixe d gro up b e c a m e p a r e n t s .

A bl a c k f o wl w a s m a t e d with a n o t h e r bl a c k a n d a ll t he o ff s p r i n g
we re bl a ck I n o th e r w o r d s t he bl a c k c hi c k e n s o f t he F 2 ge n e r
.
,

a ti on n o t o n ly l o o k e d bl a c k lik e t h e i r bl a c k
g r a n dp a r e n t s b ut w er e ,

p u re a s s h o w n by t h e f a c t th a t t h e y h a d o n ly bl a c k d es c e n d a n t s .

Th e y p os s es se d o n ly ge n es o r c h a r a c t e r d e t e r m i n e r s fo r bl a ck
-
.

A whit e o f t he F 2 ge n er a ti on wa s m a te d with a n o th e r whit e a nd

3 20 H E RE D I TY

a ll t heir
ff s p r i n g w er e pu r e whit e
o . B ut wh e n blue fowl s w er e
o f th e i r o fl s pr m g w e r e
’
m a te d with o t h er s lik e t h e m s elv e s s om e
'

a b ut )
If a b la c kA
n dal us ia n c oc ki s m a t e d wit h whit e An da lus ia n h e n , th e o fl s prin g i s a h yb rid
a

s h owin g a m o t tl e d b l e n din g o f t h e b la c k
a n d whi t e c a ll e d b l ue Thi s is a n e xa m pl e of in co m
.

pl e t e dom in a n c e . k
I f a b lue c o c is m a t e d wit h a b lue h e n , 2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e o fl s prin g will
k
pr o b a b ly b e b la c , 5 0 pe r c e n t m a y b e b lue , a n d 2 5 pe r c e n t m a y b e whi t e . k
B la c pa ir s will b r e e d
k
o nl y b la c ; t h e whit e pa ir s wi ll b r e e d o n ly whi t e ; b ut t h e o fi s pr ing o f a b l ue pa ir will s e gr e
k
ga t e , s ort out , in t o b la c , b lue , a n d whit e .

bl a ck , w e re whit e a n d s o m e blu e Th e blu e c hicke n s t h e n

s om e , .
, ,

o f t h e F 2 ge n e r a ti on w e re hyb r id s .

The i n h er i t a n c e o f c o l o r in t h e An d a lu s i a n f o wl is
( 1 ) P u re bl a c k m a t e d wi t h pu r e bl a c k will a lw a y s p r o du c e p ur e
bl a c k .

( 2 ) P u r e whit e m a t e d with pu r e whi t e will a lw a y s p r o du c e p ur e

whi t e .

( 3 ) P u r e bl a c k m a t e d with pu r e whit e will a lw a y s p ro du ce 1 00

p e r c e n t blu e hyb r id s .

(4 ) Blu e hyb r id s wh e n m a t e d wi t h blu e hyb r id s t en d t o pr o

, ,

du c e 2 5 pe r c e n t bl a c k 2 5 per c e n t whi t e a n d 50 per ce n t blu e

, , .

The f o u r o c l oc k is a n o t h e r e x a m pl e O f a n o rga n i s m in which a

’
-

hyb r id p r o du c e d by t wo di s t i n c t s p e c i e s is u n like e i t h er but is a

, , ,

bl en d o f t he t wo Th e pu r e li n es or typ e s o f fo ur o clo cks h a ve

.
-
’
3 22 H E RE DI TY

wil l p r o du c e pl a n t s which will b e ar fl o w er s o f thr e e c o l o r s

.
.

Of e v e r y 1 0 00 bl o s s o m s a pp r o xi m a t e ly 2 5 0 will b e r e d 2 5 0 will
, ,

b e whi t e a n d 5 00 will b e pi n k
,
Th e c o l o r s will b e in t he p r o p o r ti o n
.

Th e v a r i o u s c o l o r s o f t h e f o ur o c lo c ks O f s u c c e e di ng gen
’
of 1 1 2 .
-

e r a t io n s will v a r y in t he s a m e w a y a s th o s e o f t h e An d a lu s i a n f o wl .

E xpe r im e n ts in pla n t b r e e din g Lo n g b e for e t he fo r ego i n g

.

e xp er i m e n t s w e r e c a rr i e d o n G r e go r J o h a n n M e n d e l ( 1 8 22
,

a n Au s t r i a n p r i e s t a n d h e a d o f a m o n a s t er y w a s e s p e c i a lly i n t er
,

e s t e d in c ul t iv a ti n g ga r d e n p e a s .H e f o u n d t h a t h is pe a pl a n t s
diff er e d fr o m e a c h o t h er in v e r y m a n y c h a r a c t e r s Ta ll n e s s c ol .
,

o ra ti o n o f s e e d s p e t a l s a nd p o d s a n d t h e h a i r i n e s s r o u gh n e s s
, , , ,

o r s m o o th n e s s o f s ki n o n t h e s ee d s a n d s t e m s w e r e s o m e o f t h e

diff e r e n c e s t h a t h e o b s er v e d Th en h e a s k e d H ow d o e s a pa r t ic
.
,

”
ul a r qu a li t y c a rr y o v e r gen e r a t i o n a f t e r ge n e r a t i o n ? H e pr o
c ee de d t o s ee k t h e a n s w e r t o h is p r o bl e m by e xp e r i m e n t a t i o n .

H e s e l e c t e d t a ll pl a n t s a n d k e pt t h e m in a c e r t a i n ga r d e n pl o t .

Aw a y fr o m th e s e h e r a i s e d a pl o t o f pl a n t s th a t w e r e a lw a y s s h o r t .

H e c a ll e d e a c h gr o up a pure type Th e un it c h a r a c t e r o f h e igh t

’

-
.

wa s o n e p a r t i c ul a r t r a i t in whi c h h e w a s in t e r e s t e d H e cr o s s e d.

p a ir s o f pl a n t s whi c h diffe r e d in t hi s s i n gl e c h a ra c t e r H e r e p ea t e d .

h is e xp er i m e n t s t o i n v e s t i ga t e o t h er o ut s t a n di n g c h ar a c t e r s
-
T a ll .

pl a n t s w e r e c r o s s e d wi t h s h or t ; pl a n t s wi t h y e ll ow see d c o a t s
with t h o s e o f gre en s ee d c o a t s ; pl a n t s h a v in g s m oo th s e e d s with
t h o s e h a vi n g r o u gh s e e d s ; h a i r y s t e m m e d pl a n t s with h a i r l e s s
s te m m e d o n e s . I n e a c h o f th e s e c r o s s e s h e w a t c h e d t h e b e h a vi o r
o f t h e v a r i a ti o n s o f a s in gl e c h a r a c t er o n ly Aft e r m a n y e xpe r i
.

m e n t s M e n d e l l e a r n e d a n d m a d e k n o w n s o m e v e r y im p o r t a n t
,

p r i n c ipl es .

Th e M e n de lian la w s of in h e ritan c e Th e L a w of D om in an ce
.
-
.

When t wo o f t he pe a pl a n t s t h a t differ e d fr o m e a c h o th e r in o n e
c h a r a c t e r i s ti c w e r e c r o s s e d a ll t he o ff s p r i n g r e s e m bl e d o n e o f t he
,

t w o p a r en t s in r e ga r d t o th a t c h a r a c t e r i s ti c I f o n e p a re n t w e r e t a ll
.

a n d t he o th er s h o r t , a ll o f t h e n e xt ge n e r a t i o n w o uld b e t a ll .
 ’

TH E M E N DE LI AN LAw O F D OM I NA N C E 3 23

G r e gor J oh a nn M e n del pla n t e d p e a s in hi s ga r de n in B r iinn , Aus t r ia He c r os s e d pla n t s

v
.

s h o wing difi e r e n t c h ar a c t e r s a n d pr o duc e d a a r i e ty of h y b rids

.

I f one Of t h e
p a r en t s w ere o f a w r i n kl e d s e e d v a r i e ty a n d o n e of a
-

s m o o th s e e d v a r i e ty a ll o f t h e n e x t ge n e r a t i o n w o ul d h a v e s m oo t h
-
,

seed s .I f o n e of t he p a r e n t s h a d a y e ll o w s ee d c o a t a n d t h e o th e r
h a d a gr e e n s e ed c o a t a ll o f th e i r o ff sp r i n g h a d y e ll o w s e e d c o a t s
, .

To ge t m or e a c c ur a t e r e s ult s he p o lli n a t e d a r tifi c i a lly t h e fl ow e r s

,

o f t wo v a r i e ti e s a n d k e pt t h e m p r o t e c t e d f r o m a ll i n s ec t s Th e .

see d s fr o m th e s e pl a n t s w e r e ga th e r e d pl a n t e d a n d t he n ew
, ,

pl a n t s w er e c a r e fully w a t c h e d M e n d el f o u n d t h a t t he c h a r a c te r s
.

did n o t bl e n d a s wa s la t er n o t e d in t he An d a lu s i a n f ow l On e
‘

.
, ,

c h a r a c t er c o m pl e t e ly d om i n a t e d t h e o th e r c h a r a c t er a n d c o n c e a l e d

it Thi s is c a ll e d complete domi n a n ce I t ha s b e e n f o u n d t o o c c ur

. .

in m a n y s p ec i e s o f pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a n d is t r u e fo r m a n y dif
,

fer e n t c h a r a c t e r s Thi s is kn o w n a s M e n d e l s L a w of D omin a n ce

’
. .

D o m i n a n ce a s u s e d in s tudi e s o f h e r e di t y is a c o n di t i on in whi c h
, ,

on e o f a p a i r o f c h a r a c t e r s will a pp e a r in t h e o ff s p r i n g a n d hid e o r

m a sk t he o t h e r Th e ch a r a c t e r t h a t s h o w s in t he o ff s p r i n g is
.
3 24 H E R E DI TY

ll e d t he domi n a n t c ha r a cter Th e se c o n d qu a li t y t he th a t
’ ‘

ca .
, one

d oes n ot S h ow , a l t h o u gh it is a ct u a lly p r e s e n t ,
is k n own as

t he reces s i ve c ha ra cter .

Wh a te v er t h er e is in t he
p r o t o p l a s m t h a t pr o
du c e s t he r ec e s s iv e qu a l
it y it is n o t d e s t ro y e d ,

in t he cr o s s i n g fo r a s , ,

s h a ll b e s een t h e qu a lity ,

m a y r e a pp ea r in l a t e r

g e n e r a ti o n s I n t he e x .

a m pl e giv en t he d om i ,

n an t t ra l t S w er e t a ll
Wh p ll f m p pl t t h t p du
en o en ro a ea m th an d a ro ce s s oo s ee s
— w i kl d
i t
s f dt
ra n s e r r e pl t t h t
o ap du an a d th ro
pl a n t s 8 11 1 0 0 1211 S GE d a n d
ce s r n e s ee s e
, ,
res ul t i g pl n t will p du
an s m th d ro I p ce s oo s ee s. n ea s ,

sm th oo d t d mi
s ee t
c oa w i kl d
o d t
na es a Th y e ll o w seed c o a t s Th e
r n e see c oa . e .

res ul t i g fl p i g
n o s h y b id f
r n wh
are th y rlf , or en e ar e se

p ll i
o t d th i
na e ff p i g h w 7 5 p
e r o s t m
r n th
s o d r ec es s1v e traI t s
e r cen w er e s oo s ee s

an d 25 p t w i kl d
er cen d ; f th 7 5 p
r n e t m
s ee ths o e e r c en s oo
S ll OI t P 1 ant W kl 6d
‘
s
'

see d 25 p s, t i pu
e r cen b d m s th d 50 p
re t i
re s oo ,
I
an1 11 er cen s ,
h yb i d m
r th
s Th i ill u t t
oo m pl t d m i b
s ra e s co e e o nance e
d
s

ca u se sm th oo d t
.

m pl t l y d m i t
see c oa w i kl d
co
seeds e e
a n green
o
seed
na es r n e )

d t d d t bl d w it h i t
s ee coa an oe s no en
coa t s The i n dividu a l
.

r e s ul t i n g f r o m a c r o s s o f o pp o s i t e ch a r a c t e r s is c a ll e d a hyb r id .

F or e x a m pl e wh e n pl a n t s wi t h y e ll o w s e e d c o a t s a r e c r o s s e d with
,

th o s e wi t h gr e e n s e e d c o a t s t he o ff s p r i n g a pp e a r y e ll o w B e c a u s e , .

o n e o f t h e p a r e n t s h a d gr ee n s e e d c o a t s t h e p r o t o pl a s m o f t he

o ff s p r i n g m u s t b e di f fe r e n t Th e s e y ell o w o ff s p r i n g a r e hyb r id s
.

s i n ce th e y c o n c e a l t h e c h a r a c t e r d e t e r m i n e d fo r gr e e n I n a ll .

e x t er n a l a pp e a r a n c e s hyb r id s r e s e m bl e pur e d o m i n a n t s
, .

M e n de lian L a w of S e gr e ga t ion Al t h o u gh t h e t a ll d e s c e n d a n t s .

o f a m ix e d p a r e n t a ge th a t is a t a ll a n d a s h o r t ,
m a y a pp e a r t a ll , ,

lik e o n e o f t h e p a r e n t s it s p r o t o pl a s m o r p a r t o f it s p r o t o pl a s m
,

is r e a lly diff e r e n t Thi s m u s t b e t r u e s i n c e it h a s b e e n built up

.

in p a r t fr o m t h e p r o t o pl a s m o f t h e s h o r t p a r e n t I n t he s a m e .

w a y t h e pl a n t wi t h t h e y e ll o w s e e d c o a t o f m ixe d p a r en t a ge m a y
,

r e s e m bl e in s e e d c o a t c o l o r
,
o n e o f t he p a r e n t s but it is s till a , ,
32 6 HE RE D I T Y

Wh e n hyb r id s d wi t h pu re d o m i n a n ts t he o ffs p r i n g
a re cro s s e ,

will s t ill r e t a i n t he d o m i n a n t a pp e a r a n ce b ut t he r e c e s s iv e n e s s is ,

n o t d e s t ro y e d fo r it m a y b e m a d e t o r e a pp e a r in l a t e r ge n e r a ti o n s
, .

Th e s e o ff s p r i n g a re f o u n d t o b e a pp r o xi m a te ly o n e h a lf pu r e d o m i
, ,

n a n t a n d o n e h a lf hyb r id a l t h o u gh th e y m a y a ll l o o k d o m i n a n t
, .

Wh e n hyb r id s a r e c ro ss e d with pur e r ec e s s ive s se gr ega t i o n a ga i n ,

t a k e s pl a ce On e h a lf a r e r ece s s iv e a n d o n e h a lf a pp e a r t o b e
.

d o m i n a n t s but a r e hyb r id s Wh e n hyb r id s a r e c r o s se d wi t h

, .

hyb r id s o r with pur e d o m i n a n t s o r with pu r e r e c e s s iv es t h e

, , ,

o r i gi n a l p a r e n t a l c h a r a c t er s t e n d t o s o r t o ut Thi s L a w of S egr e .
,

g a lio n is p
, e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t di s c o v e r y th a t M e n d e l m a d e ,

a l t h o u gh it gr e w o ut o f h is di s c o v er y Of d o m i n a n c e .

P r ob l e m . Wha t combin a tion s of chromos om es res ult from ma tura tion

a nd fer ti liza tion
I . P la c e t wo b la c k
b e a n s ( t o in dic a t e c hr o m oso m e s c ar r y in g bla c k c o lo r )
in t he c ir c le r e pre s e n t in g t h e e gg m o t her c e ll, a n d t wo wh it e b e a n s (in dic a t in g

t he c hr o m os o m e s c a r ry in g whit e c o lo r ) in t he s per m m o t he r cell . As s um e

t h at t h e c hr o m o s o m e s ha v e t he c h ar ac t e r -de t e r m in e r s or g es
e n for c o lor o nly .

A . M o v e t he c hr o m o s o m e s fr om t he pr im ary s e x c e ll t o t he gam e t e s t o
s how t he c h a n ge t ha t t a k es pl a c e dur in g m a t ur a t io n (r e duc t io n div is io n ) .

B . M o v e t he b e a n s in t he c ir c les repr e se n t in g t he s per m s , so as t o indic a t e

 M E NDE L I A N L AW O F UN I T C H A R AC T E R S 327

fer t iliza t io n of t he e ggs . S h o w t he c o m b in a t io n s o f c hr o m o s o m e s in t he

e ggs .

0 . D r a w in t he r e pr e s e n t a t ion s o f t he c hr o m o s o m e s (b e a ns ) . C o lor t he
b lac k and le a v e t he w hit e un c o lo r e d . H o w w ill y o u r e pr e s e n t t he hy b f ids ?

II . R e pe a t t he ab o v e e xpe r im e n t , us in g t he hy b r id c o m b in a t io n o f c hr o m o

so m e s in t he pr im ar y se x c e lls
~

. K eep in m in d t h a t pr im ar y s e x c e lls c a n b e
hy b r id in r e ga rd t o a par t ic ular c h ar a c t e r , b ut ger m c e lls m us t b e pur e .

moth e r c e ll
c
g
e

A . Reco r d c o m b in a t io n s r e s ult in g fr om fer t iliz a t ion s .

5
V
III . Re pe a t t h e e xpe r im e n t , us in g in t he m a le pr im ar y s e x c e ll t he hy b r id
c o m b in a t io n , a nd in t h e fe m a le pr im ar y s e x c e ll t wo rece s si e v whit e c hr o m o

som e s Re c or d b y m e a n s
. of dia gra m s , t h e v ar io us p o s s ib le c o m b in a t io n s

re s ult in g fr o m fer t iliz a t io n s .

IV . R e pe a t t he e xp er im e n t , us in g hy b r id in o n e c e ll a n d do m in a n t b lac ki n

t he o t her .

V Wh a t law of her edit y did expe r im en t I

. illus t r a t e ? Wh a t law o f her e dit y
did e xper im en t s I I , III , an d I V illus t r a t e ?

M e n de lian L a w of Un it C h a r a ct er s t i . An o th e r i m p o r t a n t co n r

b ut io n th a t M e n d e l m a d e wa s his e m ph a s i s up o n t he s tudy o f
s i n gl e c h a r a c t e r s I n s p e a ki n g o f o r ga n i s m s t h e ge n e r a l typ e is
.
,

r e ferr e d t o r a t h e r th a n t he i n dividu a l t r a it s t h a t m a k e up t h a t

typ e F o x t err i er fo r e x a m pl e o r c r i m s o n r a m bl er d e s cr ib e s a
‘

.
, , ,

c o m pl e t e pictu r e with o ut t h e n e e d o f hu n d r e d s o f d e t a il s in whi c h

3 28 H E RE DI TY

t ha t p a r ticul a r v a r i e t y di ffer s fr o m o t he r s I t is k n o w n h o w e v e r .
, ,

th a t t he i n d ividu a l o r ga n i s m is a co m bi n a ti o n o f th o u s a n d s o f s m a ll
s b e r m c a r r ie s diff e r e n ces s o m e s t r u c t u r a l , ,

R
a n d s o m e phy s i o l o gi c a l o r t h e

r e s ul t o f phy s i o l o gi c a l a c tivi t y .

Th e p r o bl e m o f h e r e di t y h a s t o
do wi t h s t udi e s in r es p e c t t o
e a c h O f t h e se i n dividu a l c h a r

a c t er s .

Aft e r M e n d e l h a d ured
a ss

hi m s e lf th a t t h e r e w a s d o m i
n a n ce a n d l a t e r s e gr e ga t i o n
, ,

fo r e a c h Of s e v e r a l p a i r s o f
An e xpe r im e n t e r , Pu
nn e t t , v
d e is e d a m e t h o d ch a r a c t er s h e t o o k up t h e
,
of pre dic t in g h o w ge n e s c o m b in e a ft e r cro s s in g .

H e us e d b oxe s k
n o wn as Pu nn e t t s q ua r e s . p r o bl em o f o r ga n i s m s t h a t dif
T urn t o dia gr a m o n pa ge 3 2 1 T h e ga m e t e s
fer e d in t w o c h a r a c t er s For
.

o f t h e pa r e n t fl o we r s ca rr y o nl y r e d , R , o r n o
-

v
.

c ol or , r N o t e in t h e a b o e dia gr a m , all t h e
v e x a m pl e s o m e t a ll pl a n t s w e r e
.

po s s ib l e c o m b in a t io n s o f ga m e t e s a n d o b s e r e ,

t h e i de n tic a l r e s ult Rr a h y b r id .

h a ir y a n d s o m e w ere s m o o t h ;
S pe r m c ar r i e s s o m e h a i r y pl a n t s h a d y e ll o w

s ee d c o a t s a n d s o m e h a d gr ee n

s ee d c o a t s ; s o m e o f t h e y e ll o w

s ee d c o a t s w e r e w r i n kl e d a n d

s om e w er e s m oo t h .By e xpe r i
m e n t s in cro s s i n g fo r se v er a l

g e n e r a t i o n s M e n
, d e l f o u n d t h a t
d o m i n a n c e a n d s e gr ega t i o n o c
c u rr e d fo r e a c h c h a r a c t e r i n d e

p e n d e n t ly o f t he o t h e r ch a r a c
t e r s a n d s o h e f o rm ul a t e d t he
,

Th e ga m e t e s ofh yb r id, pin fou k clo ck s ,

r-o
’

L a w of Un it Cha r a cters
ca rr y e it h e r t h e do m ina n t R o r t h e r e c e s s i e r v .
.

Wh e n fe rt iliz a t io n o cc ur s , t h e la w o f cha n c e S i m ply s t a t e d it m e a n s t h a t

,
d e t e rm in e s wh e th er a pur e do m in a n t , a h y b r id
v
o r a pur e r e c e s s i e is fo rm e d N o t ic e h o w th e
. a p a i r o f c h a r a c t e r s b e h a v e s in
c o m b ina ti on s a r e d e s c rib e d wi th t h e P
unn e t t
s q ua r e s . d e p e n d e n t ly o f a n y o t h e r p a i r
3 30 H E RE D I TY

H is p a p er wa s r e ce iv e d in s il e n ce a n d s oo n f or go t t e n I n 1 900 .
,

S ixt e e n y e a r s a f t e r his d e a t h a n d t hi r t y fiv e y e a r s a f t e r his dis

-

P
Th e unn e t t s q ua r e m a y b e us e d t o s h o w t h e po s s ib l e s or tin g out dur in g m a tur a t io n of germ
c e ll s o f dih y b r id s a n d t h e v E
a r io us c o m b in a t io n s r e s ul t in g a ft e r fe r t il i za t io n a c h s q ua r e r e pre

v
.

s e n t s a n in di idua l .Th is s q ua r e s h o w s t h e po s s ib l e co m b ina t io n s o f ge n e s in t h e n a tur e o f

guin e a pigs of d iffe r e n t c ol or s a n d t y pe s T h e d om ina n t c h ara c t e r s a r e , la r ge B , r e pr e s e n t in g a
v
.

pigm e n t e d c oa t , a n d R , r o ugh h a ir T h e r e c e s s i e c h a ra c t e r s a r e , b , d e n o t in g whit e c oa t , a n d

.

r , s m o o th h a ir.

c o v er ie s , t h r ee
th er s c i e n t i s t s w o r ki n g i n d e p e n d e n tly a rr iv e d a t
o

M e n d e l s w o r k wa s th e n giv e n full cr e dit

’
t he s a m e c o n c lu s i o n . .

S i n c e 1 900 it h a s b ee n p r o v e n a ga i n a n d a ga i n th a t h e r e dity is
,

fr e qu e n tly s h ow n in a n i m a l s e x a c t ly a s in M e n d e l s p e a s I f pure ’
.

bl a c k gui n e a pi gs a r e c r o s se d wi t h pur e white gui n e a pi gs a ll t he ,

r e s ul t i n g hyb r id s will b e bl a c k S h o wi n g bl a c k t o b e d o m i n a n t
, .

Th e gui n ea pig a n d ga r d e n p ea s s h o w co m pl e t e d o m i n a n c e .

The An d a lu s i a n f owl s a n d f o u r o c lo c ks in whi c h t h e c h a ra c t e r s

’
-
,

bl e n d s h o w i n co m pl e t e d o m i n a n ce
,
.

S umm ary . 1 .A pure c h a r a c t e r is o n e t ha t give s r i s e o n ly t o a

cha ra c t e r li k e i t s e lf The pl a n t o r a n i m a l po s s es s i n g it ca r r i e s pa i r s
.

of li k e fa c t ors ; fo r e x a m pl e , t w o fa c t o rs fo r h e igh t , o n e pa t e r n a l a n d
o n e m a t e rn a l .

2 A pl a n t or a n i m a l is a hyb r id whe n it c a r r i e s a pa i r o f c o n t ra s t in g
.

fa c t o rs F or exa m pl e hyb rid t a ll ca rr i es b o t h t a ll n es s a n d s h o r t n e s s

.
,
.
 C H R OM O S OM E T H E OR Y OF I N H E RI TAN C E

3 . M e n de li a n L a ws o f H er e di t y .

a .
f
L aw o W h e n a n i n divid ua l wh i c h is p ur e a s t o
D omin a n ce .
,

a p a r t i c ul a r f a c t o r 1 s cr o s s e d w i t h a n o t h e r i n divid ua l w h i c h I s p ur e
,

i n t he c o n t r a s t i n g f a c t o r o n ly o n e o f t he s e fa c t o r s will a pp e a r in
,

t he o ff s pr i n g Th e c h a r a c t e r w hi c h a ppe a r s is c a ll e d d o m i n a n t ;
. .

t he o t h e r w hi c h is i n he r i t e d b ut is c on c e a l e d is c a ll e d r e c es s ive
, , .

b . La w o f S egr ega tio n .

( )
1 Whe n hy b r id sm a t e d , t h e c o n t ra s t i n g fa c t o r s a re s e g
a re

r e ga t e d o ut in t h e pr o p o r t i o n o f 2 5 pe r c e n t p ur e d o m i n a n t , 50

r c e n t h yb r id , a n d 2 5 pe r c e n t p ur e r e c e s s ive
p e .

Wh e n hybr ids a r e m a t e d w i t h pur e d o m i n a n t s t he r e is a

( )
2 ,

s e gr e ga t i o n o f 5 0 pe r c e n t hy r id a n d 5 0 pe r c e n t p ur e d o m i n a n t
b .

( )
3 W h e n h yb r id s a r e m a t e d w i t h r e c e s s iv e s t h e r e r e s ul t s a ,

s e gr e ga t i o n in t he pr o por t i o n o f 5 0 p er c e n t h y b r id s 5 0 p e r ce n t ,

r e c e s s ive s .

0 .L a w of Un it C ha r a cter s E ve r y o r ga n i s m co n t a i n s m a n y pa i r s
.

o f fa c t o r s E a c h f a c t o r a s t a ll n e s s o r s h o r t n e s s is in h e r i t e d a s a
.
, ,

un i t t h a t is i n d e pe n d e n t ly o f t he o t h e r a n d o f a n y o t he r p a i r o f
, ,

cha r a c t e r s .

Th e s e l a w s w ere f o r m ul a t e d by t h e s t udy o f t he e x t e rn a l a pp e a r
Wh a t c a u s e d it a ll ? A
i

a n c e o f t h e r e s ul t s o f diff e r e n t m a t i n gs .

diff ere n c e in t h e p r o t o pl a s m s o f t h e ger m c e ll s h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d .

Thi s is t r u e R e ce n t i n v es t i ga t o r s h a v e f o r m ul a t e d a th eo r y th a t
.

h a s s t oo d t h e t e s t o f m u c h c a re ful c h ec ki n g Th e c h r o m o s o m e is .

c o n c e r n e d wi t h h ere di t y I t is th o u ght th a t a c er t a i n p a r t o f t h e
.

c h r o m o so m e c a ll e d t h e ge n e o r c h a r a c t er d e t e r m i n e r a c t u a lly -

di r ec t s a n d c on t r o l s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he i n dividu a l c h a r
a c t er s .

C hr o m o s o m e th e ory of in h e r itan c e I f b o t h p a r e n t s a r e pur e .

a s r e ga r d s a p a r t i c ul a r c h ar a c t e r b o t h t he e gg a n d s p er m will ,

Co n t a i n t h e d e t e r m i n e r fo r t h a t c h a r a c t e r a n d t h e O ffs p r i n g will
‘

”
r e c e iv e a d o ubl e c o n t r ibu t i o n o f t h e d e t e rm i n e r o r ge n e F or .

e x a m pl e t h e ge n e s o f a pu r e t a ll pe a pl a n t w ill c a r r y o n ly t a ll n es s
,

t he ge n e s in a pu r e dw a r f pe a pl a n t w ill c a r r y o n ly dw a r f n es s .

Th e o ffs p r i n g of s u c h pu r e b r e d s wh e t h e r d o m i n a n t o r r e ces s iv e
, ,

c a n n o t h e lp but b e pu r e Th e o ff s p r i n g of t he t a ll pl a n t s will b e
.
3 32 HE RE DI TY

ta ll an d t ho s e of t he s h o r t will be h or t D i a gr a m s s i m il a r t o
s .

( 3 2 8) m a y Us e a c a pita l
’
Pun n e t t s on p a ge b e w o r k ed o ut .

“ ”
T fo r t a ll n es s a n d s m a ll t ( s m a ll l e t t er i n di c a te s t he l a c k o f
d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t er ) fo r dw a r f n e s s Th e ga m e t e s a t t he t op o f t h e
.

s qu a r e s a r e t h e s p e r m s a n d th os e a t t h e s id e a r e t he e ggs Th e .

c o m bi n a ti o n s in t h e s qu a r es will s h o w t h e m ee t i n g o f t h e c hr o m o

s o m e s in t h e f er t iliz e d e ggs .

F ormula e ( 1) T X T
. TT .

( )
2 t X t it .

Wh e n t h e d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t er is p r e s e n t in o n e p a r e n t o n ly t h e n ,

t h e o ff s p r i n g will h a v e o n ly a s i n gl e c o n t r ibu t i o n o f t h e ge n e Th e .

o ff s p r i n g will a pp ea r d o m i n a n t but will b e a hyb r id .

Fo
r mula . TX t Tt .

Wh a t h a pp en s wh e n hyb r id s are m a t e d ? I t is
b e li e v e d th a t
dur i n g m a tu r a t i o n t he c o n tr a s ti n g f a c t o r s o f hyb r id s go i n t o t he
s e p a r a t e e ggs o r s p e r m s Thu s t h e m a l e p r i m a r y s ex c ell will
.
,

b e hyb r id but o n e h a lf o f t h e s p e r m ce ll s will c a r r y t h e r e c es s iv e

,

f a c t o r a n d o n e h a lf t he d o m i n a n t L ikewi s e h a lf t he e ggs will .

,

c a rr y a d o m i n a n t f a c t o r a n d h a lf t he r e c e s s iv e I n o t h er w o r d s .
,

t h e m a tur e ge r m c e ll s a r e alw a y s pu re a s r e ga r d s a n y o n e
c h a r a c t er Th e i n dividu a l m a y b e a hyb r id but t h e ga m e t e s a r e
.

n e v e r hyb r id .

Wh e n t h e s e ga m e t e s o f hyb r id p a r e n t s j o i n t h e law o f p r o b a ,

b ilit y s h ow s th a t t h e f o ll o wi n g c o m bi n a ti o n s a re p os s ibl e
—T
.

T
—
>

F ormula .

t
> TT ,
Tt , t T, tt

Wh e n hyb r id is c ro s s e d wi t h a d o m i n a n t t he ga m e t es o f t h e
a ,

hyb r id will b e h a lf d o m i n a n t a n d h a lf re ce s s iv e whil e t h e ga m e t es ,

o f t h e d o m i n a n t p a r e n t w ill a ll c a rr y t h e d o m i n a n t ge n e The .

f o ll owi n g co m bi n a t i o n s a r e p o s s ibl e .

F ormula .
TT, TT, t T, t T
 34 H E RED ITY

4 . St at eill us t ra t e t he t hre e M e n d e li a n La ws
and .

5 .Us i n g a pa i r O f c ha r a c t e r s in w he a t s h o w ho w it m a y b r e e d ,

t hr o ugh t w o ge n e r a t i o n s s ho wi n g a ll po s s i b l e c o m bi n a t i o n s in t he
,

O ffs p r i n g At t h e b e gi n n i n g O f y o ur w o r k b e s ur e t o e xpl a in t he re p
.
,

r e s e n t a t io n s y o u us e fo r cha r a c t e rs .

6 . Us i n g a p a r i O f c h a ra c t e r s in c a t t l e s h o w h o w it m a y b r e e d
,

t h r o ugh t w o ge n e r a t i o n s , s h o w i n g a ll p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s in t h e O ff

s pr i n g .

7 Give
. a libr a r y r e p or t o n t he life and wo rk Of Gr e go r M e n d e l .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E AD IN G
k
C o n lin E dwin Gr a n t H eredi ty a nd E n viron me n t i n t he D evelopme nt of M en
, , .

( P r in c e t o n U n i e r s it y P r e s s
) v .

G uy e r M ic ha e l E B ei ng We ll B or n ; a n I n troduc tion to H eredi ty a nd E ugen ic s

, , .

( B o b b s -
M e rr ill
Jo ur n a l O f H er e dit y , Ame ri ca n Ge ne tic As s oci a ti o n Wa s hin gt o n , D C . . .

M or ga n Tho s H un t The P hys ica l B a s i s of H e redi ty

,
.
( B L ippin c o t t
,
. J . .

S hull A F H eredi ty
,
.
(M c Gr a w H ill a n d
.
, .

S in n o t t E W , a n d D un n L C P ri nciple s of Ge ne tics
, . .
(M c Gr a w H ill, . .
,
.

B oo k
Wa lt er , H E , Geneti cs (The M a c m illa n
. . .
 C H AP TE R XX X I V

M UTAT I O N S

K V i ew C o
H ugo de Vr ie s .
e ys t on e .

Augus t W e is m a n n .

Wha t a re m uta tion s ? Wha t is t he im po r ta n ce o f m uta tion s ?

Th e th eory of ge rm pla s m Au gu s t We i s m a n n ( 1 834

. a

G e r m a n bi o l o gi s t t r i e d t o p r o du c e a r a c e Of t a ill e s s m i c e H e
, .

c ut Off t h e t a il s Of t i n y b a by m i c e a s s o o n a s t h e y w e r e b o r n Wh en .

t h e s e gr e w t o a dul t m i c e t h e y m a t e d a n d h a d O ff s p r i n g
, Th e s e .

b a by m i c e h a d l on g t a il s H e r e p e a t e d t hi s e xp e r i m en t ge n e r a t i o n
.

a f t er ge n e r a t i o n C u t t i n g t he t a il s o f t h e p a r e n t m i c e did n o t
.

a ffe c t t h e ger m c e ll s o f e i t h e r m a l e s o r f e m a l e s H e th e n s e l e c t e d.

m i c e wi t h t h e s h o r t e s t o f s t ubby t a il s m a t e d th e m a n d c o n t i n u e d
‘

, ,

t o s e l e c t t h e s h o r t e s t t a il e d m i c e fo r p a r e n t s
-
Af t e r s e v e r a l ge n er a
.

t i o n s o f thi s s e l e c ti n g a n d m a ti n g a S h o r t t a il e d r a c e o f m i c e w a s
,
-

p r o du ce d H e h a d s e l e c t e d m i c e wh o s e ge r m c e ll s c a r r i e d t he ge n e
.

fo r s h o r t t a il s .

As a r e s ul t Of t hi s s e co n d e xp e r i m e n t We is m a n n f o r m ul a t e d a
,

t h e o r y e xpl a i n i n g why O ff s p r i n g r e s e m bl e t h e i r p a r e n t s He .

b e li e v e d t h a t t h e ger m pl a s m d oe s n o t a r i s e a n ew in e a c h o r ga n i s m ,

but is a c tu a lly r e c e iv e d fr om it s p a r e n t s E xpl a i n e d b r i efly his .

,

th e or y is thi s : E a c h n ew o r ga n i s m b e gi n s a s a s i n gl e c e ll whi c h is ,

pu r e germ pla s m I n hi gh e r pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s t hi s cell is f o rm e d

.

fr o m t h e u n i on Of a n e gg a n d s p e r m Th e c e ll c a ll e d a f er t il e e gg
.
, ,

b egin s t o divid e Ver y e a r ly in t hi s divi s i o n a n d b ef or e diff e r

.
,

33 5
3 36 M U TAT I O N S

e n t ia t io n b e gi n s , on e c e ll or m o r e will b e se t a s id e
p r o du ce futur e
to

ge r m c e ll s . Th e ot h er ce ll s go o n m ul t iplyi n g a n d f or m t he s om a ,

v
Acc or din g t o Augus t W e is m a nn ge r m pla s m is d e r i e d fr o m th e ge r m pla s m o f pr e ious v
ge n e r a ti on s Th us it is c o n t in uo us fr o m o n e ge n e ra t io n t o a n o t h e r S uc c e s s i e ge n e ra t io n s v
v
. .

m us t r e s e m b l e e a ch o t h e r s in c e t h e y a r e a ll de r i e d fr o m t h e s a m e ge rm pla s m S o m a t o pla s m
v
.

de elo ps fr om ge rm pla s m .

or b o dy c e ll s F r o m t he f o r m er c e ll s th er e d e v e l op a ll t he ger m
.
,

c e ll s o f t h e o r ga n i s m G e r m c ell s c o n s i s t Of ge r m pl a s m b o dy c e ll s
.
,

Of s o m a t o pl a s m Wh e n s om e o f t he ge r m c e ll s o f o n e i n dividu a l
.

m e e t t he ger m c e ll s Of a n o th e r i n dividu a l th e y will u n it e a n d , , ,

whil e s t ill in t he fo r m O f ge r m pl a s m a sm a ll p o r t i on o f it will b e s e t

,

a s id e t o f o r m t h e ge r m c e ll s o f t h e e m b r y o Thu s t h e ge r m pl a s m .

is con tin uo us fr o m on e gen era ti on t o t he n ext .

Thi s c on ti n uity o f ge r m pl a s m h a s a c tu a lly b ee n d e m o n s tr a t e d .

On e o b s e r v er r ec or d s t h a t wh e n in a c e r t a i n w or m t h e s ixt ee n th
, ,

c e ll s t a ge o f t h e e m b r y o is r e a c h e d o n e c e ll is s e t a s id e t o f o r m t he
,

g m pl a s m a n d t h e o th er fift ee n o f t h e ce ll s f or m s o m a t o pl a sm
e r .

M uta tion s I t h a s a l r e a dy b e e n s t a t e d t h a t v a r i a t i o n s of t h e
.

b Ody pl a s m whi c h o c c u r du r i n g t h e lif e o f t h e i n dividu a l s u c h a s

, ,

dw a rfin g Of t r ee s by wi nd a n d t h e a c qui r i n g o f m u sc ul a r s kill a r e ,

g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r e d n o t i n h e r i t a bl e Th e s e a r e O ft
. e n ca ll e d

a c qui r e d c h a r a c t er s Ac qui r e d c h a r a c t e r s a r e s o m a t i c v a r i a ti on s
.

whi c h a r e due t o e n vir o n m en t a nd a r e n o t a s a r ul e t r a n s m i t t e d

fr om p a r en t t o O ff s p r in g S o m e e xp e r i m e n t a ti on ha s r e c e n tly b een
.

u n d er t a k e n t o s h ow t h a t un d er c er t a i n c o n di t i o n s a c qui r e d c h a r
, ,

a c t er s m a y b e t r a n s m itt e d f r o m p a re n t t o O ff s p r i n g B ut s i n c e .
,

th e s e a biliti e s w e r e a c qui r e d by t he s o m a c e ll s l o n g a ft er t he ge r m
3 38 M U T AT I ON S

C a tt l e o r igin a ll y h a d lo n g h or n s Th e r e a pp e a r e d a m ut a n t wit h o ut h o rn s
. . T hi s a ni m a l

b e ca m e th e a n c e s t or o f a h ornl e s s r a c e O f c a t tl e .

b r e e d s t r u e t o it s typ e I n P a r a gu a y in 1 7 7 0 th er e w a s b or n a
.
,

h o r n l e s s c a lf in a h e r d Of o r di n a r y l on g h or n e d ca t t l e An i m a l s
-
.

with o ut h o r n s a r e l e s s d a n ge r o u s t o t he o th er a n i m a l s o f t he h er d
a n d a l s o t o t h e ir o wn er s Th e r e f o r e t hi s a n i m a l was l a t er b r e d
.
,

wi t h t he o r di n a r y c a t t l e a n d it w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e h o r n l e s s n e s s
was i nh er it e d a s a d o m i n a n t f a c t or B e f or e thi s c a t t l e h a d s om e
.
,

t i m es b e e n de h o r n e d p o ll e d a r tifi c i a lly but f r o m t hi s o n e a n i m a l

-
, ,

a n e n ti r e r a c e Of h o rn l e s s or n a t u r a lly p o ll e d c a ttl e w a s d e v e l o p e d .

Th e o r i gi n a l h or n l e s s c a lf w a s a m u t a n t .

S h o r t l e gge d s h e e p whi c h c a n n o t j u m p w a ll s h a v e b e e n d e v e l
-
, ,

o p e d f r o m t h e l o n g l e gge d An c o n s h e e p
-
Six fi n ge r s i n s t e a d O f
.

fiv e t w o j o i n t s in t h e fi n ger s i n s t e a d Of th r e e a n d w e bb e d
, ,

fi n ger s a r e a few Of t he i n h er ite d m o difi c a ti on s m u t a t i o n s t h a t , ,

h a v e b e e n f o u n d in hu m a n b e in gs The n a v e l o r a n ge ( s ee dl e s s
.

or a n ge ) o r i gi n a t e d a s a m u t a n t in B r a zil .

Th e fi r s t p er s on t o us e t h e t er m muta tion w a s Pr o f es s or H u go
de Vr ie s Of H o ll a n d H e w a s b or n in 1 84 8 a n d wa s fo r a l on g t i m e
.
, ,

a p r o f e s s or a t t he Un iv er s i t y Of Am s t e r d a m H o ll a n d H e c a r e fully
, .

w a t c h ed t he d e s cen d a n t s Of o n e p r i m r o s e pl a n t for s e v er a l gen er a

ti on s a n d f o u n d th a t it ga v e r i s e t o s e v e n di s ti n c t n ew s p ec i e s e a c h ,

O f whi c h b r e d t r u e
. E a c h m ut a n t diff e r e d d e c id e dly fr om t h e
.

o th er s in h e i ght s h a p e Of l e a v e s o r s o m e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r
, , .

M u t a ti o n s a re i n h er i t a bl e a n d th e r e is lit t l e d o ubt th a t t h e y a r e
 CAU S E OF G E R M I NA L VA R IATI O N S 33 9

due t o some ge r m n al v a r i a ti on Th e y m a y b e domi n a n t or

i . .

reces s i ve in C h a r a c t e r Th e y a r e Of tr e m en d o u s e c on om i c i m p or
.

t a n c e t o m a n s i n ce v a lu a bl e a n d d e s ir a bl e m uta n t s c a n b e us edHS a
s t a r t i n g p o i n t fo r a n e w s p e c i e s Of pl a n t s o r a n i m a l s D e Vr i e s w a s .

t he fi r s t m a n t o a dv a n c e t h e th e o r y th a t m a n y o f o ur p r e s en t da y -

pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s p o s s ibly o ri gin a t ed a s m ut a n t s .

C a us e s of ge rm in al variation s Our i gn o r a n c e c on c e r n i n g t h e
.

c a u s es o f ge r m i n a l v a r i a ti o n s is p r o f o u n d We do kn ow t h a t s li gh t
.

v a r i a ti o n s a r e e x c e e din gly c o m m on ; n o t wo livi n g thi n gs e v e n o f t he ,

s a m e s p ec i e s a r e e x a c t ly a l ik e
, D ec id e d v a r i a ti on s s u c h a s m ut a
.

ti o n s a r e m or e r a r e but wh e n we b e c o m e m o r e o b s er v a n t we fin d
,

t h e m t o b e m o r e f r e qu e n t t h a n a t fi r s t b e li e v e d ,
Th e f o ll owi n g
,
.

a r e s o m e o f t h e m o r e c o m m o n e xpl a n a ti o n s o f c a u se s o f m u t a ti o n s .

( )
a Ch a n g e s i n c h r om os o m e n u m b er S c i e n t i s t s f o u n d th a t t he
.

o r i gi n a l p r i m r o se h a d 1 4 c h r o m o s om e s but th a t t he 7 m ut a n t s
,

h a d r e s p e c t iv e ly 1 5 1 6 2 0 22 24 2 7 a n d 2 8 c h r o m o s o m e s
, , , , , , .

Oth er O b ser v e r s h a v e a l s o f o u n d a t ti m e s a diffe r e n t n u m b e r o f

chr o m o s o m es I n o th er m ut a n t s H ow o r why t he n u m b er o f ob ro
.

m o s om e s c h a n ge s is n o t y e t d e fi n i t e ly k n o w n .

C h r o m o s o m e s A a n d B s o m e t im e s b e n d ar o un d e a c h o t h e r B e for e t h e y s e pa ra t e , pa rt of
.

j
B b e c om e s o in e d t o A a s in C a n d pa rt of A b e c om e s o in e d t o B a s in D j Th is is ca lle d
v
.

c r o s s in g o e r . S om e of t h e fa c t or s or igina lly in o n e ch r om o s om e ar e n ow in t h e o th e r .

( 6) Cha n ge i n t he c ha ra cter f the gen e i ts elf M or ga n ha s f ou n d

o .

th a t m o s t o f t he fr ui t fly ( D r o s o phil a ) m u t a n t s t h a t h e h a s s tudi ed
3 40 M U TAT I O N S

h a d t he s am e n u m b e r o f c h r om o s o m e s a s t h e i r p a r e n t s Th e re .

a s sum
‘

for e ,
it m a y b e e d t h a t wh e n t h e c h r o m o s o m e n u m b e r d o e s

nor ma l
wr i n g

T H M or ga n a n d his a s s o c ia t e s ha ve ob s e r vdh e t e a pp e a ra n c e o f h un dr e ds of n e w c h a r a c t e r s

fli
. . ,

m ut a t ion s , in fr uit es .

c h a n ge a m uta n t is p r o du c e d but t h a t ger m i n a l v a r i a ti o n s m a y

, ,

a l s o a r i se in o t h er w a y s M o r ga n h a s s h o w n th a t m ut a ti on s
.

s o m e t i m e s a r i s e a s a r es ul t o f o n e ge n e o r m o r e a c t u a lly c h a n gi n g

in c h a r a c t e r . H e h a s id e n t ifi e d o v e r 4 00 C h a r a c t e r s whi c h a r e
c a r r i e d by t h e e i gh t c h ro m o s o m e s O f t h e f r ui t fly ( f o u r c h r o m o s o m e s

in e a c h ge r m c e ll ) H e b e li e v e s t h a t e a c h c h a r a c t e r is d e t e r m i n e d
.

by a ge n e in a c h r o m os o m e Th er e f o r e t h e r e a r e m a n y ge n es in
.
,

e a ch ch r o m o s o m e E xp e r i m e n t a l w o r k in h e r e di t y m a k e s it s ee m
.

hi ghly p r o b a bl e t h a t t h e s e t i n y u n i t s o f i n h e r i t a n c e a re p re s e n t in
t h e C h r o m o s o m e a n d if t h e y C h a n ge in C h a r a c t e r it a ga i n s ee m s
,

pl a u s ibl e t h a t a ge r m i n a l v a r i a t i o n w o uld re s ul t .

( )
c C ros s in g ove r
-
ofg e n es S e v e r a l s c i.e n t i s t s h a v e d o n e e xp e r i
m en t a l w o r k th a t w o uld s e e m t o s h o w th a t s o m e ti m e s t h e ge n es
a c tu a lly c r o s s o v e r f r o m o n e C h r o m o s o m e t o a n o th e r Ju s t b e .
'

f o re r edu c ti o n divi s i o n t he c h r o m o s o m e s a lw a y s a rr a n ge th e m
-
,

s e lv es s id e by s id e in p a i r s I n t h e fr ui t fly t h er e w o uld b e f o u r
.
3 42 M U TATI ON S
c h a n ge s Oth er i n se ct s s u c h a s butt er fli es a n d gr a s s h opp er s h a v e
.
, ,

b ee n k n own t o p r o duce m uta n t s by a d e c id e d c h a n ge in t e m p er a

t u re f o o d a n d r e c e n tly by t he us e o f t h e X r a y
, ,
-
The tr ea t m e n t
.

o f p a r e n t f r uit fli e s a n d m i c e wi t h X r a y a n d r a diu m r a y s h a s
-

c a u s ed t h e m t o p r o du ce Off s p r i n g with s o m ewh a t m a lfo r m ed

b o di es Th e s e p ec uli a r c h a r a ct er s w e r e h a n d e d d ow n t o t he n e xt
.

g e n er a ti o n s Th e g e r.m pl a s m h a d b e e n a ffe c t e d I t w o
. uld s ee m

t h a t in s o m e w a y t h e ger m pl a s m is a ff e c t e d by t h e c h a n ge in
t he c o n diti o n s o f t h e e n vi ro n m en t c a u s i n g m ut a t i o n s t o a pp ea r
,

in t h e s ec o n d ge n era ti o n I t is n o t c o n c lu s ive ly k n o w n wh e th e r
.

a d e cid e d ch a n ge in e n vi r o n m e n t h a s e v e r p r o du c e d m ut a n t s in

n a tu r e a s it h a s b ee n d o n e u n d e r e xp er i m e n t a l c o n di t i o n s in t h e

l a b o ra to r y .

QU E ST IONS AN D S UGG E ST I ON S
1 S t a t e t he d o c t r i n e O f c o n t i n ui t y o f ge r m pl a s m
. H o w O ld is
.

g e r m p l a s m ?
Wha t a r e m ut a t i o n s ? Give e x a m pl e s .

3 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n O f m ut a t i o n s t o h er e di t y ?
.

4 Wh a t p a r t did H ugo de Vr i es pl a y in d e ve l opi n g t h e t he o r y o f

.

m l m ?
'

g e r p as

5 Give t hre e t he o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t he c a u s e s o f m ut a t io n s
. .

.
’
k
6 D i s c us s P r o fe s s o r M o r ga n s w o r w i t h fr ui t fl i e s .

7 D i s c us s D oc t o r To we r s wo r k w i t h p o t a t o b e e t l e s
’
. .

8 Give a li b r a r y r e p o r t o n t h e bi o gr a phy o f Augus t We is m a nn

. .

9. L k
oo k
up in a r e c e n t s c i e n c e b o o o r m a ga zi n e a n d r e p or t o n t he
e xp e r i m e n t s t h a t a r e n o w b e i n g c a r r i e d o n c o n c e r n i n g m u t a t i o n s .
 C H APT E R X XX V

P L AN T
AN D AN I M AL
B RE E D I N G

S pe e d H o r s e . D r a y H or s e .

Wha t a re s o me o f t he res ults o f p la n t an d a n im a l breedin g? Wha t

a re s om e o f t he m e t hods us ed byp la n t an d a n im a l br eede rs to i mp r ove
t he va r ie ty ?

I m por ta n c e of p an t
l a n d an im a l b r e e din g . I t is
littl e on ly a

o v e r o n e hu n d r e d y e a r s a go t h a t t h e E n gli s h c l e r gy m a n M a lthu s , ,

w r o t e his f a m o u s e s s a y s e t t i n g fo r t h t h e p r i n c ipl e t h a t p o pul a ti o n

t e n d s t o i n c r e a se m u c h f a s t e r t h a n t h e s upply O f f o o d H e b e li e v e d
.

t h a t f a m i n e s w a r s a n d pl a gu e s w e r e u se ful a t l ea s t in li m i t i n g
, , , ,

t h e p o pul a ti o n t h a t o t h e r w i s e w o uld b e d o o m e d t o s l o w s t a r v a t i o n .

Wha t is t h e s i t u a ti o n t o da y ? S i n c e t he t i m e Of M a l t hu s t he
-
,

p o pul a ti o n o f E ur o p e h a s n e a r ly t r e bl e d a n d in t h e Un i t e d S t a t es
,

it h a s i n c r e a s e d a pp r o xi m a t e ly t e n ti m es Y e t f a m i n es a r e n o
.

l o n ge r e xp er i e n c e d e x cept in t h o s e c o u n t r i es with p o o r tr a n s p o r t a
ti o n f a c ili t i es Th e w or ld a s a wh o l e h a s a t n o ti m e b e e n s o w e ll
.

fe d n or h a d s o gr e a t a v a r i e ty o f f o o d s M a l t hu s c o n t r ibut e d a
.

f a c t o f re a l v a lu e t o m a n kin d in c a lli n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r a t e Of in
c re a s e O i t h e p o pul a t i o n S i n ce t h a t t i m e m o d e rn f a r m m a c hi n e r y
.
, ,

g o o d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d k n
, o w l e d ge o f f o o d p re s e r v a t i o n h a v e a ll
a id e d a n i n c r e a s i n ly s m a ll e r p ro p o r t i o n o f t h e p e o pl e Of t he w o r ld
g
t o p r o vid e s u ffi c i e n t f oo d f r o m t h e f a r m s fo r t he n e e d s O f a ll . .

An o t h e r f a c t o r whi c h h a s gr e a tly i n c r e a s e d t h e p r o du c ti o n o f
fo o d a n d whi c h is o f p a r ti c ul a r i n t er e s t t o t he bi o l ogi s t is t he
, ,

343
344 P L AN T AN D A N I M A L B REE D I N G

i m pro vem en t of f oo d p r o du c i n g pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s The c a ttl e

-
.

o f t h e M iddl e Ages w er e a b o u t t h e s iz e o f t h e a v e ra ge c a lf O f t o da y -
,

but thr o u gh m an y gen e r a t i o n s Of s e l e c t iv e b r e edi n g t he s iz e o f

c a t t l e a n d t h e i r yi e ld O f m ilk h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s e d t o a r e m a r k a b l e

d egr e e .

Alfa lf a is e s p e c i a lly h a r dy . I t with s t a n d s d ro u ght s a n d it m a y

,

yi e ld a s m a n y a s n i ne c utti n gs a s e a s o n D ue t o c a re ful s e l e c ti o n
.

O f s e e d s a n d c ul t iv a t i o n o f t h e gr o u n d a fi e ld o f a lf a lf a will fu r n i s h

s uffi c i e n t f o o d fo r t h r e e t o s ix t i m e s t h e n u m b er O f c a t t l e whi c h

it fo r m er ly s upp o r t e d Pl a n t b re e d e rs h a v e b e en a bl e t o i n cr ea s e
.

t h e a m o u n t o f s u ga r in b e e t s s o t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f p o u n d s Of b ee t s
n ee d e d t o m a k e o n e p o u n d o f s u ga r h a s d e c r e a s e d fr o m e i gh t e e n

p o u n d s in 1 836 t o s e v e n p o u n d s in 1 90 4 L u t h er Bu r b a n k im
.

p ro v e d t h e p o t a to by m a ki n g it r e s i s ta n t t o a di s e a s e c a ll e d t he
p o t a t o bli ght a n d by in cr e a s m g it s s t a r c h c o n t e n t I t is s a id
,
.
,

t h a t thi s s p e c i es o f p o t a t o a dd s s e v e n t e e n a n d o n e h a lf m illi o n
d o ll a r s t o t he f a r m i n co m e s e a c h y e a r .

On e o f t h e b e s t d a i r y C OW S O f r e c e n t y e a r s ga v e , p o un d s
o f m ilk a n d p o u n d s o f butt er fa t in o n e y e a r S he ga v e.

m o r e t h a n h e r w e i gh t in m ilk e a c h m o n th C o n t r a St t hi s c o w wi t h
.

a p r iz e co w o f 1 90 4 th a t ga v e 5 6 7 p o u n d s o f bu t t er fa t in o n e
,

year .

E v er y da y o ur a gr i c ultu r a l e xp e r i m e n t e xp er t s a n d o th e r s c ie n
t is t s a r e i m p r o vi n g o ur fo o d s . Th e s e p r o du c t s a r e n o t p ro du ce d
in a h a ph a z a r d w a y . T h e y a r e fr e qu e n tly t h e r e s ul t s o f c a r e ful
e xp e r i m e n t a l b re e di n g I t is h ow e v e r o n ly wi t hi n t he l a s t
.
, ,

tw e n ty fiv e y e a r s th a t s ufli c ie n t k n owl e d ge o f t he l a w s o f h e r e di t y
-

h a s b ee n a v a il a bl e t oput pl a n t a n d a n i m a l b r ee di n g o n a s c i e n tific
basis .

’
I t is t he pl a n t b r ee d er s c o n cer n t o i n c r e a s e t he fo o d c o n t e n t o f
r a i n s a n d f r uit s t o p r o du ce n ew s p e c i e s i mm u n e t o di sea se t o m a k e
g ,
a
,

c er t a i n v a r i e ti es h ar dy s o th a t t he y c a n b e gro w n in mo r e n o r th er n
cli m a t e s a n d t o h a s te n m a tu r ity The a v e r a ge yi eld per a c r e
,
.
 An a v e ra ge v k
da iry c ow gi e s a ppr o xim a t e ly 8 3 0 4 lb s o f m il p e r y e a r c o n ta in ing fr o m 1 3 0 t o
v
.

3 00 l b s o f b ut t e r fa t Th e da ugh t e r s o f a fa m o us s ir e , F a uvic s
’
P r in c e , a e r a ge d lb s
v
.
.

k
.

of mil e r e a r Th e ir a e r a ge y i e ld o f b ut t e r fa t i s 8 0 1 l b s pe r y e a r F a uvic S ta r , t h e m iddle

p y . .
.

c ow o n k
t h e r igh t b r o e all r e c or ds wit h . k
lb s o f mil a n d lb s of b ut t e r fa t
. .
 P R O D U CTI ON OF N EW S P E CI E S 34 7

A i fun gu s di s e a s e in wh e a t is r e c e s s iv e I n 1 906 f r o m
ce r t a n .
,

a fi e ld o f b a dly i n f e c t e d wh ea t in K a n s a s a l o n e pl a n t w a s dis ,

c o v e r e d th a t s h o w e d n o s i gn s O f r u s t : Thi s s i n gl e s t a lk Wa s
p r ob a bly a m u t a n t I t w a s t e s t e d p r o p a ga t e d a n d t h e O ffs p r i n g
.
, ,

w er e ca r e fully s e l e c t e d fo r i m m u n i t y a s w e ll a s fo r t h e d e s i r a bl e
’

q u a liti e s o f t h e p a rent

wh e a t An i m m u n e s p e
.

c i e s th a t a l s o ga v e a n ih
’

c r e a s e d a v e r a ge yi e ld o f

fo ur a n d o n e h a lf bu s h e l s
p er a c r e w a s fi n a lly
p ro

duce d PM 1 9 1 7 t hi s s t r a i n
.
,

O f wh e a t c a ll e d K a n r e d ( a
,

c o m bi n a tio n O f K a n sa s a n d

it s c o l o r — r e d) wa s dis,

t r ibu t e d fo r co m m e r ci a l

us e a n d h a s a l r e a dy in
c r e a s e d t h e wh e a t i n c o m e

in K a n s a s by m a n y m illi o n
d o ll a r s per y ea r Th e .

s a m e p r o c e du r e w a s fo l .

l o w e d in c om b a t i n g a
bli gh t t ha t o f t en a ffe c t e d U d w d f U d w d n er oo c: n er oo

v
C orn h a s b e e n im pr o e d t hr o ugh c a r e ful b r e e din g .

C OI I I k
‘

D e s ir a b l e c h a ra c t e r s s uc h a s n um b e r of e r n e l s , fo o d
.

Al l mmense 3 111 0 11 a f c on t e n t o f k
e r n e l s , r e gul a r it y o f fo r m a t io n o f k
e rn e l s
I O
v
a n d s iz e o f e a r h a e b e e n c o m b in e d in t h e s a m e c or n

d a m a ge I S a n n u a lly d o ne
‘

pl a n t . A
pr iz e r e d c o r n o f K a n s a s is s h o wn in th e
pic t ur e .

b y c or n sm ut Som e .

s o u n d e a r s w e r e f o u n d in fi e ld s o f c o r n t h a t w er e b a dly i n f e s t e d

wi t h c o r n s m u t Th e s o u n d e a r s w e r e s e l e c t e d a n d b r e d u n t il a n
.

i m m u n e v a r i e t y w a s Ob t a i n e d .

P r o duction of n e w s pe cie s A w hi t e bl a c kb e r r y s o u n d s lik e

.

a p a r a d o x b ut we us e t he t e r m in r e f e r r i n g t o a n e w bl a c kb e r r y
,

d ev el op e d by Luther B urb a n k H e no t i c e d a wild fr ui t b itt e r

.
, ,
348 P LA NT AN D AN I MA L B RE ED I N G
sma ll ,
lly a li ght y e ll o w r a t h e r t h a n whi t e I t wa s with o u t
a nd r e a .
,

a d o ubt a m e m b e r o f t h e bl a c kb e r r y f a m ily
,
H e hyb r idiz e d t hi s
.

by c ro s s i n g it wi t h t h e L a w t o n bl a c kb e r r y whi c h wa s bl a c k l a r ge , ,

j ui c y a n d o f pl e a s i n g fl a v o r H e f o u n d t h a t bl a c k w a s d o m i n a n t
,
.

o v e r t h e li gh t y e ll o w . I n t h e F 2 ge n e r a t i o n t h e li ght c o l o r a ga i n
a pp e a r e d a n d by s e l e c t i n g for s e v e ra l ge n e ra ti o n s o n ly t h e pl a n t s
,

fo r b r ee di n g t h a t c o m bi n e d t h e l a c k Of c o l or with t h e d e s i r a bl e
fl a v or a n d s iz e h e o bt a i n e d a l a r ge t a s ty b e rr y th a t is n ow k n own
,
.

a s a whit e bl a c kb e r r y .

S o m e v a r i e t i e s o f pl a n t s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d in m a n y di ffer e n t
wa y s L u t h er B u r b a n k s t udi e d v a r i o u s ki n d s O f pl u m s o b t a i n a bl e
.

h e r e a n d in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s H e c r o s s e d Am e r i c a n J a p a n e s e a n d
.
, ,

E u r o p e a n ki n d s Th e n h e s e l e c t e d t h e b e s t fo r fu r t h er e xpe r i
.

m e n t a ti o n AS a r e s ult h e o b t a i n e d diffe r e n t S p e c i e s : ( 1 ) o f
.
,

m a n y v a r i eti e s in t h e c o l o r i n g Of s ki n a n d t he t e xtu r e o f fl e s h ;
( )
2 o f a wid e v a r i e ty O f shapes ; ( 3 ) o f a wid e v a r i e t y o f n e w
fl a v o r s a n d a r o m a s ; (4 ) o f s iz e s th a t a re i n c r e a s e d t o t h r e e i n ch es
in l e n gth a n d t wo a n d o n e h a lf in di a m e t e r ; ( 5 ) th a t p r odu c e d
e ith e r e a r ly o r l a t e s p e c i e s ( S o m e .r ip e n a m o n th b e f o r e t h e

e a r li e s t O f t h e o ld v a r i e t i e s ; o t h e r s r ip e n a s l a t e a s D e c e m b er ) .

( )
6 t h a t a r e n o t a ff e c t e d by t h e f r o s t o r c o ld w e a t h e r S o m e .

plu m s h a ve b e e n d e ve l o p e d th a t c a n b e s hipp e d l o n g di s t a n ce s
with o ut s p o ili n g A s p e c i e s ha s b ee n p r o du c e d th a t c a n r e m a i n
.

o n t h e t r e e a m o n th o r t w o in h o t w e a t h e r wi t h o ut d e c a yi n g ,

u n lik e t he Old v a r i e t i es whi c h h a d t o b e pi c k e d a s s o o n a s the y

'

we r e r ip e S o m e t r e e s b e a ri n g t h e s e n ew v a r i e ti e s will b egi n
.

t o b e a r a bu n d a n t ly t h e thi r d ye a r if c utti n gs fr o m y o un g t r e e s a r e

g r a f t e d up o n t r e e s O f o r di n a r y s iz e .

S o m e o f t h e s e n e w plu m s gr o w in c li m a t e s a n d u n d e r c o n diti o n s
wh e r e t h e plu m h a s hi t h e r t o b e e n a fa ilu r e Th e B e a c h plu m is a .

wild s p e c i e s gr o wi n g a l o n g t h e c o a s t I t is a lo w s p r ea di n g S h r ub
.
,

with a s m a ll bi t t e r f r ui t I t is v er y p r o lifi c a n d is r e s i s t a n t t o c o ld
.

a nd f r o s t .Thi s wa s c ro s s e d with a n Am e r i c a n plu m The r e s ult.

350 P L AN T AN D A N I MA L BREE D I N G

d a hli a will giv e r i s e t o l a r ge d o ubl e bl o s s o m s co l o r e d r ed I f h e .

pl a n t s t he s e e d s h o w e v e r h e will p r o b a bly fin d o u t c r o ppi n gs Of

, ,

t h e pl a n t s a n c e s t r y in t h e w a y O f s m a ll fl o w e r s s o m e s i n gl e r a t h e r
’

t h a n d o ubl e s o m e wi t h whi t e p e t a l s a n d s o o n
, Th e p o t a t o a t
, .

p r e s e n t r a r e ly b e a r s s ee d s Wh e n s u c h s e e d s a pp e a r a n d a r e
.

pl a n t e d di ffe r e n t kin d s o f p o t a t o pl a n t s m a y r e s ul t M a n y O f
, .

th e s e pl a n t s m a y he a r p o t a t o e s t h a t a r e s m a ll i rr e gul a r in s h a p e , ,

a n d lo w in f o o d C on t e n t Th e y c l o s e ly r e s e m bl e th e i r wild a n
.

c e s t or s . Th e r e f o r e t h e p o t a t o is p r o p a ga t e d v e ge t a t iv e ly by
,

u s i n g p a r t s o f t h e t ub er c o n t a i n i n g t h e e y e s To m a t o e s w e r e.

f o r m e r ly s m a ll t a s t e l e s s a n d full o f s e e d s B ut t h r o u gh s e l e c
, , .

t i o n a n d c ul t iva t i o n m a n y s pl e n did v a r i e t i e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d
, ,

wi t hi n t h e l a s t ge n e ra t i o n Ot h e r d e t a il s t h a t h a v e b e e n b r o ugh t
.

o ut t h r o u gh b r e e di n g a r e : i n c r e a s e d e gg l a yi n g in h e n s i n c r e a s e d ,

m ilk s uppl y f r o m c o w s a n d i n c r e a s e d s t a r c h a n d p r o t e i n p r o du c
,

t i o n in c or n .

I m pr ov e d q ua l ity Th e s o u t h e a s t e r n r e gi o n o f t he s t a t e o f
.

Wa s hi n gt o n w a s a n e x c e ll e n t l o c a li t y fo r gro wi n g wh e a t B ut .

t h e c li m a t e is s o s e v e r e t h a t e v e r y t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s t h e e n t i r e ,

c r o p w a s kill e d by f r o s t The p r o bl e m O f p r o du c i n g a h a r dy
.

v a r i e ty o f w h e a t w a s t u r n e d o ve r t o M r S pill m a n O f t h e Un i t e d .

S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f Agr i c ul t u r e H e s e l e c t e d a s a b e gi n n i n g
.
,

t h e L i t t l e C lub wh e a t n a m e d fo r t h e s h o r t Club like a pp e a r a n c e

, ,

of t he h ea d .I t w a s d e s i r a bl e b e c a u s e it h a d a s t e m s t r o n g e n o u gh
t o r e s i s t s t o r m s a n d a h e a d t h a t r e m a i n e d c l os e d l o n g a f t e r r ip e n
in g Thu s t he r ip e gr a i n w a s p r o t e c t e d a n d wa s n o t lik e ly t o b e
.

l o s t b e f o r e h a r v e s t i n g Thi s s p e c i e s w a s cr o s s ed wi t h o th er v a r i e
.

t i e s i n c ludi n g a h a r dy wi n t e r v a r i e ty t h a t w o uld r e s i s t f r o s t s
,
.

Aft e r t e n y e a r s O f c a r e ful s e l e c t i o n a n d p r o p a ga t i o n a n i m p r o v e d ,

f r o s t r e s i s t a n t v a r i e ty O f C lub Wh e a t wa s Ob t a i n e d t h a t is n o w
-
,

g ro w n i n t he e xt r e m e N o r t h w e s t W i n t e r c h a r a c t er wa s f o un d
.

t o b e d o m i n a n t o v er s p r i n g C h a r a c t e r a n d t h e c lub h e a d t o d o m i
n a t e o ver l o n g h e a d .
 I N C RE AS E D P ROD U CTI O N 35 1

I n cr e a s e d pro duc ti on . In
a l m o s t a ll pl a n t s a n d fo o d
a nimals a reat i n cr e a s e in
, g
p r o du ct i o n h a s b e e n b r o ugh t
a b o u t a n d t h e r e is s till r o o m

fo r m u c h i m p r o v e m e n t .

C a r e ful s e l e c t i o n O f t h e b e s t
t yp e s for b r e e di n g is a v e r y im

p O r t a n t f a c t o r h e re . Bu rb a nk

i n c r e a s e d t he fo o d c o n t e n t o f
t he p o t a t o by 2 5 pe r c e n t ;
K a n r e d wh e a t m er e ly t h r o u gh
,

vigil a n t s e l e c t i o n o f t he m o s t
T h i wh it l gh s h t b li h d
e e orn d by en e s a s e a r e c or
p r o du c t iv e pl a n t s for s e e d s ur , l y i g 3 2 1 gg i 5 1 w k
a n e s n ee s .

p a s s e d it s p a r e n t wh e a t by a n
i n cr e a s e d yi e ld per a cr e The .

a v e r a ge c o w s m ilk w ill pr o
’

du c e 1 2 5 p o u n d s Of bu t t er pe r
y e a r b ut a J e r s e y c o w will
,

u s u a lly p r o du ce o v e r 1 00 0
p o u n d s o f but t er in a ye a r
—
.

A 300 a c r e fi e ld in s o u t h e r n
I lli n o i s wa s pl a n t e d wi t h im
p r o v e d c or n a n d yi e ld e d 30
bu s h e l s mo r e per a cr e t h a n
t h e fi e ld s pl a n t e d wi t h t h e
o r di n a r y s ee d .

Th i b d P ly m ut h R k h l id 2 8 7 gg
M e t h o d s o f b r e e di n g i y .
n a Th Am i
s

ear
a rr e

gg d f e th
o

e r ca n e
oc en

r e cor
a

or
e s

ree

ut iv y
.

w d 2 8 1 gg
H ybridiza tion is t h e c r o s s i n g O f m d b t w B c on s e c

a e
2 82 gge

d P l y m ut h R k o
ears

d 3 03
a rr e
as

o
e s an

oc s, an
e s

y
t w o i n dividu a l s ca r r yi n g u n lik e gg f em h
s w h
roi h w a bent w c as a c r os s e ee n a
w h it l gh ed B e d P ly m ut h R k
or n a n a a rr e o oc .

ch ar a c t er s . Thi s h a s t h e a d
v a n t a ge O f c o m bi n i n g t he d e s i ra bl e c h a r a ct e r s fo u nd in t h e t w o
i n dividu a l s i n t o o n e i n dividu a l .
352 PLA N T AN D A N I M A L BREED I N G

Ar tifici a l l i
s e ect o n . M a ny
xp e r i m e n t s in b r e e di n g s t a r t wi t h
e

hyb r idiz a ti o n but t h e y w o uld b e o f li t t l e v a lu e u n l e s s t h e i n di

,

v idua ls s h o wi n g u n d e s i r a bl e t r a it s w er e di s r ega r d e d a n d o nl y th o s e

s h o wi n g t h e d e s i r a bl e C h a r a c t e r s k e pt fo r b r e e di n g Thi s is c a ll e d .

a r tifi ci a l s elec ti on E v e n s o t h e o r ga n i s m s s h o wi n g t h e u s e ful

.
,

t r a i t s will o f t e n t i m e s n o t b r e e d t r u e a s t h e y a r e hyb r id s TO b e .

s u c c e s s ful a n d e s t a bli s h t h e d e s ir a bl e qu a li t i es l a r ge n u m b er s o f
,

m a ti n gs m u s t b e t r i e d o ut a n d o n ly th o s e th a t b r e ed t r u e s h o uld b e
r et a in e d .As h a s b ee n s a id b e fo r e wh e n v e ge t a t iv e p r o p a ga t i o n
,

is p o s s ibl e it is a c e r t a i n m e a n s O f b r e e di n g t h e pl a n t t r u e t o t yp e
, .

I m p r o v e d ki n d s O f f r ui t t r e e s a r e p r o p a ga t e d o n ly by gr a f t i n g .

M ethod of pla n t p rop a ga tion T h e t yp i c a l me t h o d o f pl a n t

.

p r o p a ga t i on wa s t h a t u s e d by B ur b a n k The fl o w e r s whi c h a r e t o .

fu r n i s h t he p o ll en a r e c a r e fully ga th er e d a da y or s o b e f o r e h a n d .

Th e p o ll e n is s if t e d fr o m t h e fl o w e r s a n d k e p t in a c o o l pl a c e Th e .

t r e e t o whi c h t h e p o ll e n is t o b e a ppli e d is d e p r iv e d O f m o s t o f it s
bl o s s o m s in o r d er th a t t h e r e m a i n d er m a y b e s u r e t o d e v e l o p a n d
t h a t t h e r e m a y n o t b e t o o m a n y t o b e p r o p e r ly l o o k e d a ft e r Th e .

bud s O f t h e r e m a i n i n g bl o s s o m s a r e p r e p a r e d fo r a r t ifi c i a l p o lli n a
t i o n by c ut t i n g a w a y t h e p e t a l s a n d t h e a t t a c h e d s t a m e n s Th e .

pi s til s a n d s t i gm a s a r e l e ft u n i n j u r e d a n d a r e p r o t e c t e d fr o m in
s e ct s. S in c et h e r e a r e n o b r i gh t ly c o l o r e d p e t a l s t o a tt r a c t th e m o r ,

a n ythi n g for th e m t o h o ld o n t o wh en e n t e r i n g b ee s s e ld o m a p ,

p r o a ch t h e s e fl o w e r s I f t h e r e is a n y d a n ge r o f i n s e c t s vi s iti n g
.

t h e fl o w e r s a p a p er b a g is fr e,

qu en t ly t i e d o v e r e a c h i n divid
ua l fl o w er Wh e n t he pi s til
.

r ip e n s t h e p o ll e n is a ppli e d by
,

dippi n g a b r u s h o r fi n ger i n t o
t hi s y e ll o w p o wd e r a n d t o u c h

B e a ch Am e r c a i n i n g t h e s ti gm a s A ll O f t h e .

P 1 u m P I b ex“ ,
b e s t s e e d s t h a t d e ve l o p f r o m
Th i
e s ze , flv a d q u lit y f plum h v b
or , a n a O s a e een

im p v d t h ugh
ro e rol ti d ultiv t i
s e ec on a n t h e f r ui t Of t h e pi s til thu s
c a on .
 P LAN T AN D AN I M A L B R E E D I N G

se s s d e s i re d c ha r a c t e r s
t he , and are m a t e d , t heir o ff s p r i n g wil
u s u a lly b e a pur e t yp e .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E STI O N S
1 . Wha t b e a r i n g h a s pl a n t a n d a n i m a l b r e e di n g o n t he fo o d s it ua
t i o n O f t h e w o r ld ?
fi
2 Why is s c i e n t i c pl a n t a n d a n i m a l b r e e di n g a c o m p a r a t ive ]
.

r e c e n t d e ve l o p m e n t ?

3 S t a t e fiv e a i m s O f pl a n t a n d a n i m a l b r e e d e r s
. .

4 D e s cr ib e in d e t a il a n e xa m pl e o f e a c h a im m e n t i o n e d i
.

q ue s t i o n 3 .

5 D e s c r i b e in d e t a il h o w a p a r t i c ul a r t r a i t m a y b e e s t a bli s he d
. .

6 Wh a t t w o b i o l o gi c a l pr i n c i pl e s a r e i n v o lve d in b re e di n g e xpe r i
.

m en t s ?
7 S t a t e t hr e e di ffic ul t i e s a n i m a l b r e e d e r s e n co un t er t h a t a r e n o
.

e n c o un t e re d b y pl a n t b r e e d e rs .

—
8 . L k
oo up a n d r e p o r t o n t he life a n d w o r o f ut her B u r b a n k k L .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R EAD I N GS
Os t er h o ut , W . S V
. .
, E xperim e n ts wi t h P la n ts (Th e M a c m illa n
D un n -H ill B o o k
S in n o t t 81 ,
P ri nci p le s f
o Ge n e tic s ( M c Gr a w
 C H AP TE R XXXV I

E UG E N I C S

U n de r wood a U n de r wood
G
.

S ir F ra n c i s a lt o n .

C h a rl e s D a v e n po r t .

Wha t is the impor ta n c e of eugen ics ? Wha t is the difier en ce bet ween
'

eugen i cs a n d eut hen i cs ? H o w ca n eugen ics a n d euthen ics be a pp lied

p ra c ti ca lly

E ugeni cs IS t he divi s i o n Of
bi o l o gy t h a t d e a l s wi t h t h e i m p r o v e
m e n t o f t h e hu m a n r a c e I t is a n ew s c i e n c e buil t up o n a n a ppli c a
.

t i o n O f wh a t w e kn o w c o n c e r n in g t h e l a w s o f h e r e di t y
'

I t a lso
.

i n c lud e s t he s tudy o f h ow t o i m p r o v e t he e n vi r o n m e n t a l t h o u gh ,

t he e ff e c t O f e n vi r o n m e n t a l c on di t i o n s o n p e o pl e is fr e qu e n t ly
r e f e rr e d t o a s eut hen i cs .

H is tory of t h e e uge n ic s m ov e m e n t I n 1 8 8 3 S ir F r a n c i s G a l t o n
.
, ,

a n E n gli s h m a n b ec a m e i n t er e s t e d in t he s c i e n c e c o n c e r n e d wi t h
,

t he i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e hu m a n r a c e t o whi c h h e ga v e t he n a m e
,

eugen i cs . H e h a d in m i n d t h e i m p ro v e m e n t o f hu m a n c h a r a c t e r
is t ic s th r o u gh her e dity I n 1 92 1 t h e S e co n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n
.
,

f E u ic t t d th t u i w t h lf di r e c t i o n Of
-
g r e s s O ge n s s a e a e g e n c s a s e s e

hu m a n e vo luti o n Thi s m e a n s t h a t i n dividu a l s t h r o ugh go o d o r

.

p o o r m a rr i a ge s c a n ,
i m p r o v e o r i m p a i r t h e m e n t a l o r phy s ic a l h e r i

t a ge o f futur e ge n er a t i o n s The s c i e n c e o f h er e di t y ha s c o n tr ib
.

ut e d m u c h t o e u ge n i c s M a n y f a m ily hi s t o r i e s h a v e b e e n in v e s
.

t iga t ed a n d diff e re n t phy s i c a l a n d m en t a l t r a it s h a v e b e e n t r a c e d

th r o ugh gen er a ti o n s with t h e ut m o s t c a r e Th e s e i n v e s ti ga
,
.

355
3 56 E U G EN ICS
t ions h a v e giv e n d a t a for t he p r a c ti c a l a ppli ca ti o n s o f e u ge n i c s An .

E u ge n i c s L a b or a t or y is l o c a t e d a t C o ld S p r i n g H a r b o r L o n g I s l a nd , ,
f
u n d e r t h e s up e r vi s i o n o f D r C h a r l e s B D a v e n p o r t R e s e a r c h in
. . .

t h e s c i e n c e is b e i n g c a rr i e d o n th e r e by t h e m o s t c a r e ful s p e c i a li s t s .

M e th o ds of in ve s t iga tion F a m ilie s of s u pe ri o r

.

H u m a n h e r e di t y h a s n o t b e e n s t udi e d by t h e e xp e r i m e n t a l
a s s u c c e s s fully a s a n i m a l a n d pl a n t h e r edi t y h a v e b ee n

Th e r e a r e th r e e r e a s o n s fo r t hi s f a ilu r e ( 1 ) Th e l e n gt h o f
l o n g t h a t n o I n v e s t i ga t o r c a n liv e l o n g e n o u gh t o s t udy p e r s o n a lly; ,

t he h e r e di t y O f m o r e t h a n t wo t h r ee o r p o s s ibly f o u r ge n e r a t i o
, , ns
O f a f a m ily ; ( 2 ) t h e n u m b e r O f O ff s p r i n g is s m a ll a n d it is diffic ul t t o

d r a w v a lid c o n c lu s i o n s fr o m t he li m i t e d d a t a o ff er e d ; a n d ( 3 ) o ur

Th e E ug
e n ic s R ecor d fi
Of ce at C old S pr in g H a r b or h a s a do pt e d a s ta n da r d s e t o f s ym b o l s
us e d in c h a r t m a kin g .

soc ai l c u s t o m s h a n di c a p t he w o r k in thi s r e s e a r c h a s p e o p l e c o n ,

s id e r f a m ily a ffa i r s p r iv a t e a n d will n o t giv e i n f o r m a t i o n fr ee ly .

3 58 EU G EN I C S

dp a r en t s a n d gr a n dchildr en is e vid e n t th o ugh n ot a s n o tic e

'

gr a n

a bl e a s c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s hip s Out s t a n di n g gr o up s o f i n dividu a l s

.

h a v e d e s c e n d e d fr o m P e t e r t he G r e a t O f R u s s i a Willi a m t he S il en t ,

o f H o ll a n d I s a b e ll a O f S p a i n a n d Gu s t a vu s Ad o lphu s O f S w e d e n
, , .

T h es e s t udi e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t m e n O f t h e typ e o f t h e S id n e y s ,

B a lfo u r s C e c il s a n d C hu r c hill s in E n gl a n d a n d t he L o w e ll s ,
, , ,

E li o t s a n d D wi ght s in Am e r i c a a r e n o t t h e r e s ul t Of c h a n c e o r
,

a c c id e n t but th a t t h e i r s up e r i o r a bili t i es a r e i n h er i t a bl e t r a i t s
, .

Wh e n a n e x c e p t i o n a l m a n C h o o s e s a n e x c e p t i o n a l wife t he m a ,

j o r it y if n o t a ll Of th e i r c hild r e n will p ro b a bly b e ex c e pti o n a l All

, ,
.

m e m b e rs o f r o y a l f a m ili e s a r e n o t s up e r i or Th er e a r e s o m e gr o up s
.

th a t s h ow i n s a n i t y i m b e c ility a n d o th er m e n t a l d e fe c t s b e c a u s e
, , ,

th e s e t r a it s h a v e b e e n i n tr o du c e d thr o u gh m a rr i a ge s with m e n t a l
d e fe c tiv e s .

T h e r e s e e m s li t t l e d o ubt th a t a c e r t a i n s t o c k o r f a m ily will pr o

du c e m e n O f gr e a t a bili t y m or e fr e qu e n t ly t h a n will a n o t h e r s t o c k
o r f a m ily I t is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e qu a li t y O f m i n d a n d b o dy O f
.

t he p a r e n t s will a ff e c t t h e O ff s p r i n g P a r e n t s s o u n d in m i n d a n d
.
,

h e a l t hy in b o dy t e n d t o p r o du c e n o r m a l h e a lthy c hild r en
, .

F a milies of inf e rio r a b ilit y P a r e n t s phy s i c a lly w e a k a n d o f a

.

lo w gr a d e m e n t a li t y will giv e t o t h e w o r ld u n d e s i r a bl e p r o ge n y
-
,

p r o b a bly phy s i c a lly un fit a n d wi t h m e di ocr e i n t e lli ge n c e An .

Am e r i c a n f a m ily whi c h h a s b een giv e n t he fic t iti o u s n a m e o f

Juk e h a s b e e n c a r e fully t r a c e d th r o u gh a l a r ge n u m b er Of
g e n e r a ti on s T hi s f
. a m ily r e c o r d s t a r t s with a S hif t l e s s v a ga b on d
b o r n in N ew Y or k s t a t e in 1 7 2 0 I n 1 9 1 5 s tud e n t s h a d tr a c e d
.
,

2 0 94 m e m b er s o f t hi s f a m ily : 1 600 w e r e f e e bl e m i n d e d or e pi -

lept ic 3 1 0 w er e p a up e r s 14 0 w e r e c o n vi c t e d c r i m i n a l s a n d l a r ge
, , ,

n u m b er s O f t h e r e m a i n i n g gr o up w e r e t r a c e d th r o u h t h e r e c o r d s
g
k ep t in w or kh o u s e s a n d o th e r publi c i n s t ituti on s Thi s fam ily by .

1 9 1 5 h a d a l r e a dy c os t t h e s t a t e o f N ew Y o r k m o r e t h a n
,

a n d t h e e xp e n s e s t ill go e s o n Th e i r d e s c e n d a n t s will c o n t i n u e t o
.

b ear t he s a me t r a it s The ment a l a bility o f thi s f amily is v er y

.
 FA M I L I E S OF I NFE R I O R AB I LI T Y 35 9

low . On ly t w e n ty h a v e b e en k n o w n t o l e a r n a t r a d e a n d t e n Of
t h e s e did s o whil e in s t a t e p r i s o n s .

Th e s t or y o f t he J uke f a m ily i n di c a t e s t h a t w e a k n e s s o f c ha r
a c t er a n d lo w m e n t a l a bili t y will giv e r i s e t o O ff sp r i n g wi t h li t t l e

m o r a l or m e n t a l s t a bili t y Al t h o u gh t hi s s t udy d o e s n o t p r o v e
.

t h a t a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d w r o n g d o i n g is i n h e r i t a bl e it c e r t a i n ly
-
,

d o e s S h o w a t l ea s t t h a t w e a k c h a r a c t e r a n d lo w m e n t al a bili t y
, ,

g iv e r i s e t o a p e r s o n w h o O f t e n b e c o m e s a c r i m i n a l T h e Juk e s .

l a c k t he j ud gm e n t m e m o r y a n d will p o w e r t h a t e n a bl e p e o pl e t o
, ,

fulfill r e s p o n s ibili t i e s t o w a r d t he ir fe llo w m e n .

.
~

The K a llik a k f a m ily ( t he n a m e is fi c t i t i o u s ) t h r o w s s t ill m o r e

li ght on hu m a n h e r e di t y Ma r t i n K a llik a k a n o r m a l h e a l t hy
.
, ,

k
I n t e llige n c e a n d la c o f in t e llige n c e s e e m t o b e in h e r it e d c h a ra c t e r s
. O n e o f t h e lin e s o f
kk
d e s c e n t o f M a r t in K a lli a s h o ws fe e b l e - m in de dn e s s in h e r it e d fr o m a fe e b l e - m in de d m o t h e r.

k
O f 48 0 de s c e n da n t s s t udie d, o nl y 4 6 w e r e n o wn t o b e n o r m a l . Th e o t h e r lin e o f 4 9 6 d e s c e n d
kk
a n t s fr o m M a rt in K a ll i a a n d a n o r m a l wife wa s pr a c t ica ll y a ll n o r m a l .

y o u n g s o ldi e r who f o u gh t in t h e Am er i c a n R e v o lu t i o n ha d a s o n
—
,

by a feebl e m i n d ed gi r l Thi s s o n h a d a f a m ily o f t e n Child r e n fr o m

.
3 60 E U G EN I C S

wh o m th er e a r e 4 80 k n ow n d e s c e n d a n t s Of th e s e o n ly 4 6 a r e
.
,

kn o w n t o h av e b e e n n o r m a l whil e 1 4 3 w e r e f e e bl e m i n d e d K n owl -
.

e d ge c o n c e r n i n g t h e o t h e r s is m i s s i n g Or d o ub t ful Aft er t h e w a r .
,

thi s s a m e s o ldi e r M a r t i n K a llika k m a r r i e d a n o r m a l w o m a n

, , .

F r o m t hi s u n i o n t h e r e h a v e b e e n 4 96 d e s c en d a n t s ; n o n e O f wh o m
w e r e f ee bl e m i n d e d Th e hi s t o r y o f t he K a llik a k fa m ily i n di c a t e s
-
.

t h a t f e e bl e m i n d e d n e s s is i nh er i t a bl e
-
Th e d e fe c tiv e d e s c e n d a n t s
.

w e r e i n c a p a bl e o f e a r n i n g a livi n g a n d s o m e c o uld n o t p r o vid e fo r

t h e m s e lv e s n o r c a r e fo r th e i r phy s i c a l c o m f o r t I t is n e c e s s a r y
.

th a t th e s e d e f e c t iv e s b e fed a n d s h e l t e r e d b ut it is m o r e i m p o r
,

t a n t th a t t h e y b e s e gr e ga t e d in i n s t i t u t i o n s wh e r e t h e y c a n n o t
p r o du c e m o r e O ff s p r i n g lik e th e m s e lv e s .

Th e n u m b e r o f m e n t a l d e f e c t iv e s in E n gl a n d a n d I r e l a n d h a s
b e e n e s t i m a t e d t o b e a b o ut fiv e pe r c e n t Of t h e p o pul a t i o n I n .

1 9 2 3 in t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s th er e a b o ut
,
m e n t a l d e f e c tiv e s .

Th e a n n u a l c o s t O f c a r i n g fo r th e s e p e r s o n s wa s n e a r ly
t o whi c h s h o uld b e a dd e d t h r e e hu n d r e d m illi o n s o f d o ll a r s whi c h
wa s t he c o r r e s p o n di n g l os s in i n du s t r i a l a c t ivi t y O f th e s e d e p e n d
e n t p e o pl e I n s o m e s t a t e s o n e e i ghth O f t he t o t a l s t a t e e xpe n
.
,

dit ur e s is fo r t h e c a r e O f t he i n s a n e .

The c o s t o f c r i m e in t h e Un it e d S t a t e s is t e n billi o n d o ll a r s a n
n ua lly . Ov er tw e n ty p er c e n t O f t h e i n m a t e s O f j a il s a l m s h o u s e s , ,

a n d o t h e r i n s t itu t i on s a r e f o r e i gn b o r n a l t h o u gh o n ly f o u r t e e n p e r
-
,

c e n t O f t h e t o t a l p o pul a t i o n is f o r e i gn b o r n -
T h er e s e e m s t o b e
.

twi c e t h e n u m b e r o f f o r e i gn b o r n a s n a t iv e b o r n a m o n g t he d e fe e
- -

tiv e gr o up whi c h i n clud e s t he f e e bl e m i n d e d i n s a n e e pil e pti c s

-
, , ,

c r i m i n a l s bli n d d e a f p a up e r s a n d o t h e r d e p e n d e n t s o n a c o m
, , , ,

m u n ity Thi s is p r o b a bly due t o t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y f o r e i gn e r s

.

o f p o o r s t o c k w e r e f o r m e r ly a d m i t t e d t o t hi s c o u n t r y b ut s u ch ,

u n d e s ir a bl e a li e n s a r e n ow e x c lud e d Th er e fo r e t he a b o v e fi gu r e s
.
,

i n c lud e t he p e o pl e a d m it t e d b e for e o ur i mm i gra ti o n l a w s w er e s o

s t r i ct. Th e y a l s o s h o w t he n e c es s ity o f a ca r e ful phy s i c a l a n d
m e n t a l e x a m i n a t i o n O f a ll i m m i gr a n t s t o t hi s c o un tr y .
3 62 E UG E N I C S

whi c h we c a n n o t d e v l p will p w
e o o lf c o n tr o l or a hi gh m o r a l
er , s e -
,

r e s p o n s ibili t y a r e i n h e r i t e d
,
. Ot h e r s tudi e s i n di c a t e t h a t s p e c i a l
a ptitud e s s u c h a s m u s i c a l o r a r t i s t i c a bili t y a s w e ll a s m a t h e m a

ti c a l a n d i n v e n tiv e a p t i t ud e s li t er a r y a bility a n d r e t e n t iv e m em
, ,

o r y a r e i nh e r i t e d . On t h e o t h er h a n d a s t a r t li n g n u m b e r o f
,

—
f e e bl e m i n d e d p e o pl e a n d t h o s e o f lo w m e n t a li t y a r e r e s p o n s ibl e
-

for t h e l a r ge c r i m i n a l a n d d e f e c t iv e gr o up s t h a t fill o ur c h a r i
t a bl e a n d publi c i n s t i t u t i o n s .

R a c e im pr ove m e n t . T h e r e a r e t w o w a y s O f i m p r o vi n g m a n ki n d .

”
Thi s i m p r o v e m e n t m a y b e c a ll e d hu m a n c o n s er v a t i o n. On e
m e th o d Of b e tt e r i n g t h e r a c e c o n s i s t s in givi n g e v e r y c hild t he b e s t
p o s s ibl e i n h er it a n c e Thi s is eugen ics Thi s r e qui r e s th o ught
. .

f ul n e s s in s e l e c t i n g a m a t e s o t h a t t h e c hild r e n will h a v e d e s i r a bl e
tra it s An o t h er m e t h o d is t o i m p r o v e t h e e n vi r o n m e n t O f e v e r y
.

i n dividu a l a n d t o giv e him t h e b e s t p o s s ibl e o pp o r tu n i t y t o d e v el o p

h is c a p a c i t i e s . I t is t r u e t h a t a n y t hi n g whi c h s a f e gu a r d s t h e
h e a l t h o f t h e p r e s e n t ge n era t i o n a l s o h e lp s t o s a fe gu a r d t he n e xt .

Thi s s e c o n d m e th o d is eut he n ics . I t m i ght b e c a ll e d t h e s c i e n c e

O f l e a r n i n g t o liv e w e ll . I t c o n s i s t s Of a n e n d e a vo r t o i m p r o v e
t h e i n dividu a l th r o u gh i m p r o vi n g his e n vi r o n m e n t a n d h is t r a i n i n g .

I f a ll p e o pl e u n d e r s t o o d a n d p r a c ti c e d e u ge n i c s b e i n g w e ll b o r n
a n d e u t h en i c s livi n g w e ll t h e w o r ld w o ul d b e gr e a t ly im
p ro ved .

Th e E u ge n i cs L a b o ra t o r y h a s c o ll e c t e d m a n y v a lu a bl e s t a t i s t ic s
a n d d a t a o n hu m a n h e r e di t y . R e s e a r c h w o r k is c o n t i n u a lly go i n g
on . I f a m a n a n d w o m a n c o n t e m pl a t e m a rr i a ge a n d qu e s ti o n
t h e p os s ibility o f s o m e u n d e s i r a bl e t r a it in o n e or b o th O f t he
f a m ili e s b e i n g t r a n s m it t e d t h e E u ge n i c s L a b o r a t or y will giv e
,

a n O pi n i o n o n t h e d e s i r a bili t y O f t h e m a rr i a ge F or i n s t a n c e if
.
,

t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y t o d e a f n e s s in o n e o f t he f a m ili e s wi t h p e r h a p s
,

s o m e m e m b er s b e i n g d e a f m ut e s
-
, th er e w o uld b e a d o ubl e p o s s i
b ilit y o f t h e c hild r e n i n h e r i t i n g d e a f n e s s if t he f a m ily o f t h e o t h er
p ro s p e ctive p a r e n t ha d t he s a m e t r a i t e v e n t h o u gh in a m ild er
,
 S U G G E S T I O N S F O R R AC E I M P R O VE M EN T 3

fo r m I n s o m e s t a t e s m a rr i a ge s o f fi r s t c o u s i n s a r e p r o hibit e d
.

by la w Th e bi o l o gi c a l r e a s o n for t hi s is m a d e c l e a r by t he ex
.

a m pl e a b o v e I f a n u n d e s i r a bl e tr a it r u n s in a fa m ily bOt h
.
,

p a r e n t s w o uld b e like ly t o c a rr y it a n d t h er e w ould b e a d o uble

p o s s ibili t y Of t he i r c hild r e n i nh er i t i n g it .

S ugge s tion s fo r ra c e impr ove m e n t ( 1 ) S e gr e ga ti o n o f t he

.

fee bl e m i n d e d a n d p r e v e n t i o n o f th e i r m a r r yi n g a r e O bvi o u s
-

m e th o d s fo r e li m i n a ti n g d e fe c t iv e s a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e m e n t a lity
O f s o c i e t y a s a gr o up M o s t s t a t e s s upp o r t s u c h p e o pl e i n i n s ti
.

t ut io n s T hi s is a v er y c o s tly m e th o d
. A m e t h o d th a t s h ow s
.

g r e a t p r o m I s e I s t h e c o l o n y s y s t e m u s e d in s o m e p a r t s O f N ew
Je r s e y Th e m e n t a l d e fe c tiv e s a r e k ep t in c o l o n i e s t h e m e n s ep
.
,

a r a t e fr o m t he w o m e n T h e y a r e a ll t au ght t r a d e s a n d m a y
.
,

t r a v e l in gr o up s t hr o u gh t h e s t a t e u n d e r t h e s t r i c t s up e r vi s i o n o f

g u a r d s T
. h e y d o s o m e r oa d buildi n g f a r m i n,g a n d s i m pl
, e t a s k s

whi c h a r e p a r t s o f o t he r i n du s tr i e s a n d r e qu i r e lit t l e i n t e lli ge n c e .

I n thi s w a y th e y e a r n m on e y a n d h e lp t o m a i n t ai n t h e m s e lv e s .

( )
2 A s fa r a s p o s s ibl e t h e i n s a n e c r i m i n a l a n d di s e a s e d S h o uld
, , ,

a l s o b e p r e v en t e d fr o m m a rr y i n g I f t h e y c o uld b e k e pt in in
.

s t it ut ion s a n d h a v e n o O ff s p r i n g t he n u m b er o f d e f e c t ive s in t he
, ,

s u c c ee di n g ge n e r a t i o n s w o uld b e gr a du a lly di m i n i s h e d .

(3 ) All p e o pl e s h o uld h a v e a n un d er s t a n di n g o f t he v a lu e o f
e u ge n i c s Thi s is m a d e p o ss ibl e by t e a c hi n g pupil s in hi gh s ch oo l s
.

a n d c o ll e ge s t h e p a r t pl a y e d by i n h e r it a n c e in t h e lif e Of
,

e v e r y o n e a n d t o wh a t e xt e n t c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o r t e n d e n ci e s
,

m a y b e i nh e r it e d An e n li ght e n e d publi c c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t b e
.

de v e lo pe d a ll thr o u gh t he w or ld if r a c i a l p ro gr e s s is t o b e m a d e
o
, .

(4 ) C er t a i n l a w s in r e l a ti o n t o m a r r i a ge m i ght b e e n a ct e d a n d
e n fo r c e d E a c h p e r s o n d e s i r i n g t o m a rr y s h o uld b e c o m p e ll e d by
.

la w t o p a s s a phy s i c a l e x a m i n a ti o n t o d e t er m i n e wh e t h er h e is phy s
ic a lly fit o r wh e t h er h e p o s s e s s e s c e r t a i n d e fe c t s th a t w o uld m a k e it
,

u n wi s e fo r him fr o m a n e u ge n i c p o i n t o f vi e w t o m a rr y a n d p r o b
, ,

a bly p a s s o u th e s e di s a biliti e s S o me s t a t es a lr e a dt a v e s u c h
‘

.
3 64 EU G E N I C S

l a w s in o p e r a t i o n Wi s c o n s i n h a s e n fo r c e d s u c h a la w S i n c e 19 14
.
.

I n t hi s s t a t e t h e p e o pl e S h o w a n i n t e lli ge n t i n t e r e s t in t h e i r h e a l t h .

B e fo r e a n y m a n m a y r e c e iv e a li c e n s e t o m a r r y h e m u s t h a ve a
,

t h o r o u gh h e a l t h e x a m i n a ti o n I f a n a ppli c a n t fo r a m a r r i a ge
.

li c e n s e is t o ld t h a t h e h a s a di s e a s e whi c h m a k e s it u n w i s e fo r
t h e m a rr i a ge t o t a k e pl a c e in m o s t c a s e s s u c h a p e r s o n is i n t e r e s t e d
,

in l e a r n i n g h o w t o O v e r c o m e t h e h a n di c a p S O t h a t h e m a y m a r r y
a t s o m e fu t u r e t i m e Th e e n f o r c e m en t O f t hi s la w is h a vi n g a
.

b e n e fi c i a l e ffe c t o n t h e h e a l t h o f t he p e o pl e a s a wh o l e a n d it c er
, ,

t a in ly will m e a n b e t t e r h e a lth fo r t h e n e xt ge n e ra t i o n Wh e n .

s u c h l a w s a r e in o p e r a t i o n o n ly t he fi t t e s t a r e s e l e c t e d fo r p a r e n t
,

hood .

( )
5 T h e e n vi r o n m e n t m a y b e i m p r o v e d by e n a c t i n g a n d e n for c
in g l a w s c o n c e r n i n g

( )
a Th e e i gh t h o u r-
da y
( b) B e t t e r t e n e m e n t a n d h o u s i n g c o n di t i o n s
( )
c P ubli c pl a y g r o u n d s f o r c i t y c hild r e n

( d ) C o m pul s o r y e du c a t i o n

( )
e L a b o r e r
’
s c o m p e n s a t i o n l a ws

(f) W id o w s
’
p e n s i o n s

(g) C hild L a b o r l a w s
h
( ) V o c a t i o n a l g uid a n c e a n d t r a i n i n g

Th e e i gh t h o u r da y p e r m i t s a m a n t o liv e a n o r m a l life wi t h
-

s uffi ci e n t o pp o r t u n i t y fo r e du c a t i o n r ecrea t i o n
,
a n d phy s i c a l r e
,

l a x a t i o n B e t t e r t e n e m e n t a n d h o u s i n g c o n di t i o n s w ill giv e a ll
,

c hild r e n O pp o r t u n i t i e s t o gr o w up in a C l e a n wh o l e s o m e e n vi ro n
,

m ent . All h o u s e s s h o uld b e buil t S O t h a t fr e s h a ir s u n li gh t a n d, ,

g o o d s a n i t a t i o n w ill b e a v a il a bl e fo r e v e r y p er s o n n o m a t
,
t e r h o w
r i c h o r p o o r he m a y b e P ubli c pl a ygr o u n d s fo r c hild r e n will
.

p r e v e n t a c c id e n t s t h a t kill a n d m a i m s o m a n y c hild r e n wh o h a v e
n o pl a c e t o pl a y e x c ept t h e s t r e e t s .

T h e c o m pul s o r y e du c a ti o n l a w s v a r y in t he Un i t e d S t a t e s M o s t .
36 6 E U G EN I C S

fo r wid o w s who a r e in n e e d S o m e Of t h e s e l a w s e v e n p r o vid e for

.

o r ph a n s up t o t h e a ge o f f o u r t e e n o r o f e i gh t e e n y e a r s o f a ge Th e .

a v e r a ge gr a n t u s u a lly v a r i e s f ro m o n e hu n d r e d t o t w o hu n d r e d

d o ll a r s per y e a r for ea c h
c hild I n m a n y ca s e s .
,

t h e la w d e m a n d s t h a t
t h e m o t h e r b e a fit p e r
s o n phy s i c a lly m e n t a lly , ,

a n d m o r a lly if S h e is t o ,

receive t he p en s ion
w hi c h e n a bl e s h er t o k ee p
h er c hild r e n wi t h h er .

Pr e vi o u s t o t he i n t r o
du c t i o n Of t he m o d er n
f a c t or y s y s t em in t he
e i ght e e n th c e n t u r y c hil ,

d r e n w e r e c o m m on ly e m
B w B ro n r os

1 d f
.

I m m ig t m i d t Elli I l d t m k
ra n s a r e e xa ne a su p
s an
0 y eo
1
a
I 1 a C
e s
t O I
re
1 e S
’

th t th y
s
a e

ufi i g f m m
er n
ph y i lly
are

ro t l di d
d m
s ca

en a
t lly fi t
f m
s or
an All t h
en a

t gi u d
ers or ro
A u th o
c on a
.

r i t i es
o
Of
s
p a up e r
os e

is

ea s e s or wh th wi
o are , oph y i ll y u fi t t m k
er se, s ca
i nst n
i t u t io
o
ns a
in G
e t e
r ea t
s p on sib l it i
e c lud d f m t h
ze n s a r e e xc u t y
e ro e co n r .

B r i t a i n p erm i t t e d p a up e r
child r e n t o w o r k a s m u c h a s s ix t e e n h o u r s a da y I n 1 84 7 t he .
,

h o u r s for c hild l a b o r e r s w e r e r e du c e d t o t e n h o u r s a da y TO da y .
-
,

in m o s t s t a t e s o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s a b o y o r gi r l m a y l e a v e s c h o o l
a t t h e a ge o f f o u r t e e n a n d O b t a i n w o r ki n g p a p e rs I n m any .

s t a t e s thi s is c o n di t i o n e d o n t h e p a s s i n g o f a h e a lth e x a m i n a ti o n .

F iv e s t a t e s o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s a r e s a id t o fu r n i s h o n e thi r d o f
t he t o t a l c hild l a b o r e r s a n d o n e h a lf O f a ll c hild illit e r a t e s in t h e
c ount ry C o n gr e s s h a s twi c e t r i e d t o p a s s l a w s r e gul a t i n g c hild
.

l a b or b ut e a c h t i m e t h e la w h a s b e e n d e c l a r e d u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l .

I n o r d er fo r C hild r e n t o d e v e l o p phy s i ca lly a n d m e n t a lly t o t he

full e s t e xt e n t it w o uld b e wi s e t o k e ep th e m o ut O f fa c t o r i e s a n d in
,

s c h o o l wi t h s ui t a bl e c hildh o o d r e c r e a t i o n u n t il a t l e a s t t h e a ge o f , ,
 S U G G E S TI O N S F OR R A C E I M P R O VEM EN T 3 67

fo ur tee n . In s om e E u r op e a n u n tr i e s child r en u n d er ei ght ee n

co ,

a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o w o r k a t n i gh t o r a t h a z a r d o u s t r a d e s In .

m a n y o f o ur s t a t e s t h e m i n i m a l a ge fo r h a z a r d o u s t r a d e s s u ch a s
qu a rr yi n g a n d m in i n g is s ixt e e n T h e r e is a gi t a t i o n in m a n y
~
.

s t a t e s t o k ee p b o y s a n d gi r l s in s c h o o l u n t il t h e a ge o f s e v e n t ee n .

Th e y will th e n s t a n d a b e tt er ch a n c e t o e n t e r i n du s tr y with a
f a i r ly goo d phy s i c a l a n d m e n t a l e quip m e n t .

Vo c a ti o n a l guid a n c e a n d t r a i n i n g a r e i n v a lu a bl e in d ir e c t i n g C hil
d r e n i n t o v o c a t i o n s fo r whi c h t h e i r i n t e lli ge n c e s e e m t o fit t h e m .

Wh e n p r o p er ly dir e c t e d p e o pl e wi t h s up er i o r i n t e lli ge n c e S h o uld

,

b e a bl e t o ge t e s t a bli s h e d e a r li e r th a n th e y u s u a lly do Le s s gift e d

.

c hild r e n s h o uld b e a dvi s e d t o do th a t t yp e O f w o r k whi c h t h e y c a n

do r a t h e r s u c c e s s fully T hi s will giv e t h e m a f e e li n g o f s a t is fa c

.

t i o n in t h e i r w o r k whi c h will m a k e fo r c o n t e n t m e n t a n d h a ppi n e s s

,

Wh en p e o pl e a r e c o n t i n u a lly l o s i n g t h e i r j o b s due t o t h e i r i n a bili t y

,

t o p e r f o r m t he ta s k s giv e n idl e a n d vi c i o u s h a bi t s u s u a lly r e s ul t

, .

C o nt i n u a ti o n a n d t r a d e s c h oo l s a r e i n va lu a bl e a id s in t e a c hi n g c hil
d r e n t r a d e s S u c h t r a i n e d c hild r e n n a t ur a lly t e n d t o b e b e tt er
.
, ,

c i t iz e n s a n d b e tt e r t r a d e s p e o pl e S p e c i a l c l a s s e s h a v e b ee n de
.

s i gn e d fo r c hild r e n wh o a r e di s i n t e r e s t ed a n d u n a bl e t o k ee p up

wi t h t he w o r k Of t he r e gul ar c l a s s e s An o th er typ e Of s c h o o l c a ll e d
.

t he j uv e n il e v oca t i o n a l s c h o o l d e s i gn e d t o m e e t t h e n ee d s o f s u c h
,

child r e n is n o w b e i n g e s t a bli s h ed in c er t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y
, .

N o t o nl y will c hild r e n who c a n n o t ge t a l o n g w e ll in t he a v e r a ge

public s c h o o l a tt e n d th e s e s c h o o l s but t h os e who due t o e c o n o m i c
, ,

p r e s s ur e m u s t ea r n a livi n g a s s oo n a s p o s s ibl e will fin d a pl a c e t o

, ,

l ea rn a tr a d e .

(6 ) On ly t he m e n ta lly phy s i c a lly a n d m o r a lly fit i m m i gr a n t s

, ,

s h o uld b e p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r o th e r c o u n t r i e s At p r e s e n t th er e
.

a r e i mm i gr a ti o n l a w s r e s t r i c ti n g c e r t a i n u n d e s ir a bl e p e r s o n s Im .

m i gr a n t s a r e e x a m i n e d wh e n t h e y l e a v e th e i r own c o u n t r y a n d ,

a t E lli s I s l a n d b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e Un it e d S t a t e s
‘

C a r e is t a k e n
.

t o exclud e a ll th os e with Ob j e c ti o n a bl e h er edit a r y t ra it s or with

3 68 EU G E N I C S

t i u s di s e a s e s B ut t he effe c tiv e e n fo r cem en t o f th e s e l a w s

c on ag o .

is s t ill a s e r i o u s p r o bl e m .

E u ge n ic s ve r s u s e uth e n ic s .E n vi ro n m e n t a n d h e r edity m u s t
o h a n d in h a n d if r e a l r a c i a l p r o gr e s s is t o b e m a d e B ad en
g .

V ir o n m e n t m a y h a r m fully a ff e c t go o d ge r m pl a s m F r e qu en cy
.

o f c r i m e is s o m e ti m e s l a id t o e n vi r o n m e n t ra t h e r th a n h e r e dity .

T hi s is t r u e t o s o m e e xt e n t b ut h e r e di t y is u s u a lly r e s p o n s ibl e fo r
,

c h o o s i n g t h e e n vi r o n m e n t . I n t e lli ge n t p e o pl e a s a r ul e wi s h t o
, ,

liv e in go o d s u r r o u n di n gs wh er e th e y will m e e t p e o pl e lik e t h e m

s e lv e s. Th e y t r y t o m e e t a n d s o lv e t h e i r p r o bl e m s S ub n o r m a l
.

p e o pl e a r e fr e qu en tly c o n t e n t wi t h p o or c o n L a ck
in g n o r m a l w ill p o w e r a n d t h e a bili t y t o s o lv e m s in
t e llige n t ly t h e y a r e d o m i n a t e d by t h e w r o n g i n flu e n c e s
, I t is .

v e r y diffi c ul t t o di s s o c i a t e a b s o lu t e ly h e r e dity a n d en vi r o n m e n t
, , .

Th e r e is n o qu e s t i o n a b o u t t he f a c t t h a t e y e c o l o r h a i r C o l o r a n d , ,

o t h er s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e i n h e r it e d b ut t h e r e is li t t l e
,

k n o w n a b o u t t he i n h e r it a n c e Of e m o t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I nh e rita n c e o f di s e a s e . I t is a f a i r ly w e ll e s t a bli s h e d f a c t t h a t
-

n o ge r m di s e a s e is i nh e r i t e d . I n o r d e r t o b e i n h e r i t e d a m icr O Or ,

g a n is m w o uld h a v e t o b e c o m e a p a r t o f a g e n e in t h e c h r o m o s o m e .

S i n c e thi s is i m p o s s ibl e ge r m di s e a s e s a r e n o t r e a lly i n h e r i t e d a l

,

t h o u gh i n f e c t i o n m a y o c c u r a t bi r t h s o th a t t he e ff e c t o n t h e n ew
,

i n dividu a l is t h e s a m e a s di r e c t i n h e r i t a n c e I n a ll p r o b a bility
.
,

o r ga n i c di s e a s e s ,
lik e m a lfo r m a ti o n s Of gl a n d s d e a fn e s s due t o ,

s t r u c tu ra l d e f e c t s in t h e e a r s a n d o r ga n i c h e a r t di s o r d e r s due t o
,

s t r u c tu r a l d e f ec t s in t h e h e a r t do r un t h r o u gh f a m ili e s
, We a k .

n e s s e s in v a r i o u s o r ga n s m a y b e i n h e r it e d a n d r e s ult in t e n d e n c i e s

o r p r e di s p os i t i o n s t o w a r d di s e a s e .

An y di s e a s e o f t h e m o t h e r t h a t giv e s o ff p o i s o n s th a t will c ir c u
,

l a t e in t he bl o o d m a y a ff e c t t he ge r m c e ll s a n d r e s ult in s o m e a b
n or m a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e u n b or n O ff s p r i n g .S u c h c hild r e n m a y
b e b o r n c r ippl e d bli n d d e a f o r m ut e
, , ,
An y di s e a s e O f t h e m o t h e r
.

th a t i n t e r fe r e s with t h e n utr iti o n Of t he u n b o r n c hild m a y a l s o

3 70 EU G EN I C S

I n v e s t i ga t o r s h a v e fo u n d a p a i r Of id e n ti c a l twi n s th a t h a d b e en
se pa rat ed at i n f a n c y a n d ha d b ee n b r o u gh t up in diffe r e n t e n v i

J o urn a l o fH er edit y

v
_

Th e s e ide n t ica l t win s w e r e s e pa ra t e d in t h e ir infa n c y Th e y w e r e t e s t e d , a ft e r s e e n t e e n

v
.

y e a r s o f s e pa r a t io n , a n d fo un d t o b e e r y s im ila r in ph y s ic a l a n d m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r is t i cs .

r o n m en t s diff e r e n t f a m ili e s in a pp r o xi m a t e ly t he s a m e s o c i a l
in , ,

c o n di t i o n s Wh e n t h e y b e c a m e a dul t s t h e y w e r e giv e n i n t e lli ge n c e

.
,

t e s t s a n d b o t h w e r e f o u n d t o h a v e p r a c t i c a lly t h e s a m e i n t e lli ge n c e

qu o t i e n t s Th e y w e r e s u c c e s s fully o c c upyi n g p r o fe s s i o n a l p o s i
.

t i o n s r e qui r i n g a b o u t t h e s a m e i n t e lli ge n c e T h e di ffe r e n t e n v i

.

r o n m e n t s h a d p r o du c e d li t t l e C h a n ge in t h e i n h er i t e d m e n t a l
a bili t i e s .

QU E S TI O NS AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 . Wh a t is e uge n i c s ? Giv e t h e h i s t or y o f t h e s c i e n ce o f e uge n i cs .

2 . Wh a t a r e t hr e e diffi c ul t i e s in i n ve s t i ga t i n g h um a n h e r e di t y ?
3 . D i s c us s h o w h i s t o r i e s w e r e O b t a i n e d fr o m f a m ili e s O f s upe r i or
in t e lli ge n ce ; f r o m f a m ili e s o f i n fe r i o r i n t e lli ge n c e .

4 Wh a t is t h e r e l a t i o n o f c r i m e t o h e r e di t y ?
.

5 S t a t e t w o ge n e r a l m e t h o d s o f r a c e i m pr o ve m e n t
. .

6 N a m e s e v e n e ut h e n ic a l m e a s ur e s t h a t m a y b e e n f o r c e d di s c us s
‘

t h e i r i m po r t a n c e .

7 D i s c us s t h e t o pi c E n vi r o n m e n t ve r s us H e r e di t y
. .
 C H AP TE R XXXVI I

P R O GRE S S I VE

D E VE LOP M E N T
B r o wn B ros
J
.

ea n L a m a rc k .

C h a r l e s D a r win .

ha s o rga n ic evo luti on o f pla n ts an d a n im a ls ta ken plac e ? H ow

o ld is t he ea r th ? H ow old is m a n ? Wha t a re s ome of the eviden ces
of evolution ?

All pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s o f t o da y a r e th o u ght t o b e d es c e n d a n t s
-

Of e a r li e r a n d m o r e p r i m i t iv e typ es Or ga n i c e v o luti o n is t he
.

s ci e n c e th a t d e a l s wi t h t he o r i gi n s o f S p e c i e s a n d t he c h a n ges in

th e m fr o m ge n e r a ti o n t o ge n e r a t i o n E v o luti o n i s t s b e li e v e t wo
’
.

thi n gs : ( 1 ) t h a t i n dividu a l s Of t he s a m e s p e c i e s a lw a y s v a r y ;
a n d ( 2 ) t h a t m a n y o f th e s e n ew ch a r a c t e r i s ti c s o r v a r i a ti o n s a r e
,

t r a n s m itte d t o s u c c ee di n g ge n er a ti o n s Here dity is ther e for e on e .

, ,

O f t h e co rn e r s t o ne s o f e v o luti on .

H is tory Of e volution Ar i s t o tl e h a d a n id e a th a t th er e h a d b een

.

a gr a du a l s u c c e s s i o n o f l i v i n g thi n gs fr o m t h e s i m pl e s t a n i m a l t o

m a n b ut thi s s upp o s i t i o n w a s u n s upp o r t e d by e vid e n c e o r f a c t

,
.

H e ha d s e e n t h e r e m a i n s o r p a r t s o f pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s in r o c k
Tod a y th es e a r e c a ll e d f os s il s H e th o u gh t th e y w ere e x a m pl e s O f
.

s p o n t a n eo u s ge n e r a ti o n t a ki n g pl a c e in t h e d e pth s o f t h e e a r t h

a n d th a t s u c h f or m s n e v e r h a d a c h a n c e t o liv e o n t he s u r f a c e .

N e a r ly t wo th o u s a n d y e a r s l a t e r Le o n a r d o da Vi n ci s t a te d
th a t fo s s il s w er e t he r e m a i n s Of fo r m e r livi n g a n i ma l s .

Th e Lamar ckia n th e ory of e volution Je a n de L a m a r ck ( 1 744.

37 1
37 2 P R OG R E S S I VE DEVE LOP M E N T

Am . Mus eum of N at . H i s t or y

k
Th e s e l e t o n o f a n a m ph ib ia n din o s a ur , th e B r o n t o s a ur us , w a s un e a r t h e d in W yo min g in
1 898 v v k
Th e a n im a ls s h o wn a b o e h a e b e e n r e s t o r e d b y pla c in g m us c l e s a n d s in o e r t h ev
v
.

k
a s s e m b l e d s e l e t on s Th e s e a n im a ls pr o b a b ly a t e s o ft pla n ts a n d li e d in s h a llo w wa t e r s an d
v
.

are t h o ugh t t o h a e c r a wl e d o ut upo n la n d t o la y e ggs .

a F r e n c h m a n Se t
fo r th his id e a s on e vo luti o n in his b o o k
,
;

L a P hi lbs op hie Zoologi que H e c o i n e d t he e xp r e s s i o n us e a n d dis

'

us e t o s u m m a r iz e his id e a s Of t he c a u s e s Of v a r i a ti o n in s p e c i e s .

H e th o u gh t th a t o r ga n i s m s c o uld a d a p t th e m s e lv e s t o fit t h e c mvi
'

r on m ent H e s upp o s e d i n dividu a l s a c qui r e d t he c h a r a c t e r s th e y

.

n ee d e d a n d th e s e a c qui r e d c h a r ac t e r s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e i r

O ffs p r i n g F o r e x a m pl e he s a id t h a t t h e o r i gi n a l gi r a ff e h a d a
.
,

short n eC k F or s o m e r ea s o n it b e ga n t o e a t l e a v es f ro m t r ees a n d
.
,

wa s co n s t a n tly s tre t c hi n g it s n e c k t o r e a c h t h e m C o n s e qu e n t ly
.
,

t he n e ck s t a r t e d t o gr o w l o n ge r a n d t h e o ff s p r i n g w e r e b o rn with
l o n ger n e cks Ac co r di n g t o L a m a r c k s t h e or y if a m a n d e v e l o p e d
.
’

h is m i n d v e r y c a r e fully h is c hild r e n w o uld s t a r t with b e tt er m i n d s

, .

H is th eor y h a s b een gen e r a lly di s c a r d e d Our p r e se n t kn owl e d ge

.
3 74 P R O G R E S S I VE DEVE LO P M EN T
'

m ade f t er r e a di n g M a l t hu s E s s a y on P opula tion a n d f ro m m a t e

a
’

r i a l ga t h e r e d du r i n g h is t r ip a r o u n d t h e w o r ld o n a s hip c o mm i s

s io n e d fo r s c i e n t ifi c e xpl o r a ti o n I t c o n s i s t s Of t h e f o ll owi n g
.

p r i n cipl e s ( 1 ) Overp roduction M o r e i n dividu a l s ar e p r o du c ed

. .

t h a n c a n p os s ibly re a ch m at u r i t y a n d r e p r o du c e t h e m s e lv e s A .

pl a n t c o mm on ly c a ll e d t he s h e ph er d s pu r s e m a y p r o du c e up o n a ’

s i n gl e s t a lk a s m a n y a s s e e d s a n d a t o b a c co pl a n t m a y pr o
,
”

du c e s ee d s a n n u a lly A s i n gl e f e r npl a n t p ro du c e s a b o u t
.

fift y m illi o n s p o r e s a yea r I f a ll t h e s e s p o r e s m a tu r e d ,t h e Un ite d

.

S t a t e s w o uld b e c o v e r e d wi t h fe r n S Tn t w o y e a r s A s i n gl e s a l m o n
'

m a y la y e ggs a f e m a l e c o dfis h
, e ggs a n d a Vir ,
i

g i n i a o y,s t e r n o t l e s s t h a n e ggs Th e s e a w o uld b e a .

m a s s O f wr ithi n g s t r u ggli n g fis h in t h r ee y e a r s if a ll s u r v i v e d Thi s

, .

o v e r p r o du c t i o n l e a d s t o ( 2 ) a s truggle fo r exis ten ce Wh e n e v e r .

t h e r e a r e a bu n d a n t O ff sp r i n g th e re m u s t b e a m pl e fo o d a n d r oo m
,

fo r life a n d d e v e l o p m en t C r o wdi n g m a k e s t he e xi s t e n c e o f i n di
.

v idua ls a r e a l co n t e s t o r fi gh t A s tr u ggl e e n s u e s fo r Obt a i n i n g

.

f o o d for fi n di n g a m a t e a n d for p r o du c i n g m ore y o u n g All ca n

, , .

n o t s u r viv e T h o s e t h a t do a r e b e t t e r a d a pt e d t o m e e t t h e
.

c o n di t i o n s o f t h e i r e n vi ro n m e n t t h a n t h e r e s t
.
I t is a w e ll kn o w n .
-

f a c t t h a t a ll t he i n dividu a l s O f a s p e c i e s a r e n o t t he s a m e S o m e .

a r e s wift a n d s o m e s killful whi c h h e lp t h e m t o s u r viv e Th e s e

'

.
, .

s li ght di ffe r e n c es a r e k no w n a s ( 3 ) va ri a tion s Th e s e v a r i a ti o n s .

pl a y a m o s t i m p or t a n t p a r t in t he s tr u ggl e fo r e xi s t e n c e E a c h .

o n e th a t is s wif t o f f o o t s tr o n g s killful , o r p ro t e c tiv e ly co l o r e d

, ,

p o s s e s s e s a v a r i a ti o n th a t fit s h im t o his e n vi r o n m e n t b e t t e r th a n
t h o s e th a t do n o t p o s s e s s s u c h a v a r i a ti o n V a r i a ti o n s m a k e .

a n i m a l s u n e qu a l in t h e c o n t e s t O f lif e Th er e is a s tr u ggl e for .

e xi s t e n c e : s o m e a r e kill e d Off o t h er s t h e fitt e s t a n i m a l s or ,

pl a n t s s u r viv e Thu s o v e r p r o ducti o n i n t e n s ifi e s t he s tr u ggl e for

,
.

e xi s t e n c e ; t hi s s t r u ggl e r e s ult s in (4 ) t he s urviva l of t he fittes t .

“
D a rwi n s th e or y o f s el e c tiv e s u r viv a l is o ft e n c a ll e d
’
n a tu r a l

s el e cti o n ( )
5. V a r i a ti o n s a r e u s u a lly in heri ted Th ose s li ght .
 TH E D AR W I N I A N T H E OR Y O F EV O LU T I O N 375

v a r i a ti o n s whi c h t en d t o fit a s p e c i es i n t o it s e n vi r o nm en t are
p a s s e d o n t o t he o ffs p r i n g a n d thu s a n e w s p e c i e s will e ve n tu a lly

A m . M us eum of N o t . Hi s t or y

Th e e a rlie s t h or s e , t h e t fi
ippus , h a d fo ur t oe s a n d th e s plin t of t h e ft h t o e on t h e fo r e
fo o t . Th e M e s o h ippus h a d t h r e e t o e s wit h a r udim e n t a ry fo ur t h t o e . I n t h e M e ry ch ippus ,
o nl y on e t o e r e a ch e d t h e gr o un d in wa l in g k .
'
I n t h e H ippa r io n o n e t o e b e c a m e gr e a t ly d e
v e l o pe d a n d t h e o t h e r t o e s b e ca m e m o r e r udim e n t a r y . Th e P
l e is t o ce n e h o r s e , E
q uus , a n d
t h e r e c e n t h o r s e s h o w thi s sa m e c h a ra c t e r is t ic Th e r e we r e c o rr e s po n din g c h a n ge s in t h e
v
.

k
fo r e - fe e t , s ull s a n d s ize s o f t h e a r ious h o r s e s .

i
ar se . S i n ce t he s e
d e s i r a bl e v a r i a t i o n s a r e p r e s er v e d by h e r edity ,

e a c h ge n e r a t i o n is b e t t e r fi t t e d t o t h e e n vi r o n m e n t t h a n t he pr e

ce di n g o n e An d s o D a r wi n b e li e v e d th a t thr o u gh t he p a s s i n g
.
 76 P R O G R E S S I VE D EVE L OP M EN T

M us eum of Na t ura l H i s tor y

Fr o m fo s s il e vid enc e s , th e e vl
o ut io n of th e h or s e h a s b e e n r e c o n s t r uc t e d . Th e r e

of y e a r s thi s s lo w a c c u m ul a ti o n o f v a r i a t i o n s will l e a d t o n e w
s p e c i e s a s w e ll a s t o a gr e a t div e r s i t y in o n e s p e c i e s .

Th e r e a r e a gr e a t m a n y f a c t s t o s upp o r t D a r wi n s t h e o r y o f
’

n a tu r a l s e l e c t i o n a l t h o u gh s o m e o bj e c t i o n s a r e m a d e t o it
, ( 1) .

V a r i a ti o n s a r e fr e qu e n t ly n o t i nh er i t a bl e D arwi n did n o t dis .

t in guis h b e t we e n s o m a t i c a n d ge r m i n a l v a r i a t i o n s ( 2 ) Th e v a r i a .

t i o n s fr e qu e n t ly do n o t h a v e a n y t hi n g t o do wi t h t he fi t n e s s O f t h e
o r ga n i s m fo r it s e n vi ro n m e n t (3 ) The s t r u ggl e fo r e xi s t e n c e
.

d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily w ee d o ut t h e u n fi t o r ga n i s m s F r e qu e n t ly .
,

t h e w ee di n g o ut o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e o r ga n i s m s h a v e gr o w n s u ffi c i e n t ly
t o h a v e t h e i r c h a ra c t e r i s t i c diff e r e n ces a pp e a r Pl a n t s a n d a n i .

m a l s a r e fre qu e n t ly kill e d O ff by age n c i e s f o r ces a n d a c c id e n t s , ,

t h a t do n o t di s cr i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t he fit a n d u nfi t .

Th e de Vr ie s th eo ry of e volu t ion The t h e o r y o f m ut a ti o n w a s

.

fo r m ul a t e d by H u go de Vr i e s a D ut c h b o t a n i s t in 1 904 H e
, , .

publi s h e d his id e a s in a b o o k c a ll e d S pecies a n d Va rieties C h a r l e s .

D a rwi n h a d c o ll e c t e d m a n y e x a m pl e s o f o r ga n i s m s s t r iki n gly

differ e n t fr o m t h e o t h er m e m b er s in t he s p e c i es Th e s e h e c a ll e d .

spo rts . H e did n o t a t t a c h v e r y m u c h i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e m H u go .

de V r i es b a s e d his t h e o r y O f e v o lu t i o n o n s p o r t s w hi c h h e c a ll e d
m ut a n t s . We i s m a n n s c o n c lu s i o n s in re ga r d t o ge r m pl a s m h a d
’

di s p r o v e d t h e i n h e r i t a n c e Of a c qui r e d C h a r a c t er s H e h a d c l a i m e d .

th a t m o difi c a t i o n s o f t he b o dy o r s o m a t o pl a s m did n o t a ffec t t he

e r m pl a s m a n d th e r e f or e c o uld n o t b e i nher i t ed T hi s fitt d i
g e n .

wi t h t he id ea s o f H u go de Vr i e s who ha d m a d e di re c t o b s er v a ti o n s
 P R O G R E S S I VE DEVE LOPM E N T

Th e a ge of th e e art h .

B ef or e e xa m i n in g t he
e vid e n c e s O f e v o lu t i o n

o f pr e s ent l i vi n g
t hi n gs it is n e c e s s a r y ,

t o un d er s t a n d s o m e ;

t hi n g a b o u t P a leon
tol ogy a s c i e n c e whi c h ,

A m M u um f N . Hi y d e a l s W i t h t h e lif e Of
se o at s t or

P t f f il b kb
ar o a os s ac F il f t p i t
on e . os s
p a S t g e O 10 g i C a 1
oo r n s.

p er i o d s G e o l o gi c a l t i m e i n c lud e s a ll t h e t i m e s i n c e t h e e a r t h fi r s t
.

s t a r t e d t o b e f or m e d G e o l o gi s t s h a v e e s t i m a t e d t h e a ge o f t h e
.

e a r t h by t h e r e l a t iv e a ge o f v a r i o u s l a y e r s O f r oc k s a n d m e t a l s For .

e x a m pl e t he p r e s e n c e o f a f o r m o f l ea d ha s b ee n f o u n d in a N o r
,

w e gia n m i n er a l c o m p o s e d c hi e fly Of u r a n iu m As s u m i n g th a t t he
.

p r o du c ti o n o f u r a n iu m c e a s e d a s s o o n a s t he e a r t h a n d s un se p a
r a t e d ge o l o gi s t s h a v e a r e e d t h a t thi s l e a d is a b o ut t h r e e billi o n
, g
y e a r s o ld Thi s w a s d et e r m i n e d by e s ti m at i n g t he l e n gt h O f t i m e
.

n ec e s s a r y fo r a s m a ll a m o u n t

O f m e t a l u r a n iu m t o b r e a k up

i n t o t hi s f o r m O f l e a d F r o m .

t hi s t i m e a n d a m o u n t o f m e t a l ,

t h e a ge o f t h e l e a d a n d t h e r e ,

f or e t h e e a r t h w a s c a l c ul a t e d
, .

Th e c li ff s in a v a ll e y w ill
sho w t h at r o ck s are l a id in
s t ra t a o r l a ye r s Th e s u cc e s
.

s iv e l a y e r s o f t h e r o c k s u gge s t

t h a t t h e y w e re d ep o s i t ed o n e
a f t er a n o t h e r f r o m t h e b o t t o m

upwar d Th e t o p s t r a t u m is
.

t h e m o s t r e ce n t o n e d ep o s i t e d .
F m d wi g M W W N HW ro ra n at

A l l h l hi
c o os s a f p hi t i
or n e s s r n oc e ro s o re s or c
E a c h 1 ndI V i dua l l a y e r O f r oc k d y a s,
 T H E AG E OF THE E AR TH 3 79

co n s titut e s a r e c o r d Of t he t i m e wh e n
it wa s d e p o s i t e d Th e t hi c k n e s s O f
.

t h e s t r a t ifi e d r o c k s n o w e xp o s e d up o n
t he e a r th s u r f a c e s O f t h e c o n t i n e n t s is
v er y gr e a t K n o wm g ho w s l o wly s e di
.

m e n t s a c c u m ul a t e up o n t h e s e a fl o o r ,

t he a ge O f t h e e a r t h m u s t m e a s u r e a p
p r o xi m a t e ly hun d r e d s O f m illi o n s o f
ye a r s D e t e r m i n i n g t he a r r a n ge m e n t
.

in whi c h t h e s t r a t a w e re d e p o s it e d is
F m d wi M u um N H i ro ra ng se at . st .

diffi c ult b e c a u s e in diffe r e n t a r e a s

, , Th h b tu k d m t d u ed , e s o ve s e as o on s

it plik j w t g t h up
diffe r e n t s tr a t a m a y b e o m i t t e d fo r t t i f m t h w t g s s coo

a on ro
e a

e
o

a er.
a er ve e

o n e r e a s o n o r a n ot h e r C o n s e qu e n t ly .
,

t h e s e qu e n c e is n o t a lw a y s a lik e I n s om e a r e a s a m o r e r e c e n t r o c k
.

d e p o s i t is e xp o s e d t h a n in o t h e r s S o m e t i m es t h e ro c k d e p o s i t .

m a y h a v e b e e n c o m pl e t e ly
w e a t h e r e d o r w o r n a wa y .

Th e f o r m a ti o n o f r o c k s diff er s
in v a r i o u s p a r t s Of t h e c o u n t r y .

S o me r o c k w a s e l e v a t e d fr o m
t he s e a a n d f or m s t h e l a n d of
t o da y Thi s is k n ow n b e c a u s e -
.

it c o n t a i n s f o s s il s Of s h e ll s o f
a n i m a l s t h a t o n c e l iv e d in t h e

s ea Th e fl a t n e s s O f t h e b e d s .

of r o ck s ee m s t o S h o w t h a t t h e ir

m o v e m e n t f r o m t he s e a wa s s o
u n ifo r m a n d gen t l e th a t t h e i r
o r i gi n a l f or m a t i o n c oul d n o t
F m d wi g M u um N t H i
ro ra
h an
v e b e e n
se
b r ok e n
a . st .
.

F il f Tit t h
os s s o p hi t i m mm l
ano ere s , re Th e Old e s t hi s t o r i c a l r e c or d s
s or c a a s,
h v b
a e f u d i
een b th A i
o n nd Am i o s a an e r ca .
At t h t im t h y liv d A i
e e e d Am i
e w o f E gypt o r B a byl o n d a t e b a c k
s a an e r ca ere

nt j i
,

p b b ly
ro a on eti con d wh ne B ehri g o ne e re n
S t it i
ra wl
s no t d o ca e . p e rh a p s s ix o r s e v en th o u s an d
382 P R O G R E S S I VE DEVE L OP M EN T

si m pl e s t c h a r a c t e r Th e f o s s il s o f t h e
. m ost hi ghly d e v e l o p e d
an im a l s o fa r di s c o v e r e d
, fo u n d in t h e ,
O ld e s t r o c k ( P a l e o z o i c )

Fly in g r e pt il e s , t h e pt e r o da c t y l s , w e r e pr o b a b ly
th e a n c e s t o r s O f o ur m o d e r n b ir d s .

a re t h os e of a n an i m a l r e l a t e d t o a c r a b c a ll e d t h e t r il obi t e As
,
.

hi gh e r l a y er s o f r o c k a r e r e a ch e d f o s s il s Of m o r e c o m pl e x a n i m a l s
,

a r e fo un d . T h e s e a r e diff e r e n t b ut Obvi o u s ly r e l a t e d t o t h e
,

f o r m s in t h e s t r a t a b e low
'

Ac c o r di n g t o t h e p r e s e n t da y e vid e n ces a ll lif e a t a n e a r ly p e r i o d

-
,

w a s in t h e w a t e r The hi s t o r y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f lif e h a s
.

b e e n f o r m ul a t e d f r o m r e c o r d s m a d e in r o c k s I t is t h o ugh t t h a t .

t h e m o s t p r i m i t iv e f o r m s p r o b a bly a pp e a r e d in t h e w a r m s h a ll o w

w a t er s o f t h e fl a t s b e tw e e n tid e s F i r s t t h e r e a pp e a r e d pl a n t
.
,

f or m s a l ga e ; l a t er a n i m a l f or m s p r o t o z oa Th er e w a s n o lif e
, , , .

on t h e l a n d .Th e r o c k s a n d c o a r s e s o il w e r e qui t e b a r e L a ter .

,

c o u n t l e s s m i n ut e c r e a t u r e s a pp e a r e d in t h e w a t e r Th e i r s h e ll s .

m a d e up t h e gr ea t c liff s O f Ch a lk .

Af t e r c e n t u r i e s h a d p a s s e d a n o r ga n i s m a pp e a r e d th a t h a d a n
o r ga n fo r b r e a t hi n g a ir I t is t h o u gh t th a t t hi s f o r m d e v e l op e d
.

f r o m t h e m o r e p r i m itiv e typ e s Th e fi r s t t r a c e s Of t h e l a n d v e r
.

t eb r a t e s a r e t h e f o o tp r i n t s O f t h e a m phibi a Th e s e ar e p r e s e r v e d
.

in m ud m o ld s whi ch h a v e s o lidifi e d i n t o r o c k .
 G E O LOG I C AL E V I DE N C E S 3 83

S om e am phibi a a r e t h o u gh t t o h a v e d e v e l op e d i n t o a n i m a l s ,

t he r e p t il e s t h a t b r e a t h e d wi t h lu n gs a ll t h e i r liv e s
,
Th e r e p t il e s .

O f t h e p a s t a r e c a ll e d di n o s a u r s Th o s e o f t h e e a r li e r M e s rTzo ic
‘

p er i o d w er e s m a ll b ut in t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t he p er i od t h e y b e
, ,

c a m e m o r e n u m e r o u s a n d gi ga n t i c in s iz e The B r o n t o s a ur u s .

w a s n e a r ly s e v e n ty f e e t l o n g ( S e e p a g .e T h e A ll o s a u r u s

w a s a t r ifl e s m a ll e r I t w a s a d r a go n lik e c r e a t u r e t hat p r e y e d
.
-

o n it s l a r ge r b ut c l u m s i e r r e l a t iv e s .

D ur i n g t hi s p e r i o d t h e p t e r o d a c t yl a hu ge b a t lik e a n i m a l
, ,
-
,

a pp e a r e d . I t glid e d thro u gh t he a ir by m e a n s O f fo ld s o f s c a ly
S ki n e x t e n di n g fr o m t h e f or e li m b s t o t h e S id e Of t h e b o dy It
'

v
-
.

h a d a l a r ge bill a n d a l o n g t a il I t s wi n g S p r e a d wa s t hi r t y f e e t
.
-
.

Thi s is p r o b a bly t h e a n i m a l t h a t w a s t r a n s i t i o n a l b e t w e e n bi r d s
a n d r e ptil es Th e Ar c h a e
.

O p t e r ix w a s a n ot he r an

cient bi r dlik e fo r m I t .

h a s l o n g gr ill lik e t r u e
,
-
,

f e a t h er s o n it s wi n gs a ,

s m a ll j a w wi t h t e e t h and ,

a v e r t eb r a t e d t a il wi t h
f ea t h e r s a tt a c h e d Th e r e .

w e r e c l a w s o n it s wi n gs .

N O t r a n s i t i o n a l a n i m a l ha s
b e e n fo u n d s h o wi n g h o w
t h e s c a l e s O f t h e r e ptil e s
d e v e l op e d i nt o t he fe a t h e r s
o f t h e bi r d s .

Whil e t he bi r d s w e r e
m M u um N H A se at i s t or y

de v e lopin g a s m a ll V 6 r y
. .

’
Th A h pt y x i t
e h l irc t k
a eo w erb d s e ear es no n ir

v
.

i n c o n s pi c u o u s g r o up f T w f il k l t wo f u
os sd i s B i
e e on s T
h ere o n n a ar a e
O
v d W th
.

tu w b ut t h
cr e a i f
re was a o e s ze o a cr o co e re i

U
,

a n l m a ls m a d e t he m a p f t h i mea d b i d
e rs l
as ik p
n t od y e rn r s. n e r e s en
- a

b i d it h d u if m t r th i b th j w
s, a nI t p b b ly
or ee n o a s . ro a

p e a r a n ce . T h e y h a d h a l f u d ll f u li m b i
se lim bai g t o r T h l ws d n c n re e s . e c a e

digit w d pt d f this I t i p b b ly
ere a a e or s. s ro a an in
I n s t e a d Of s c a l e s a n d ha d
, t m di t f m b t w er e pt il a e d bi d
or e e en re es an r s.
3 84 P R OG R E S S I VE DEVE L OP M E N T

a no u r i s hi n g fluid fo r th e i r y o un g in c e r t a i n gl a n d s o f t h e i r s ki n .

Th e i r r a t e o f m e t a b o li s m wa s m u c h hi gh e r t h a n t h e r e ptil e s .

Am . M us eum N a t . Hi s t or y

Th e P p e r io d is n o t e d fo r it s l uxur ia n c e o f pl a n t gr o wt h
a l e o z o ic . F
e r n s , c l ub m o s s e s , a n d

fe r n s r e l a t e d t o th e h o r s e t a il s a t t a in e d t h e s iz e o f t r e e s a n d for m e d d e n s e fo r e s t s M a ny
fl
.

c o n e - b e a r in g t r e e s a r e fo un d, b ut n o n e o f t h e h igh e r t y p e s o f o w e rin g pla n t s As th e pla n t s

.

die d a n d b e ca m e pa rt of t h e s wa m ps , s o m e un us ua l t r e m e n dous pr e s s ur e t r a n s for m e d t h e m

in t o coa l b e ds .

Hen c e t he y ll e d w a r m bl o o d e d Th e y r e t a i n e d t h e e ggs
are ca -
.

i n s id e t h e i r b o di e s u n t il t h e y o u n g w e r e a l m o s t fully d e v e l o p e d ,

a n d s uppli e d t h e m wi t h n o u r i s h m e n t du r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t Th e s e .

w e r e t h e m a m m a l s Th e pl a t ypu s o r du c kbill o f Au s t r a li a is
.

th o u ght t o b e a t r a n s i t i o n a l f o r m b e t w e e n t he e gg l a yi n g bi r d s a n d -

t he m a m m a l s I t is fu rr y h a s a bill lik e a du c k l a y s e ggs a n d

.
, , ,

fe e d s it s y o u n g wi t h m ilk ( p a ge Th e m a r s upi a l s s u c h a s ,

t h e k a n ga r o o a r e s o m e wh a t t r a n s i t i o n a l
,
Th e y o u n g a r e b o r n
.

b e fo r e fully d e v e l o p e d Th e y c li m b i n t o a p o u c h in t h e a bd o
.

m e n O f t h e m o t h e r a n d co m pl e t e t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t t h e r e F r o m .

t h e e a r ly m a m m a l s O f t h e C e n o z o ic e r a h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h e m a ny
s p e ci e s whi c h d o m i n a t e t h e e a r th t o da y M a n b e l o n gs in t hi s
-
.

g r e a t gr o up o f m a m m a l s .
386 P R O G R E S S I VE D EVE L OP M EN T

a nd m i n gl e d ; F or x a m pl e Am e r i c a n
e , ca m e s l a nd ho rse s m ay
h ave m i gr a t e d t o As ia o r vi c e v er s a
'

I t wa s l k n o w n by
a so
h u m e r us
g e o l o gi s t s t h a t t h e G o bi
D e s e r t M o n go li a in As i a
, ,

w a s e l ev a t e d fr o m t he s e a
du r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e
wh en r ep t il e s w e r e a bu n
d a n t I t b e c a m e dr y
.

l a n d a t th a t ti m e a n d
h a s r e m a i n e d dr y e v er
s i n ce . Th e Am e r ic a n M u
s e u m O f N a tu r a l H i s t o r y

fi n a n ce d e xp e d i t i o n s
“

h e a d e d by R o y C h a p m a n
An d r e w s ( s e e f r o n t i s

pi e c e ) t o M o n go li a t o
,

i n v e st i ga t e t h e d e s er t fo r
r e m a i n s o f r e p t il e s S in ce
.

r e ptil e s w e r e t h e p r e d e

c e s s or s Of man, it w a s
«a i u s
h op e d t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n a l
f or m b e t w e e n t h e r e ptil e s
a n d m a n o r b e t w e e n t he ,

e a r ly m a m m a l s a n d m a n ,

w ould b e uneart hed .

Th ere s e em t b s mm
o pl
e a co f t u tu
on i th an o s r c re n e

lim b s f v i u v t b
o ar o s t wh i h p i t t
er e ra e s mm c B e ca u s e Of c li m a ti c co n
o n s o a co on

t
a n c e s or .

dit io n s d e s e r t s a r e pe c u ,

lia r ly fitt e d t o p r e s e r v e f o s s il s F ew p eo pl e h a v e p e n e t r a t e d a nd
.

liv e d in t h e d e s e r t s o f o s s il s a r e m or e o r l e s s u n di s tur b e d As i a
,
.

wa s th o u ght t o b e a di s p e r s a l c e n t er t o E u r o p e o n o n e s id e a n d
Am e r i c a o n t h e o t h e r Th e s e e xp e di t i o n s h a v e m e t wi t h t h e
.

g r e a t e s t s u c c e s s i n u ne a r thi n g r e m a i n s o f r e ptil e s a n d e a r ly
 M O R P H O LO G I C A L E V I DE N C E S 3 87

m am m al s . D i n o s a ur e ggs a n d di n o s a u r
b o n e s a r e t h e r e in a bii n
d a n c e Th e l a r ge s t m a m m a l e v e r f o u n d ha s ju s t b e e n un
.

e a rt he d . M a n y O f t h e s e f o s s il s a r e o n e xhibi t i o n in t h e Am e r i ca n
M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y in N e w Y o r k .

M o rp ho logica l eviden ces Th e r e is gr e a t s i m il a r i t y in t he

.

s t r u c t u r e o f an i m a l s p a r t i c ul a r ly t h e v e r t e b r a t e s I t is t h o u ght
,
.

t h a t t h e b o n e s whi c h f o r m t h e s h o uld e r a n d hip gi r dl e O f m a n

a r e a n a l og o u s t o t h e b o n e s whi c h s upp o r t t h e f r o n t a n d r e a r fin s

O f t h e fis h .Th e b o n e s o f t h e a r m a n d le g a r e v a r i a t i o n s O f t h e
b o n e s in t he fin B e tw e e n .

l i mb
t h e b o n e s O f t h e hi gh er a p e s
a nd m a n t h er e s eem s t o b e a

diffe r e n c e in p r o porti o n o n ly .

Th e r e is al s o a m u s c l e fo r
m u s c l e cor r e s p o n d e n c e .

Ves tigi a l eviden ce Th e r e .

a r e t r a c e s o r r udi m e n t s o f

o r ga n s f o u n d in c e r t a i n
hi gh er a n i m a l s Th e s e v e s
.

t i ge s a r e n o l o n ge r u s e d .

Pr o b a bly t h e a n i m a l p a s s e d
t h r o u gh a s t a ge wh e n it u s e d
s u ch a n o rg an Th e h o r s e s
.

o f t o da y h a v e S pli n t s o r us e
-

l e s s b o n e s hi gh up o n e i t h e r
s id e O f th e i r h o o f s Th e s e .

a r e v e s t i ge s o f t o e s Thi s is
A t iki g vid
.

f ds r t i
n th e udimen ce o e s c en s e r en
0 11 6 Of t h e e vi d e n c e s t h at t y g i h igh
ar im l
or Th
ans n k h w er a n a s e s na e s o s a

t y p lvi
.

udim r d h i d l im b
en ar Th e i t it t i g
s an n s e n c a n
t h e pr e s e n 12 o n e t o e Cl I 1 o r s e m m b
.

-
i t ill f u d m
e g bi d
ra n e s sd pt ilo n a on r s an re es .

Th p p i h w v t igi l p lvi b o se s Th a c on e s . e re
d e v e l o p e d OI e v o lve d f r o m
‘

um u th
a re n
e

udim
or

t y
e ro gs o i
o s
i u
er r
es

e n ar
e

or an s n va r o s
mm l
t h e a n c i e n t fo u r t o e d h o r s e
-
.
a a s'

H u m a n b e i n gs h a v e a gr e a t m a n y v es t i ge s Th e a pp e n dix is .

l a r ge a n d per fo r m s a n i m p o r t a n t di ge s t iv e fu n c t i o n in s o m e a n i
'
388 P R O G R E S S I VE DE VE L OP M E N T

m a l s ; in ma n it is
v e s t i ge Th e m u s c l e s o f t h e e a r s Of hu m a n
,
a .

b e i n gs a r e quit e fu n c t i o n l e s s a l t h o u gh t h e y a r e o f v a lu e in a idi n g
l o w er a n i m a l s t o h e a r .

E mbryologica l evide n ce All a n i m a l e m b r y o s go th r o u gh t h e

.

Em b ryo s of v a r io us a n im a l s v
t o go t h r o ugh e r y s im ila r s t a ge s
a pp e a r B e for e difi e r e n t ia
v v
.

t io n h a s pro gr e s s e d e r y fa r , it w o ul d b e e r y di fli c ul t t o r e c o gn iz e a pa r t ic ula r e m b r y o I n th e
v
.

k
la t e r s t a ge s o f e m b ry o n ic d e e lo pm e n t , s pe c ie s t a e o n s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s.

bl a s tul a an d ga s t r ul a t
s a ge s . Th e m o s t
p r i m i t iv e m a n y c e ll e d -

an im a l s we k n o w a r e t h e S p o n ge s Th e y a r e s i m pl e ga s t r ul a e
. .

Th e e m b r y o s o f m a n y v er t e b ra t e s s h o w S im il a r i t i e s th a t a r e
not n o ti c e d in t h e fully d e v e l o p e d o r ga n i s m s Th e y a ll go .

th r o u gh a s im il a r e a r ly d e v e l o p m e n t The n e a r er a lik e t he a dul t

.

o r ga n i s m s a r e t h e l o n ge r t h e y will S h o w s i m il a r i t i e s in t h e i r de

v e lo pm e n t Th e hi gh e r v e r t e b r a t es t h e m a m m a l s in t h e i r e a r ly
.
, ,

s t a ge o f d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e gill o p e n i n gs s i m il a r t o th o s e f o u n d in
,

fis h . D u r i n g e m b r y o l o gi c a l d e v e l o p m e n t t he di a ph r a gm which , ,

in t h e fi s h e s S hut s O ff t h e gill c h a m b e r f r o m t h e r es t o f t h e b o dy ,

in t h e hu m a n e m b r y o m o v e s w ell d ow n i n t o t h e b o dy c a vity .

Wh il e t he hu m a n e m b r y o is a t o n e s t a ge in it s d e v e l o p m e n t it ,

h a s a t a il like s t r uct ur e
-
The ge n e r a liz a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
.
3 90 P R OG R E S S I VE DEVE L O P M E N T

7 H o w wo uld L a m a r c k D a r wi n a n d de Vr i e s e xpl a i n t he fa c t
.
, ,

t h a t h o r s e s in t h e n o r t h h a v e l o n ge r h a i r t h a n h o r s e s in t he s o ut h ?
8 H OW w o uld La m a r c k , D a r wi n a n d de Vr i e s e xpl a i n t h e f a c t
.
,

t h a t t he a n c e s t o r s o f gi r a ff e s h a d s h o r t n e c k s a n d pr e s e n t da y gi r a ffe s -

h a ve l o n g n e c k s ?
9 D i s c us s t he f o r m a t i o n Of t h e e a r t h
. .

1 0 H o w h a ve s c i e n t i s t s b ee n a b l e t o d e t er m i n e , e ve n a pp r o xi
.

m a t el y , t he a ge O f t h e e a r t h ?
1 1 Wh a t is o n e o f t h e e s t i m a t e s give n o f t h e a ge o f t h e e a r t h
.

1 2 D i s c us s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f di ffe r e n t t yp e s O f f o s s il s
. .

1 3 N a m e fi v e li n e s o f e vid e n c e give n t o s uppor t t h e t h e o r y o f

.

o r ga n c e i vo l ut i o n .

1 4 D i s c us s t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e a ge a n d f o r m a t i o n o f s t r a t a o f r o c s
. k
t o t h e fos s il s f o un d in t he m .

q
1 5 I n o ut li n e fo r m give t h e s e ue n c e o f f o s s il s fo un d in r o c ks b e
.

g i n n i n g w i t h t h e f o s s il s r s t f o u n d fia n d go i n g t h r o ugh t h o s e f o un d in

y o un ge s t r o c s k q
Wh a t r e l a t i o n d o e s t h i s s e ue n c e b e a r t o t he s im
.

p li c it y a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e a n i m a l s ?
1 6 N a m e t hr e e di ff e r e n t t y p e s o f m a m m a l s a n d giv e t h e di s t i n
.

g u is hi n g c h a r a c t e r s O f e a c h t y pe .

1 7 D i s c us s t h e geo gr a ph i c a l e ulde n c e s O f e v o l ut i o n
. .

1 8 Wh a t is t he i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e xp e di t i o n s t o t h e M o n go li a n
.

des er t ?
1 9 Giv e e xa m p l e s Of m o r p h o l o gi c a l e vid e n c e s o f e vo l ut i o n ?
.

2 0 Wh a t a r e ve s t i gi a l e vid e n ce s O f e v o l ut i o n ? Give e x a m pl e s
. .

2 1 Wh a t a r e e m b r y o l o gi c a l e vid e n c e s Of e vo l ut i o n ? Giv e e x
.

a m pl e s .

2 2 D i s c us s t h e e v o l ut i o n O f pl a n t s
‘

. .

2 3 D i s c us s c o a l f o r m a t i o n
. .

2 4 Give a r e p o r t o n t h e life a n d w o r k o f La m a r c k C h a r l e s D a r wi n
.
, ,

a n d de Vr i e s .

25 Lo o k up a n d r ep o r t o n o n e o f t h e M o n go li a n e xp e di t i o n s
. .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S

H a up t Ar t h ur W , F unda m en ta ls of B iology (M c Gr aw H ill B oo

, .
-
k
H o lm e s S ,
. J
Gen e ra l B i ology (H ar c o ur t B r a c e ,

Je we t t F G The N e xt Gen era ti o n ( Ginn

, . .
,

Os b or n , H e n r y F a irfie ld, F rom t he Greeks to D a rwi n ( Char le s S cr ib n er S o n s)

’
s
 C H AP T E R X XXV I I I

B AC TE RI A

Ph o t o m ic r o gr a ph of s pir il la . Ph o t o m ic r o gra ph o f c o c c i .

Wha t a re p a r a s i ti c ba cte ria ? H ow ca n ba cteria be s tudied ? Wha t

c on di tion s fa vor the gr o wt h o f ba cter ia ? Wha t is t he r ela t oni of bac

teria to food p res erva tion ?

B a c t er i a p o s se s s n o c hl o ro phyll Th e y c a n n o t m a ke th e i r own
.

f o o d ; t h e y a r e d e p e n d e n t up o n o th e r o r ga n i s m s fo r th e i r n o u r
is h m e n t .Th ey wi t h m a n y o t h e r pl a n t s l a c ki n g c hl o r o phyll b e
, ,

l o n g t o a s ubdivi s i o n o f Th a ll o ph yt a All b a c t e r i a a r e n o t h a r m
.

ful L ife o n e a r t h w o uld p r o b a bly c e a se w ere it no t fo r t he

.

a c t ivi t i e s o f c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a The di s e a s e p r o du c i n g b a c te r i a a r e
.
-

k n o w n a s pa thogen ic t yp e s .

S tr uctu r e of b a ct e r ia Wh en u n s t a i n e d b a c te r i a a re c o l o r l e s s
.
, ,

t r a n s p a re n t c e ll s wi t h c o m p a r a t iv e ly t hi c k c e ll w a ll s Th e n u .

c le us is n o t o r ga n iz e d b ut n u c l e a r m a t e r i a l is s c a t t e r e d t h r o u gh
,

t he c yt o pl a s m S o m e t i m e s t h e c e ll w a ll a b s o r b s w a t e r b e c o m e s
.
,

s w o ll e n a n d f o r m s a m u c il a gi n o u s m a s s
,
The mo t h er Of vi n e
.

g a r r e p r e se n t s a m a s s o f c e ll s o f t hi s t yp e A n o t h e r e x
. a m pl e is

t h e m a s s O f m u c il a gi n o u s m a t e r i a l t h a t s o m e t i m es c l o gs t h e d r a i n

pip e o f t he ic e b o x I n o t h e r t yp e s t h e w a ll b e c o m e s ge l a t i n o u s
.
,

a n d t hi c k a n d f o r m s a c a p s ul e a r o u n d t h e i n dividu a l b a c t e r iu m
,
.

I n c er t a i n b a c t e r i a s m a ll gr a n ul e s a r e f o u n d w hi c h a r e p r o b a bly
, ,

r e s er v e s uppli e s o f f o o d Th es e p a r t i c l e s a b s o r b dy es r ea dily a n d
.

h o ld t h e s t a i n v e r y e ffe c t iv e ly S o m e b a c t e r i a h a v e o n e o r m o r e
.

whiplike p ro j e c t i o n s o f p r o t o pl a s m c a ll e d fla gella Th e y a r e t he .

391
3 92 B AC T E R I A

R o d- s h a p e d b a c t e r ia , b a c illi, s om e ti m e s o c c ur s in gly T h e y m a y fo r m s t r in gs a n d a r e t h e n
v
.

k n o w n a s s t r e pt o b a c ill i Th e y j
s o m e t im e s h a e pr o e c ti o n s o f pro t o pla s m , s o m e wh a t s im ila r

fl
.

t o c ilia , c all e d a ge lla .

S ph e r ica l b a c t e r ia , c oc c i,
3ma y o cc ur
s ee
in pa ir s , diplo c o c c i ; or in c h a in s , s t r e pt o c oc c i ; or in clus
t e r s , s t a ph y lo c o c c i .

Th e s pir a l b a c t e r ia , s pir ill a , v fl

m a y n o t h a e a ge ll a , o r t h e y m a y h a e t h e m v . Th e s e b a ct e r ia
are a l wa y s r e co gn iz e d b y t h e ir t wis t e d s h a pe

m o t il e b a c t er i a a n d a r e a bl e t o m o v e t h r o u gh t he w a t er by m ea n s
o f t h e s e s t r u c tu r es .

Th e r e a r e m a n y diff e r e n t s p e c i es o f b a c t er i a M o s t o f th em .

m a y b e gr o up e d a s o n e o f t h r ee f o r m s Th e s e a re t he b a cilli .

o r r o d s h a p e d b a c t er i a t h e c o c c i o r s ph e r i c a l
-
, a n d t he s pi r ill a o r ,

s pi r a l .B a c t er i a v a r y gr e a t ly in S iz e a n d s h a p e withi n t he s a m e
r o up a l t h o u gh th e y a re a ll m i c r o s c o pi c T h e m i c r o n is t h e u n it
g ,
.

o f m e a s u r e m e n t in m ic r o s c opic w o r k I t is a b o u t o n e th o u s a n dth
.
-
394 B A C T E RI A

Th e y a re not al l il yh a r m ful C e r t a i n b a c t e r i a l p a r a s it e s
n e ces s a r .

a r e f o u n d in t h e i n t es t i n a l t ra c t s o f a n i m a l s b ut t h e y do n o t ,

s e e m t o p r o du c e a n y s e r i o u s e ff e c t s Th e p a t h o ge n i c b a c t e r i a
.

a re a ll p a r a s i t e s All o f t h e s e a r e h a r m ful
. .

B a c t e r i a t h a t i n h a bi t a n d O b t a i n t h e i r f o o d fr o m n on livi n g
o r ga n i c m a t e r i a l a r e s a p r o phyt e s Th e b a c t e r i a th a t d e c a y d e a d
.

o r ga n i s m s a r e s a p r o phy t e s Th e b a c t e r i a t h a t c h a n ge a l c o h o l
.

t o V i n e ga r s o u r m ilk a n d r ip e n C h e e s e a r e s a p r o phy t e s
, , Pr a c t i .

c a lly a ll o f th e s e a r e u s e ful t o m a n .

Wh e n a p a r a s i t e a n d it s h o s t b o t h fl o u r i s h a n d e a ch o n e pr o ,

m o t e s t h e gr o w t h o f t he o t h e r th e i r r e l a t i o n is o n e O f m u t u a l h e lp
,

ful n e s s a n d is k n o w n a s s ymbiosis E a c h m e m b er t he b a c t e r iu m .
,

a n d it s h o s t is k n o w n a s a s ym bi on t
, F o r e x a m pl e c er t a i n b a c
.
,

t er i a k n o w n a s n i t ro ge n fixin g b a c t e r i a liv e in litt l e n o dul e s o r

,
-
,

s w e lli n gs o n t h e r oo t s o f c l o v e r pl a n t s Th e s e b a c t er i a t a ke fr e e
.

n it ro gen fr o m t h e a ir a n d build it i n t o n i t r a t e s whi c h t h e pl a n t

c a n us e . Th e c l o v e r pl a n t u s e s s o m e o f t h e s e n i t r a t e s fo r m a ki n g
p r o t e i n At t he s a m e t i m e t he b a c t er i a a b s o r b s u ga r fr o m t h e
.

c l o v er pl a n t a n d us e it fo r f oo d N e i t h e r o r ga n i s m s uffe r s f r o m
.

t hi s r e l a t i o n a n d e a c h o n e b e n e fit s f r o m it .

N utrition All t yp es o f b a c t e r i a giv e Off di ge s tiv e jui c e s o r

.

e n zy m e s whi c h di g e s t t h e f oo d up o n whi c h th e y a r e livi n g Thi s .

f o o d m a y b e m i n er a l n utr i e n t s d e a d pl a n t a n d a n i m a l ti s s u e or
, ,

e v en l i v i n g ti s s u e D i ge s t i o n is e xt e r n a l t o t he c e ll n o t wi t hi n
.
,

t he c e ll a s it is in t h e a m o e b a
, F o r e x a m pl e t h e tub er c ul o s i s
.
,

b a c illi di ge s t cer t a i n c e ll s o f t he b o dy t h e n a b s o r b t he di ge s t e d ,

m a t er i a l . Pr a c t i c a lly a ll b a c t er i a a b s o r b p r o t e i n fr o m o t h e r
o r ga n i s m s Th e a b s or b e d p ro t e i n is e i t h e r a s s i m il a t e d i n t o n e w
.

p r o t o pl a s m or o xidiz e d for t he r e l e a s e O f e n e r gy AS a r e s ul t o f .

a s s i m il a t i o n t h e b a c t er i a gro w divid e a n d f o r m gr o up s o r c o l o n i e s
, , , .

Reproduc tion Aft e r t he b a c t e r iu m r ea c h e s it s m a xi m u m s iz e

.
,

it build s a c e ll w a ll a c r o s s t he m iddl e o f t he c e ll a n d t hu s divid e s

in h a lf by fi s s i o n I f c o n di t i o n s a r e f a v o r a bl e c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a
.
,
 M E TH O D S OF I DEN TI F YI N G B ACT E R IA 395

my divid
a v er y t w e n t y m i n u t e s A s i n gl e ce ll m a y p r o du ce
e e . m il
li o n s o f c e ll s wi t hi n tw e n t y f o u r h o u r s As b a c t e r i a di vid e
-
. a nd

c li n g t o ge t h er t h e m a s s o f s i m il a r c e ll s is
,

kn o w n a s a colon y .

If con di t i o n s a r e u n f a v o r a bl e m a n y b a c ,

t e r i a will giv e o ff m o i s tur e thu s l es s e n i n g ,

th e i r s iz e a n d s urr o u n d t h em s e lv e s wi t h a
,

thi c k w a ll I n t hi s f or m t h e c e ll r e m a i n s
.
,

d o r m a n t u n t il c o n di t i o n s a r e a ga i n f a v o r
a bl e fo r d e ve l o p m e n t Thi s is know n a s a
.

D iff t t yp f p e eren es o s or s

s p o re All b a c t e r i a c a n n o t f or m s p o r e s
222 532; ia g zg ifi
11 o a r o
. .

3 11 o s

S p or e f o r m a t i o n in b a c t e r i a is n o t a typ e
- t d f th ll d a on e en o e ce an

m t m m th
.

t so e i es e cen er.
o f r e p r o du c t i o n b e c a u s e n o n ew ce ll s a r e

d e v e l o p e d I t is a m e t h o d by whi c h t he c e ll e xi s t s dur i n g um
.

f a v o r a bl e co n diti o n s S p o re s m a y b e d r i e d wi t h o u t i n ju r y S o m e
. .

s p o r e s m a y b e h e a t e d t o a hi gh t e m p e r a tur e a n d t he o r ga n i s m ,

will s till r e m a i n u n i n ju r e d .

M e th o ds of ide ntifyin g b a ct e r ia B a c t er i a a r e s o s m a ll th a t .

o th e r m e th o d s o f id e n t ifi c a t i o n m u s t s o m e ti m e s b e u s e d b e s id es

th e i r s h a p e s iz e a n d fl a ge ll a S o m e a r e r e c o gn iz e d by t h e i r a bil
, ,
.

it y t o h o ld a n a c id s t a i n o r t o giv e p a r ticul ar c o l o r r e a c t i o n s
,

w ith c e rt a i n s t a i n s Oth er s a r e r e c o gn iz e d by t he c h a n ge s t h e y
.

b r i n g a b o ut in o r o n v a r i o u s s ub s t a n ce s o n whi c h th e y a r e gr ow n .

Th e s e s ub s t a n c e s a r e c a ll e d m edia Th e typ e o f c o l o n y fo r m e d .

is a l s o a m e a n s o f id e n tifi c a t i o n S o m e p r o du c e c o l o n i e s with.

s m o o th s c a ll o p e d
, o r f r i n ge d e d ges
,
I n s o m e t he c o l o n i e s a r e .
,

o p a qu e ; I n o th e r s th e y gli s t e n D iffe r e n t c o l o n i e s o f b a c t er i a
,
.

a r e c h a r a c t er iz e d by diff e r e n t pi gm e n t s S o m e o f t he pi gm e n t s .

a r e gr a y y e ll o w pi n k o r b r o w n
, , S o m e c o l o n i e s d e v e l o p o n t he
, .

s ur f a c e o f t h e m e di a o t h e r s b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a ce
,
Th e pl a ce a n d .

c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p or e f o r m e d a r e o th er m e a n s o f id e n tifi ca ti o n .

I n s o m e t h e s p o r e f or m s a t o n e e n d o f t h e ce ll ; in o th e r s in t he
, ,

m iddl e . A t e t a n u s b a c illu s f or m s a s p o re a t o n e e n d o f t he ce ll .
3 96 BA CT ER IA
It swe ll s o ut a n d t he b a cillu s l oo k s like a d r u m s ti c k Th e diph .

t h e r i a b a cillu s is c h a r a c t e r iz e d by gr a n ul a r p a r t i c l e s whi c h tu r n
r e d wi t h a c er t a i n s t a i n a n d will n o t l o s e thi s s t a i n .

A m e t h o d of id e n t ify in g b a c t e r ia is t h r o ugh r e c o gni t io n of th e t ype s o f c o loni e s t h e y for m

v v
.

S o m e c olo n i e s a r e t r a n s luc e n t , o t h e r s a r e o pa q ue ; s o m e ha e r e gula r m a r gin s , o t h e r s h a e

ir r e gula r m a r gin s . v
O n e o f t h e a b o e pla t e s h a s b e e n e xpo s e d t o b a c t e ria , t h e o th e r pla t e h a s
n o t b e e n o pe n e d a n d is s t e r il e
. Th i s is c a ll e d th e c o n t rol
.

M e dia for c ultiva tion of B e e f b r o th is t he p r i n c ip a l

b a cte r ia .

m e diu m u se d fo r t he c ul t iv a t i o n o f b a c t er i a I f a s m a ll qu a n tity o f
.

t he s e a w e e d a ga r is a dd e d t o thi s a s o lid m e diu m r e s ul t s

, , , S om e .

ti m e s ge l a t i n is u s e d in pl a c e o f a ga r a n d p r u n e j uic e s u gar
, ,

s o luti o n o r bl o o d i n s t e a d o f b e e f b r o th
, Th e n utr i e n t m e diu m
.

whi c h will fu r n i s h t he b e s t n o u r i s h m en t fo r t he p a r ti c ul a r b a c
t e r ium is s e l e c t e d .

B a c t e r i a a r e u s u a lly gro w n in P e tr i di s h e s o r o n a ga r s l a n t s in
t e s t t ub e s The Pe t r i di s h w a s o r i gi n a lly d e vi s e d in 1 88 7 by R J
. . .

Pe tr i in a B er li n l a b o r a t o r y I t r e a lly c o n s i s t s o f t wo di s h e s
.
,

e a ch o n e b e i n g a s h a ll o w gl a s s s a u c e r with a p e r p e n di c ul a r r im .

On e fit s r a th e r s n u gly a s a du s t p r o o f co v e r o v e r t h e o th e r
-
.

F i r s t t he a ga r m e diu m is b o il e d a n d filt er e d t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s
,
.

Th e Pe tr i di s h e s a re t h o r o u ghly c l e a n e d a n d s t e r iliz e d Th e h o t .

s t e r il e a ga r is t h e n p o u r e d i n t o t h e di s h e s G r e a t c a r e is t a k e n
.
,

in o r d er t o p r e v en t a n y b a ct e r i a in t h e a ir f ro m e n t e r i n g du r i n g
t he p o u r i n g o r pl a ti ng o f t he a ga r .
3 98 B ACT E R IA
Pr a c t i c a lly a ll b o di e s o f w a t er o n t he s u r f a ce o f t he e a r t h c on ta i n
gre a t n u m b ers o f ba c t er i a The n u m b er s in diffe r e n t ki n d s o f w a t e r
.

T w o ty p e s o f in o c ul a t io n s , s m e a r s a n d s ta b s , are m a de o n s la n t c ul tur e s Aft e r t h e m e dia are

v
.

in c ub a t e d , t h e ge r m s gr o w in t o c olo ni e s , e a ch ha in g a c h a ra c t e r is ti c fo r m a n d s h a p e.

v a r y a c c o r di n g t o t he l o c a t i o n o f t he w a t er I n s p r i n g w a t e r t he .
,

n u m b er o f b a c t e r i a is r e l a t iv e ly s m a ll b ut in w a t e r i n t o whi c h s e w
,

a ge fr o m c i t i e s d r a i n t he n u m b er is e xt r e m e ly l a r ge S om et i mes
‘

, .

b a c t er i a in w a t er c o n t a m i n a t e d wi t h s e w a ge a r e di s e a s e p r o du c i n g .

The s o il th a t ha s b ee n w e ll c ultiv a t e d is u s u a lly r i c h in b a c

t er i a The d ee p e r l a y er s o f so il c o n t a i n few o r n o b a c t er i a
. .

Wh e r e t he s o il is dry a n d s a n dy t h e r e a r e r el a tiv e ly fe w b a c
,

t e r i a ; wh ere it is m o i s t a n d l o a m y t h e y a r e a bu n d a n t , Th ey .

a r e f o u n d in gr e a t n u m b e r s a r o u n d t h e b o di e s o f d e a d a n i m a l s o r

in so il th a t c o n t a i n s d e c a yi n g r oo t s o f pl a n t s .
 G R OWT H OF B ACT E R IA 3 99

B a c t e r i a a re p r o b a bly fo u n d o n a ll c o o ke d f o o d s whi c h h a v e .

b e e n e xp o s e d t o t he a ir a s we ll a s o n t he s ur f a c e s o f a ll fr ui t s
,

a n d v e ge t a bl e s .

Th e r e la tio n of va r io u s c on dition s t o t h e gr owth of b a cte r ia .

M o s t b a c t e r i a t h r iv e b es t in d a r k n e s s D i r e c t s u n li ght kill s t h e m
.

a f t e r a fe w h o u r s o f e xp o s u r e E v e n s p o r e f o r m s m a y b e kill e d by
.

di r e c t s u n li gh t Th e fo o d o f b a c t e r i a m u s t b e o r ga n i c a n d m u s t
.

b e s li gh t ly m o i s t Th e b e s t t e m p er a t u re fo r b a c t e r i a l gro w t h o n
.

° °
c ul t ur e m edi a is b e t w e e n 2 0 a nd 40 C a l t h o u gh b a c t e r i a l lif e.
,

2 7 3 C ) a n d a t 1 60 C
° °
is p o s s ibl e a t a b s o lu t e t e m pe r a t r e
p . .

The t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e s w i t h t h e p a r t i c ul a r t yp e o f o r ga n i s m F or .

e xa m pl e t h e hu m a n t ub e r c ul o s i s b a c illu s gr o w s b e s t a t bl o o d
,

h ea t 3 7 5 C t h e bi r d t ub e r c ul os i s b a c illu s gr o w s b e s t a t a b o u t
,
°
.

°
42 C . S udd e n c h a n ge s in t e m p e r a t u r e a r e m o r e o r l e s s de t r im e n
t a l t o b a c t er i a .I f c h a n ge s a r e s l ow t h e s p o r e f o r m e r s will h a v e a
,

ch a n c e t o form t he ir sp or e s C o ld c h ec k s t he gr o w t h o f b a c t e r i a
.

a n d c o n t i n u e d fr e e zi n g o r a l t er n a t e f r e e zi n g a n d t h a wi n g m a y

s o m e t i m e s kill t h e m D iffere n t b a c t er i a a r e kill e d a t di ffe r e n t

.

t e m p e r a tu re s . Ac t iv e t yph o id b a c t e r i a a r e kill e d wh e n s ubj e c t e d

°
t o a t e m p e r a tu r e o f 6 0 C fo r t hi r ty m i n u t e s . Or di n a r ily a ll .
,

b a c t e r i a a r e kill e d a t 1 00 C M o i s t h e a t is fo un d m o r e e ffec t iv e
°
.

fo r killi n g b a c t e r i a t h a n dr y h e a t .

M e t h o ds of food pr e s e rva t ion S ub s t a n c e s m a y b e fr ee d fr o m

.

b a c t e r i a o r t he a c t i o n O f t h e b a c t e r i a o n t he s ub s t a n c e m a y b e
,

m a t e r i a lly d e c re a s e d by d e p r ivi n g t h e o r ga n i s m s o f s o m e c o n di
ti o n t h a t is n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e i r life o r gr o wt h S o m e o f t he .

m e t h o d s o f p r e s er vi n g f oo d s a ga i n s t t he a c t i o n o f b a c t e r i a a r e
d e hyd ra t i o n re fr i ge r a ti o n c a n n i n g s m o ki n g a n d a ddi t i o n o f
, , , ,

p r e s e r v a t iv e s .

I f a f o o d is t h o r o u ghly d r i e d p a r t i c ul a r ly by t he s un t he b a c
.
, ,

t e r i a c a n n o t t h r iv e Th e s un in a ll p r o b a bili t y will kill t h e m

.
, , .

D r y n e s s is a l s o a n un f a v o r a bl e c o n di t i o n fo r t h e gr o w t h o f b a c
t eria . R e fr i ge r a ti o n p re s er ve s f o o d s b e ca u se c o ld c h e c ks t he
40 0 B AC T E R I A

A m e t h o d o f pr e s e r vin g fo o ds is b y s un - dr y in g Th e pic t ur e s h o w s plum s e xpo s e d t o s un li gh t

un t il dr y Th is c h a n ge s t h e m t o prun e s a n d
. k
s a fe gua r ds t h e m fr o m t h e a t t a c s of b a c t e r ia .

gr o wt h of b a c t e r i a I n t he r e fr i ge ra t i o n p r oce s s t he fl a v o r
m o st .
,

is n o t lik e ly t o b e s p o il e d I t is a n e xp e n s iv e m e t h o d h o w e v e r
.
, .

C a n n i n g o r p r e s e r vi n g m a k e s us e o f e x t r e m e h ea t t o s t e r iliz e th e n ,

by pl a c i n g t h e foo d in a ir ti gh t c o n t a i n e r s n o n ew b a c t er i a c a n
-

e n t er S m o k e c o n t a i n s c r e o s o t e whi c h is p o i s o n o u s t o b a c te r i a
.
, ,

b ut in s m a ll a m o u n t s is n o t p o i s o n o u s t o p e o pl e
, , H en c e s m o k .
,

in g is a m e t h o d o f p r e s e r vi n g f o o d B a c te r i a in a n a lka li n e o r
.

a c id s o lu t i o n a r e m o r e e a s ily kill e d t h a n t h o s e in a n e u t r a l s o lu
'

ti o n H o u se k e e p e r s h a ve f o u n d t h a t c a n n ed fr uit s s e ld o m s p o il
.
,

but c a n n e d v eget a bl e s fr e qu e n t ly c a u s e tro ubl e S o m e t i m e s .

s u ga r s a lt a n d vi n e ga r in qu a n ti t y a c t a s p o i s o n s t o b a c t e r i a
, , .

Th e y a r e n o t i n ju r i o u s t o p e o pl e Pr o du ce r s f r e qu e n t ly a dd pr e
.

s e r v a t iv es s u c h a s b e n z o a t e O f s o d a o r m ild a c id s t o h e lp kill t he

b a c t er i a M a n y o f t h e s e m a y b e i n j ur i o u s
. . .

P ro b l e m . Wha t is the n um ber o f ba cter i a foun d in t he a ir in va r i

o us p lac es i n t he en vi r on m en t ?
Pre p ar e se v e n or e igh t P e t r i dis he s o f s t er ile a gar m e dia .
 B AC T E R I A

IV . I n c ub a t e t h e s ix dis h e s fo r t we n t y —
f o ur h o ur s .

V . M ake r e pe a t e d da ily o b s er v a t io n s .

A . Which m a t er ia l us e d s ee m s to be of le a s t use in c h ec ki ng t he

gr o w t h o f b a c t e r ia ?
1 C o m p ar e t h e gr o w t h
. o f c o lo n ie s in t his dis h w it h y o ur c o n t ro l .

B . Gi v e t he e ffec t s of e a ch of t he o t h e r s o lut io n s o n t h e gro w t h o f

b a c t e r ia .

0 . Whic h a n t is e p t ic s m igh t b e un w is e t o us e on de lic a t e lin in g m e m

b r a n e s s uc h a s t h o s e in t h e t hr o a t , n ose , an d ey e ?
VI . The e xp er im e n t m ay b e r e pe a t e d to t e s t t h e r e s ult s o f v a r io us m o ut h
w a s he s .

VI I . An t is e p t ic s s h o uld be us e d w it h gr e a t dis cr e t io n . S om e o f t he m k ill

b a c t er ia r at her t h a n chec k th e ir gr o w t h . Th e y ar e c a lle d ge r m ic ide s . Tho s e
t hat c h ec k th e gr o w t h o f b a c t e r ia ar e t het r ue a n t is e p t ic s . G e r m ic ide s m a y ill k
t he t is s ue s as w e ll as t he b a c t e r ia . T h is in m a n y , c ases, w ill c he c he a lin g k .

Q U E S TI O N S A N D S UGG E S TI O N S
1 D e s c r i b e t he s t r uc t ur e o f b a c t e r i a
. .

2 C l a s s ify b a c t e r i a a c co r di n g t o t h e ir s h a pe
. Gi e s o m e in . v
divid ua l v a r i a t i o n s o f e a c h t y pe .

3 Wh a t a r e a er o b i c a n d a n a er o b i c b a c t e r ia ?
.

4 D i s c us s t h r e e di ff e r e n t t y p e s o f n ut r i t i o n f o un d a mo n g b a c t e r i a
.
'
.

Give a n e xa m pl e o f e a c h t y pe .

5 D i s c us s r e pr o duc t i o n a n d s p o r e f o r m a t i o n
.
-
.

6 N a m e fi v e m e t h o ds us e d in t he id e n t i c a t i o n o f b a c t e r ia
. fi .

7 Wh a t is t h e im p o r t a n c e o f a ga r ?
.

8 D i s c us s t h e s t e r iliz a t io n o f a ga r a n d o f P e t r i d is h e s
. D is c us s t h e .

m e t h o ds o f i n o c ul a t i o n , a n d c o n di t i o n s fo r t h e c ult iv a t io n o f b a c t e r i a .

9 D i s c us s f a vo r a b l e c o n di t i o n s fo r t h e gr o w t h o f b a c t e r ia
. Wh i c h .

o f t h e s e c o n di t io n s a re f o un d in t he h um a n b o d y ?

1 0 Un d er w h a t c o n di t i o n s w ill f o o d s p o i l ?
.

1 1 N a m e s o m e c o n di t i o n s un f a v o r a b l e fo r t h e gr o w t h o f b a c t e r i a
. .

1 2 Give in t he f o r m o f a n o ut li n e t h e m e t h o d o f p r e s e r vi n g c e r t a i n
.

fo o ds fr o m t he a c t ivi t i e s o f b a c t e r ia , a n d t he r es ul t i n g c o n d it io n s t h a t
a r e un f a v o r a bl e fo r t h e i r gr o w t h .

1 3 D i s c us s t h e r e l a t ive n um b e r o f b a c t e r i a in diff e r e n t t y pes o f a ir

. .

1 4 D i s c us s t he b a c t e r i a l c o n t e n t o f di ffe r e n t t y pe s o f m il
.
“

k .

1 5 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n o f di ff e r e n t a n t i s e p t i c s t o t h e gro wt h o f
.

b a c t er ia
 C H AP TE R X X X I X

B E N E F I C I AL

AC TI VI TI E S OF

B AC TE RI A

C ur dlin g of m il k . S o ur in g of fr uit j ui ce s .

Why does m ilk tur n s our ? Wha t m a kes s weet ci der turn in to
vi n ega r ? Why wi ll t he dea d body o f an a n im a l putre y ?f Wha t is
t he i mpor ta n c e o f t he i
rota t on o f c r op s ?

B a c t e r i a whi c h a r e o f v a lu e t o m a n m a y b e gr o up e d i n t o
thr e e c l a s s e s : ( 1 ) th o s e n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e pr e p a r a t i o n o f c er t a i n
fo o d s ; ( 2 ) tho s e a idi n g i n du s t r i e s ; a n d ( 3 ) t h o s e u s e ful in
a gr i c ul t u r e .

B a ct e r i a in fo o d pr epar a tio n C e r t a i n b a c t e r i a in m ilk c h a n ge

.

t h e m ilk s u ga r la ctos e t o la ctic a ci d

, , Th e p r o du c t i o n o f t hi s
.

a c id c o a gul a t e s o r c u r dl e s t h e p r o t e i n in m ilk T hi s p r oc e s s o f
.

a c id f o r m a t i o n a n d p r o t e i n c o a gul a t i o n is c a ll e d s oa r in g
- -
Wh e n .

t he a c id r e a c h e s a ce r t a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n t he p r oc e s s c e a s e s
,
Th e .

p r e s e n c e o f l a c t i c a c id in c r e a m i n c r e a s es t he yie ld o f but t er a n d
i m p r o v es t he fl a v o r La c ti c a c id b a c t e r i a a r e n e c es sa r y for t he
.
-

p r o du c t i o n o f s o u r m ilk c h e e s e s s u c h a s S w i s s E d a m a n d C a
-
, ,

m e m b er t . The fl a v o r o f th e s e c h e e s e s is p a r t ly due t o t he l a c ti c
a c id f er m e n t a ti o n a n d p a r t ly t o m o ld a c tivi t y .

Ac e t i c a c id b a c t e r i a c o n v e r t a lcohol i n t o vin ega r

-
Ye a s t s fi r s t .

a t t a c k t h e s u ga r o f f r uit s o r r a i n s a n d c o n v e r t it i n t o a l c o ho l t h e n
g
t he a c e t i c—
,

a c id b a c t e r i a a t t a c k t he a l c o h o l a n d c h a n ge it t o
vi n ega r Thi s vi n ega r is u s e ful in p r e s er vi n g fo o d s b e c a u s e
.

b a c t e r i a o f d e ca y c a n n o t w or k in a s tr o n g a c id m ediu m .

403
4 04 BENEF ICIA L A CTI V ITI E S OF B ACT E R IA
If ca bb a ge is fi n e ly c h opp e d s a l t e d a n d p a c k e d ti ghtly in
, ,

j ars or b a rr e l s it will u n d e rgo a c he m i c a l c h a n ge The s a lt will

, .

Wh e n b a ct e r ia a b s or b a nd us e fo o d, t h e y give 0 3 a c i d wa s t e s . Th e wa s t e s of dis ea s e
pr o duc in g b a c t e r i a a r e c a lle d t o xm s .

e xtr a c t fr o m t h e c a bb a ge t he j ui c e whi c h is a go o d m e diu m fo r

t h e gr o wth o f l a c t i c a c id b a c t e r i a
-
Thi s will a t t a c k t he ti s s u e s o f
.

t he c a bb a ge c h a n gi n g I t t o s a u e r k r a ut
, Me a t is m a d e t e n d er
.

by t he a c ti o n o f b a c t er i a Whe n m e a t is fr e s h th a t is s o o n
.
, ,

a ft e r t h e a n i m a l is kill e d it is t o u gh a n d m or e o r l e s s t a s t e l e s s
, .

B a c t er i a a t t a c k t he m u s c l e s a n d c o n n e c tiv e ti s s u e l o o s en t h e ,

fib er s a n d giv e t he m e a t a t a s t e M e a t is u s u a lly k e pt for s o m e

,
.

ti m e t o p er m i t thi s b a ct e r i a l a tt a c k Thi s is t he b egi n n i n g o f t he

.

d e ca y p r o c e s s The p r oc es s m u s t n o t go t oo fa r o r p r o du c t s t h a t
.

a r e o bj e c t i o n a bl e a r e f o r m e d a n d t h e m e a t is s a id t o b e t a i n t e d
,
.

E n s il a ge is p r e p a r e d for s t o c k by p a c ki n g fi n e ly c h o ppe d fo dd e r
in a s il o B a c t e r i a a n d e n zym e s will a t t a c k t he ti s s ue s o f t he
.

fo dd er c a u s i n g it t o c h a n ge in a pp e a r a n ce fl a v o r a n d n utr itiv e
, , ,

v a lue .

B a ct e ri a in oth e r in dus tr ie s S p o n ges a r e a n i m a l s

. Th e f a i r ly .

h a r d c o m m er c i a l s p o n ge is r e a lly t h e S k e l e t o n o f t he a n i m a l Thi s .

s k e l e t o n is c o m p o se d o f s ub s t a n c e s s e c r e t ed by t h e c e ll s o f t he

a n i m al Th e S p on ge s o f c o m m e r c e a r e p r e p a r e d b y c u t ti n g th e i r
.

a t t a c h m e n t t o t he s e a fl o o r The s p o n ge s a r e s p r e a d o ut on t he
.

s e a s h or e a n d b a c t e r i a d e s t r o y t h e s o ft o r ga n i c p a r t s l e a vi n g t he ,

fib r o u s h o r n y fr a m e w or k or s ke l e t on T hi s p r o c e s s is k n o w n a s
, .

curin g . Th e e x o s k el e t o n s a r e th en th or o u ghly w a s h e d a n d
c l e a n e d a n d s o ld fo r c o mm e r c i a l u s e s .
4 06 BENEF I C IA L ACTI V ITI E S OF B ACT ER IA
of re pl a ci ng or r en e wi n g it . Th e same is tr u e of s ulphur a nd

p o t a s s iu m .

B a cteri a f o dec a y a r e es s e nt a f a r mi l
i n gin T h e y b r i n
g a.b o u t
t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c o m pl e x o r ga n i c c o m p o u n d s i n t o s i m pl e r
ones .Whe n t hi s is a c c o m p a n i e d by o ffe n s ive o d o r s t he p r o c e s s ,

is k n o w n a s pu t r e f a c t i o n Th e c o m pl e x p r o t e i n s a n d p r o t o pl a s m
.

o f t h e pl a n t o r a n i m a l c o n t a i n n it r o ge n Wh e n a pl a n t o r a n i m a l
.

di e s t he b a c t er i a o f d e c a y a tt a c k th e s e n itr o ge n c o n t ai n i n g c o m
,
- ~

p o u n d s a n d b r e a k th e m d o w n i n t o s i m pl e r s ub s t a n c e s On e o f .

th e s e is a n it r o ge n o u s m a t e r i a l a m m o n i a ; a n o t h e r s ub s t a n c e c o n
,

t a i n s s ulphu r P h o s ph o r u s a n d t he o t h e r e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t m a y
.

b e lib er a t e d s i m il a r ly
,
Th e d e c a y p r o c e s s a l s o s e t s fr e e ca r b o n
.

di o xid e a n d w a t er N itr o ge n o u s w a s t e s o f a n i m a l s a r e u s u a lly

.

chan d i t m m i b y t h ti f t h b t r i a Of d e c a y
-

ge n o a o n a e a c o n o e a c e .

N itrifi ca tio n C e r t a i n b a c t e r i a c a ll e d t h e n i trifyin g ba cteria

.

t a k e t h e a m m o n i a f o r m e d by t h e b a c t e r i a o f d e ca y a n d c h a nge it
i nt o n itr a t e s whi ch t he pl a n t s c a n u t iliz e fo r fu r t h e r p r o t e i n
m a ki n g Thi s p ro c e s s is c a ll e d n i trifica ti on
. Am m o n i a is a ga s
.
,

a n d w o uld e s c a p e i n t o t h e a t m o s ph e r e w e r e it n o t fo r t h e n i t r ify

in g b a c t e r i a N itr it e b a c t e r i a fi r s t c o n v e r t a m m o n i a i n t o n itr i t e s
.
,

co m p o u n d s f or m e d by t h e u n i o n o f a m m o n i a wi t h o xyge n Th e n .

o th e r o r ga n i s m s c a u s e t h e n i t r i t e s t o t a k e up m o r e o xyge n a n d

f o r m n i t r a t e s whi c h a r e s t a bl e c o m p o u n d s a n d c a n di s s o lv e in
t h e s o il w a t e r N it r it e a n d n i t r a t e b a c t e r i a a r e a lw a y s f o u n d
.

t o get h e r Th e y w o r k b e s t in a lk a li n e s o il s I f a s a m pl e o f s o il
. .

is h e a t e d a n d t hu s s t e r iliz e d t h e a c t i o n d o e s n o t t a k e pl a c e
,
.

Thi s i n di c a t es c l ea rly t h a t t he p r o ce s s is a b a c t e r i a l o n e a n d n o t
s i m p ly a c h e m i c a l o n e N i t r ifi c a t i o n t a k e s pl a c e o n ly in s o il
.

t h a t is w e ll a er a t e d a n d w e ll d r a i n e d Th e d r a i n a ge c a r r i e s o ff t he
.

a c id s th a t m i ght i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e p r o c e s s Aer a t io n is n e ce s s a r y
.

b e c a u s e th er e m u s t b e e n o u gh o xyge n t o c o m bi n e wi t h t he a m mo n i a
t o f o r m t h e n it r it e s a n d t h e n i t r a t e s E a r t h w or m s a id in t hi s
'

p r ocess b y c o n s t a n tl y w or ki ng th ro u gh t he s o il Thi s p erm i t s t h e .

 DEN IT R I F ICAT I ON 4 07

e n t r a n ce o f a ir . Li m e is
i m e s a dd e d s om et

t o s o il t o n e u t r a liz e it s a c idi t y S O t h a t t he
n i t r ifyi n g a c t ivi t i e s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d .

D en i tr ifica tio n I f s o il is p o o r ly d r a i n e d
.
,

p o o r ly a er a t e d a n d c o n t a i n s fre s h o rga n i c
,

m a t t er den i trifyin g ba cteri a t h r iv e

,
Th e y .

c o n ve r t t h e a m m o n i a f o r m e d in t h e d e ca y
,

Th il b t i i
p r o c e s s i n t o fr e e n i t r o ge n The f r e e n it r oge n ul h p d g i m
,
.
g e so

a r -s
a c er a

a e or
are

an s
r re

s.

t h en e s c a p e s i n t o t h e a ir a n d is l o s t t o t h e
pl a n t s The d e n i t r ifyi n g b a c t e r i a c a n a l s o b r e a k d ow n n it r a t e s i n t o
.

n it r it e s t he n i n t o a m m o ,

n ia a n d fi n a lly i n t o f r e e ,

n i t r o ge n S o i l s h o ul d .

n o t b e c o v e r e d t hi c kly

wi t h u n r o t t e d m a n u r e a s
t h e a c t ivi t y O f th e s e b a c
t er i a a re t hen pr o m o t ed .

F r o m t he p o i n t o f V i ew o f
c o n s e r vi n g s o il f e r t ili t y ,

t h e d e n i t r ifyi n g b a c t e r i a
a r e u n d e s i r a bl e C er t a in .

o t h e r b a c t e r i a a r e a bl e ,

h o we v er t o t a k e fr e e ,

n i t r o ge n f r o m t he a ir
a n d a ga i n c h a n ge it i n t o

a f o r m in whi c h it c a n b e

u s e d Th e s e a r e c a ll e d .

t he n itrogen fixin g bac

-

ter i a
—
.

N itrogen fi tixa on . Th e
n i t r o ge n fixin g b a c t e r i a
-

Nit r o ge n - fixin g b a c t e ria form n od ul e s or s mall s w e llin gs

on th e ro o t s pod -b e a rin g plant s
of Th e co un t l e s s b a c
. h a v e a l r e a dy b e e n ( 11 5
t e r ia in t h e s e n o dul e s fix fr e e n it ro ge n of t h e a ir in t o a
us a b le fo rm , n it ra t e s . c u s s e d I n t h e pr e v I Ous
4 08 BENEF ICIA L ACTI V ITI E S OF B ACT E R IA
c h a pt e r Wh e n a p od b e a r i n g pl a n t s u c h a s t he cl o ver a lf a lfa
.
-
, , ,

bean or ,p e a is y o u n g i t s
, r o o t s a r e a t t a c k e d by t h e n itr o ge n fixin
, g
-

b a c ter i a f o un d in t he s o il Th ey .

p e n e tr a t e t he r o o t s thr o u gh t he d e li
c a t e r o o t h a ir s a n d e s t a bli s h t h e m

s e lv e s in t h e o ut er l a y e r o f t h e r o o t

c e ll s Th e r o o t a c c o m m o d a t e s th e m
.

by buildin g m o r e c e ll s in t h a t r e gi on ,

f o r m in g l i t t l e n o d ul e s o r t ub er c l e s .

I n th e s e n o dul e s t h e n i t r o ge n fixin g ,
-

b a c te r i a m ul t iply Th e y t a k e t he .

fr ee n itr ogen fr om t he a ir whi c h

p e r m e a t e s t he s o il a n d build it i n t o ,

n i t r it e s whi c h are l a t e r c o n v e r t ed
t o n itr a t e s Wh e n t he r o o t s of th e s e .

pl a n t s a r e pl ow ed un d e r th e y d e ca y , ,

a n d t h e n it r a t e s a r e lib e r a t e d i nt o

t h e s o il S o il m a y b e i n o c ul a t e d with .

Th v l u fixi g b t c ultu r e s O f n o dul e b a c t e r i a A cr o p

w as d m
e
e
f it g
a
r
t t d m th
e o
on s r a e b v
n
i o en-

e a
n

o e ex
ac er a
e ri
.

p
m t en . Wh th ent f th pl t
e r oo sof cl o vero or e a lf a lf a
an s pl ow e d u n d er
w ere e x mi d th
a ne th l ft h d os e on e e a
W ll d v l p d tub I h 1 h a b o u t 1 00
,

n um u
e ro s e - l e ; S U
e o PP e l GS t e 5 0 1
e rc e s W l t
th th igh t h d tub l
os e
Th y w
e
on

b th w t
er e
e
d wi t h
o
r
ut i t
a ere
pou
a
nds
no
Of n l
a n
t r o g e n
er c e s
t O
r en
t h
.

e a c r e S U C h °

lut i t i i g ll th
a c r o p I S a s v a lu a bl e a s m a n y l o a d s
so on c on a n n y a e n e ce s s ar
n ut i t
r en s b ut it g E pl i thn ro en . x a n e
’

Of m a nur e A oOd C I Op Of c or n o r
l ti
re a f t h tub
on o l t t h g wt h
e erc e s o e ro
g
‘

o f t h pl t
e an .

wh e a t W i ll t a ke fr o m 50 t o 7 5
p o un d s o f n itr o gen per a cr e fr o m s o il Th er e a r e c er t a i n fr ee .

livi n g s o il b a c t e r i a whi ch build n i t r o ge n i n t o n i t r a t e s wh e n c on

dit ion s a r e f a v o r a bl e The r e s ult o f t he a c t ivi t y o f t h e s e o r ga n
.

i s m s is n o t u nl ike t he n itr a te s fo r m e d by n itr o gen fixin g b a c t eri a -

.

But th ey differ fr o m t he n itr o ge n fixin g b a c t er i a in th a t th ey do -

n o t n ee d r oo t s o f pl a n t s fo r th e i r h o m e s .

L i ghtni n g a n d S i m il a r e l e c t r i c di s ch a rge s in t he a ir u n ite s om e free

n itr o gen with o xy ge n t o f o rm n i t r a t e s Th e s e a r e w a s h e d f r om t h e .
410 B E NEF I C I A L AC TI VI TI E S O F B AC TE R I A

bli ght will n o t a ffe c t wh e a t R o t a t i o n Of c r op s a l s o kill s

‘

tato .

i n s ec t p e s t s t h a t liv e o n ly o n a c e r t a i n pl a n t (3 ) The un .

g a t h e r e d r oo t s a n d s t a lk s o f c r o p s r em a in i n t h e gr o u n d ,

d e c a y a n d p r o du ce o r ga n i c a c id s Th e s e a c id s a r e s o m e t i m es
,
.

i n ju r i o u s t o t he pl a n t p r o du c i n g t h e m b ut n o t t o o t h er pl a n t s
, .

H e n ce t he c r o p s s h o uld b e c h a n ge d
,
B o n e m e a l o r li m e is a dd e d
.

t o n e u t r a liz e th e s e a c id s E a c h c o m m er c i a l f e r t iliz er u se d h ow
.
,
’
e v er , a dd s t h a t m u c h t o t h e f a r m e r s e xp e n s e (4 ) Al m o s t a ll
.

cro p s r em o v e gr ea t qu a n t i t i e s o f n itr a te s fr om t h e s o il Th e s e m a y .

n um b e r diffe r e n t b a c t e r ia a id in t r a n s fo r m in g n it r o ge n in t o a fo r m wh ic h pla n t s ca n
us e . Th e r e is a c o n s t a n t r e n e wa l o f n it r o ge n in t h e s o il
.

be r es t ore d in av a r i e ty of w a y s An i m a l w a s t e m a n u r e m a y b e
.
, ,

S p rea d o v e r s o il a n d a ll ow e d t o d e c a y Thi s i n cre a s e s t he n i t r ogen

.
 S O I L C ON S E RV A T I O N 411

c on t en t . An y o r ga n c i m a te
whi c h d e c a y s will a c c om pli s h t he
rial

s am e thi n g . M a n y c o m m e r c i a l f e r t iliz er s a r e m a d e f r om gu a n o ,

Th e r e is in t e r de pe n de n c e b e t w e e n gr e e n pla n t s a n d a n im a ls
an Anima ls c a n m a e s e o f . k u
t h e oxy ge n e xcr e t e d b y gr e e n pla n t s . k
Th e s e in t ur n , c a n m a e us e o f c a r b o n dio xide , wa t e r ,
a n d pos s ib ly ur e a e xc r e t e d b y a n im al s .

bir d w a s t e R e fu s e fr o m a b a t t o i r s a n d m e a t a n d fis h c a n n e r i e s
.
, ,

o r s p e c i a lly p r e p a r e d m ix t u re s o f c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s m ay b e ,

pu r c h a se d a n d pl ow e d i n t o t he s o il Th e l a n d m a y b e a ll ow e d .

t o lie f a ll o w th a t is u n u s e d fo r a s ea s o n o r s o
, , C e r t ai n m i n e r a l s .

in t he gr o un d m a y b re a k d ow n in f a ll o w fi e ld s a n d thu s re s t o r e
t he u s a bl e m i n e r a l e l e m e n t s A l e gu m i n o u s c r o p s u c h a s p ea s
.
, ,

b e a n s,o r a lfa lf a m a y b e pl a n t e d a ll ow e d t o gr ow a n d m a r k e te d
, , , .

At t he s a m e t im e n itra t e s a r e r e s t o r e d t o t h e s o il in wh ic h t he y gr o w
‘

.
,

S oil con s e rva tion I f t h e s o il is k e p t in goo d c o n di t i o n n i t r a t e s

.
, ,

s ulph a t e s a n d ph o s ph a t e s a r e c o n s t a n t ly r e n e w e d a s th e y a r e
,

re m o v e d The p a s s a ge us e a n d r e t u r n of th e s e m a t e r i a l s c on s ti
.
, ,

tute a c y c l ea s S h own in t h e di a gr a m We r e it n o t fo r t he a c t i on .

o f b a c t er i a in t h e s o il a ll v e ge t a t i o n o n t h e e a r th w o uld c e a s e
,
.

S o il f e rt ili t y is p r i m a r ily a b a c t er i a l a c tivity B a c t e r i a a r e c om .

m on ly t h o u gh t o f a s b e i n g p a r ti c ul a r ly i n j ur i o u s I n r e a lity t h e .
,

b en e fi c i a l e ff e c t s o f b a c te r i a fa r o u t w e i gh t he i n ju r i o u s e ff e c t s in
m an y wa ys .

Q U E S TI O NS A ND S UGG E STI O N S
1 . Us i n g t h e fo ll o wi n g t o pi c s , m a k ut t b ul
e o a a ar o u t li n e of t he
l i
re a t o n of b a c t e r i a t o f o o d pr e p a r a t i o n .

A . N a m e o f b a c t e r i um .

B . M a t er i al at t a c e k d .
4 12 B ENEF I CIA L A CTI V IT I E S OF B A CT E R IA
0 . M a t eri a l p r o d uce d .

D C o m m e r c i a l us e o f m a t e r i a l pr o d uce d
. .

2 . M a k e a li b r a r y r e p o r t o n t h e t a n n i n g o f l e a t h e r .

3 . Wh a t is m e a n t b y s o il e xh a us t i o n a n d s o il r e n e wa l ?
4 . Wha t is t h e i m p or t a n c e o f t h e d e c a y pr o ce s s t o a gric ult iI re ?
5 . fi
E xpl a i n n i t r i ca t i o n I n d e t a il .

6 . D i s c us s de n it r ific a t io n .

7 . D i s c us s n it r o ge n fixa t io n Give t hr e e
-
. diffe r e n t w a ys Of fi xin g
n i t r o ge n .

8 Wh a t
. is t he i m po r t a n c e i
o f r o t a t n g c r o ps ? Give at l e a s t fo ur
rea s o n s for i
r o t a t n g c r o ps .

9 M e n t ion
. fo ur di ffe r e n t fa c t s
t h a t m us t b e c o n s id e r e d in c ul t i
v a t in g s o il .

. k
1 0 M a e o ut a n o r i gi n a l c a r b o n a n d n i t r o ge n c y c l e .

fi
1 1 D o f a r m e r s h a v e s c i e n t i c kn ow l e d ge a b o ut b a c t e r i a o r do t h e y
.

d epe n d up o n t he i r e xper i e n ce o r o n h e a r s a y in c a r i n g fo r t h e s o il ?
k
1 2 D o e s t he go v e r n m e n t m a e a n y e ff o r t t o give f a r m e r s s c i e n t i c
. fi
i n s t r uc t i o n in s o il a n d c r o p i m pr o ve m e n t ?
1 3 D i s c u s s a b a l a n c e d a ua r i um
. q .

S U PP LE M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S

G a ger , C S Gen e ra l B ota n y (P B la kis t o n s S o n

’
. .

v
Gr e a e s , J
E 85 E O E le me n ta ry B a cte r io logy (W B S a un de r s
. . . .
, . .

H o lm a n , R M , R o b b in s , W W A Textbook of Genera l B ota ny

. . . .
(J o h n
Wile y S o n s ,
4 14 H E ALTH

Am . M us eum N a t . Hi st .

B a c t e r iolo gic a l la b o r a t o r ie s c o n t a in e la b o r a t e e q uipm e n t C a n y o u id e n t ify t h e m icr o s co pe ,

fl fl k
.

P e t r i dis h e s , a ga r s l an t s in t e s t t ub e s , s t a in in g uids fo r b a c t e r ia , dis t ill e d wa t e r in as

for wa s h in g o fi e xc e s s s t a in , a n d t h e B un s e n b ur n e r v
C a n y o u gi e t h e us e o f e a ch a r t icl e in
k
wo r ing wit h b a ct e r ia

t han a t t emp t s t o c u r e di s ea s e E a c h ill n e s s n o m a t t er ho w s li ght

.
, ,

is lik e ly t o l o w e r t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e p e r s o n j u s t t h a t m u c h .

H e a lth an d lon ge vity An o t h e r m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f h e a lth is t h a t

. .

it is id e n t ifi e d by l e n gt h o f lif e o r l o n ge vi t y Th i s t o o is .
, ,

p r o b a bly a fa lla c y S o m e d e li c a t e p e o pl e r e c e ive m e di c a l tr ea t

‘
.

m e n t a ll t h e i r liv e s a n d t h r o u gh c a r e liv e a l o n g ti m e a l t h o u gh
, , , ,

th e y n e v er r e a lly h a v e go o d h e a l t h On t he o t h e r h a n d p eopl e
.
,

in p e r f e c t c o n di t i o n m a y m e e t w i t h a c c id e n t s whi c h will c ut s h or t
t h e s p a n o f t h e i r liv e s .

H e a lth a n d a da pta b ility Po s i t iv e ly s p e a ki n g h ea l t h is m er e ly

.
,

t he a da pta bility o f t h e o r ga n i s m t o m ee t a v a r i e t y o f s itu a ti o n s To .

b e h ea l t hy a n o r ga n i s m m u s t b e a bl e t o m a k e r a pid a n d p r op er
,

a dju s t m e n t t o e v e r y s i t u a t i o n F o r e x a m pl e n o r m a l h ea r t m u s c l e s
.
,

t hi c k e n t o a c c o mm o d a t e t h e h e a r t t o u n u s u a l c o n di t i o n s A dis .

e a s e d h e a r t will n o t do thi s c o n s e qu e n t ly di s c o m f o r t r e s ult s

, , Ac .

qui r i n g r es i s t a n ce t o c er t a i n di s e a s e s is a p ro c e s s o f a d a p t a ti o n All .
 H E A LTH A ND E DU C AT I O N 4 15

p eo pl e do n o t h a v e a n e qu a l r e s i s t a n ce Th o s e who h a v e n o t .

m u s t l e a r n h ow t o a c qui r e it Th e r e f o r e e du c a ti o n al o n g
.
,

t h es e li n e s is n e c e ss a r y Peo pl e m u s t b e t a u
.
g h t hy g ie n i c liv i ng

s o t h a t t h e y m a y a d a p t t h e m s e lv e s p r o p e r ly t o c h a n ge s o f t e m

p e r a t u r e ,
w o r k a n
,
d f oo d M a n
. y di s e a s e s m a y b e a v o id e d by

co r r e c t i n g i m p r o p e r h a bi t s o f livi n g a n d c e r t a i n phy s i c a l d e f e c t s .

H e a lth a n d e duc a t ion H e a l t h is o n e o f t he m a i n o bj ec t iv e s o f

.

e du c a t i o n .Un l e s s t he b o dy c a n a d e qu a t e ly a d a p t i t s e lf t o c h a n g
in g co n di t i o n s in lif e t he p e r s o n is i n e ffi c i e n t I n t he p a s t Un du e
, .
,

e m ph a s i s h a s p r o b a bly b e e n pl a ce d o n d e f e c t s Op e n a ir c l as s e s
.
-

w er e e s t a bli s h e d fo r c a r di a c a n a e m i c a n d t ub e r c ul a r c hild r e n
, , .

N u t r i t i o n c l a s s e s w e r e e s t a bli s h e d fo r m a l n u t r i t i o n c a s es : E a c h
y e a r t he h e a lth O f so m e c hild r e n w a s buil t up in t h e s e c l a s s e s t o
Su c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e c hild r en w e r e a bl e t o c o n t i n u e inr e gul a r

cla s ses . E a c h y e a r n e w c a s e s w o uld a pp e a r in r e gul a r c l a s s e s w hi c h

w o uld h a v e t o b e s e n t t o t h es e s p e c i a l c l a s s e s N ut r i t i o n c l a s s e s a r e
.

U nd er wo od a nd U nd er wood

Play in th e s un l igh t is t h e h e r ita ge of c h il dh o o d I t l e a ds t o a pr o pe r ph y s ica l de vl e o pm e n t

v
.

a n d b uil ds a h e a l t h y ner o us s y s t e m .
4 16 H E A LT H

n e ces s a ry b ut if t he e n t i r e s c h o o l w e re p r o p er ly e du c a t e d in
,

h e a l t h h a bi t s a n d if t h e r e w er e a c h ec k t o s ee t h a t t h e s e h a bi t s
, ,

A pr o p e r ly c a r e d fo r s e t o f t e e t h is t h e r e s ul t o f fr e q ue n t e x pe r t in s pe c t io n I n c e r t a in s c h o o l s ,
v
.

k
o r a l h y gi e n is t s m a e s ur e y s o f m o ut h s a n d s ugge s t d e n t a l t r e a t m e n t wh e n n e c e s s ar y .

o n ce t a u gh t w e r e e n f o r c e d in t he h o m e a n d co m m u n i t y t h e r e
, ,

w o uld n o t b e s o m a n y a n a e m i c ca r di a c a n d tub er c ul a r c a s e s
, , .

I n o r d er t o s h o w ho w m u c h e du c a ti o n c o uld ac c o m pli s h in di s e a s e ,

t h e M e t ro p o li t a n L if e I n s u r a n c e C o m p a n y a n d t he N a ti o n a l T u
b er c ulo s is As s o c i a t i o n c o n du c t e d a n e xper i m e n t a t F r a m i n gh a m ,

M a s s a c hu s e tt s A c a m p a i gn o f e du c a t i o n w a s c a rr i e d o n so s uc
.

c e s s fully th a t tub e r c ul o s i s w a s r e du c e d 6 9 r ce n t in th a t c o m
p e

m u n i t y wi t hi n t e n y e a r s .

E ff e c t iv e e du c a t i o n in h e a l t h is e vid e n t ly n ee d e d Thi s is p a r .

t ic ula r ly p e r ti n e n t wh e n w e c o n s id e r t h a t t he s t a ti s ti c s p r e p a re d ,

by G e n e r a l C ro wd e r o f t he Un it e d S t a t e s Ar m y s h ow e d t h a t ,
‘

3 3 per c e n t o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s s o ldi e rs in t h e Wo r ld Wa r w e r e
4 18 H E A LT H

h a v e b e e n r edu c e d 7 5 pe r c e n t , a n d t yph o id is ge n e r a lly t e r m e d a

v a n i s hi n g di s e a s e . Th e d e a th r a t e o f t ub er c ul o s i s h a s b e e n r e du c e d
b o u t 50 pe r c e n t D iph a .

t h e r i a is n o w p r e v e n t a bl e

a n d is b e c o m i n g in fr e
que n t I n s t a t e s wh er e .

p r o phyl a c t i c m e as u r e s
a re u s ed t he B o a r d o f ,

H e a l t h e xp e c t s t o h a v e
t h e di s e a s e u n d e r c o m

ple t e c o n t r o l by 1 9 3 0 .

Th e di s e a s e s t h a t m a y
b e c o n s id e r e d a s l a r ge ly
u n d er i n div idu a l c o n t r o l
S h ow in c r e a s m g d e a t h
ra t es H e a r t c o n di t i o n s
.
,

d i a b e t e s a n d ki d n e y
U d w dd U d w d
,
n er oo c n er oo
( 11 8 6 3 8 6 8 a r e e x a m pl e s O f
A ph y i l mi ti t h t ki g f
’
s ca e xa na i lud on nc es pul
e a n o on e s se

t d t mp
ra e a n tu
e e ra re
these
.
They ar e t O .
,

’
s o m e e xt e n t d e p e n d e n t up o n a p e r s o n s h a bi t s o f livi n g
, .

I t is a n a c c e p t e d fa c t th a t t he gen e r a l lif e e xp e c t a n c y s p a n
a t bi r t h is i n c r e a s e d B eli e vi n g t h a t e v e r y o n e h a s t he r i gh t t o
.

live s c i e n c e ha s e n a bl e d us t o b o l s t e r up t he w e a kli n g a t bi r t h
,

a n d a ll a l o n g t he wa y
— but e v en t u a lly he d ro p s o ut t he fi gh t is ,

t o o gr e a t S c i e nc e ha s d e cr e a s e d t he i n f a n t m o r t a li t y r a t e o n ly
.

t o h a v e t he w e a k e r o n e s die a t a y o u n ge r a ge t h a n t h o s e wi t h a
s t r o n ge r phy s i c a l s t a r t I f lif e is t o b e l e n gt h e n e d a t t h e o t h e r
.

e n d e v e r y i n dividu a l m u s t t a k e m o r e i n t e r e s t in
, a nd in s ist on ,

livi n g hygi e n i c a lly M u c h is s t ill t o b e d o n e Te n y e a r s c o ul d

. .

b e a dd e d t o t h e e xp e c t a t i o n o f lif e if a ll s e c t i o n s o f t h e po pu
l a t i o n c o uld liv e u n d e r t he s a m e f a v o r a bl e c o n di t i o n s t h a t a r e
e n j o y e d by gr o up s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s wh e r e t he d e a t h r a t e s a r e

u n u s u a lly low I n dividu a l s m u s t b e e du c a t e d t o h a v e a n in t elli

.
 Q UE S T I O N S 4 19

ge n t kn o wl e d ge o f di s e a s e a n d u n d er s t a n d it s p r e v e n ti o n Th er e .

a r e s t ill t o o m a n y d e f e c t s s u c h a s m o u t h i n f e c ti o n t o n s il in fe c ,

t i o n o v e r w e i gh t u n d e r w e i gh t f o o t d e f e c t s a n d V i s u a l d e f e ct s
, , , , .

I f a ll p e o pl e h a d a n a n n u a l h e a l t h e x a m i n a t i o n, m a n y dis e a s e s '

w o ul d b e p r e v en t e d D i s e a se p r e v en t i o n s h o uld b e a n i n cent iv e
.

fo r a ll p e o pl e S i n c e it will r e fl e c t in t h e s ub s t a n t i a l ga i n s in t h e
vi t a li t y o f t h e n a t i o n I n t h e p r e vi o u s c h a pt e r s s u gge s ti o n s
.
,

c o n c e r n i n g di e t s s u n li gh t
, e xer c i s e r est
, a n d m e n t a l r e l a x a ti o n
, ,

h a v e b e e n giv e n I n s ub s e qu e n t c h a pt er s m e t h o d s o f a v o idi n g
.

a c t u a l di s e a se s will b e di s c u s s e d .

A t e s t t o S h o w wh e t h e r o n e s
’
Th e m e a s u r e m e n t of h e a lth .

p er s o n a l h a bi t s a r e hygi e n i c is t h e Pa y n e H a bi t s a n d Pr a c t i c e s
in Ac c id e n t Pr e v e n t i o n a n d H e a l t h g iv e n in t h e A pp e n dix A .

hi gh s ch o o l s t ud e n t s h o uld s c o r e a t l e a s t 3 5 5 u n d e r A 7 5 in t he ,

i t em s u n d e r B a n d 7 0 in t he i t e m s u n d e r C Th e p o i n t s t o t a l 5 00
, . .

Q U E S T I O NS AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 . Wha t is a p p
o u a r l
o bj e c t i on t o t he dy o f dis e a s e ?
stu

2 .N a m e t hr e e po pul a r m is co n c e pt i o n s o f h e a l t h
t he .D i s c us s
fa ll a c y in e a c h o f t h e m .

fi fi
3 Give a s c i e n t i c d e n i t i o n o f h e a l t h
. .

4 H ow m a y he a l t h b e a t t a i n e d ?
.

5 Wh a t c a n b e a c c o m p li s he d b y e d uc a t i o n in h e a l t h ?
.

6 Why do we fin d a l a r ge r r e d uc t i o n in t h e di s e a s e s t h a t a co m
.

m un i t y c a n c o n t r o l , t h a n in t h o s e t h a t a n i n divid ua l m us t c o n t r o l ?

Why is t hi s t r ue ?
7 D i s c us s y o ur id e a s o n a n a n n ua l he a l t h e xa m i n a t i o n
. .

8 Give s o m e e xa m pl e s o f a d a p t a t i o n s o f t he o r ga n is m t o c h a n gi n g
.

con di t i o n s .

9 D i s c us s yo ur id e a s o n t h e s c o r i n g o f h e a l t h pr a c t i c e s
. .

1 0 S c o r e y o ur h a b i t s a n d pra c t i c e s a s s ugge s t e d in t h e t e s t in t h e
.
,

Appe n dix o n a s e p a r a t e pi e ce o f p a pe r
, Add t he s c o re a n d s e e h o w
.

c l o s e ly y o u a ppr o xi m a t e h ygi e n i c livi n g .

 C H AP TE R X L I

SM A LLP O X AN D

I TS C ON TR OL

E dw a r l J e nn e r .
K e ys to n e Vi ew C o

J
T r ib ut e t o e nn e r and
.

va c c in a t io n .

Has s m a llp ox eve r been epi dem c ? i I s i n ocula tion f or s m a llpox a

n ew m et hod of trea tmen t ? H ow did vac c in a ti on fi rs t s ta r t ? Wha t

efi ec t ha s va cc in a tion ha d on the mor ta li ty fr o m s ma llpo x ?

H is t o r y x S m a llp o x wa s kn o w n in C hi n a m a n y c e n
of s m a llpo .

t ur ie s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a I t a l s o e xi s t e d in I n di a Ara bi a
.
, ,

E t hi opi a a n d n e i ghb o r i n g c o u n tr i e s
,
I t s p r e a d t h r o u gh E u r o p e
.

d ur i n g t h e C r u s a d e s Th e fi r s t e pid e m i c o f s m a llp o x in E u r o p e
.

t oo k pl a c e in t he l a t t e r p a rt o f t h e s ix t ee n t h c e n t u r y F o r ce n t u .

r i e s it w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t e n o ut o f e ve r y hu n d r e d d ea th s w e r e due
,

t o s m a llp o x M o r e th a n h a lf t he p eo pl e in E u r o p e w er e s c a rr e d a n d
.

di s fi gu r e d by t he di s ea s e I t is p r o b a bl e t h a t a t l e a s t
.

p e o pl e di e d fr o m s m a llp o x dur i n g t h e e i gh t ee n t h c e n tu r y .

The di s e a se w a s fi r s t b r o u gh t i n t o Am er i c a by t h e S p a n i a r d s
a b o ut 1 5 1 5 Wi t hi n a s h o r t p e r i o d thr e e a n d a h a lf m illi o n p eopl e
.
,

in M e xi c o di e d o f it Pr o b a bly h a lf o f t he Am e r ic a n I n di a n s di ed
.

d uri n g v a r i o u s e pid e m i c s o f s m a llp o x B o s t o n h a s ha d s ix epi .

de m ic s in t h e l a s t o n e 1 7 5 2 t h e r e w e r e 598 9 s m a llp o x vi c ti m s
, ,

o ut o f a p o pul a ti o n o f o v e r o f th e s e 8 94 di e d , .

H is tory of in o c ula ti on a ga in s t s m a llpo x I n o c ul a t i o n fi r s t o r i gi

.

ma t e d in t he Or i e n t hu n d r e d s o f y e a r s a go
,
The p eo pl e w o uld .

i n tr o du ce i n t o a cut o r s cra tch o f a w ell p er s o n t he pus o r s ca b ,

420
4 22 S M A LLP OX AN D I T S C O N T R OL

—
1 74 9 1 8 2 3 ) Of E n gl a n d , wh o fi rs t m a d e kn o wn t he id e a o f v a c
(
c in a t io n . Th e ge r m t h e o r y o f di s e a s e h a d n o t ye t b e e n pr e

1874 va c c in at io n wa s in t r o duc e d in t o Pu
r s s ia . N ot e t h e de cr e a s e in s m a llpo x in th e
foll o win g y e a r V a cc in a t io n is n o t c o m pul s o r y in Aus t r ia v
Th e a b o e gr a ph s in dica t e a dir e c t
v
. .

r e la t io n b e t we e n t h e n um b e r of s ma ll po x c a s e s a n d c o m puls o ry a c c in a ti o n .

s en t e d by Pa s t e u r Je n n e r h o w ev er c o ll e c t e d d a t a fro m t h e
.
, ,

p eo pl e wh o ha d h a d c o wp o x a n d a f t e rw a r d h a d r e s i s t e d s m a ll
,

po x i n f e c t i o n s H e b e ga n t h e s c i e n t ifi c i n v e s ti ga t i o n o f in oc u
.

l a ti on A d a i r y m aid o n a c er t a i n f a r m c o n tr a c t e d c o wp o x
. .

Je n n er t o o k s o m e pus fr o m a s o r e o n her h a n d a n d i n o c ul a t e d a
littl e b oy wi t h it The b oy b e c a m e S li gh t ly ill b ut s o o n r e c o v
.
,

ered . L a t er t he b oy wa s e xp o se d t o s m a llp o x a n d e ve n in o cu
l a te d with s m a llp o x vi r u s but he did n o t c o n tr a c t t he di s ea se
, .

E vid e ntly t h e c owp o x i n f e c ti o n h a d giv e n h im a p ro t e c ti o n

a ga i n s t s m a llp o x Jen n er m a d e m a n y s u c h e xp e r i m e n t s a n d pub
.

lis he d his di s c o v e r i es in his c e l e b ra t e d p a m phl e t An I n qui ry in to

t he Ca us es and e fi ects o f t he Va rio la e Va ccin a e .

Th e i n ocul at i on with cowp o x wa s c a ll e d vaccination (vacca

 NAT U R E AN D S Y M P T O M S O F S M ALL P OX 423

cow .
) Th e r e w a s pa st o rm of
r o t e s t a g a i n s t t hi s m e t h o d o f in oc u

l a t i o n N ew s p a p er s p r i n t e d bi t t e r a t t a c ks a n d s a id p e o pl e w o uld
.

S h o w t h e c h a r a c t ers o f c o w s if th e y h a d thi s fil t hy m a t e r i a l f ro m

a c o w i n t r o du ce d in t h e m The r e s ul t s h o w e ve r w e r e s o s u cce s s ful

.
, ,

th a t v a cc i n a t i o n wa s gr a du a lly a c c ep t e d a s th e o n ly m ea n s o f Co n
tr o ll in g s m a llp o x a n d t he Old m e th o d o f i n o c ul a t i on w a s s o o n
,

f o r bidd en N a p o l eo n h a d a ll his s o ldi er s who h a d n e v er h a d

.
‘

s m a llp o x Va c c i n a t e d Th e E m p r e s s o f R u s s i a u r ge d it s p r a c ti c e
.

in R u s s i a S p a i n a n d S i c ily a l so i n tr o du c e d v a c c i n a ti o n
. .

Ab o ut 1 800 a t a m ee t i n g o f t h e Am er i c a n Ac a d e m y o f Ar t s a n d
,

S c i e n c e s p re s id e d o v e r by t h e Pr e s id e n t o f t he Un i t e d S t a t es
, ,

J o h n Ad a m s t h e i n t r o du c t i o n o f v a c c i n a t i o n i n t o Am er i c a wa s
,

fi r s t c o n s i de r e d A s upply o f v a c c i n e m a t e r i a l wa s s ec u r e d a n d
—
.
,

a D r Wa t er h o u s e v a c c i n a t e d his fiv e y ea r o ld b o y
.
-
H e a ft er w a r d .

v a c c i n a t e d O t h er m e m b e r s o f his f a m ily Th e y b eca m e i mm u n e .

t o s m a llp o x i n f e c t i o n
,
L a t er Th o m a s Je ffe r s o n b e ca m e i n t er e s t e d
.

a n d h e h a d t h e m e m b e r s o f his f a m ily v a c c i n a t e d F r o m th a t .

ti m e o n t he p r a c ti ce o f v a cc i n a t i o n s p re a d r a pidly th r o u gh t he
coun t ry The v a c c i n e vi r u s t e n d s t o s t i m u l a t e ce r t a i n c e ll s o f
.

t he b o dy t o p r o duce s ub s t a n ce s k n o w n a s a n t i b o di e s whi c h re -

m a i n in t h e bl oo d a s a p r o t e c t i o n a ga i n s t di s e a s e Wh e n a v a c .

c in a t ed p e r so n is e xp o se d t o s m a llp o x h e is a l r e a dy fo r t ifi e d by
,

t h e a n t i b odi e s whi c h will a c t a ga i n s t t he s m a llp o x b a c t e r i a

-
.

N a tur e a n d s ym ptom s of s m a llpo x S m a llp o x m o r t a li t y is 3 0

.

p e r c e n t g r ea t e r a m o n g u n v a c c i n a t e d t h a n a m o n g v a c c i n a t e d
p er s o n s C hild r e n a r e p a r ti c ul a r ly s u s c e ptibl e I n t he M o n tr e a l
. .

e pid e m i c o f 1 88 5 1 88 6
— 2 7 1 7 o f t h e 3 1 64 d ea t h s w e r e c hild r e n
,

u n d er t e n y e a r s o f a ge .

S m a llpo x is c a u se d by a filt e r a b le vi r u s Ab o ut th r e e d a y s
.

a ft e r b e c o m i n g ill with s m a llp o x li t t l e a b s c e s s e s o r pu s t ul e s

,

f o r m I f t he pu s tul e s a r e d e e p a ffec ti n g t he d e r m i s s er i o u s ly
—
.
, ,

pit s o p o c k m a r k s will a lw a y s s h o w o n t he s ki n The s c a l e s

r .

a n d c r u s t s fr o m t he h e a li n g pu s tul e s a r e hi g hly i n f e c t i o u s a s a r e ,
 N um b e r of Cas es a nd D e a t h s fr o m S m a llp o x in t h e Un it e d S t a t e s

1 92 1 1 92 3 1 92 7
D ea t h s Ca s es D e a t hs Ca s es D ea t h s

1 . A l ab a m a 2 0 72 33 3 23 1 4 285 19 1 24 2 5
2 . A rk a n s a s 48 1 1 3 15 1 68 1
3 . A r iz o n a 1 92 4 1 00 26 117 1 10 0
4 . C alifo r n ia 5581 21 2 02 9 1 4 921 58 984 5
5 . C o lo r a do 26 06 44 90 16 19 0
6 . C o n n e c t ic ut. 8 52 1 4 1 O 0
7 .
Dela war e 1 1 9 0 1 0
8 . D is t r ic t o f C olum b ia 66 68 0 59 20 63 0
9 . F lo r id a 135 1 14 22 7 0 2 07 0 1356 12
10 . G e o r gia 2 1 91 19 6 73 2 10 1 85 3 13
11 . I da h o 3 85 7 *5
155 2 5 26 2 75 9 0
12 . I llin o is 85 3 6 26 93 7 2 1 62 5 22
13 . I n di a n a 4 80 9 21 1 91 0 4 2 99 6 5 4 8 09 15
14 I o wa 5 2 04 22 6 68 6 664 41 1 2 79 2
K
.

15 an s a s 46 3 0 48 4 83 0 311 1 1 3 92 1
K
.

16 . e n t uc k y 228 1 1 04 0 5 1 76 2 8
17 . L o uis ia n a 14 2 1 55 6 92 4 8 83 8 284 5
18 . M a in e 96 1 18 2 1 0 1 O
19 . M a r yl a n d 2 14 25 16 O 9 0
20 . M a s s a c h us et t s 37 0 6 O 3 0 2 0
21 . M ich iga n 453 7 12 23 1 1 13 7 84 22 1 4 69 0
22 . M in n e s ot a 9 3 75 25 1 95 0 2 9 73 1 98 1 26 0
23 . M is s is s ip p i 2 161 15 2 92
24 . M is s o ur i 1 89 * 66 7 3
25 . M on t an a 1 4 66 732 3 3 76 0 5 75 0
26 . N e b r a sk a 3 04 8 8 97 2 83 1 0 69 1 1
27 . N eva da 23 5 1 *
10 0 97 2 56 0
28 . N e w H a m p s h ir e 39 1 O O O
29 . N e w J e r s ey 255 30 1 89 48 21 0
30 .
N e w M e x ic o 1 10 1 91 10 26 0 90 1
31 . N e w Y ork 63 1 l 3 92 2 86 2 3 76 0
32 . N o r t h C a r o l in a 25 1 3 21 3352 13 1 92 0 8
33 . N or t h D a k ot a 1 77 7 2 445 2 2 04 7 2 08 0
34 O h io 728 6 13 24 1 5 4 01 8 39 1 55 8 10
k
.

35 .
O la h o m a 1 3 93 46 1 1 84 8 7 75 2 1 64 4 6
36 . Or e go n 1 5 96 4 83 7 0 85 9 2 1 167 5
37 . P e n n s y lva n ia 212 1 1 83 2 05 30 19 O
38 . R h o de I s l a n d 1 O 0 0 94 0 5 0
39 . S out h C a r o lin a 1 084 8 1 5 00 2 915 559 5
40 . S o ut h D a k o t a 1 95 9 7 25 1 0 26 5 0 4 03 2
41 . Te n n e s s e e 29 1 3 10 1 03 7 3
42 . Te x a s 1 78 1 23 6 69 17 1 3 09 2 2 34 1 23
43 . Ut a h 3 4 99 10 1 68 13
44 . Ver m o n t 1 77 1 255 2 0 0 0 0
45 . Vir gin ia 1873 7 54 1 1 2 68 3 9 77 4
46 . W a s h in gt o n 44 4 1 10 16 23 10 2 0 04 4 1 8 06 8
47 . We s t V ir gin ia 2 442 3 *2
53 0 821 2 1 09 9 2
48 . W is c o n s in 5216 17 1 3 38 1 1517 13 1 938 4
.

49 . Wyo m in g 4 34 1 20 2 70 0
7 64 1 84 6 99 138

U . S P H Re p ort s
. . . R ep or t e d b y s t a t e
. .
—I f
n o r m a t io n l a c in g k .

TC o m pile d b y t he Am eric a n Ass o cia t io n fo r M e di c a l P r o gr ess .

424
426 S M A LL POX AN D I T S C ON T R O L

ch ec k . A
v a c c i n a t i o n a ga i n s t s m a llp o x l a s t s fr o m fiv e t o s e v en
y ea r s . Af t e r th a t t i m e t h e r e s h o uld b e a s e c o n d v a c c i n a t i o n .

Th e s e c o n d v a c c i n a t i o n m a y p r o du c e i m m u n i t y fo r lif e By im .

m u n i t y is m e a n t t h e a bili t y t o r e s i s t di s e a s e All c hild r e n S h o uld

.

b e v a c c i n a t e d b e f o r e t h e y a r e n i n e m o n th s o ld Va cci n a t i o n
.

du r i n g e pid e m i c p e r i o d s is a l s o wi s e .

Th e v a c c i n e fo r s m a llp o x is p r e p a r e d by fi r s t d e v e l o pi n g t h e
c a u s a t iv e o r ga n i s m s in t h e b o dy o f y o un g f e m a l e c a lv e s Af t e r .

d e t e r m i n i n g t h a t t he c a lv e s a r e p er f e c t ly h ea l t hy th e y a r e ,

t h o r o u ghly c l e a n e d a n d i n o c ul a t e d wi t h t he c r u s t s c o ll e c t e d
fr o m t he v a c c i n a t i o n s o f h e a lthy c hild r e n C y s t s o r v e s i c l e s a re
.

fo r m e d in a b o u t fi v e o r S ix d a y s a n d t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e s e v e s i c l e s
a r e s c r a p e d o ff a n d gr o u n d i n t o dilu t e gly c e r i n e in o r d e r t o de s

t r o y a ll h a r m ful b a c t e r i a Thi s p r o du c t is th en t e s t e d s e v e r a l
.

t im e s in m a n y w a y s fo r pu r i t y a s w e ll a s fo r e ff e ctiv e n e s s
, ,
Th e .

m a t e r i a l is t h e n put up in s m a ll t ub e s r e a dy fo r us e .

Valu e of va ccin a tion Th e gr a du a l di s a pp e a r a n c e o f s m a llp o x

.

is due l a r ge ly t o t h e wid e s p r ea d us e o f v a c c i n a ti o n I n co un .

t r i e s w h e r e v a c c i n a t i o n is n o t r e q u i r e d s m a llp o x is s t ill c a u s i n g
,

t h e d e a t h s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o pl e ea c h y e a r I t is s t ill o n e o f
.

t h e m a i n c a u s e s o f d e a t h in C hi n a a n d I n di a B e t we e n t he
.

y e a r s 1 9 1 8 a n d 1 9 22 I n di a r e p or t e d
,
d e a th s fr o m t hi s
di s e a s e a l o n e I n Ru s s i a b et w e e n t h e y e a r s 1 902 a n d 1 9 14 o v e i
.
, ,
'
.

a m illi o n p er s o n s b e c a m e a ff e c t e d with s m a llpo x a n d o v er h a l f

a m illi o n di e d o f it .

I n t h e Philippi n e I s l a n d s p r i o r t o t h e o c c up a t i o n by t h e Am e r
,
-
s

i c a n Ar m y it w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t m o r e t h a n
, s m a llp o x

d e a t h s o c c u r r e d a n n u a lly V a c c i n a t i o n w a s i n t r o du c e d by t h e
.

Am e r i c a n s in 1 90 5 a n d h a s b e e n c o n t i n u e d e v e r s i n c e Th e r e w e r e
, .
,

in 1 903 , s m a llp o x d e a t h s b ut thi s n u m b e r ha s d e c r e a s e d

,

r a pidly u n t il in 1 9 1 6 o n ly 2 3 9 d e a t h s o c cur re d f r o m t hi s di s e a s e .

Th e n t h e e ffe c t s o f t h e fi r s t v a c c i n a t i o n s w o r e o ff a n d p e o pl e b e
’

c a m e c a r e l e s s a b o ut b e i n g r e v a c c i n a t e d T hi s n e gl e c t r e s ul t e d in a
.
 OB J E C TI ON S To V A C C I N AT I O N N OT VA LI D 4 27

i u s e pid em i c in 1 9 1 8 D ur i n g t hi s y e a r
se r o . deat h s o c ,

c ur r ed . At thi s ti m e o n ly o n e c a s e d e v e l o p e d a m o n g t h e 54 2 2
,

v a c c i n a t e d Un i t e d S t a t es t r o o p s who we r e s t a t i o n e d o n t he I s l a nd s .

Th e r e a r e s t ill a b o u t c a s e s o f s m a llp ox in t h e Un it e d

S t a t e s a nn u a lly b e c a u s e v a cc i n a ti o n is n o t u n iv e r s a lly e n fo r ce d
, .

I n t wo s t a t e s wh er e v a c c i n a t i o n is n o t r e qui r e d t h er e a r e m a n y ,

c a s e s o f s m a llp o x I n o n e o f t h e s e s t a t e s t h e r e w e r e Ove r 2 00 0
.

c a s e s a n d 23 0 d e a th s r e p o r t e d in 1 92 6 ; in t h e o t h e r 2 4 1 3 c a s es ,

a n d 3 1 d e a th s w e r e r e p o r t e d in 1 926 C o n t r a s t e d wi t h t h e s e
.

s ta tes ,
a s t a t e wh e r e v a c c i n a ti o
n i s r i gidly e n f o r c e d h a d in t h e ,

s a m e y e a r o n ly 5 6 c a s e s a n d n o d e a t h s
, .

Ob j e ction s t o va c cin a ti on n ot va lid Wh e n th e r e is a s p e c ifi c

.

p re v e n t i o n for a di s e a s e a s th er e is in v a c c i n a ti o n a ga i n s t s m a llp o x
, ,

it s e em s u n b e li e v a bl e th a t th er e a r e s o m a n y c a s e s e a c h ye a r .

The o bj e ct i o n s r a i s e d t o v a cci n a ti o n a r e n o t We ll f o u n d e d On e .

o f th e m I S t h a t it c a u s e s l o c kj a w Th e r e is n o e vid e n c e t o s up
.

p o r t thi s b e li e f S i n c e th er e is a s cr a t c h m a d e in t h e v a c c i n a ti o n
.

p r o c e s s th er e is p r o b a bly t h e s a m e d a n ger o f ge t t i n g l o ckj a w a s

‘

t h e r e w o uld b e fr o m a n y s c r a t c h T h e r e is n o d a n ge r o f l o c kj a w
.

p ec uli a r t o t h e v a c ci n a t i o n p r o c e s s S t r i c t go v e r n m e n t in s pe c
.

ti o n o f t he vir u s u s e d in v a c c i n a t i o n p r e clud e s t h e p o s s ibility o f

co n ta m i n a t i o n Or di n a r y p r e c a u t i o n s o f a v a c c i n a t i o n m u s t b e
.

t a ke n h o we v e r t o p r e v e n t i n fe c ti o n S o m e p e o pl e t hi n k t h e
, ,
.

v a c c i n e is t a k en fr o m a p e r s o n wh o h a s s m a llp o x a n d th a t thi s
m a t e r i a l m a y co n t a i n ge r m s o f t h e di s e a s e Th e m a t e r i a l is t a k e n .

fr o m c a lv e s a n d n o t p e opl e Th e c a lv e s a r e e x a m i n e d c a r e fully
.

s o a s t o e li m i n a t e t h e p o s s ibility o f a n y di s e a s e b e i n g t r a n s m it t e d

t o p e o pl e th r o u gh t he va c ci n e Th e v a c c i n e vi r u s is a lw a y s v e r y
.

ca r e fully pu r ifi e d b e f o r e b e i n g u s e d .

Q U E S TI O NS A N D S UGG E S TI O N S
1 . D a ce t he e a r ly h i s t or y o f s m a llp o x i n c l udi n g ,
it s i n t r o d uc t i o n
int o Am e r i c a .

2 . Tr a c e t he hi s t o ry i
o f n oc ula t o n i t o t he t i m e of E d wa r d J e n n er .
 S M A LLP OX AN D I TS C O N T R O L

3 . D i s c u s s t h e i n v e s t i ga t i o n a n d a cc e p t a n c e o f va c c i n a t i o n fo r t he

p r e v e n t i o n o f s m a ll p o x .

. k
4 Give a r e po r t o n t h e lif e a n d w o r s o f E d wa r d J e n n e r .

5 D i s c us s t h e n a t ure o f s m a l lpo x
. H o w is s m a ll po x s pr e a d ?
.

6 Wh a t a r e t h e c hi e f pr e ve n t ive m e a s ure s a ga i n s t s m a ll po x ?
.

7 D i s c us s s o m e o f t h e m e t ho d s o f i n o c ul a t io n u s e d in t h e p a s t
. .

k
8 H a s s m a ll po x b e e n c h e c e d t o t h e full e s t p os s i b l e e x t e n t ? Give
.

S e ve r a l r e a s o n s fo r y o ur a n s w e r
'

S U PP LEM E N TA RY R EA D I N G S

B r o a dhu
r st , J
e a n , H ow We Res i s t D is ea s e ( B L ippin c o t tJ . .

D e K r uif, P H M i c robe H un te rs ( H a rc o ur t B r a c e
. .
, ,

H a ggar d, H W The S cie nc e of H ea lt h a nd D i s ea s e ( H ar pe r

. .
,

P a m phle t s pub lis h e d b y t he M e t r o po lit a n Life I n s ur a n ce C o .

,
N ew

Z in s se r , H a n s , A Textbook f B ac te riology (D Apple t o n 85

o
430 RA B I ES AN D I TS C ON T R O L

P as t e ur ( 1 8 22 Ab o u t 1 882 , L o ui s Pa s te ur , a F r en c h
i i
s c e n t s t , re a lizi n g t h a t J e n n e r a n d o t her s h a d s uc c e s sfillly im m u
n iz e d p e r s o n s by v a c c i n a t i o n d e c id e d t o a ply t he s a m
.

e p r i n c ipl e
p
-
,

H e h a d l e a r n e d s e v e r a l t h in gs ab o ut t h e di s e a s e
'
t o r a bi e s
‘

( )
1 t h a t t h e V i r u s o f r a bi e s w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e s a liv a of m a d

a n i m a l s ; ( 2 ) t h a t it w a s c o m m u n i c a t e d t h r o u gh bi t e s and t ha t ,

t h e p e r i o d o f i n c ub a t i o n v a r i e d fr o m a few d a y s t o s e v e r a l
m on t h s . H e t h o ugh t t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e w a y o f p r e v en t
”

in g t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f t he di s e a s e d ur i n g t hi s l on g p e r i o d o f
I n c ub a t i o n .

P a s t e ur h a d e x a m i n e d c e r t a i n m i cr o o r ga n i s m s in t he s a l iv a of a
c hild t h a t h a d di e d o f r a bi e s H e t h o u ght t h e s e w e r e t h e c a u s a t iv e
.

o r ga n i s m s . Wh en h e i n j e c t e d t h e m in a n i m a l s h ow e v er th e y , ,

f a il e d t o p r o du c e r a bi e s Pa s t e ur i n o c ul a t e d r a bb it s wi t h s a liv a
'

fr o m r a bid d ogs H yd r o ph obi a t oo k m on t h s t o d e v e l op a n d s om e

.

t i m e s did n o t d e v e l o p a t a ll Th e n h e i n tr o du c e d bl o o d fr o m
.

r a bid d o gs i n t o r a bbi t s a n d a ga i n wa s un s u c c e s s f ul P a s t e ur s us .

p ec t e d t h e di s e a s e w a s in t h e n er v o u s s y s te m a n d b e li e v e d th a t
e xpl a i n e d t h e l o n g p e r i o d o f i n c ub a ti o n H e t ook p a r ti c l e s of t h e
.

b r a i n of a n a n i m a l t h a t ha d di e d o f hyd r o ph o bi a a n d in j e ct e d th em
in t o a n um b er of a n i m a l s Th e y a ll d e v e l o p e d a n d di e d of hyd r o
.

ph o bi a E vid en t ly , t h e p a r t i c l e s o f t he b r a in w e r e m or e p o t e n t
.

o r vi r ul e n t t h a n t he s a liv a in c a u s i n g r a bi e s P a s t e ur w a s u n a bl e
.

t o us e h is u s u a l m e t h o d o f i n v e s t i ga ti n g di s e a s e H e c o uld n o t .

i s o l a te t he ger m a n d c ul t iv a t e it in a n a r t ifi c i a l m e dium b e ca u s e ,

he c o uld n o t d e t ec t t he ger m .

N e x t he s u s p en d e d in a s t e r iliz e d vi a l a f r a gm e n t o f t he b r a i n
,

o f a r a bbi t t h a t h a d di e d o f hyd r o ph o bi a As t he fr a gm e n t gr a d
.

ua lly b e c a m e dr y it s vi r ul e n c e o r s t r e n gt h d e c r e a se d u n t il a t t he
, ,

e n d of f o u r t een d a y s it p r o v e d t o b e h a r m l e s s wh e n c r u s h e d m ix e d
, ,

wi t h pur e w a t er a n d i n j e c t e d u n d er t he s kin o f s o m e d o gs The

,
.

n e x t da y t h e d o gs w er e i n o c ul a t e d wi t h b r a i n whi c h h a d d r i e d fo r

thi r t e en d a y s The i n o c ul a t i o n s w er e c on t i n u e d u s in g fr a gm en t s
.
,
 P AS T E U R 4 31

'
o f b r a in of n c r e a s n g
i vi r ulen c e un til t he b r a i n of a ra bbit t h a t h a d
i
di e d t he s a m e da y wa s u se d I t wa s f o u n d t h a t t he tr e a t ed d o gs
.

w ere i m m u n e fr o m hyd r o ph o bi a .

Pa s t e u r i n vi t e d a c om m i s s i o n o f
s c i e n t i s t s t o i n v e s t i ga t e h is w o r k .

R a bid d o gs w e r e p e r m itt e d t o bit e

h e a lthy d ogs t h a t h a d b e en t r e a te d
with P a s t e ur s in o c ul a ti o n s a n d
’

s o m e th a t h a d n o t b ee n t r ea t e d .

The f o rm er did n o t c o n tr a c t
r a bi e s t he l a t t er did
,
Th e s c ie n
.

t is t s w e re e n t hu s i a s ti c o v e r t hi s
s ci e n tifi c tr iu m ph P a s te u r t h e n
.

s h o w ed th a t t he d e v e l o p m en t
o f r a bi es in d o gs th a t h a d b een

bitt en by a r a bid dog c o ul d b e

p r ev e n t e d by m e a n s Of S i m il a r
i n o c ul a ti o n s .

I n 1 885 a li t t l e Al s a t i an b oy
, ,

J o s e ph M e i s t er w a s b r o u gh t by
,

his m o t h e r i n t o Pa s t e u r s l a b o r a
’

t or y H e ha d b een h orr ibly bi t t e n

.

by a m a d do g P a s t e u r a f t er c o n
.
,

s ult a t io n with o t h er s c i en ti s t s ,

d ec id e d t o giv e h im i n o c ul a t i o n s
P ifi d A l Ph ac c b t a nt i c ot os

Of b r a l n a n d S p l n a l C OI d m a t e r i a l
‘

Th p pl f Ch i g h e eo t d e o ca o a ve e rec e a

th at he h a d p r ep ar ed H I S fir S t m b l °
m um t i gonit i
vi f L ui P t u t h um
a
en

e ser
f th i
ce o
ti
n re co
o
n

s
on

as e
o

r o
e nes

an

i n o c ul a t i o n w a s m a t er i a l t h a t h a d it "“ M u m “ f P Pl P m g t h m m” ° e° e ass e

m t giv i en l t h ugh t te th
o c ca s on a o o e

dr l ed f o ur tee n d a y s Th l S w a s fOl
.
b ility f h t no d d v t d l if
o c f a ra c e r an e o e e o

th g t i ti t e re a s c en s .

l ow e d by fu r th e r i n o c ul a t i on s o f ,

i n c rea s i n g s t r en gth s The tr e a tm en t l a s t e d t e n d a y s a n d i n c lud e d

.

tw e lv e in o c ul a ti on s I t wa s s u c ce s s ful in p r e v e n ti n g r a bi e s a n d wa s
.

t he fi r s t s u c ces s ful t r ea t m en t fo r r a bi e s giv e n t o a hu m a n b e i n g .

432 RA B I E S AN D I TS CONT RO L

F or e i gn i fl o cke d t o Pa r i s t o l e a r n m or e a b o ut t he tr e a t
i
s c en t s t s

men t L e t t er s c a m e fr o m a ll o ve r t he w or ld for in f or m a t i on
. .

C hild r e n w e r e b r o u ght fr o m fa r a n d n e a r for tr e a tm en t F ro m .

Am e r i c a f o u r s m a ll c hild r e n w ho h a d b e e n bit t e n by m a d d o gs
, , ,

w e re s en t o v e r t o P a s t e ur for t r e a t m en t A publi c sub s cr ip .

t i o n w a s c o n du c t e d by a N ew Y o r k n e w s p a p e r in o r d er t o s upply
t h e fu n d s fo r t h e i r t r e a t m
“

en t s Th e i n o c ul a t i o n s giv e n th e s e c hil
.

d r en by Pa s te u r w er e s u c c e s s ful N i n e t ee n R u s s i a n s wh o ha d b een
.

bitte n by a m a d w o lf Wer e b r o u gh t t o P a r i s by a R u s s i a n d o c t o r
.
.

”
Th e o n ly F re n c h w o r d t h e y kn e w w a s P a s t e ur Tw o w e e k s h a d .

e l a p se d b e t w e e n t he t i m e th e y r ec e iv e d t h e i r w o u n d s a n d th e ir

a r r iv a l in P a r i s Al t hou gh .

t h e y w er e h o rr ibly bi t t e n ,

a ll b ut t h r ee of th e m w er e

s a ved .

Pa s t e u r w a s o n e o f t he
fi r s t s c i e n ti s t s t o d e v el op a
m e t h od of we a ken in g or a t
t en ua t in g o r ga n i s m s by la b
o r a t o r y p r o c e du r e s fo r us e
as a v a c c i n e To da y a ll .
— ,

o ur l a r ge c iti e s h a v e P a s t e ur

I n s titut e s o r s i m il a r divi ,

s i on s o f t h e H ea l t h D e p a r t

m en t fo r gi vi n g tr ea tm e n t
fo r r a bi e s .

Th e n a tur e of r a b ie s .

V i f
a cc n e s th tor tm t f h y d ph b i
e rea en o R a bi e s iS a n i nfec t i o u s dis
ro o a ar e

re
p p d f m th
ar e ro pi l e s d f nai m l th t h v
c or s o an a s a a e

di d f m t h d
e ro i e T h
s eas e. d u d
e c or
p d eases are s0 f d O sgs W 0
en1V C S e 0 3 tS , , ,

in a b o tt l e wh ich h a s a wa t e r -a b s o r b in g m a t e r ia l
in t h e b o t t o m o f it As t h e c o r ds dry , t h e y b e c o m e an d s om et l m e s Of h OI ’
S GS ,
v
.

k
a t t e n ua t e d or w e a e n e d in irul e n c e
bbit s a n d o th er a n i
.

C OW S , r a ,

m als I t m a y b e c om m u n i ca t e d t o hu m a n b e i n gs
. Th e i n f e c t i o n .

is fr o m a n o r ga n i s m n o t y e t c ultiv a t e d o r p o s itiv ely id e n t ifi e d .

4 34 RA B I E S AN D I TS C ON T R O L

C ur e . Th er e is kn own c u r e fo r r a bi es o n c e it d efi n ite ly de
no

v e lo p s . Th e o n ly p o s s ibl e h e lp a p a t i e n t m a y s e c u r e is t he pr e
v e n t iv e t r e a t m e n t which s h o uld b e giv en e a r ly .

P r e v e n tion On e s h o ul d a lw a y s b e c a r e ful in h a n dlin g s i c k

.

a n i m a l s e s p e c i a lly d o gs a n d c a t s
,
I f a dog s u s p ec t e d o f h a vi n g
.
,

r a bi e s is r u n n i n g l o o s e it s h o uld b e p e n n e d up fo r t en d a y s a n d
, , ,

if it d o e s n o t d e ve l o p r a bi e s in th a t t i m e it is s a fe t o le t it o ut .

M o s t d e p a r tm e n t s of h e a l t h e x a m i n e a n d k ee p u n d er o b s er v a
t i o n a ll d o gs s u s p e c t e d o f h a vi n g r a bi e s Th e y will a l s o t a k e c a r e .

o f d o gs th a t h a v e b e e n bitt e n by o t h e r a n i m a l s whi c h a r e s u s p e c t e d
"

o f h a vi n g t h e di s e a s e I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t r a bi e s , t h e h e a l t h
.

d ep a r t m en t s of m a n y s t a t e s r e qui re t h a t a ll d o gs b e m uzzl ed .

T o p r e v e n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r a bi e s in a p e r s on bi t t e n by a
r a bid a n i m a l t he w o u n d m u s t b e w a s h e d a t o n c e
, Un d er t he .
“

c a r e o f a c o m p e t en t phy s i c i a n it s h o uld b e t r e a t e d with a s tr o n g

,

a n t i s e p t i c o r b e c a u t er iz e d Th e n t he p r e v e n t iv e v a c c i n a t i o n
.

trea t m e n t m u s t b e b e gun a t on c e Thi s build s up t he p er s on s .

’

r es i s t a n c e t o r a bi e s Pr a c t i c a lly n o o n e h a s e v er b ee n h a rm e d by
.

t hi s t r ea t m en t I n a ll c a s e s it is o f u t m o s t i m p or t a n c e t o giv e
.
,

t h e P a s t e ur t re a t m e n t i m m e di a t e ly .

L a r ge d e ep bit e w o u n d s a re t he m o s t d a n ger o u s e s p e c i a lly th o s e

-
,

a b o ut t h e f a c e he a d b a c k o r a n y p a r t wh e r e n e r v e s a n d ly m ph a t i c s
, , ,

a r e a bu n d a n t A bi t e t hr o u gh c l o t hi n g is u s u a lly l e s s d a n ge r o u s
t h a n o n e o n t he b a r e s ur f a c e .

T he e r a di c a t i o n o f r a bi e s in m a n d e p en d s up o n it s p r e v e n ti o n
in d o m e s t i c a t e d a n i m a l s Thi s p r o bl e m o f p r e v e n ti o n s t ill e xi s t s
.

in c er t a i n se c t i o n s o f t he w o r ld a s t he di s e a s e is v er y p r e v a l e n t
,

a m o n g wild a n i m a l s whi c h tr a n s m it it t o d o gs a n d o t h e r d o m e s

t ic a t e d a n i m a l s I n 1 92 3 a pp r o xi m a t ely
.
,
p e r s on s in t he
Un it ed S t a t e s a ppli e d fo r a n d re c e iv e d t he P a s t e ur tr e a tm en t .

I n E n gl a n d t he e n f o r cem en t o f t he law r e qui ri n g t he m uzzlin g

,

o f d o gs a n d a qu a r a n ti n e o n a ll a n i m a l s i m p o r t e d fr o m o th e r

c o un t r i e s e li m i n a t e d t h e di s e a se e n ti r e ly f r o m 1 903 t o 1 9 1 8 .
 P A S T EU R S
’
I DE A L S 43 5

I t is n ow p o s s ibl e t o giv e p r ophyl a c t i c o r p r e v en tiv e tr ea t m en t

t o d o gs whi c h r e n d e r t h e m i m m u n e t o r a bi e s
,
I n 1 924 a ppr o xi .
.

m a t e ly o n e hun d r e d t h o u s a n d d o gs in
J a p a n w er e i m m un iz e d a n d t he n um ,

b e r o f c a s e s o f t h e di s e a s e w a s r e du c e d
t o fo r t y o n e
- B e f o r e t h a t ti m e t h e re
.

we r e a pp r o xi m a t e ly 1 7 00 c a s e s o f r a bi e s
e a c h y e a r a m o n g t he d o gs .

P a s t e ur s ide a ls
’
I n c l o s i n g a ch a p
.

t e r t h a t b r i n gs in a p a r t o f t h e w o r k .

o f a re m a r k a bl e m a n n o m or e fi t t in g
,

t r ibu t e c a n b e p a id h im t h a n t o r e p e a t
a p a r t o f a s p ee c h m a d e t o P a s t e u r o n

his s e v e n t i e t h bi r t hd a y Th e gr ea t
.

A l l
t iifid fi
e
t h e a t e r o f t h e S o r b o n n e w a s fill e d by a ra a

Th p f u l t d N g e res ence o n c ea e e ri
c o mm i t t e e s f r om D enmark S w e d e n b di l d t di g i b id

m
; , o es e o a a n os s ra

eagre3352331431
3 8
end N em ey Th e members o f t he
.
.

a did “ d v l” h y dm
.

F re n c h I n s t i t u t e a n d t he Pr o f e s s o r s o f
Rgi
e n n e e '

t he F a c ul t i e s w e r e t h e r e S t ud e n t s o f
.

m e di c i n e h a d c r o wd e d i n t o e v e r y a v a il a bl e pl a ce L i s t er wa s .

th er e r e p r e s en ti n g t h e R o y a l S o c i e t i e s o f L on d o n a n d E di n bu r gh
, .

M a n y o ff er i n gs w e r e t en d er e d P a s te u r m a n y t r ibu t e s p a id a n d
, ,

t h e l a s t w a s m a d e by t he Pr e s id e n t o f t h e S t ud e n t s As s o c i a ti o n
’

wh o s a id ,Y o u h a v e b ee n v e r y gr e a t a n d v e r y go o d ; y o u h a v e
”
g iv e n a b ea u t if ul e x a m pl e t o s t ud e n t s .

P a s t e u r s v o i c e w e a k e n e d by his e m o ti o n c o uld n o t h a v e b ee n
’

, ,

h e a r d o v e r t he l a r ge t h e a t e r H is r e ply w a s r e a d by his s o n
.

do n o t le t y o u r s e lv e s b e c o m e t a i n t e d by a d ep rec a t i n g
a n d b a rr e n S k e p t i c i s m do n o t le t y o u r s e lv e s b e di sc o u r a ge d by
,

t h e s a d n e s s o f c e r t a i n h o u r s whi c h p a s s o v e r n a ti o n s L ive in t he .

s e r e n e p e a c e o f l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d lib r a r i es S a y t o y o u r s e lv e s fi r s t
.

Wh a t h a v e I d on e for my i n s tr u c ti o n ? a n d as y o u gr a du a lly ’
,

a dv a n c e , Wh a t h a v e I d on e for m y c ou n tr y ? u n til t he ti m e
‘ ’
43 6 RA B I E S AN D I TS C ON T RO L

c om es wh en y o u m a y h a v e t he i m m en se h a ppi n es s of thin ki n g
th a t y o u h a v e c o n tr ibu t e d in s o m e w a y t o t he p r o gr e s s a n d goo d
o f hu m a n ity .

Q U E S T I ON S AN D S UGG E S T IO N S
? S t a t e s o m e o f t h e a n c i e n t id e a s o n t he t r e a t m e n t o f r a bi e s .

D e s c r ib e P a s t e ur s e xpe r i m e n t s wi t h s a liva a n d b l o o d
’
5
0 .

D i s c u s s P a s t e u r s e xpe r i m e n t s w i t h dr i e d b ra i n a n d s pi n a l c o r d s
9 ’
9 .

9 D i s c us s t he fi rs t v a c c i n a t i o n o f a n i m a l s a ga i n s t r a bi e s .

9 D i s c us s t he fi r s t v a cc i n a t i o n o f a pe r s o n a ga i n s t r a b i e s .

3
0 Wh a t e ffe c t did t he di s c o ve r y o f va c c i n a t i o n a ga i n s t r a bi e s ha ve
on t h e w o r ld ?
7 Wh a t s t i m ulu s did P a s t e ur give l a t er s c i e n t is t s by h is w o r k o n
.

va c c i n a t i o n
8 D i s c us s t he c a us e m e t h o d o f i n va s i o n a n d s y m p t o m s o f r a b i e s
.
, , .

9 D i s c us s m e t ho d s o f pr e v e n t i n g a n d c o n t r o lli n g r a b i e s
. .

1 0 Wh a t is t h e im po r t a n c e o f v a cc i n a t i o n a ga i n s t r a bi e s ?
.

1 1 I s t he re a n y t hi n g in P a s t e ur s s pe e c h t h a t i n di c a t e s w hy h e h a s
’
.

b e e n c a ll e d o n e o f t he fi n e s t s c i e n t i s t s t he wo r ld h a s e ver pr o d uc e d ?
1 2 Give a r e p o r t o n t h e life a n d w or k o f P a s t e u r
. .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E A D I N GS

J J
B r o a dh ur s t , e a n , H ow We Re si s t D is ea se ( B L ippin co t t 85
. .

D e K r uif, P H , The M ic robe H un te rs (H a r c o urt , B r a c e

. .

H a ggar d H W , The S ci e nce of H ea lt h a nd D is ea s e ( H a r pe r a n d

, . .

Va llery -R a do t , R e n é , The L ife of P a s te ur (D o ub le day , P a ge , a n d

438 T U BER CUL O SIS AN D I TS P REVEN TI O N
c ula r . did n o t a cce pt Ville m in s fi n di n gs Th e y s t ill clung
P e o pl e
’
.

t o t he id e a o f s p on t a n e o u s ge n e r a ti on o f t hi s a n d o th er di s e a s e s
'

I n f a c t h e w a s t r e a t e d a s a di s t u r b e r of m edi ca l o r d er an d b eli e f s
—
, .

P r ofe s s or J Co h nh e im , 1 8 3 9 1 884 a t B r e s l a u f o un d th a t h e
.
, ,

c o uld giv e tub er c ul o s i s t o r a bbit s by pu t ti n g a bit of t h e tub er c ul ar

p a ti e n t s di s e a s e d lu n g i n t o t he fr o n t c h a m b er o f a r a bbit s eye
’ ’
.

H e r e he c o uld w a tch t h e li t tl e i s l a n d of ti s s u e S p r e a d a n d do it s
d ea dly w o r k of buildin g tub e r c l e s .

K o ch dis c ov e r s t h e c a us e of tub e r c ul os is R ob e r t K o c h ( 1 8 4 3 .

1 9 1 0) buil t o n C o h nh e i m s w o r k As l o n g a s a n i m a l s c o uld b e
’
.

i n o c ul a t e d wi t h t he di s e a s e h e c o ul d e xp e r i m e n t wi t h th e m
, .

At thi s ti m e p r o b a bly o n e o ut o f e v e r y s e v e n p e o pl e w a s dyi n g

, ,

o f t ub e r c ul o s i s K o c h t oo k tub e r c l e s fr o m a m a n who h a d di e d
.

o f tub e r c ul o s i s a n d i n j e ct e d t h e m i n t o t h e e y e s o f gui n e a pi gs a n d

r a bbi t s . Wh il e h e wa s w a i t i n g fo r t h e m t o d e v e l o p S i gn s o f t h e
di s e a s e h e e x a m i n e d ti s s u e s o f p eo pl e wh o h a d di e d o f t ub er culo s i s
, .

N o m i cr o o r ga n i s m s s h o w e d H e s t a i n e d t h e t i s s u e s wi t h diff er e n t
.

dy e s in o r d er t o s ee t he ger m s (As h e w o r ke d h e k e pt dippi n g

,
.
,

h is h a n d s i n t o bi c hl o r id e o f m e r c u r y fo r L i s t e r t h e E n gli s h s ur
, ,

g e on ,
h a d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a n ti s e pti c s in c h e c k in g

i n f e ct i o n s ) F i n a lly Ko c h s m e a r e d s o m e m a t e r i a l f r o m t ub e r c l e s
.
,

o f a t ub e r c ula r pe r s o n o n a gl a s s s lid e dipp e d it in a c e r t a in dy e

'

'

, ,

a n d m o u n t e d it u n d e r h is m i c r o s c o p e H e s a w S l e n d e r r od s h a pe d
.
-

o r ga n i s m s v e r y m i n ut e in s iz e a b o ut Oi a n i n c h l o n g
33 3
4
703
.
,

Th e l a s t s t a i n h a d b ee n s u c c e s s ful .

I n t h e m e a n t i m e t he gui n e a pi gs a n d r a bbit s whi c h he h a d in

, ,

o c ul a t e d b e c a m e s i c k a n d di e d H e e x a m i n e d t h e i r b o di e s a n d
.
,

f o u n d tub er c l e s whi c h h e s t a i n e d a n d e x a m i n e d m ic r O S C Opic a lly .

I n e v e r y c a s e h e f o u n d t he a lw a y s s l e n d e r c u r v e d r o d s H e ex ,
.

a m in e d t h e b o di e s o f m a n y p e o pl e wh o h a d d ie d o f t ub e r cul o s i s

a n d a lw a y s f o u n d tub e r c l e s The n h e i n j e ct e d (i n o c ul a t e d ) t ub er
. e

c l e s i n t o gui n e a pi gs r a bbit s d o gs c a t s a n d m a n y o th er a n i m a l s
, , , ,
.

I n v a r i a bly a ll t he a n i m a l s i n o c ul a t ed with t h e tub er cl e s di e d o f

 K O C H D I S C O VE R S TH E CAU S E OF T U BE R C U LO SIS 43 9

t ub e r c ul o s i s . As i m a l di e d Ko c h e x a m i n e d it s t i s s u e s a n d
eac h an ,

a lw a y s f o u n d t ub er c l e s a n d t h e s l e n d e r r o d s Th e n h e e x a m i n e d
.

t i s s u e a f t e r t i s s u e o f h e a l t hy a n i m a l s a n d fo u n d n o t ub e r c l es .
\

H e wa s n o t y e t p o s i t iv e t h a t h e h a d di s c o v e r e d t h e t ub e r c l e
b a c illi H e d e c id e d t h a t he m u s t fi r s t c ul t iv a t e t h em o ut s id e t h e
.

b o dy o f a n i m a l s a n d t h e n i n t r o du c e t h e c ul t iv a t e d o r ga n i s m s i n t o
h e a l t hy a n i m a l s I f t h e i n o c ul a t e d a n i m a l s b e c a m e tub e r c ul a r it
.
,

w o uld i n di c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e o r ga n i s m s H e m a d e e v e r y .

ki n d o f b r o t h t h e n k n o w n for t h e c ul t iv a t i o n o f ge r m s H e k e p t .

s o m e o f his tub e s a n d b o t t le s a t t h e t e m p e r a tu r e o f t h e r o o m
‘

s o m e a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f a ma n s b o dy a n d o t h er s a t f e v e r
’
,

t e m p er a t u r e H e i n f e c t e d h is b r o t h s wi t h p o r t i o n s o f t he in
.

fe c t e d lu n gs o f gui n e a pi gs N O t ub e r c ul a r o r ga n i s m gr e w in
.

a n y o f t h e b r o t h s r e ga r dl e s s o f s u rr o u n di n g t e m p e r a tu r e
,

Un d a u n t e d h e t h o u gh t h e w o uld t r y t i s s u e e xtr a c t s fo r h is
,

m e di a Po s s ibly t i s s u e s h a d p e c uli a r m a t e r i a l s t h a t we r e es s e n ti a l
.

fo r t h e gr o wth o f t h e t ub e r c l e b a c i llu s H e o b t a i n ed s e r u m f r o m
.

bl o o d m ix e d it wi t h a ga r h ea t e d it t o m a k e it s e t a n d pl a c e d it
, , ,

o n s l a n t s in t e s t t ub e s in o r d e r t o ge t l o n g fl a t surfa c es o n ,

whi c h t o gr o w t h e b a c illi H e s t r e a k e d t h e s er u m a ga r w i t h a b it
.
-

o f t he i n f e c t e d lu n g o f a gui n e a p ig t h a t

h a d j u s t di e d o f t ub e r c ul o s i s The n h e .

pl a ce d his t ub e s in a n i n c ub a t o r a t t h e
s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e a s t h a t o f t h e gui n ea

pi g s b o dy On t he fift e e n t h da y t h e
’
.

s e r u m j e lly wa s c o v e r e d w i t h t i n y gli s t en

in g s p e c k s . Wh e n m a gn ifi e d wi t h a h a n d
l e n s t h e y a pp e a r e d a s dry t i n y s c a l e s
B c t e r i u m t ub r c ul o s is
, , .

a e
H e s ta i n e d a n d m o u n t e d o n e o f t h e s ca l e s Th d h p d t u tu e ro -
s a e s r c res ,
' ' '

b ll t d h t 1
u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c op e a n d f o u n d t h e s a m e : gf gjfiu n u éiw re
‘ ‘

a
n

ca
s a n

s
( ,

b ul i
b a c illu s whi c h h e h a d di s c o ve r e d in t h e lun g e r° °5 s °

o f t ub e r c ul a r vi c t i m s . H e h a d r o w n tub e r c l e b a c illi o ut id e t he
g s

b ody o f a n o rga n i s m H e t h e n i n o c ul a t e d a n i m a l s wi t h t he b a c illi

.
44 0 T U BER C U L O SIS AN D I TS P REVEN T I O N

g r o w n o n hi s s e r u m a ga r -
t h e i n o c ul a t e d anima l s c on t r a c t e d
t ub e r c ul o s i s a n d di e d .

H e d e c id e d t o t r y o n e m o r e e xp e r i m e n t H e w o n d e r e d h ow
.

p e opl e c o n t r a c t e d tub e r c ul o s i s a n d t h o u gh t t h a t t h e y h a d p r o b
,

a bly i n h a l e d s o m e o f t h e du s t p a r t i c l e s o f whi c h Pa s t e u r h a d

S p o ke n ,
o r p o s s ibly w e r e i n f e c t e d by d r o pl e t s whi c h t ub e r c ul a r

p e opl e s c a t t er e d in t h e a ir wh e n th e y c o u gh e d H e S p r a y e d .

b a c illi i n t o t h e a ir b r e a th e d by c er t a i n a n i m a l s Th e a nim a l s .

b e c a m e t ub e r c ul a r a n d di e d .

Th e m e t h o d o f in v e s t i ga t i n g a n u n k n o w n di s e as e t h a t Ko c h
u s e d in 1 8 8 2 is s t ill b e i n g u s e d t o da y H is m e t h o d is c o m m o n ly
,
-
.

k n o w n a s K o c h s pos tula tes whi c h a r e : ( 1 ) i s o l a t e t h e p r o b a bl e

’

g e r m f r o m t h e di s e a s e d o r a n i s m ; (2 )
g g r o w t h e ge r m s in a n a r ti
fic ia l m e di a ; ( 3 ) t ra n s f e r t h e ge r m s f r o m t h e c ultu r e t o a n -

o r ga n i s m a n d n o t i c e wh e t h e r t h e y will p r odu c e t h e di s e a s e ;
( 4 ) o b t a i n s o m e o f t h e ge r m s f r o m t h e s e c o n d o r ga n i s m a n d id e n

t ify t h em F r o m K o c h s i n v e s t i ga t i o n d a t e s t h e b e gi n n i n g o f t h e
’
.
,

t r iu m ph o f b a c t e r i o l o gy .

Ko c h r e p or t e d h is fi n di n gs b e fo r e t h e Phy s i o l ogi c a l S o c i e t y in ,

B e r li n in M a r c h 1 8 8 2 Th e m o s t b r illi a n t m e n o f s c i e n c e in
, ,
.

G e r m a n y w e r e t h er e Th e r e wa s n o w o r d o f cr i t i c i s m a ga i n s t
.

h is w or k ; it w a s t oo t h o r o u gh a n d c o n vi n c i n g Th e n e w s o f h is .

di s c o v er y s p r e a d r a pidly a n d t h e e n ti r e w o rld s o o n l e a rn e d o f his

,

w or k a n d his m e t h o d s o f i n v e s ti ga ti n g di s e a s e s .

E dwar d Livin gs ton Trude a u Whil e Ko c h wa s i n v e s t i ga t i n g

.

t he c a u s e o f tub e r c ul o s i s t h e r e w a s a m a n n a m e d Tr ud e a u livi n g
,

in t h e Un it e d S t a t es H e w a s t a ki n g c a r e o f a t ub e r c ul a r b r o t h e r
wh o m h e b a t h e d fe d a n d e v e n s l e p t wi t h H is d o c t o r w a r n e d
, ,
.

him n o t t o Op e n t hewi n d o w s a s it w a s b a d fo r t h e b ro t h e r s c o u gh
’
.

Th e b r o t h e r fi n a lly di e d .

Tr ud e a u th e n s tudi e d m e di c i n e b e c a m e a d oc t o r but did n ot

, ,

p r a c ti c e l o n g b e f o r e h e r e a liz e d t h a t he h a d tub e r c ul o s i s L ik e
,
.

a ll p eo pl e o f his da y h e th o u ght t ub e r c ul o s i s m e a n t ce r t a i n d e a t h
,
.
 42 T U BER C U LO SIS AN D I TS P R E VEN T I O N
t h a t t he ra bbi t s livi n g in t he go od en vi r o n m en t r e co v e r e d fr o m
t h e e ff e c t s o f t he i n o c ul a ti o n Th e i n o c ul a t e d r a bbi t s livi n g in
.

p o o r c o n di t i o n s di e d wi t hi n t h r ee m o n t h s fr o m t ub e r cul o s i s Th e .

r a bbi t s t h a t h a d n o t b e e n i n o c ul a t e d b ut w e r e in t h e p o o r e n v i

r o n m e n t did n o t S h o w t ub e r c ul os i s a l t h o u gh t h e y w e r e n o t in
,

g o o d phy s i c a l c o n di t i o n R e.p e a t i n g S i m il a r e xp e r i m e n t s h
, e p r o v e d
t h a t u n s a n i t a r y c o n diti o n s a l o n e w ill n o t c a u s e t ub e r c ul o s i s
, , t he

g e r m s m u s t b e th e re. H e a l s o s h o w e d t h a t u n f a v o r a bl e e n v i
r o n m e n t s f a v o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f tub e r c ul o s i s a n d g o o d livi n g

c o n diti o n s h e lp t o c h e c k t h e di s e a s e .

T r ud e a u wi t h t h e h e lp o f a n o t h e r d o c t o r s t a r t e d h is s a n it a
, ,

r ium a t S a r a n a c L a k e . H e built a n u m b e r o f s m a ll c o t t a ges a n d

t hu s s t a r t e d t h e C o t t a ge Pl a n o f T ub e r c ul o s i s S a n it a r iu m s He .

e n f o r c e d a ro u t i n e whi c h i n c lud e d pl e n t y o f f r e s h a ir r e s t , g o o
,
d
fo o d a n d s u n li gh t Thi s m et h o d w a s r e v o lu t i o n a r y T r ud e a u
,
. .

w a s t h e fi r s t phy s i c i a n in t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s t o t e a c h t h e i m p or
t a n c e O f fr e s h a ir in t he t r e a t m e n t o f t ub e r c ul o s i s S i n c e his .

t i m e n u m e r o u s s a n i t a r i u m s h a v e b ee n buil t o v e r t he e n t i r e w o r ld .

C a u s a tive organ is m . A r o d s h a p e d b a c illu s is t h e c a u s e o f

-

t ub e r c ul o s i s . Th e r e a r e m a n y t yp e s o f t h e s e b a c illi . Th e y
a t t a c k p r a c t i c a lly a ll w a r m bl o o d e d a n i m a l s
-
M o s t o f t h e tub e r
.

c ulo s is a m o n g c hild r e n u n d e r fiv e y e a r s o f a ge is O f t he b o vi n e
typ e I t is t h e t yp e t h a t a t t a c k s c a t t l e a n d u s u a lly is t a k e n in
.

b y t h e child wi t h m ilk .

Th e b a c illi o f t ub e r c ul o s i s m a y a t t a c k a n y p a r t o f t h e b o dy but
o n c e p r e s e n t t h e ger m s a r e v e r y lik e ly t o e v e n t u a lly a t t a c k t h e

lu n gs Th e y a ct u a lly f e e d o n a n d d e s t r o y lu n g t i s s u e Th e y
. .

f o r m li t t l e n o dul e s o r t ub er c l e s fill e d w i t h a c h e e s y m a t e r i a l a n d
p ro du c e p o i so n s o r toxin s Th e r e is a lw a y s a t o xi n c a ll e d a n e n
.

do t o xin p ro du c e d wi t hi n t h e b a c illu s a n d p r o b a bly a n e x o t o xi n ,

a n e x c r e ti o n ,is giv e n off A s li gh t tub e r c ul a r i n fe c t i o n a l m o s t

.

Th e n o r m a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e c hild s
’
a lw a y s o c c u r s in c hildh o o d .

b o dy o v e r c o m e s t he di s e a s e by e ith er killi n g t he b a c illi o r k e epi n g

 C A U SATI VE OR GA N IS M 44 3

t h emfr o m gr o wi n g I n t he l a t t er Ca s e t h e ger m s a r e s t ill a liv e

.

an d will b e c o m e a c tiv e a ga i n wh e n e v e r t he r e s i s t a n c e is w e a k en e d
,

Ma k e a gr a ph fr o m t h e la t e s t fi
gur e s of y o ur o wn a nd n e igh b o r in g s t a t e s and c o m pa r e

wit h t hi s ch a r t
. Gv
i e t h e po s s ib l e r e a s o n s fo r a h igh m o r t a lit y am o n g th e c o lo r e d po pula t io n .

( F r o m H ealt h a nd Wea lth by D ub li n , H a r p er 9 B r os )

( : .

by i n fe c ti o n m a l n ut r iti o n o ve r w o r k a n d f a ti gu e D a t a c o n c er n
, , ,
.

in g t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t ub e r c ul o s i s in c hildh o o d a n d t h e s ub s e qu e n t
r e c o v e r y o f t h e c hild r e n f r o m it is k n o w n b e ca u s e i n v e s t i ga t i o n
,

p r o v e s t h a t t he lu n gs in p r a c t i c a lly e v e r y d e a d b o dy e x a m i n e d
a n d t h e X r a y s o f livi n g lu n gs S h o w o ld s c a r t i s s u e
- Th e s c a r t is .

s ue is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f tub e r c ul o s i s a t t a c k s B a c illi t h a t ge t i n t o
.

t h e bl o o d a r e f r e qu e n t ly c a r r i e d t o a lym ph gl a n d wh e r e whi t e ,

c o r pu s c l e s in gr e a t n u m b er s a t t a c k a n d d e s t r o y t h e m Th e b o dy .
,

m e a n whil e build s a h a r d w a ll o f li m e s a l t s a r o u n d t h e i n f e c t e d
,

l a d th t t h i nf t i o is thu s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c i r c ul a t i on
g n ,s o a e e c n .

S o m e ti m e s i n f e ct e d gl a n d s a r e c ut o ut t o p r e v e n t t h e s p r e a d o f
t h e ger m s T ub e r cul o si s is no t h er edi t a r y but s u s c eptibility t o
. ,
4 44 TUB E R C UL O S I S AN D I T S P R EVE N T I O N

t he di s e a s e is p r ob a bly i n h e ri t e d Pe o pl e wh o k n o w th e re is a
.

hi s t o r y o f t ub e r c ul o s i s in t h e f a m ily s h o uld b e e s p e c i a lly c a re ful t o

l iv e v e r y hygi e n i c a lly Wh e n t hi s is d o n e t h e y a re n o t lik e ly t o
.
,

c o n t r a c t t h e di s e a s e P o o r e n vi r o nm e n t is a p r e di s p o s i n g c a u s e o f
.

tub e r c ul o s i s I f a m o t h e r h a s c o n t r a c t e d t h e di s e a s e h e r c hild is
.
,

like ly t o liv e in t h e s a m e e n vi r o n m e n t a n d will p r o b a bly c on t r a c t

t h e di s e a s e . F or t h e go o d O f t h e c hild it s h o uld b e t a k e n fr o m it s
,

p a r e n t s in s u c h c a s e s s o t h a t it c a n build up a s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e
, .

S ym ptom s of tub e r cu los is Th e s ym p t o m s a r e s e v e r a l

. F ev er .
,

e s p e c i a lly in t h e a f t e r n o o n e v e n in e a r li e r s t a ge s b e f o r e c o u ghi n g
,

h a s s t a r t e d h a bi t u a l c o u ghi n g a n d s pi t t i n g p o or a pp e t it e f a ul t y
, , ,

di ge s t i on a n d s t e a dy l o s s o f w e i gh t a r e u s u a lly i n di ca t iv e of a n
,

i n f e c ti o n .

D ia gn os is D i a gn o s i s c o n s i s t s o f a m ic r O S C Opic e x a m i n a ti o n o f
.

t h e s pu t u m fo r t h e b a c illi A c a r e ful e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e ge n e r a l
.

phy s i ca l c o n di t i o n i n cludi n g a n X r a y e x a m i n a t i o n Of t h e lu n gs
-

is m a d e . Th e X r a y ph o t o gra ph will S h o w a n y s c a r ti s s u e
-
A .

tuberculi n tes t is s o m e t i m e s m a d e Thi s is giv e n by pu t t i n g t o xi n s

.
,

S qu e e z e d f r o m t ub e r c ul o s i s ge r m s u n d e r t h e s ki n o f t h e s u s p e c t e d
,

p a t i e n t I f t h e d i s e a s e is p r e s e n t in t h e p a t i e n t t h e r e w ill b e a n
.
,

i n c r e a s e in fe v e r a nd pul s e a n i n c r e a s e o f i n fl a m m a t i o n o f t h e
,

a ff e c t e d p a r t a n d a r e d n e s s a t t h e p o in t o f i n f e c t i o n
,
A n e ga .

t iv e t e s t is c o n c lu s iv e p r o o f o f t he a b s e n c e o f t h e di s e a s e A .

p o s i t iv e t e s t m a y i n di c a t e a p a s t a s w e ll a s a p r e s e n t i n fe c t i o n .

S i n c e a p o s i t iv e r e a c t i o n m a y b e O bt a i n e d f r o m n e a r ly e v e r y
a dul t t h e t e s t is c hi e fly v a lu a bl e fo r y o u n g c hild r e n
,
.
.

Th e t ub e r c uli n t e s t fo r c a t t l e h a s b e e n u s e d fo r y e a r s Ac c o r d .

in g t o l a w s in s o m e s t a t e s s t a t e i n s p e c t o r s t e s t t h e d a i r y c o w s
, .

Wh e n t h e t e s t s h ow s t he p r e s e n c e o f t h e di s e a s e t he c ow is kill e d ,

a n d t h e f a r m e r is p a r t i a lly r e i m bu r s e d fo r t h e l o s s All s t a t e s .

do n o t h a v e t hi s la w S o m e s t a t e s h a v e s u c h l a w s b ut le t t h e
.
,

t ow n s hip s d e c id e wh e t he r o r n o t t h e y will b e e n f or ce d .

S pr e a d of tub e r culo s is T ub e r c ul o s i s is S p r e a d in i n n u m e r a bl e
.
44 6 TU B E R C UL O S I S AN D I T S P R EVE N T I ON

Tr e a tm e n t . S i n c e t he b o dy i t s e lf m u s t fi gh t thi s di s e a s e it ,

S h o uld b e giv e n t h e b e s t p o s s ibl e e n vi r on m e n t u n d e r whi c h t o

w o r k Givi n g t h e p a t i e n t t h e m o s t h e a l t hful c o n di t i o n s is t h e
.

m o s t w e c a n do fo r h im . F r e s h a ir s u n li gh t pl e n t y o f s l e e p
, , ,

f r e e d o m fr o m w o r r y o r w or k a n d a n a bu n d a n c e O f e a s ily di ge s t e d
,

fo o d s u c h a s m ilk a n d e ggs a r e t h e m a i n f a c t o r s in t he t r e a t m e n t .

Out d o o r t r e a t m e n t is u s u a lly b e s t if t h e c li m a t e is m il d I t is b e s t
.

a n d m o s t a lw a y s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e e xp e r t t r e a t m e n t a t a s a n i t a

r ium u n d e r t h e s up e r vi s i o n o f a d o c t o r fo r a t l e a s t S ix m o n t h s
, .

P r e v e n ti on . Th e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f m e a s u r e s t o b e o b s e r v e d
by i n dividu a l s in o r d er t o p r e v e n t i n f e c t i o n : k e e p t h e r e s i s t a n c e
o f t h e b o dy hi gh by p r o p e r livi n g h a bi t s ; h a v e a ge n e r a l phy s i c a l

e x a m i n a t i on o n c e a y e a r t e a c h o r c o m p e l a ll tub e r c ul a r p e r s o n s t o
c o v e r th e i r m o u t h s wi t h h a n dk e r c hi e f s wh e n c o u ghi n g ; us e p a p e r

c up s a n d p a p e r t o w e l s in publi c pl a c e s a n d us e o n ly s a n it a r y

d r i n ki n g fo u n t a i n s ; ke e p t h e du s t d o wn by u s i n g a v a c uu m
,

c l e a n e r a n d d a m p c l o t h in t h e h o m e a n d by S p r i n kli n g a n d flu s hi n g
,

t h e s t r ee t s ; k e e p fli e s o ut o f t h e h o u s e by s c r e e n i n g t he d oo r s a n d
wi n d o w s a n d o ff t h e f o o d by c o v e r i n g it ; r ep o r t a ll c a Se s o f
,

t ub er c ul o s i s n o t u n d e r p r o p e r m e di c a l c a r e t o t h e B o a r d o f H ea lth .

Th e c o m m u n i t i e s c a n a l s o h elp t o c o n tr o l t h e s p r e a d o f t ub er c u
lo s is. T h e y S h o uld r e qui r e t h e i n s p e c t i o n a n d p a s t e u r iz a t i o n o f
a ll m ilk . On ly r a w m ilk f r o m t ub e r c uli n t e s t e d c ow
-
s s h o uld b e

s o ld . T h e y c a n a l s o a id by en f o r c i n g t h e e xi s t i n g l a w s a ga i n s t
s pi t t i n g in publi c pl a c e s ; r e qui r i n g B o a r d o f H e a l t h c e r t ifi c a t e s

f r o m t h e p er s o n s who h a n dl e f o o d s ; p r o vidi n g fo r h e a lthful livi n g

c o n diti o n s in t e n e m e n t h o u s e s a n d p r o vidi n g fo r m o r e h o s pit a l s by

f o s t er i n g t h e s a l e of C h r i s t m a s s e a l s Pr o b a bly o n e o f t he m o s t
.

i m p o r t a n t w a y s o f c o n tr o lli n g t he di s e a s e is t o e du c a t e t he pe o
,

p le a g a i n s t t h e d a n ge r s o f tub e r c ul o s i s a n d t h e b e s t m e th o d s o f
p r e v en t i n g it .

The t ub er c uli n t e s t w a s fi r s t d e vi s e d by K o c h in 1 890 . Pe opl e

k ept i n s i s tin g t h a t h e fin d a cur e for t he di sea s e s in ce he a l rea dy
,
 P R E VE N T I O N 447

k n ew t he c a u s e of it H e w a s w o r ki n g o n a t ub e r c uli n i n o c ul a t i o n
.

whi c h c o uld b e i n t r o du c e d i n t o p e o pl e a s a m e a n s of w o r ki n g up a

I n t e r n a t i on a l News r eel
Fr e s h a ir is in vl
a ua b l e in t r e a t in g t ub e r c ul o s is S om e s a n ita r ium s r e q ui r e pa t ie n t s t o dr e s s
v
.

as ligh t ly a s po s s ib l e , e e n in win t e r T h e e xpo s ur e

. of la r ge a r ea s of th e b o dy t o a ir a n d
s unl igh t is h e l pful in t h e t r ea t m e n t o f t ub e r cul o s is .

Te s is t a n c e or an im m un i t y He wa s
li t e r a lly f o r c e d i n t o publi s h
.

in g his w or k b e f or e he h a d t e s t e d it s uffic i e n t ly D o c t o r s b e ga n .

t o i n o c ul a t e p e o pl e wi t h t h e tub e r c uli n t e s t d e vi se d by K o c h In .

m an y c a s e s t h e re s ul t s w ere f a t a l T ub e r c uli n i n o c ul a t i o n th e n
.

fe ll i n t o di s re put e .

At p r e s e n t a gr o up o f d o c t o r s is w o r ki n g o n a tub e r c uli n v a c
,

cin e a t t he Pa s t e ur I n s titute in Pa r i s The v a cc i n e c o n s i s t s o f .

 T UB E R C UL O S I S AN D I TS P R EVEN T I O N

gre a tly w ea ke n e d germ m a ter i a l I t is h o p e d th a t t hi s will s t i m

.

ula t e t he b o dy t o m a k e p r o t e c tiv e m a t e r i a l s whi c h will s t a y in t h e

bl o o d I f t he v a c c in a t e d p er s o n t h e n c o m e s in c on t a c t wi t h t he
.

a c tiv e di s e a s e h e is a l r e a dy f o r t ifi e d a n d p r o t e c t e d a n d s h o uld n o t
,

c o n t r a c t t h e di s e a s e I n F r a n c e t he a v e r a ge m o r t a li t y a m o n g
.
,

i n fa n t s f r o m t ub e r c ul o s i s is a b o u t 2 0 pe r c e n t I n a r e c e n t s c ien
.

t ific e xp e r i m e n t 9 69 i n f a n t s w h o w ere b o r n o f t ub e r c ul a r m o t h e r s
'

or w e r e in dir e c t c o n t a c t wi t h t he di s e a s e w e r e i n o c ul a t e d .

Am o n g t he v a c c i n a t e d i n f a n t s fo r t h e t w o ye a r s f o ll owi n g v a c
,

c in a t io n t h e m o r t a li t y fo r t hi s di s e a s e w a s a b o u t O
,
n e pe r c e n t ;

t h e m o r t a li t y w a s n il a f t e r t w o y e a r s Th e r e s i s t a n c e l a s t e d m o r e
.

th a n f o ur y e a r s H e n c e t h e i n f a n t s w e r e i mm u n iz e d o r p r o t e c t e d
.

fo r t h e p e r i o d wh e n tub e r c ul a r i n fe c t i o n is m o s t da n ge r o u s .

P r e va le n c e a n d e c o n om ic im porta n c e I t is e s t i m at e d th a t
.

t ub e r c ul o s i s c a u s e s o n e t e n t h o f a ll t h e d e a t h s in c iviliz e d c o u n
t r i e s ; u n t il r e c e n t y e a r s it w a s t h e p r i n c ip a l c a u s e o f a ll d e a th s .

Th e r e a r e o n e m illi o n fiv e hu n d r e d t h o u s a n d c a s e s o f a c t iv e
,

t ub e r c ul o s i s in t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s ; o n e hu n d r e d a n d fif t y t h o u s a n d
d e a t h s o c c u r e v e r y y e a r The m o r t a li t y t h e r e f o re is a ppr oxi
.
, ,

m a t e ly t e n pe r c e n t Th e r e a r e p r o b a bly t wi c e a s m a n y d e a t h s
.

e v e r y y e a r fr o m t h e t ub e r c l e b a c illi a s th e r e w e r e a m o n g o ur

m ili t a r y f o r c e s du r i n g t h e Wo r ld Wa r .

The di s e a s e is e s t i m a t e d t o c o s t t he Un i t e d S t a t e s
a yea r .The m o r t a li t y w a s r e du c e d fr o m 22 4 fo r e v e ry
p eo pl e in 1 9 1 1 t o in 1 922 a r e du c t i o n o f
, p e r c e n t I n .

192 8 t he d e a th s fr o m tub e r c ul o s i s w er e t he l ow e s t on r e c o r d .

QU E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 Wh a t w a s t he c o n t r i b ut i o n o f D r Ville m in t o t he i n ves t i ga t i o n
. .

o f t ub e r c ul i
o s s ?

2 D i s c us s t he e x pe r i m e n t s o f Ko c h
. .

3 N a m e Ko c h s p o s t ul a t e s
’
. .

4 L o o k up a n d give a r e p o r t o n t h e life a n d w o r k o f Ko c h
. .
 C H APTE R X LI V

D I P H TH ERI A,
S C ARLE T F E VE R ,
AN D TE TAN US

D iph t h e r ia b a c illi . T e t a n us b a c illi .

Ca n dip hther ia be c o mp lete ly er a dica ted ? I s t here a ny p rotection

a ga i n s t s c a r let f ever ? Wha t is the l
r e a ti on o f teta n us to woun ds ?

Th r ee di s e a s e s t h a t a r e s o m e wh a t S i m il a r in t h e ir m e t h od s of
a t t a c ki n g t h e b o dy a r e diph t h e r i a s c a r l e t f e v e r a n d t e t a n us
'

, , .

H is tory of diph t h e r i a F a i r ly a c c u r a t e d e sc r ipti o n s o f diph

.

t h e r i a h a v e b e e n giv e n by c e r t a i n a n c i e n t G r e e k s T h er e is e v i .

d e n c e t h a t t he di s e a s e h a s b e e n kn ow n fo r m a n y c en t u r i es I n .

1 8 2 6 a sc i e n t i s t in F r a n c e w a s t he fi r s t t o l oo k up o n diph t h er i a a s
,

a s p e c ifi c a n d i n fe c t i o u s di s ea s e t h a t w a s f r e qu e n t ly s p r e a d by

t he us e o f a c o m m o n d r i n ki n g c up H e s a id th a t c r o up w a s a
‘

t yp e o f diph t h er i a a n d h e di ffe r e n ti a t e d t h e di s ea s e fr o m t h e
,

s o re t h r o a t o f sc a r l e t f e v er .

I s ola tion of o r ga n is m Kl e b s in G e r m a n y in 1 883 di sc o v er e d

.
, , ,

b a c illi s t r ip e d wi t h b a r s o r b a n d s in t h e t hr o a t of c hild r e n s i c k
, ,

with diph t h er i a I n 1 8 84 s o m e b a n d e d b a c illi w er e i s o l a te d a n d

.
,

s t a i n e d wi t h m e t hyl e n e blu e by E m il L o e ffl e r wh o t h o u ght t h a t ,

t h e y c o uld n o t b e t h e c a u s a tiv e o r ga n i s m s o f diphth e r i a He .

wa s c o n fu s e d by t he f a c t t h a t s o m e p er f e c t ly w e ll c hild r e n ha d
th e se b a c illi in t h e i r th r o a t s a n d s o m e c hild r e n wh o w er e ill with
wh a t s e e m e d t o b e diph t h e r i a did n o t h a v e t he ge rm s Lo effler .

r w t h e b a n d e d b a c illi o n b r o t h a n d i n j e c t e d th e m u n d er t h e
g e

s ki n o f gui n e a pi gs The pi gs di e d a lth o u gh t he b a c illi did n o t

.
,

s p re a d b ut s t a y e d a t t h e p o i n t o f e n t r a n c e b e l o w t he s ki n
,
.

4 50
 I S O LA T I O N O F T OX I N 45 1

I s ola tion of toxin I n 1 888 Ro ux a n d Y e r s in S h ow e d t h a t t he

.
,

diph t her i a b a c illu s p r o du c e s a t o xi n R o ux ha d r e a liz e d t h a t

.

t he ger m s m i ght se cr e t e a d ea dly t o xi n whi c h h e a t t e m p t e d t o \

s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e ge r m s H e gr e w t h e b a c illi o n_ b r o t h a n d u s e d
.

a p o r c e l a i n fil t e r th a t h e ld b a c k t h e ge r m s b ut p e r m i t t e d t h e
,

s o lubl e m a t e r i a l t o p a s s t h r o u gh Th e fil t e r e d liquid w a s t h e n
.

i n o c ul a te d i n t o gui n e a pi gs whi c h d e v e l o p e d t he s ym p t o m s o f
diph t h e r i a Thu s Ro ux s h o w e d th a t t he diph t h er i a b a c illi kill
.

thr o u gh a t o xi n r a t h er t h a n by t h e S p r e a d of t he ge r m s F a r l e r
'

i n v e s t i ga t o r s of t hi s di s e a s e w e r e u n s u c c e s s ful b e c a u s e t h e y did
n o t r e a liz e t h a t t he ge r m s s t a y e d in t h e t h r o a t a n d s e n t o ut
t o xi n s ( e x o t o xi n s ) whi c h a ff e c t ed t h e b o dy Th e h e a l t hy p e o pl e
.

who h a d diphth e r i a ge r m s w e r e p r o b a bly diph t h e r i a c a rr i e r s a n d

t he S i c k p e o pl e w ho did n o t h a v e t he b a c illi in t h e i r th r o a t s
p r o b a bly did n o t h a v e diph t h er i a .

Th e dis c ove ry o f a n tito x in .Th e t o xi c e ffe c t s o f t he diph t h e r i a

b a c illu s le d Vo n B e h r i n g t o b e li e v e th a t bl o o d c o n t a i n e d c e r t a i n
c h e m i ca l s ub s t a n c e s whi c h w o uld kill i n v a di n g m i c r o b e s wi t h o u t

i n jur i n g t he p e r s o n or a n i m a l Af t e r a s er i e s o f e xp e r i m en t s
.
,

he fi n a lly i n o cul a t e d diph t h e r i a t o xi n s u n d er t he S ki n o f gui n e a

pi gs th a t h a d r ec o v e r e d fr o m diph t h e r i a .

T h e y w er e n o t a ff e c t e d by t h e t o xi n s but ,

wh en he i n o c ul a t e d t o xin s u n d er t h e s ki n
“

o f gui n e a pi gs th a t h a d n o t h a d diph
th er i a t h e y b e c a m e ill
, .

Vo n B e h r i n g o b t a i n e d bl oo d fr o m gui n e a
pi gs th a t h a d r e c o v e r e d fr o m diph t h er i a ,

s ep a r a t e d t he s e r u m a n d m ix e d it wi t h
, B a c t e r ium ai ph t b e r i q e

diphth er i a t oxi n H e i n j e c t e d thi s m ix

.
Th b e de de a
pp a e a ra n c e ,

m g d th
tu r e of s er u m a n d t o xin in t o h e a l t hy 225t $ 3 é fit gd m fi; S a

e n
’

fully P p d “ mm
g ui n e a pi g s a n d th e y w ere n o t i n ju r e d by
ca r e re are 1 "

it B ut wh en he m ix e d bl o o d s e r u m fr om gui n e a pi gs t h a t h a d
.
,

n e v e r h a d diph t h e r i a wi t h diph t h er i a t o xi n a n d i n o cul a t e d t h e

,
452 D I P H T H E RI A , S C A R LE T FE VE R ,
AN D T E TANU S

m ix t ur e i n t o h ea lthy gui n e a pi gs they di e d , F r o m th e se expe r i

.

m e n t s he c o n c lud e d t h a t gui n e a pi gs w hi c h h a d c o n t r a c t e d a n d
,

r e c o v e r e d f r o m diphth e r i a h a d s o m e t hi n g in t he s e r u m t h a t s a f e

g u a r d e d th e m f r o m s ub s e qu e n t a tt a c k s o f t h e di s e a s e H e c a ll e d .

thi s p r o t e c t iv e m a t er i a l a n titoxin H is exp e r i m e n t s s h o w e d t h a t

.

’
t h e gui n e a pi g s b ody m a d e p r o t e c t iv e a n t i t o xi n s t o c om b a t t h e
t o xi n s of b a c illi Th e s e a n t i t oxin s r em a i n ed in t he bl o o d o f
.

a n i m a l s th a t r e c o v e r e d f r o m diph t h er i a .

H e th en d e c id e d t o p r e p a r e a n immun e s erum whi ch w o uld

p r o te c t b a bi e s H e i n j ec te d s m a ll a m o u n t s o f diph t h e r i a t o xin s
.

i n t o s h ee p a n d c on ti n u e d t o giv e th em d o s e s o f i n c r ea s i n g s tr en gth .

Ultim a te ly t he s h e e p w er e i m m u n e t o t he m o s t p ow er ful diph

,

th er i a b a c illi Th e n he in j e c t e d s er u m fr o m t he i m m u n e s h e e p
.

i n t o guin ea pi gs a n d l a t er h e i n o c ul a te d diph t h er i a b a c illi i n to

th e s e pi gs Th e y w e r e n o t a ff e c t e d by t h e b a c illi E vid e n tly
. .
,

t he a n tit o xi n s m a d e by t h e s h e e p s b o dy w e r e e ff e c tiv e in pr o
’

te etin g t he guin ea pi gs a ga i n s t diphth er i a b a c illi On e s er i o u s .

di fficul t y wa s th a t thi s i mm un ity did n o t l a s t I n 1 89 1 Vo n .

,

B e hr i n g di s c u s s e d t he us e o f s e r u m o n b a bi e s a n d in 1 893 it
'

wa s fi r s t u s e d in t h e C hild r e n s H o s pit a l in B e r li n with s o m e

’

d egree o f s u cce s s .

Th e dis c overy of a ctive imm un ity Th e f a c t t h a t s h ee p goa t s

.
, ,

a n d h o r s es u s e d in t h e p r o du c t i o n o f a n t i t o xi n s e e m e d t o d e v e l o p

a p er m a n e n t im m u n ity t o t h e diph t h e r i a t o xi n ga v e t h e b a s i s fo r

t he n e xt s t e p in thi s w o r k P e r s o n s wh o h a d on c e b e e n s i c k wi t h
.

diphth er i a s ee m e d t o b e fr e e fr o m fur th er a tt a c k s Thi s ga v e .

s upp o r t t o t h e id e a t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t o xi n s s ti m ul a t e s t he

hu m a n b ody t o p r o du c e it s own a n t it o xin s Th e a c t i o n o f t he .

b o dy in p r o du c in g it s own p r o t e c tiv e m a t e r i a l is kn ow n a s a ct iv e
i m m un iz a ti o n a n d t he res ul t in g c on di t i on is a c t iv e i m m u n i t y
,
.

I n v e s ti ga t or s m ix e d a n ti t o xi n wi t h t o xi n a n d f o u n d th a t t h e
t oxi n wa s r en d ered h a r m l e s s Vo n B ehr i n g wa s t he fi r s t t o
.

a tt e m pt t o giv e a p e r m a n e n t i m m u n ity t o child r e n by m e a n s o f

45 4 D I PH THE R I A ,
S C A R LE T FEVE R ,
AN D T E TANU S

D iphth er i a is ca u s ed by t h e gr o wth of
diphth er i a b a c illu s t he ,

u s u a lly in t h e t h r o a t n o s e or l a r y n x Thi s ger m is a s l e n d er

, , .
,

S li gh t ly c u r v e d c lub s h a p e d r o d whi c h d o e s n o t f or m s p o r e s
‘

-
, , ,

a n d whi c h wh e n s t a i n e d S h o w s c h a r a c t er i s ti c s t a i n i n g p a r t i c l e s
, , .

Th e s e p a r t i c l e s m a k e t h e s t a i n e d o r ga n i s m e a s ily r e c o gn iz e d .

E ffe ct o n t h e b o dy Th e diph t h er i a b a c illi gr ow in t h e a ffe c t e d

.

p a r t ( t hr o a t o r t r a c h e a u s u a lly ) a n d fi r s t c a u s e i n fl a m ma t i o n a nd
s w e lli n g a n d l a t e r f o r m a gr a yi s h m e m b r a n e
, The b a c illi m ul t iply .

in t h e m e m b r a n e a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e th r ow Off vi r ul e n t t o xi n s
e

whi c h will c a u s e d e a t h wh e n a b s o r b e d by t h e b o dy in s uffi c i e n t

qu a n t i t i e s I f t h e m e m b r a n e gr ow s d ow n s uffi c i e n t ly i nt o t h e
.

t r a c h e a d e a th m a y o c c u r fr o m s uff o ca t i o n
, Th e a c t i on o f t he .

t o xi n o n t h e h e a r t is p a r t i c ul a r ly s e v e r e a n d s o m e ti m e s b r i n gs a b o ut
h e a r t d e fe c t s e v e n a f t e r t h e p a t i e n t h a s b e c om e c on v a l e s ce n t
, .

H ow diph th e ria is
c arr ie d E a ch n ew .

c a s e o f diphth er i a is
d er iv e d fr o m a p r e vi
o us c a s e o f di h t h e r i a
p
o r f r o m a diphth er i a

c a r r i er The di s ea s e .

m a y b e s p r ea d fr o m
i n fe c t ed t o w ell per
s on s by di r e c t c o n t a c t ,

as by ki s s i n g o r by
m o u t h s p r a y giv e n off
in s n e e zi n g or c o u gh
D iph t h eria is a dis e a s e t h a t ca n b e c om pl e t e ly c o n t r oll e d
fi
t h r ough s c ie n t i c m e a s ur e s I t h a s b e e n e s tim a t e d t h a t
.
lng Th C ger m I 3 ( I en
'

t h e c o s t of t r e a t in g o n e ca s e o f diph t h e r ia wil l pr o t e c t tw o
h un dr e d c h il dr e n fr o m t h e dis e a s e N
o t e t h e e ffe c t o f a n t i
.
drop let s Of S UCh month
t o xin a n d t oxin - a n t it o xin o n t h e d e a t h ra t e in N e w
p r a y s m a y e n t er t h e
or Y k s
S ta t e
.

m o uth s o f o th e r s or
?

b e b r ea th e d in wi t h t he a ir o r t h e y m a y b e c a r r i e d t o t h e m o u t h
,

f ro m t he h a n d s in ea ti n g I n dire ctly t he b acilli ma y b e tr a n s

.
,
 T R E A TM EN T 455

mit t e d t hr o u gh t h e a ge n c y of v a r i o u s o bj e c ts s u c h a s p e n c il s ,

a ppl e s c a n dy e a t i n g u t en s il s
, , ,
d r i n kin g c up s or t he lik e whi c h
, ,

h a v e b een h a n dl e d o r u s e d
by in f ec t ed pe r s o n s D iph .

t h er i a c a rr i e r s a r e s e em
in gly w e ll i n dividu a l s wh o
h a r b or t he b a c illi in t h e ir
b o di e s Pers on s wh o h a v e
.

b ee n in c on t a c t wi t h t h o s e
s u ff er i n g fr om diphth er i a
a re e s p ec i a lly lik e ly t o b e

c a rr i er s y e t a c er t a i n per
,

ce n t a ge of t h e p opul a t i o n

of a n y c o mm u n ity may
b e f o u n d h a r b or i n g t he Th d f Aub u N wY k i th t b ca n
e r e c or o
e
rn , e or , s on e a

t d f
.

tt d ll t w D ph t h b d
dl ph t her i a ge r m s a l t h o u gh a a in e in a o ns. i e ri a ca n e e ra i ca e i
,
p p p ph y l ti m ro u
er t k
ro ac c ea s r es are a en.

u n a w a r e of h a v m g b e e n
e xpo s e d t o a n y c a s e o f diph t h e r i a Th e ge r m of thi s di s e a se
.

g r o w s f re e ly i n m ilk A s t hi
. s f o o d u n d e r go e s s o m u c h h a n dli n g
dur in g p r odu c ti on t he ger m s o f diph t h er i a of t e n h a v e a n o ppor
,

t un it y t o ge t i n t o m ilk u n l e s s gr e a t c a r e is t a k e n .

Th e diph t h er i a ge r m is e a s ily kill e d by o r di n a r y d is i n f e c t a n t

s o lu t i o n s a n d is r a t h e r ea s ily kill e d by d r yi n g Wh en it is c on .

t a in e d i n p i e c e s o f m e m b r a n e it m a y liv e fo r s om e t i m e
,
H ea t .

qui c kly d e s tr oy s t h e ge rm but t em p er a tu r e as low a s fr e ez m g i s

,

n o t f a t a l t o it .

Tr e a tm e n t . The c o mm u n i c a b ili t y o f diph t h er i a r e n d e r s i m p e r a

t iv e t he s t r i c t i s o l a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s Un n e c e s s a r y fu r n i t u r e s h o uld
.

b e r e m o v e d fr o m t h e r o om a n d t h a t whi c h is l e f t s h o uld b e o f a
,

kin d e a s ily c l e an e d S e p a r a t e li n e n a n d u t e n s il s of e v e r y ki n d
.

s h o uld b e p r o vid e d fo r t h e e x c lu s iv e us e o f t h e p a t i e n t Su ch .

m a t er i a l s s h o uld b e b o il e d o r b e t t e r t r e a t e d wi t h a p ow e r ful
, , ,

ger m icid e a ft e r us e Th e a t t e n d a n t n u r s e a n d t h e phy s i c i a n

.
456 D I PH TH E RI A , S C AR LE T FEVE R ,
AN D T E TA NU S

sh o uld b e t he o n ly p e r s o n s inp a t i e n t Af t e r
c on t a c t wi t h t he .

h a n dli n g t he p a t i e n t whi c h s h o uld b e do n e a s i n f r e qu e n t ly a s

,

p o s s ibl e t he h a n d s ,

o f t he a ttendant s

s h o uld b e imm e di .

a t e ly c l e a n sed in a
g e r m i c i d a l solut ion
a n d t h e n w a s h e d wi t h

s oa p a n d wa t er .

D ip h ther ia an t i
t o xin is u s u a lly a d
m i n i s t er ed ea r ly t o
h e l p t he p a t i e n t ge t
c o n t r o l o f t he di s ea s e .

Thi s a ntit o xi n pr o
du c e s i m m u n ity wi t h
li t t l e or n o w or k o n
t he p a r t o f t h e c e ll s
Th t gt h f t h t
e s re n i i t t d b y i j t g v y m ll
o e ox n s es e n e c in a er s a

v lum i t 2 5 0 gm gui pig I f th pig di wit h i f u o f t he p a t i en t s b ody

o e n o a - . nea . e es n o r
’
.

d y a it i t i
s, s ugh t
ox c i j t i t
e no oh t n ecp du n o a or s e o ro ce

an ti t i ox n Aft
.
giv t
er aim b l d i en d w f
e, m t h h oo S u s C I
ra 1 1nm mrou I ] 1 t y 1 S e ors e ,

th um w it h it ti t i i t d f m th b l d d
a
e s er

g i t a n t d
es e Th i t im
.
s an
l itt l
s
p ox n

um i m i
e, a
s se

d w it h m
a ra e
e s er
k n o w s
n
ro
a s
xe
p a
e
S S l V C
oo

so
an

i j t d i t
t xi
o
liv
n an
th
es ,
d t h m ixtu
um i
e s er
e

h w t s s t i
re

o
gui
n ec e

ti t xi
n
pig I f t h pig
d will b
o co n a n a n
n o a
ff
” H mun I t y
o
n ea
n an
.

W h e n
e e
e

ec
'

tiv e.L k up th x t m u t f m t i l d tim i t he a n t i t oxm 11 6 11

oo e e ac a o n s o a er a an e n
v lv d i
o e n th i s s ta n dar diz a t io n pr o c e s s .

t r a liz e s t h e t o xi n s of

t he i n v a din g ger m s t he p a ti en t s b ody d e v el op s it s own a n t i ’

,

t o xi n s Thi s re s ult s in a n a c tiv e p e r m a n e n t i m m u n i t y The

.
, .

a d m i n i s t er i n g of a s uffi c i e n t qu a n tity o f a n tit o xi n is t h e p r i m a r y

r e m edy for t he c u r e o f diphth e r i a Wh en a phy s ici a n is n o t .

c a ll e d e a rly e n o ugh t he c a se m a y a dv a n c e s o fa r th a t t he a d
,

min i s tr a t i on o f a n tit o xi n is v a lu e l e s s To o m u c h t o xi n h a s t h en .

b een p r o duce d by t he i n v a di n g germ s for t he a n ti t o xi n t o n e u

t r a liz e I f o t h er m em b e r s o f t he f a m ily a r e in c o n t a c t wi t h t he
.

p a t i en t a nd h a v e n o t b e e n i mm u n iz e d by t he t o xi n a n t i t o x in -
45 8 D I P H T H E RI A ,
S C A R LE T FE VE R ,
AN D T E TA NU S

'

a nd t he
'

a c t e r is t ic s of t he di s e a s e , best m et ho d s of cont ro lli n g

it I f a phy s i c i a n is c o n s ul t e d a s s o o n a s s u s pi c i o u s s ym p t o m s
.

a pp e a r he c a n a d m i n i s t e r a n t it o xi n i m m e di a t e ly a n d p r o b a bly
,

p r e v e n t a s e r i o u s c a s e o f t he di s e a s e C hild r e n s h o ul d b e t a ugh t .

t o k ee p p e n c i l s a n d a ll a r t i c l e s h a n dl e d by o t h er c hild r e n o ut
o f t h e ir m o u t h s S i n c e diph t h e r i a is a dr o pl e t i n f e c t i o n t he
’
‘

.
,

s a m e r ul es fo r p r e v e n t i o n a pply h e r e a s in o t h e r di s e a s e s s p r e a d

by t hi s m e a n s P a t i e n t s w h o a r e c o n v a l e s c i n g fr o m diph t h e r i a
.
'

s h o uld b e k e pt a w a y fr o m w e ll p e r s o n s un t il a ll d a n ger o f s p r e a d

in g t he i n fe c t i o n is e li m i n a t e d .

S C A R LE T F E V E R

f e v e r is a di se a s e S i m il a r t o diph t h er i a in t h a t it w o r k s
S ca r l e t ,

th r o u gh t o xi n s Th e c a u s a t iv e o r ga n i s m h a s n o t b e e n d e fi n i t e ly
.

i so l a t e d A c h a i n fo r m o f S ph er i c a l b a c ter i a c a ll e d s t r e p t o c o c c i
.

is a lw a y s f o u n d in t h e n os e a n d t h r o a t o f s c a r l e t f e v er p a t i e n t s ,

b ut t h er e is c o n s id er a bl e d o ubt a s t o wh e t h e r thi s is r e a lly t he

c a u s a tiv e o r ga n i s m S e v e n ty pe r c e n t o f t h e d e a t h s fro m s c a r l e t
.

f e v e r a r e a m o n g c hild r e n u n d er t e n y e a r s o f a ge .

A t es t s i m il a r t o t h e S c hi c k t e s t h a s r e c e n tly b ee n pr e p a r e d
, ,

t o d e t er m in e t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f s c a r l e t f e v er i m m u n ity .

I t w a s d e vi s e d by t w o d o c t o r s G F a n d G H D i c k a n d is ,
. . . .
,

c a ll ed t h e D ick tes t I t c o n s i s t s o f pu t ti n g s m a ll qu a n t i t i e s o f
.

t o xi n p re p a r e d f r o m t he s t r ep t o c o cc u s b a c illu s u n d e r t he s ki n o f
t h e c hild t o b e t e s t e d Th e r e is a r e a c t i o n s i m il a r t o t h a t in t h e
.

S c hi c k t e s t .

I f a c hild is n o t i m m u n e s ub s e qu e n t d o se s o f t o xi n a r e in o c u
,

l a t e d I t is n o t n e ces s a r y t o n e u t r a liz e t he t o xi n wi t h a n t i t o xi n
.

a s in t h e c a s e o f diph t h e r i a b e c a u s e t h e s c a r l e t f e v e r t o xi n s a r e
,

n o t a s p o w e r ful a s t h e diph t h e r i a t o xi n s Thi s i n o c ul a t i o n cr e .

a t e s a n a c t iv e i m m u n ity in t h e c hild by s ti m ul a ti n g it s b o dy t o

m a k e it s o w n a n tit o xi n s The D i c k t e s t a n d it s s ub s e qu e n t in
.
‘

o c ula t io n s a r e no t u s e d t o t h e e xt e n t o f t he S chi c k t e s t a n d i no c
 T E T A NU S 45 9

ula t io n s , b ut it s us e s ee m s t o b e gr o wi n g t ly Th e r e is con s a n t .

a l s o a n a n t it o xi n fo r s c a r l e t f e v er I t is p r e p a r e d f r o m t he
.

h or s e s bl o o d in a wa y S i m il a r t o t he p r e p a ra ti o n o f diph t he r i a
’

a n t i t o xi n I t h a s b e e n u s e d wi t h c o n s id era bl e s u c c e s s t o pr o
.

duce a n i m m e di a t e i m m u n i t y in c a s e t he c hild is in t he i n i t i a l
s t a ge s o f s c a r l e t f e v e r .

Th e m e t h o d o f t r a n s m i s s i o n o f s c a r l e t f e v e r is t h r o u gh d r o pl e t
i n fe c t i o n S i m il a r t o t h a t o f diph t h e r i a .

( L o c K J A w)
T E TA N U S

Te t a n u s a di s e a s e t h a t de v e lbps fr o m t he ger m s e n t e r i n g a
,

dee p i n j u r y o r w o u n d is due t o t he a c t i o n o f t h e t o xi n s o f a pa r
,

t ic ula r m ic r o Or ga n is m T h e s e t o xi n s a ffe c t t he b r a i n a n d s pi n a l
.

c ord . N o n o t i cea bl e e ff e c t is p r o du ce d in t he w o u n d t h r o u gh
whi c h t he ge r m e n t e r s F o r t u n a t e ly t e t a n u s is r a r e in t hi s c o u n
.
,

t r y , b ut wh e n it d o e s o c c u r t h e d e a t h r a t e is v e r y hi gh
«
Th e .

e x t e n s iv e p r e v a l e n c e o f t e t a n u s a m o n g t he s o ldi e r s w o u n d e d in t he

l a t e Wo r ld Wa r w a s a s c r ib e d t o
t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f th e i r w o u n d s
wi t h s o il f r o m a hi ghly c ultiv a t e d
t e r r i t o r y whi c h h a d b e e n r e gul a r ly
a nd fr e qu e n t ly fe r t iliz e d wi t h
m a n u r e ; Thi s s o il c o n t a i n ed t he

g e r m s o f t h e di s e a s e .

C a us e Thi s di s e a s e is c a u s e d
.

by t he t e t a n u s b a c illu s a r o d ,

s h a p e d m ic r o Or ga n is m whi c h r o w s
g
in l o n g S l e n d e r threads These ll t h m lv
’
C t i b t i
'

er a n up
ac er a ro e se es

t hr e a d s brea k up l I l t O S hO I t e I ‘id ’ t hsi k d w l

e a l t f m c p ene I a o or a s or e . n
t h ph t m i eg ph f th o o t t u cr o
g ra o e e an s or an

m o t il e rods s urrofin de d by {13 i m th

. s p pp s t
e s d f th
or e a ea rs a on e e n o e
b illu ac s .

ge ll a . Th e se b a c i ll i e v e n t u a lly b e
co m e no n m o til e l o s e th e i r fl a ge ll a a n d e a c h f o r m s a s p o r e a t o n e
'
-
, ,

e nd . Thi s giv e s t o th e m th e i r c h a r a c t e r i s ti c d r u m s t i c k a pp e a r
4 60 D I P H TH E R I A ,
S C AR LE T FEVE R , AN D T E TANU S

a n ce . Un d er f a v o r a bl e co n diti o n s th e s e s p o r e s rem a i n vir ul e n t fo r

y e a r s Th e t e t a n u s b a c illu s w a s fi rs t di s c o v er e d by N ico la ier in 1 8 84
.

a n d c ultiv a t e d by Ki t a s a t o in 1 88 9 S h o r t ly a ft e r th i s Vo n B eh
.
,

r i n g s uc c ee d e d in p r o du c i n g a n e ff e c tiv e t e t a n u s a n tit o xin .

O cc urr e n c e T e t a n u s b a c illi a re f o u n d in d a m p s o il a n d in du s t
.
,

es p e c i a lly ar o u n d s t a bl e s in m a n u r e a n d in du s t Of t he h o u s e a n d
, ,

s t r ee t . Th e y a r e s o pl e n tiful in t h e i n t es ti n a l co n t e n t s o f h o r s e s
a n d c o w s wh o se w a s t e s a r e c o mm o n ly e m pl o y e d t o f e r t iliz e ga r
,

d e n s t h a t t e t a n u s is s o m e ti m e s r e ga r d e d a s a di s e a se c o n tr a c t e d
,

i n dir e ctly f r o m th e s e a n i m a l s Ot h er h e r biv or o u s a n im a l s a l s o

.

h a r b or t h e ger m Th e b a c illi a r e like ly t o b e f o u n d o n r u s ty n a il s

.

o r i m pl e m e n t s whi c h h a v e b ee n in c o n t a c t with t h e gro u n d o n ,

di r t y s pli n t ers a n d o n gu n s h o t
,
‘

T e t a n u s b a c illi a r e a n a er o bi c ( c a n n o t gr o w wh e n e xp os e d t o -

t h e a ir ) t h e r e f o r e d e e p w o u n d s a r e m o s t f a v o ra bl e fo r th e ir de
,

v e lo pm e n t Th e y a r e u n u s u a l in th at th e y do n o t gr ow o n h e a l t hy
.

livi n g ti s s u e s but o n c ells whic h h a v e b e e n t o r n a n d kill e d B a dly

,
.

l a c er a t e d w o u n d s p r e s e n t a m o r e f a v o ra bl e s ur f a c e fo r t he gr owth
o f t e t a n u s th a n do th o s e m a d e by v e r y k e e n c l e a n i n s t r u m e n t s .

H ow t e ta n u s e n t e r s t h e b o dy The b a c illi ga i n e n tr a n c e t o
.

t h e b o dy t h r o u gh w o u n d s v a r yi n g in s iz e f r o m a n ee dl e p r i c k t o
o p e r a ti o n w o u n d B e i n g a n a er o bi c t he o r ga n i s m s i n fe c t
” “

an .
,

d ee p l a c er a t e d w o u n d s s u c h a s t h o s e m a d e o n t he h a n d by t he
a c c id e n t a l e xpl os i o n o f a t o y pi s t o l o r w o u n d s o n t h e f ee t m a d e by

t he d e e p pu n c tu r e o f a r u s t y n a il R u s t y n a il s th e m s e lv e s n e ve r
.

p ro duce l o c kj a w b ut t he b a c t e r i a a r e fre que n t ly h eld in t he r o ugh

,

s p o t s o f t h e r u s t a n d c o n s e qu e n tly e n t e r t h e b o dy if t h e n a il

h a pp e n s t o pu n ctu r e t he fl e s h Oc c a s i o n a lly t he di s e a s e o c c ur s
.
,

with o ut a n y e vid e n t w o u n d I n c a s e s lik e thi s t he b a c t er i a h a v e

.
,

m a d e a n e n tr a n c e th r o u gh so m e u n n o tic e d a b r a s i o n o f t he s ki n o r
t he m uco u s m e m b r a n e .

T e t a n u s h a s b ee n o b se r v e d n o t o n ly in m a n but in d o m e s tic a t e d ,

a n i m a l s s uch a s t he h o rs e s h e e p do g c o w a n d pig, , , , .
46 2 D I P H TH E RI A ,
S C AR LE T FE VE R ,
AN D T E TANU S

P r e v e n tio n . C a re
h o uld b e t a ke n t o a v o id c u t s a n d w o u n d s o f
s

a ll ki n d s e s p e c i a lly fr o m o bj ec t s s o il e d wi t h m a n u r e o r f er t iliz e d
,

s o il . Th e r e s t r i c ti o n o f t he us e o f fi r ew o r k s du r i n g t h e p a s t few
y e a r s h a s v e r y m a r k e dly r e du c e d t he n u m b er o f c a s e s o f t e t a n u s
o c c u r r i n g o v er t h e c o u n t r y a t l a r ge Al l gu n s h o t a n d
. F o ur t h
o f July wo u n d s a n y e xt e n s iv e o r d ee p w o u n d s an d e ver y fo r m
, ,

o f pu n c t u r e d w o u n d s s h o uld r e c e iv e c a re fr o m a phy s i c i a n Wh er e .

s u c h w o u n d s h a v e h a d di r t d r iv e n i n t o t h e m t h e d e s i r a bili t y o f
,

a n i n j e c t i o n o f t e t a n u s a n ti t o xi n is v e r y gr e a t Th e a n t i t o xi n
.

m u s t b e giv e n e a r ly a s it is p r e v e n t a t iv e a n d n o t a c ur e o f
t et a n u s . Wo un d s s u s p e c t e d o f c o n t a i n i n g t e t a n u s o r ga n i s m s
s h o uld b e o p e n e d a n d t h o r o u ghly c l e a n e d G a uz e b a n d a ge s
.
,

whi c h a r e p o ro u s S h o uld b e u s e d n e v er a ir t i ght b a n d a ge s

, ,
-
.

Q U E S TI O N S A ND S UGG E S TI O N S

1 . D i s c us s t h e di s c o ver y o f t he c a us a t ive o r ga n i s m o f di ph t h er i a .

2 . D i s c us s t h e w o r k o f E m il e R o ux .

3 . k
Re v ie w a n d r e po r t o n t he w o r l e a di n g t o t he di s c o ve r y of

a nt i t o xi n .

4 .C o n t r a s t a c t ive a n d pa s s ive i m m un i t y .

5 .D i s c us s t h e S c h i c k t e s t a n d it s i m po r t a n c e .

6 .H o w do di ph t h e r i a b a c illi ga i n e n t r a n c e t o t he b o dy ?
7 .H o w do di ph t h e r i a b a c illi a t t a c k t h e b o dy ?
8 .Wh a t e d uc a t i o n a l pr o pa ga n d a fo r p a r e n t s is s t ill n e ce s s a ry b e
fo re di ph t he r i a c a n b e e r a di c a t e d ?
9 C o n t r a s t a n d c o m p a r e s ca r l e t fe ve r wi t h di ph t h e r i a in c a us e ,
.

p r e v e n t i o n a n, d t r e a t m e n t .

1 0 E xpl a i n w hy t h e pr e ve n t i on o f a di s e a s e is m or e t o b e d e s i r e d
.

t h a n t h e c ur e .

1 1 Wh a t is t he s i m il a r i t y b e t wee n t e t a n u s a n d di ph t he r i a ?
.

12 Whe r e a r e t he t e t a n us b a c illi f o un d ?
.

1 3 Wh a t is t he r e l a t i o n o f t e t a n us t o diffe r e n t t y p e s o f w o un d s ?
.

1 4 I s t h e r e a n y t r ut h in t h e b e li e f t h a t o n e w il l s ur e ly ge t t e t a n us
.

if he c ut s h i m s e lf be t we e n t he t hum b a n d fi r s t fi n ge r ?
1 5 Wh y a r e t e t a n us o r ga n i s m s fo un d in di r t y pl a c e s m o r e co m m o n l y
.

t h a n di ph t h e r i a o r s c a r l e t f e ver o r ga n i s m s ?
1 6 Wh a t h a s c a us e d t he re d uc t i o n in t h e n u m b e r o f de a t h s fr o m
.

t e t a n us ?
 Q UE S TI O N S AN D S UG G E S TI ON S 463

17 . How S ho uld a wo un d b e t re a t e d if t her e is a ny pos s ibili t y of

t e t a n us i n fe c t i on ?

18 . Lo k o up an d re p or t on t he life an d work of L o e ffl er a n d ot r

Vo n B e hr i n g .

19 . Lo o k up t he h e a t h l bull e t i n of yo ur vill a ge , ity

c , or s t a t e a n d

pl o t a c ur ve o f t h e n um b er o f c a s e s o f t e t a n us r ep o r t e d a n n ua lly for
t h e l a s t t e n ye a rs . We re a ny of t he ca ses fa t a l ?

S U PP LE M E N T A RY R E AD I N G S
B r o a dh ur s t , J
H ow We Res is t D is ea s e ( B L ippin co t t J . .

De K r uit , P H M ic robe H un te r s ( H ar co ur t , B r a c e
. .
,

v
Gr e a e s , J E
. E O , E leme n ta ry B a c teriology ( W B S a un de r s
. . . . .

Ro s e n a u, M J
P reventive M edici ne a nd H ygie ne ( D Apple t o n
. .
 C H AP TE R X LV

TYP H O I D FE VE R

B a ct e r ium t y ph o s um S om e h a v fl
e a ge lla

Wha t is the da n ger o f yp

t fection in the Un ited S ta tes Wha t a re
hoi di n

s om e of t he m eas ur es of p r even ti n g typ ho id i nfec ti o n Why a re oys ters

a grea ter s our ce o f con ta mi n a ti on t ha n m ilk, i n s ome c ities ?

P r e v al e n c e of t yph oid fe v e r . D u r i n g t h e S p a n i s h-Am e r i c a n

Wa r t yph o id s p r e a d pidly t h r o u gh t he e m b a r k a t i o n c a m p in
ra

F l o r id a . M o r e m e n di e d o f f e v er t h a n w er e kill e d in b a ttl e .

D u r i n g t h e S o uth Afr i c a n Wa r t h e B r iti s h a r m y l o s t 7 5 8 2 m e n

,

fr o m w o un d s a n d 8 2 2 5 fr o m t yph o id T o da y a ll s o ldi er s in o ur
.
-
,

a r m y a r e r e qui r e d t o b e v a c c i n a t e d a ga i n s t t yph o id f e v e r ; a n d

typh o id is p r o b a bly r a r e r in m ili t a r y c a m p s th a n in t he m o s t

h ea l t hful c i t i e s a n d t own s F o rm er ly t he d e a th r a t e o f typh o id
.
,

in t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s wa s f or t y per I n t h e l a s t few y e a r s
thi s n u m b e r h a s b e e n r e du c e d t o f o u r per
S i n c e t he Wo r ld Wa r t h e d e a t h r a t e f r o m t yph o id h a s b een r e
,

duc ed m o s t a m o n g m e n b e t w e e n 2 9 a n d 4 5 y e a r s o f a ge Thi s .

is l a r ge ly due t o t h e e du c a ti o n a n d p r a c t i ce in di s e a s e p r e v e n t i on
by va cc i n a t i o n giv e n t o t he m illi on s o f m en who w e r e in t he a r m y .

C a us e .Typh o id is due t o a s m a ll m o t il e r o d s h a p e d b a e t e
, ,
-

r ium t h e typ hoid ba cillus

,
I t is s h o r t p r o b a bly a b o ut o n e h a lf
.
,

t he l e n gt h o f t h e diphth e r i a b a c illu s .

N a tur e a n d s ym ptom s o f typh oid fe ve r The di s e a s e is l o c a t e d

.

p r i m a r ily in t he lin i n g o f t he i n t e s t i n e The ge r m s t h e n p en e

.

4 64
4 66 T YP H OI D FEVE R

d e t er m i n e d by a ddi n g bl o o d o f a p a t i e n t wh o ha s typh o id o r ,
.

h a s r e c e n t ly h a d it t o s o m e t yph o id b a c illi o n a gl a s s s lid e

, .

I t ‘
I I J‘ I l
. mv mv o v mv l t n
I

v \
6
A
C

Th e dia gr a m o n t h e l e ft , s h o w s fr e e s wim m in g t y ph o id b a c ill i Th e o n e o n t h e r igh t , s h o w s

.

t yph o id b a c ill i c lum p e d in m a s s e s b y t h e pr e s e n c e o f a ggl ut in in s fr o m t h e b lo o d o f a t yph o id pa

t ie n t
. T h e a ggl ut ina t io n t e s t i s us ua lly m a d e in a h a n gin g d r o p o n a gla s s s l id e a s s h o w n a b o e v .

Wh e n t hi s d r o p is
vi ew e d u n d er t he m i cr o s c o p e t h e ge r m s a r e ,

s e e n c lu m p e d t o ge t h er in m a s s es .

On e a t t a c k o f t yph o id p r o du c e s i m m u n i t y T hi s is p r o b a bly due .

t o t he f a c t t h a t s o m u c h p r o t e c t iv e m a t e r i a l is d e v e l o p e d t o c o m b a t
t he p o w er ful t yph o id t o xi n t h a t m u c h is l e ft o v e r a n d s t a y s in t h e
bl oo d for lif e S i n c e t h e t o xi n is n o t a n e x o t o xi n a s in diph
.

th er i a a n ti t o xi n w o uld b e v a lu e l e s s a n d p r o b a bly is n o t p r odu c e d

, .

The b o dy c o m b a t s a di s e a s e ge r m whi c h p r o du c e s a n e n d o t o xi n
by fi gh t i n g t he a c t u a l ger m s wi t h t h e i r i n c l o se d t o xi n s .

D ia gn o s is AS e a r ly a di a gn o s i s a s p o s s ibl e m u s t b e m a d e if
.

t h e p a t i e n t is t o ge t t he b e s t p o s s ibl e t r e a t m e n t An e a r ly qu a r .

a n t i n e m u s t b e e s t a bli s h e d t o p r e v e n t t h e s p r e a d o f t h e di s e a s e

t o o t h e r p e o pl e .
 M E T H OD OF S P R E A D 467

On e m e th o d di a gn o s i s is t h e e xa m i n a ti on of c ul t u r e s m a d e
of ,

fr om t he fe c e s (e xc re t a ) of t h e p a t i e n t fo r t he p r e s e n c e o f t yph o id
,

g e r m s . D o c t o rs t a k e s a m pl e s o f f e c a l m a t er i a l f r o m t h e p a t i e nt

a n d s e n d it t o t h e B o a r d o f H e a l t h l a b or a t o r i e s Th e r e t h e m a .

t e r ia l is m ix e d wi t h m e di a a n d t he d e v e l o pi n g b a c t er i a l c o l o n i es
a r e e x a m i n e d fo r t yph o id b a c illi .

An o t h e r m e t h o d of di a gn o s i s is t h e Wid a l t e s t Thi s c on .

s i s t s o f s e p a r a t i n g s e r u m f r o m t he p a t i e n t s bl o o d a n d m ixi n g
’

it wi t h a c ul t u re of k n ow n t yph o id ge r m s I f t he p a t i e n t ha s
.

t yph o id t h e bl o o d s e r u m will c a u s e t h e ge r m s t o b e c o m e a g
,

g lu t in a t e d A gg
. luti n i n s fo r t yph o id a re pre sent in t h e bl o o d
o n ly wh e n t yph o id b a c illi a r e in t h e b o dy o r if a p er s o n h a s

r ec e n t ly r e c o v e r e d fr o m t yph o id Th e Wid a l t e s t is a m ea n s o f
.

diffe r e n t i a t i n g typh o id f e v er fr o m o t h e r di se a se s th a t p r o du c e
fe v e r .

M e t h o d of S pr e a d Typh o id ger m s a r e s p r ea d l a r ge ly th r o u gh
.

m a t e r i a l s c o n t a m i n a t e d by t h e e x c r e t a O f t yph o id p a t i e n t s Thi s .

m a y b e a n d m o s t f r e qu e n t ly is wa ter whi c h h a s b e e n p o llu t ed by

, ,

s e w a ge a n d m ilk whi c h h a s

b ec om e i n f e c t e d p r o b a bly
by b e i n g k e p t in c o n t a i n e r s
whi c h h a v e b e e n w a s h e d in
p o llute d w a t e r Ra w foods .

s uch as oy s t e rs if t h e y
,

a r e gr o w n wh e r e th e y c o m e

in c o n t a c t with se w a ge ,

m a y c a u s e t yph o id f e v e r .

R aw f o o d s s u c h a s c el e r y
a n d l e t t u ce whi c h m a y
,
A ggl ut i i f v i u
n ns ot y p m b
ar o
y p st i th
es a e re s en n e

bl d oo Th p tu
. e th ic l ft h w
re on gglut e t d e s o s a in a e

h a v e b e en w a t er ed OI t yph id b illi t h igh t gglut i t d p um i

'
o ac , on e r a na e ne on a

i cocc .

w a sh e d W i t h c on t a m in a t
in g w a t e r a r e fr e qu e n t ly c a rr i er s o f t he di s e a s e
,
I n s ects p r i n c i
.
,

p a lly t he h o u se fli es whi c h tr a v e l rea dily fr om filth t o e xp o s e d

,
4 68 T YP H OI D FE VE R

food s , t i u s c a rr i er s of typh o id germ s Huma n bein gs

a re n o or o .

m a y a l s o c a r r y a n d tr a n s m it t h e ge r m s .

P r e ve ntion Typh o id fe v e r c a n b e p r e v e n te d b o t h by k ee pi n g
.

t he t yph o id b a c illi fr o m e n t e r i n g t he b o dy a n d by d e s t r o yin g t he ,

b a c illi S i n ce t yph o id ger m s a r e s p r ea d by m a t er i a l s p o llute d by

.

hu m a n e x cr e t i o n s o r by t h e h o u s e fly o r a hu m a n c a rr i er s o m e o f
, , ,

t he m e t h o d s o f p r e v e n t i n g a typh o id o u t b r e a k a r e t he f o ll owi n g
1 D i s i n f e c t a ll e x c r e t a of t yph o id p a ti e n t s o r c a r r i e rs with
.

c hl o r id e o f li m e All c l o thi n g a n d b e d li n e n o f a p a ti en t s h o uld

.

b e di s i n f e ct e d by b e i n g b o il e d o r s o a k e d in c ar b oli c a cid o r b ichlo

r id e of m e r c u r y s o lu t i o n .

2 Pr o vid e a go od s ew a ge s y s te m
. .

3 Pr o vid e a goo d w a t e r s upply

. C hl or in a t e t he w a ter
.
( B o il .

t he w a t er if an in f ec ti o n is s u s p ec t e d ) .

4 P a s t e u r iz e a ll m ilk o r r e qui r e s u c h s a n i t a r y m ilki n g c o n di

.
,

t i o n s t h a t p a s t e u r iz a ti o n is un n e c e s s a r y f F o ll o wi n g t h e in t r oduc

ti on of p a s t e u r iz a ti o n o f m ilk in s e v er a l citi e s in 1 9 14 th er e wa s a ,

m a r k e d d ec r e a s e in typh o id .

5 Th e r e S h o uld b e p r o p er h a n dli n g o f f oo d s in t he gr oc er y in t he
.
,

m a r k e t a n d in t h e h om e
, F oo d s h o uld b e p r o p e r ly c o v e re d a n d
.

p ro te cted fr om fli e s F o od s whi ch h a v e b een e xp o s e d s h o uld b e

.

th o r ou ghly w a sh e d .

6 H ea lth c e r tifi c a t es s h o uld b e r e qui r e d fr o m p e r s o n s who

.

h a n dl e f o ods in o r d er t o e li m in a t e t he d a n ger o f typh o id c a rr i er s .

7 Th er e s h o uld b e a p r o p e r c o n tr o l o f t h e h o u s e fly
. The de .

s t r u c ti o n o f th e i r b re e di n g pl a ce s k e e pi n g t h e p r e m i s es cl ea n a n d
,

ga r b a ge c o v er e d s c r ee n i n g t he h o u s e s a n d s cr e e n i n g t he s ick
, ,

ro o m s will h e lp e xt e r m i n a t e t h e h o u s e fly .

8 V a c a t i o n i s t s n u r s es d o c t o r s a n d a n y o th e r p eo pl e who a r e
.
, , ,

like ly t o b e e xp o s e d t o typh o id i n f e c t i o n o r u n s a n it a r y c o n diti o n s ,

s h o uld b e v a c c i n a t e d P e o pl e m a y b e i m m u n iz e d a t a n y c li n i c
.
,

p r o vidi ng th ey c a n n o t a ffo r d t o h a v e t h e ir own d o c t o r s i m m u n iz e

the m The i m m u n ity u s ua lly l a s t s f ro m t wo t o fo ur y ea r s
. .
4 70 T Y P H OI D FEVE R

thi s wa y , but th a t did n o t e xpl a i n t he ca u s e o f t he o th er c a s es s o ,

t h e i n v e s ti ga ti o n c o n t i n u e d .

Th e w a t e r s upply o f m o s t c i t i e s is c o n s t a n tly t e s t e d for b a c illu s

c o li , a m i c ro or ga n i s m f o u n d in a ll hu m a n i n t e s t i n e s I f t he .

b a c il l i c o l i a r e
p r e s e n t t h e r e is ,

t h e lik e lih o o d o f
typh o id a l s o b e i n g
p r e s e n t T h e .

w a t er of m a n y
5 c i t i e s is c hl o r i n a t e d

a n d thi s r e s ul t s in
c i wu . S PA N I S H \\0 RLD
AM E Q IC A N WA R pu r ifi c a ti o n T h e .

A u gs r g e on l f th U S A m y h
e n e ra o e mp d th d th b a c i l l i
r as C O lI
co a re
are e ea

t y ph i d du i g t h fi t t w
. .

t
ra e s o fm t en t d i h pit l f
rea e n os a s or o r n e rs o
ll
,

y f
e a rs ot h diffree t w Th d
e re ni ars
g m i d i t t h um b e p r aa C t l c
ra a n y n e v er
ca e s e n er

v y
.

o f d th i
ea s n e er cas e s
p r e s e n t in w a t er
.

whi c h is th o r o ughly c hl o r i n a t e d S i n c e t he w a t er s upply wa s .

c hl o r i n a t e d it c o uld n o t h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s ibl e fo r t hi s e pid e m i c

, .

Th e m ilk s upply w a s i n v e s t i ga t e d a n d n o thi n g d e fi n it e w a s

f o u n d The i n v e s t i ga t o r s p a id p a r ti c ul a r a t t e n t i o n t o m ilk
.
,

b e c a u s e in 1 9 1 3 b e fo r e p a s t e u r iz a t i o n a n i n fe c t e d m ilk s upply wa s
, ,

r e s p o n s ibl e fo r 5 2 1 c a s e s a n d 6 1 d e a t h s f r o m typh o id I ce .

cr ea m w a t e r i c e s a n d b o t t l e d w a t e r s uppli e s w e r e i n v e s t i ga t e d
, , .

Aga i n th er e w a s n o e vid e n c e o f i n f e c ti o n Un c o o k e d f o o d s p a r .
,

t ic ula r ly l e t tu c e a n d c e l e r y w e r e s c r uti n iz e d with c a r e ,

No .

wo r thwhil e e vid e n c e w a s r e v e a l e d t h e r e .

Th e fi r s t bit o f e vid en c e w a s th a t a gre a t n u m b er o f t h e r e

m a i n i n g c a s es ga v e a hi s t o r y o f h a vi n g e a t e n o y s t e r s a ppr o xi
m a t e ly t wo w ee k s b e f o re t h e o n s e t o f t h e s y m pt o m s F ift y fiv e .
-

p e r c e n t o r 5 0 6 c a s es ga v e a d e fi n i t e hi s t o r y o f h a vi n g e a t e n

o y s t er s I n Ap r il 1 9 1 5 a s i m il a r c o n di t i o n h a d e xi s t e d
.
, ,
I n an .

o utb r ea k o f 1 50 c a s e s 8 0 per c e n t s ee m e d t o b e due t o t h e us e

,

Of r aw o y s t er s E v e n wh en o y st ers are gr ow n in c l e a n u n i n
.
,
 TH E I NVE STI GA TI O N or A T Y P I CA L E P I DE M I C 47 1

fe c t e d w a t e r t h e y a r e fr e qu e n t ly c o n t a m i n a t e d by t he p eo pl e
,

wh o ga t h e r s hip o r o t h e r wi se h a n dl e th e m
, ,
Th e s a m e s a f e
.

u a r d s whi c h h a v e b ee n e s t a bli s h e d t o p r o t e c t m ilk f r o m {i l lu

g
ti o n a t ea c h a n d e v e r y s t a ge o f it s h a n dli n g m u s t b e ex er c i se d
in t he h a n dli n g o f o y s t e r s .

A nu m b er o f t he r e m e di e s h a v e b ee n s u gge s t e d in o r d e r t o pr e
v e n t s i m il a r e pid e m i c s o f t yph o id f e ve r The s h or e s a n d w a t er
.

th a t h a v e b een s e t a p a r t fo r o y s te r b e d s s h o uld b e c o n s t a n t ly
g u a r d e d a n d e x a m i ne d S e w. a g e a n d t h e c o n t e n t s o f c e s s p o o l s

s h o ul d n o t b e e m pti e d n e a r t h e m B o a t s b o t h pl ea s ur e a n d Co m
.
,

m e r c ia l s h o uld b e p r o hibit e d in s u c h di s t r i c t s Oy s t er s fr o m a
'

.
,

p o llut e d s t r e a m s h o uld n o t b e tr a ns pl a n t e d The ga t h er i n g p a c k .

,

in g a n d s hipp in g o f a ll s h e llfi s h s h o uld b e e ffi c i e n t ly s up er vi s ed ,

a n d t h e p eo pl e w h o h a n dl e th e m in a n y w a y s h o uld r e c e iv e fr e

qu en t a n d t h o r o u gh e x a m i n a t i o n s .

I n t he s u m m e r o f 1 92 8 t e s t s w e r e m a d e o f t h e w a t e r s o f v a r i
,

o us b a t hi n g b ea c h es n e a r di ff er e n t c i t i e s a n d in m a n y ca ses t h e

w a t e r wa s fo un d t o b e p o llut e d Th e C o m m i s s i o n er s o f H e a l t h
.

s u gges t e d t h at b a t hi n g b e p r o hibi t e d in t h e s e pl a c e s Thi s wa s .

n o t d o n e a s c er t a i n a u t h o r i t i e s c l a i m e d th a t t h e v a lu e o f t h e s un

s hi n e a n d b a t hi n g w a s s o gr e a t a n d t h a t it wa s so p o s s ibl e a n d
,

I n N ew Y k
or city t h e re h a s b e e n a s t e a dy d e c r e a s e of d e a t h s fr o m t y ph oid fev e r s in c e pa s
t e uriza t io n of m il k ha s b e e n r e q uire d .
472 T YP H OI D FEVE R

eas y t o s e c u r e i mm u n i t y f r o m t yph o id fe v e r by v a c c i n a t i o n t h a t ,

a ll b a t h e r s s h o uld b e i m m u n iz e d a n d t hu s b e p r o t e c t e d M a ny .

fo ll o w e d t hi s s u gge s ti o n I t is a lw a y s a dvi s a bl e fo r b a t h e rs u s i ng
.

w a t e r t h a t m a y b ec o m e c o n t a m i n a t ed t o b e v a c c i n a t ed I n t hi s .

wa y s u c h r e c r e a t i o n will b e h e a l t hful a s Well a s pl e a s u r a bl e .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UG G E S TI O N S
1 . C o m p a r e t y ph o id fe ve r s t a t i s t i cs in t h e S p a n i s h Am e r i c a n -

Wa r a n d t he Wo r ld Wa r . .

2 D i s c us s t he d a n ge r s o f t yph o id c a r r i e r s t o a co m m un i t y
. .

3 N a m e t w o a n t i b o di e s pr o d uc e d b y t h e b o dy a s pr o t e c t i o n
.

a ga i n s t t y ph o id D i s c us s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e a c h
. .

4 D i s c us s t he r e l a t i o n o f wh i t e c o r pus c l e s t o c o m b a t i n g t y ph o id
.

in t he b o dy .

5 Wh a t is t he v a lu e o f a n e a r l y di a gn o s i s o f t y ph o id fe ve r ?
.

6 D e s c r i b e t w o m e t ho d s us e d in a c c ur a t e ly di a gn osi n g t yph o i d
“

. .

7 H o w is t y ph o id fe ve r s pr e a d ? H o w c a n it b e pr e ve n t e d ?
.

8 E xpl a i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d us e o f t yp h o id v a c c i n e
. .

9 D i s c us s h o w a n i n v e s t iga t i o n o f a t yph o id e pid e m i c is c a r r i e d o n

. .

1 0 Wh y is it un w i s e t o d r i n k w a t e r fr o m s pr i n gs W i t h i n c i t y li m i t s ?
.

1 1 Wh y is t h e w a t e r o f s w i m m i n g po o l s c o n s t a n t ly t e s t e d ? Wh a t
.

doe s t h e pr e s e n ce o f b a c illi c o li i n di ca t e ?
1 2 Why is it m o r e i m po r t a n t fo r a t r a ve l er t o h a ve t ypho id v a c
.

c in a t io n t h a n fo r o n e s t a y in g a t h o m e ?

1 3 D i s c us s a n y e pid e m i c o f t yph o id t h a t h a s b e e n in y o u r h o m e
.

t o wn or c ity .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E AD I N GS
B r o a dhur s t , J H o e es s s ea s e w W R i t Di
B (J . . Lippin c o t t
D ub lin L L , Hea lt h a nd Wea lth (H ar per
,
.

M er e dit h F L , H ygie n e ( P B la kis t o n s S o n

’
. . .
,
4 74 C E R TAI N O TH E R B ACT ER IA

t hes e b a c ter i a ga i n a f o o t h o ld a n d p r o du c e t he c o n di t i o n kn ow n a s
a c o ld . Bl o o d c o n ge s t s in t he m u c o u s m e m b r a n e whi c h b e c om e s
s w o ll en a n d c a u s e s a p r o fu s e fl o w o f m u c u s Th e m u c o u s m e m
.

b r a n e of t he te a r du c t s m a y a l s o s w e ll a n d t he t ea r s will fl o w c o n
t in uo us ly . I f t h e i n fl a m m a t i o n s p r e a d s t o t he E u s t a chi a n t ub e s ,
.

t h e y m a y b e c o m e c l o s e d a n d h e a r i n g is t e m p o r a r ily i m p a ir e d . If
t h e i n f e c ti o n e x t e n d s t o t h e m iddl e e a r e a r a c h e u s u a lly r e s ul t s
,
.

S o m e t i me s i n f ec ti o n m a y e x t e n d t o t h e c a vi t i e s in t he b o n es o f
t h e f r on t of t he S kull c a ll e d t h e s i n u s e s a n d c a u s e i n fl a m m a t i o n
or sin u s iti s I f t he i n f e c t e d m a t e r i a l is r e t a i n ed in t he s u ms t he
.
,

c o n di t i o n u s u a lly b e c o m e s c h r o n i c .

A c hr o n i c c o ld is kn o w n a s c a t a r rh f I f t he di se a s e e xt e n d s
d own i n t o t h e b r on c hi a l tub e s t h e c on di t i o n is kn own a s b r o n
,

c hit is ; t h e i n fl a m m a ti o n o f t h e fi n e r b r o n c hi m a y c a u s e b r o n c h o

p n e u m o n i a P e o pl e wh o w or k i n d o or s a nd a t s e de n t a r y o c cup a :
'

t i o n s a r e m o re lik e ly t o s uff er fr o m c o ld s t h a n p e r s o n s wh o liv e a n

o u t d o o r lif e a s du s t
,
dr y a ir a n d n o xi o u s ga s e s a r e c o n t i n ua lly
, ,

i rr i t a t i n g t he r e s pi r a t o r y t r a c t a n d m a ki n g it s u s c e p t ibl e t o in fe c
t ion . Th e s e s a m e p r e di s p o s i n g f a c t o r s i n c r e a s e t h e lik e lih o o d of
t h e di s e a s e e x t e n di n g i n t o b r o n c h o p n e u m o n i a
-
Thi s t yp e of p n e u
.

m on I a 1s u n lik e l o b a r p n e u m o n i a Th e l a t t e r is c a u s e d by a s p e c ifi c
.

m ic r o tir ga n is m t h e p n e u m o c o c c u s
, B r on c h o p n e u m on i a m a y b e
.
-

c a u s e d by a n y b a c t er i a t h a t i n f e c t t h e b r o n c hi a l tub e s a n d a ir

sa cs .

C o ld s fr e qu e n t l y n e gl ec te d a n d c o n s id er e d o f tr ivi a l im
a re

p or t a n c e E a c h c o ld l ow e r s t he r e s i s t a n c e a n d vi t a li t y o f t he
.

b o dy t o s u c h a n e x t en t th a t t he s uff er er is like ly t o c on tr a c t o t h er
i n f ec ti on s Thi s m a y h a s t en t he p r o gr e s s of a s er i o u s di s e a s e lik e
.

t ub e r c ul o s i s E v e r y e ff o r t s h o uld b e m a d e t o p r e v en t c o ld s
. On c e
.

a c o ld is c o n t r a c t e d t h e b e s t p o s s ibl e c a r e s h o uld b e ta k e n t o
,

a v o id a n y s ec o n d a r y i n f e c t i o n s .

M e th od of s pre a d E v e n wi t h m a n y o f t h e p r e di s p o s i n g fa c
.

t or s p r e s en t a c o ld d oes n o t d e v e l o p u n l e s s t h e re is a n e xp o s u r e
,
 P REVEN TI O N OF C OL D S 4 75

to i n fe c ti o n fr om a n o t h er p er s o n wh o h a s o r I s Ju s t r e c o v er i n g
fr o m a c o ld S o m e t i m e s t h e i n f ec ti on a l r e a dy e xi s t s in t he i n di
.

vidu a l in a c hr on i c b ut e x t re m ely m ild s t a t e a n d it ma y b eCOm e ,

a c u t e wh e n t h e vi t a li t y o r r e s i s t a n c e is l o w e r e d E s ki m o s a n d
.

Ar c ti c e xpl o r er s in S pi t e of t he s e v er e w e a th er c o n diti on s do n o t
, ,

h a v e c o ld s Wh e n s u c h e xpl o r e r s r e t ur n t o c iviliz a t i o n t h ey m a y
.

b e i n fe c t e d by d r o pl e t s s p r a y e d by t h e c o u ghi n g a n d s n e e zi n g o f
p e opl e wh o m t h e y m ee t a n d t h ey s o o n e xp er i e n ce a se v e r e c o ld
, .

P r e ve n tion of c olds S i n c e a c o ld is a d r o pl e t i n f e c t i on it
.
,

g e n e r a lly t r a v e l s t h r ou gh t h e s putu m C
. r o wd s in ill v e n t il a t e d

pl a c e s s h o uld b e a v o id e d The ge r m s c a n liv e o n ly fo r a v e r y s h or t

.

ti m e in a ir Th e i r c ul t u r e m e diu m is t h e a ir p a s s a ge s of hu ma n
.

b e i n gs I n c r o wd s it is i m p o s s ibl e t o a v o id t he sn e e zin g o r
.
,

c o u ghi n g o f o th e r p e o pl e Th a t is t h e w a y c o ld s a r e s p r ea d a n d it
.

is t he r e a s o n fo r t h e fr e qu e n c y o f c o ld s S pit t i n g s p re a d s S putu m
.

l a d e n b a c ter i a i n t o t he a ir I f a p er s on t a lk s direc tly i n t o t he f a c e

.

o f a n o th e r p e r s o n d r o pl e t s o f s pu t u m a r e giv e n o f
,
f a n d in h a l ed .

An e xp er i me n t w a s m a d e in E n gl a n d t o S h ow t h a t dr ople t
‘

fr o m t he m o u t h a r e S p r ea d A ce r t a in m em b er of P a r li a m en t wa s
.

a s k e d t o w a s h o ut his m o u t h wi t h a c ul t u r e o f h a r m l e s s b a ct e r i a
'

whi c h wh en pl a t e d p r o du c e r ed c o l o n i e s H e the n m a d e a l o ud
, ,
.

'

a n d e l o qu e n t s p ee c h P e t r i di s h e s h a d b ee n di s t r ibut e d in a ll
.

p a r t s o f t h e H o u s e o f Pa r li a m e n t e v en t o t he r ea r of t he ga ll er y
, .

Wh e n ga th er e d i n c ub a t e d a n d t he pl a te s e x a m in ed a ll t he ex
, , ,

p o s e d di s h e s c o n t a i ne d red c olo n i e s Th e c l os e d c on tr ol s S h ow e d
.

n one . Th e s p ea ker h a d s h ow er e d t he e n ti r e h o u s e with m icr o

sc opi c d r o pl e t s c o n t a i n i n g t h e h a r m l e s s b a c t e r i a .

C o u gh s a n d s n e e z e s m u s t b e Co v er e d in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t he
S p r ea d o f i n f e c t i o n s Wh e n a p er s on ha s a c o ld he s h ould us e
.
,

g a uz e i n s t e a d o f h a n dk e r c hi e f s a n d t h e u s e d g a uz e S h o uld b e bu r n ed .

S om e p e o pl e se e m t o b e m or e s u s c e ptibl e t o c o ld s th a n o th er s .

Thi s m a y b e due t o a b n o rm a liti es in t h e n o se o r th r o a t .Ade

n o ids a n d i n f e ct e d o r e n l a r ge d t on s il s a r e e xc e ll en t lo f ta t io n s for
4 76 C E R TAI N O TH E R B AC T E R I A

t he h a r b o r i n g a n d gr o wth o f ge r m s a n d s h o uld b e r e m o v e d , .

Tee t h s h o uld b e s tr a i ght e n e d s o t h a t c o rr ec t b r e a t hi n g will b e

p o s s ibl e N a s a l d o u c h e s s h o ul d n o t b e u s e d r e gul a r ly a s t he
.
,

s o lu t i o n s u s ed in t h e m m a y b e i rr i t a t i n g t o t h e d e li c a t e m u c o u s

m em b r a n e s a n d m a y c a u s e a n i n f ec t i on
,
I f t he n a s a l p a s s a ge s
.

a r e in h e a l t hy c o n di t i o n s t r i c t o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e r ul e s o f i n divid
,

ua l hy gi e n e is lik e ly t o p re v e n t c o ld s L ivin g a n d s l eepi n g o ut

.

o f d o o r s w ill k ee p f r e s h a ir in t h e lu n gs a n d will p r e v e n t c o ld s
-
.

C hild r e n wi t h c o ld s s h o uld b e k e p t h om e fr o m s c h o o l in o r d er t o
k e e p t h e i n f e c t i o n f r o m S p r ea di n g .

R e m e di al m e a s u r e s A c o ld is v e r y lik e ly t o r un a r e gul a r
.

c ourse a l t h o u gh p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t m a y r e li e v e s o m e o f it s un
,

pl e a s a n t f e a t u r e s Th e p a t i e n t S h o uld a v o id d ra f t s a n d k e ep w a rm
. .

I f it is p o s s ibl e t o s t a y in b e d fo r a da y m a n y o f t he s y m p t o m s ,

c a n b e m iti ga t e d A h o t f o o t b a t h h o t d r i n k a n d m a s s a gi n g
.
-
, ,

t h e n e c k a n d c h e s t w e ll j u s t bef o r e go i n g t o b e d a r e O ft e n v e ry
b e n e fi c i a l Th e s e m e a s u r e s h e lp in s t i m ul a t i n g c i r c ul a ti o n a n d in
.

b r e a kin g up t he c o n ges t i o n I f t he w e a t h er is m ild a n d s u n n y

t he p a ti e n t S h o uld s p e n d a s m u c h t i m e a s p o s s ibl e o ut o f—
.
,

d oo r s -
.

Th e r e a r e s p e c i a l v a c c i n e s p r e p a r e d a ga i n s t c o ld s a n d u s e d wi t h
s o m e S li ght d e gr e e O f s u c c e s s Th e y a r e s o m e t i m e s s u c c e s s ful in
.

’
s ti m ul a t i n g a p e r s o n s b o dy t o w o r k up a n i m m u n i t y .

I nfl u e n z a E pid e m i cs o f i n flu e n z a h a v e s p r e a d a ll o v e r t he
.

w o rld t h e r e fo r e it is fr e qu en t ly c a ll e d a p a n d e m i c di s e a s e I n
, ,
.

fl uen z a o f t he re s pi r a t o r y t ra c t is the m o s t c o m m o n f o r m o f t he
di s e a se a l t h o u gh t h ere a r e o t h er f o r m s I t u s u a lly s t a r t s wi t h a
,
.

c o ld f o ll o w e d by a hi gh t e m p e r a tu r e a n d e x t r e m e w e a k n e s s
,
It .

m a y ext e n d in t o t h e lu n gs a n d c a u se b r o n c hi t i s o r p n e u m o n i a .

The di sea se is s p r e a d by di r e c t c o n t a c t The s e cr e t i o n s o f t he

.

m o uth a n d n o s e c a r r y t he i n f e c ti o u s a gen t s D r o pl e t i n fe c t i o n
.

is ge n e r a lly c o n sid e re d t o b e t he m e t h od o f s p r e a di n g i n flue n z a .

Un lik e m a n y o t h er di s e a s e s o n e a tt a c k d o e s n o t u s u a lly e s t a bli s h

,

a n i m m un it y .
4 78 C E RT A IN O T HE R B AC T E RIA
C om m on f o c i of i nfe c ti o n in t he b o dy a r e di s ea s e d t on s il s ,

c hr o n i c i n f ec t i o n s o f t h e e a r a n d n a s a l c a vi t i e s whi c h m a y S p r e a d
,

t o t h e s i n u s e s p o c k e t s o f pus a b o u t t h e r o o t s o f t he t e e th a n d a
, ,

di s e a s e d a pp e n dix Wh en t h e f o c u s o f i n f e c t i o n is r e m o v e d t he
.
,

s y m p t o m s t e n d t o di s a pp e a r R e gul a r a n d s y s t e m a t i c c a r e of
.

t h e t e e t h by a c o m p e t e n t d e n t i s t wi t h t h e us e o f X r a y s wh e n
,
-

e v e r p o s s ibl e will b r i n g t o li gh t pus p o c k e t s in t ee t h

,
Av o id a n c e .

o f a n d p r o p e r c a r e o f c o ld s will p re v e n t s i n u s a n d e a r i n f e c t i o n s
,
.

Re gul a r p er i o di c h e a l t h e x a m i n a t i o n s will u s u a lly d e t e c t t h e s e

f o c i o f pus b e f or e t h e y c a u s e di s e a s e in t he b o dy On ce a f o c a l .

i n fe c t i o n is s t a r t e d it m a y b e v e r y di ffi c ul t t o c u r e it
, .

M e a s le s wh o opin g c o u gh an d c h ic k e n pox Th e s e di se a s e s
, , .

a re c o m m o n a m o n g c hild r e n b ec a u s e t h e y a r e s p r e a d t h r o u gh t h e

u n hygi e n i c h a bi t s t h a t a r e p r e v a l en t a m on g a ll c hild r e n Wh e n .

a li t t l e gi rl hu gs a n o t h e r o n e t a k e s a bi t e of h er a ppl e b orr ow s he r
, ,

p en c il or p er f orm s e ndl e s s o th e r a c t s t h a t r e s ul t in p er s on a l c on
,

t a c t di sea se ger m s m a y b e p a s s e d fr o m o n e c hild t o t h e o th er

,
.

I n s o m e h o u s e h o ld s if o n e c hild c o n t r a c t s on e o f th e s e di s e a s e s
, ,

a ll t h e c hild r e n o f t h e f a m ily a r e pu r p o s e ly e xp o s e d t o it I t is .

e a s i er t o t a k e c a r e o f a ll a t t h e s a m e t i m e Thi s is a v e r y wr o n g
.

p r o ce du r e Th e s e di s e a s e s in t h e m s e lv e s a r e n o t v e r y s e r i ou s
.
, ,

a n d s e ld o m f a t a l B ut th e y a r e fre qu e n t ly f o ll ow e d by s ec o n d a r y
.

i n fec ti on s s u c h a s p n e u m on i a d ea fn e s s r h e u m a t i s m h ea r t di s e a s e
, , , ,

o r kid n e y di s e a s e Th e a f t e r e ff e c t s a r e fa r m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n
.
-

t h e o r i gi n a l di s ea s e Wh en on e c hild ge t s a di s e a s e f r om a n
.

o th e r t h e s e c on d c hild m a y ge t it in a m o r e s e v e r e f o r m t h a n t h e
,

fi r s t I n gr owi n g in t h e fi r s t c hild s b ody t h e di s e a s e ger m s e e m s

.
’

t o a c qui r e gr e a t e r vi r ul e n ce a n d c o n s e qu e n t ly a
, ffec t s t h e s e c o n d
,

c hild m o r e s e r i o u s ly E i t h e r t hi s is t h e c a s e o r w e a k er s t r a i n s o f
.

b a c te r i a a r e kill e d in t he fi r s t c hild s b o dy a n d on ly t h o s e vi r ul en t
’

o r ga n i s m s t h a t a r e r e s i s t a n t t o t h e d e f e n s e s o f t h e c hild s b o dy a r e
’

p a s s e d o n C hild ren wh o S h ow a n y S i gn s o f ill n e s s s h ould r e m a i n

.

h o m e fr o m s ch o ol u n t il t h e y a r e a ga i n p er f e c t ly w e ll B e ca u s e .
 Q U E STI ON S A ND S U GG E STI ON S 479

th e y t y out in t h e s u n n y o p e n
ca n s a a ir ,
if w e ll e n o u gh o r r e l a x
,

in b e d t h e i r r e c o v e r y will b e h a s t e n e d
, , a n d t h e y will n o t s p r ea d t he

i n f e c t i on t hr o u gh t he s c h o o l .

Q U E S TI O N S AN D S UGG E S TI O N S
1 .D i s c us s t he c a us e s o f di ffe r e nt ki d
n s o f c ld
o s .

2 .Wh a t e ffe c t s h a ve c o ld s o n t he b o dy ?
3 .H o w a r e c o ld s S pre a d ?
4 . k
H o w c a n t h e vi t a li t y o f t h e b o d y b e e p t h i gh s o t h a t c o ld s m a y
b e p r e ve n t e d ?
5 Wh a t un hygi e n i c p r a c t ic e s h a ve y o u n o t i c e d a m o n g s t ude n t s
.

i
wh c h m a y a c c o un t f o r e p id e m i cs o f c o ld s in a s c h o o l ?

6 H o w c a n e pid e m i cs o f c o ld s in s c h o o l s b e pr e ve n t e d ?
.

7 C o m p a r e i n fl ue n z a t o a n o r di n a r y c o ld
. .

8 D i s c us s t h e c o m m o n c a us e s o f a s t hm a
. .

9 Wh a t do a s t h m a v a c c i n a t i o n s c o n s i s t o f
.

1 0 D i s c us s fo c a l i n fe c t i o n s a n d t he i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e h e a l t h o f t h e
.

b o dy .

1 1 Wh a t is t h e r e l a t i o n o f s o c a ll e d c h ildr e n s di s e a s e s t o t h e vi t a l
’
-
.

it y o f a c h ild ?
1 2 D i s c us s s o m e a f t e r e ff e c t s t h a t m a y r e s ul t fro m m e a s l e s ,
.
-

wh o o pi n g c o u gh , a n d c h i c en po xk .

S U PP L E M E N T A RY R E A D I N GS
B r o a dh ur s t H ow We es s
, R i t Di
s ea s e (J B L ippi
nco . . tt
H a ggar d, H W , The S cie nc e of H ea lt h a nd D i s ea s e ( H ar pe r
. .

R o s e n a u, M J P revent i ve M edic ine a nd H ygie ne ( D Apple t o n

. .
 C H AP TE R X L VI I

TH E C O N TR O L OF

M AL AR I A AN D
YE LLO W F E VE R

W a lt e r R eed
U n de r wood db U n der wood

N
.

H id e y o o guc h i .

H ow ha s m a la ria been co n tr o lled ? Why wer e t he F ren c h un a ble to

build t he P a n a m a Ca n a l ? Who wa s H i deyo N oguc hi ?

M a l a r i a is u s e d by a m i cr o s c o pi c p r o t o z o a n kn ow n a s a
ca ,

pl a s m o diu m Th e r e is s o m e di s c u s s i o n a s t o w h e t h er t h e o r ga n i s m
.

th a t p r o du c e s y e ll o w fe v e r ha s r e a lly b e e n i s o l a t e d .

P r e va le n c e of m a l a r i a I n 1 9 08 t h er e w e r e m or e th a n th re e
.

m illi o n d e a t h s f r o m m a l a r i a in I n di a Al o n g t h e r iv e r s a n d
.

c o a s t s o f t r o pi c a l c o u n t r i e s m a l a r i a is t he w hi t e m a n s gr ea t e s t
’

o b st a cl e t o s e t t l em en t I n t e m p e ra t e c li m a t e s s u c h a s t he
.

Un i t e d S t a t e s m a l a r i a is n o t u s u a lly f a t a l b ut in t he t r o pi c a l
,

c o u n t r i e s it o c c ur s in m o s t s e v e r e f o r m s a n d t h e d e a t h r a t e is

v e r y hi gh .

The us e o f t he d r u g qui n i n e is m o s t e ff e c t iv e in t r e a t i n g m a l a r i a
, , ,

s i n c e it kill s t he m a l a r i a p r o t o z o a n s in t h e bl o o d I n 1 90 2 t h e .
,

I t a li a n go v e r n m e n t b e ga n t h e s a l e Of qui n i n e a t lo w p r i c e s t o
c e r t a i n c o m m u n iti es T hi s d r u g w a s di s t r ibu t e d fr e e t o t h o s e
.

u n a bl e t o pu r c h a s e it I n 1 904 t he I t a li a n t ow n s ga v e it t o a ll
.
,

w o r ki n g p e o pl e I n c o n s e qu e n c e t h e r e h a s b e e n a p r o gr e s s iv e
.
,

r e du c t i o n in t h e a m o u n t o f m a l a r i a in I t a ly D u r i n g t he t e n
.

y e a r s p r e vi o u s t o 1 902 I t a ly a v e r a ge d
,
d e a t h s per y e a r fr o m
m al a r i a. I n t he n i n e y e ar s f oll ow i n g 1 90 2 t h e a v e r a ge f e ll t o 3 85 3
, .

480
4 82 TH E CO N T R O L O F MA LAR I A AN D Y E LL O W FEVE R
in g m a n y o f t h e s e s m a ll
w e llin gs in t h e s t om a c h o f t he m os qui t o e s
s

a n d f o u n d th a t th e y c o n t a i n e d n u m e r o u s p a r a s i t e s Wh e n t he .

s w e lli n gs r e a c h e d a c e r t a i n S iz e th e y w o uld bu r s t a n d t he p a r a s i t e s

w e r e s ca t te r e d t hr o u gh t he m o s qui t o s b o dy S om e en t er e d t h e ’
.

s a liv a r y gl a n d s R o s s c o n c lud e d t h a t t h e s e p a r a s i t e s in t h e s a liv a

.

o f t h e m o s quit o w o uld p a s s i n t o t he bl o o d o f t h e bi r d wh en t h e

m o s quit o bit t he bi r d .

Caus e M a l a r i a is c a u s e d by a p r o t o z o a n p a r a s it e P las modium

.
,

m a la ria e s o m e wh a t lik e t he a m o e b a
, I t h a s t w o h o s t s : t he
.

f em a l e m o s qui t o o f t h e ge n u s An o ph e l e s a n d m a n Th e r e a r e , .

r ea lly th r e e diff e r en t t yp e s o f m a l a r i a c a u s e d by t h r ee diff er e n t

,

b ut r e l a t e d m ic r o Or ga n is m S M a l a r i a o c c u rr i n g in o ur l a t itud e 1 s
.

a m ild f o r m o f t h e di se a se .

S pr e a d Th e ge r m o f t h e di s e a se is s p r e a d by t h e bit e o f t he
.

f e m a l e An o ph e l e s whi c h h a s p r e vi o u s ly bi t t e n a m a l a r i a l p a t i en t .

( Th e m a l e f e e d s o n pl a n t j ui c e s ) T h e c o m. m o n m o s quit o ,

o f t h e ge n u s C ul e x d o e s n o t t r a n s m it m a l a r i a o r y e ll o w f e v e r
,
.

Life his t ory of t h e m ala ria para s ite P la s m o dium m alaria e Th e , .

a m o e b a lik e o r ga n i s m o f m a l a r i a c a n n o t c o m pl e t e it s lif e hi s t o r y
-

in t h e bl o o d s t r e a m o f m a n a l o n e ; it r e qui r e s t w o h o s t s t h e m o s ,

qui t o a n d m a n G er m s a r e i n j e c t e d i n t o m a n t h r o u gh t h e bi t e o f
.

a n i n f e c t e d m o s qui t o Th e y en t e r t he r e d bl o o d c o r pu s c l e s a nd
.

m ultiply t h e r e fi n a lly f o r m i n g f r o m s ix t o s ixt e e n s p o r e s

,
At i n t e r .

v a l s o f 24 4 8 o r 7 2 h o u r s d e p en di n g o n t h e t yp e o f m a l a r i a t h e
, , , ,

sp o re s ,
h a vi n g d e s tr o y e d t he c or pu s c l e e s c a p e i n t o t h e bl o od ,

s t ream . T h e s udd e n r el e a s e o f t h e s e p o i s o n s a n d t he s ub s e qu e n t ,

r a llyi n g o f t h e b o dy in a n e ffo r t t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e m a r e t h o u gh t ,

t o c a u s e t h e c hill s a n d th e n t h e f e v e r whi c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
m a l ar ia .

E a c h e s c a p e d p a r a s it e n o w f a s t e n s it s e lf t o ano th e r r e d c o r
u s cl e e n l a r ge s f orm s S por es a n d h a vi n g u s e d up a n d dis in t e
p , , ,

t e d t h e c o r pu s c l e a ga i n is s e t f r e e n o t a s o n e but a s m a n y
g r a , ,

p a r a s i t e s Th e c y c l e is r ep ea t e d o v e r a n d o v e r a ga i n u n t il t he
.
,
 L I F E H IS T OR Y OF T H E M A LA R IA PA R A SI T E 4 83

p a ti e n t r e c o v er s o r s u c c u m b s S om e o f t h e p a r a s it e s u n d e r go
.

c e r t a i n c h a n ge s whi c h diffe r e n t i a t e th e m i n t o s e x c e ll s S i n c e a ll .

t h e p a r a s i t e s w e r e i n j e c t e d i n t o t he bl o o d a t a ppr o xim a t e ly t he
‘

s a m e t i m e a n d s i n c e it t a k e s e a c h o n e j u s t s o l o n g t o gr o w f o r m
, ,

S pO re S , e x c r e t e w a s t e s a n d e s c a p e f r o m t h e c o r pu s c l e
, a ll wi t h , ,

t h e i r w a s t e s a r e e j e c t e d i n t o t h e bl oo d s t r e a m a t o n e ti m e
, .

Th e r e f o r e t h e c hill s a n d f e v e r o cc u r a t i n t e r m i t t e nt p er i o d s
, .

Whe n a m o s qui t o bit e s a p a t i e n t it t a k e s in t h e m a l a r i a l

,

p a t i e n t s bl o o d wi t h t he pl a s m o di a whi c h d e v e l o p e d i n t o t wo
’

t yp e s o f s e x c e ll s Th e s e u n d e r go divi s i o n s a n d c h a n ge s
. S t udy .

t h e di a gr a m ( p 4 84 ) a n d n o t e t h a t s o m e c e ll s t a k e di ff e r e n t fo r m s
. .

S o m e o f t h e m b e c o m e m a l e c e ll s O th e r s f e m a l e c e ll s
, , F e r tiliz a .

c a le
f m os
q u it o

G P V G

h ele s m ui t o
s
q
a no o
p

C ule x, t h e h o us e m o s q uit o , diffe fs in a ppe ar a n c e fr o m An o ph e l e s , m o s q uit o .

C o m pa r e t h e diffe r e n t s t a ge s o f gr o wt h in t h e l ife o f th e s e t wo in s e c t s .

t ion o cc u r s in t h e s t o m a c h o f t h e m o s qui t o by t h e u n i o n o f t he
m a le a n d f e m a l e pl a s m o di a Th e f e r t iliz e d c e ll s b o r e i n t o t h e
.
4 84 THE C O NT RO L O F M A LA R I A AN D Y E L L O W F E VER
w a ll o f t h e s t o m a c h a n d fo r m c y s t s o n t he o u t e r s t o m a c h w a ll I n .

t h e s e c y s t s t h e p a r as it e s b r c a k i n t o t h o u s a n d s o f n e e dl e s h a p e d
,
-

s pore s whi c h fi n a lly ,

e s c a p e fr o m t h e c y s t s ,

e n t e r t h e bl o o d o f t h e

m o s qui t o m a k e t h e i r ,

wa y a r o u n d t h e b o dy ,

a n d e s p e c i a lly i n f e c t

t h e s a liv a r y gl a n d s .

Wh e n t h e m o s qui t o
n o w bi t e s a n o t h e r p e r

son m a l a r i a l o rga n ,

i s m s en t e r t he vi c t i m s ’

b o dy wi t h t h e m o s
qui t o s s a liv a The ’
.

malaria l para sit e

s e e m s t o p r o du c e n o

ill e ffe c t s o n t h e m o s
qui t o I n t h e h u m a n .

ho st t he m al a ri a l pa ra
s i t e r e p r o du c e s a s e xu

a lly a n d diff e r e n t i a t e s

i n t o s ex c e ll s w hi c h
m a y b e c a ll e d a s e xua l
ph a s e ; in t h e b o dy o f
Th m l i l p it u d g y l i it l if h i t y
h e m o s q ul t o I t r e p r o
e a ar a a ra s e n er oes a c c e n s e s or

m k g i t t h m q uit t
f m m q uit
ro os t o d bo an an ac a a n o e os o.

T th
ra c e m pl t hi t y f t h
e co e e g i m i
s or tho di g m
e
du
or an s
b Ot h s e xua lly
n e a ra

b v
ce s
a o e.

a n d a s e xua lly .

N a tur e? The p o i s o n p r o du c e d by t h e ge r m s c a u s e s a m a r k e d
c hill f o ll ow ed by fe v er t h en p r o fu s e p er s pi r a t i o n a n d a f a ll o f
, , ,

t e m p e r a tu r e Thi s is f o ll o w e d by a p e r i o d o f w ell b e i n g u n til t h e

.
-

o n s e t o f t h e n e x t c hill u s u a lly 4 8 h o u r s l a t e r in o ur t yp e o f
,

m al a ri a D e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r od c o r p us c le s m a y c a u s e a n a e m i a
:
'
4 86 THE C ON T RO L OF MA LA R IA AN D Y E LL O W FEVE R

P r e v e n tion . The c on t r o l
of
d e p e n d s up o n t h e
m al a r ia
d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a l a r i a ger m s
in p a t i e n t s by t he us e o f qui
n i n e a n d t he d e s t r uc t i o n o f

t he m o s qui t o e s ( An o ph e l e s ) .

The f r e qu e n t us e o f qui n i n e
in m a l a r i a l r e gi o n s by t h o s e
n o t S i c k will kill t h e p a r a s i t e

b e for e it has a c h a n c e t o
m ul t iply The r o o m s C c .

c upie d b y m a l a r i a l p a t i e n t s

should be t h o r o u gh l y
s c r e e n e d S O th a t t h e di s e a s e
,

m a y n o t b e s p r e a d t h r o u gh
t he i n f e ct i o n o f m o r e m o s
Ph t mi g ph f m l i l p it i
o o cr o ra o a ar a a ra s d
Q
es
U I LO n
G S a re
I n f a c t a.ll dw e ll ,
bl d
oo pu l
co r sc e.

i n gs in a n y m a l a r i a l di s t r l c t
S h o uld b e w e ll s c r e e n ed S i n c e t he m o s qui t o e s a r e in s e a r c h
.

o f f o o d in t he e v en i n g it is u n wi s e fo r p e o pl e t o go b e yo n d
,

s c r e e n p r o t e c t i o n a f t e r du s k Pr o b a bly t h e b e s t m e t h o d o f e r a di
.

c a t i n g m a l a r i a is t o d e s t r o y t he b r e e di n g pl a c e s o f t h e m o s qui t o e s

by d ra i n i n g t he s w a m p s a n d filli n g in t he low pl a c e s .

Y E L L OW F E V E R

P r e va l e n c e of y e ll o w fe v e r . Ye ll o w f e v e r is a muc h m ore se v er e
di s e a s e t h a n ma l a r i a The m o r t a li t y in v a r i o u s e pid e m i c s ha s
.

r a n ge d f r o m 1 5 pe r c e n t t o 8 5 pe r c e n t o f t he p o pul a ti o n I t is
'

a l s o a di s e a s e whi c h is m o r e p r e v a l e n t in t r o pi c a l a n d s ub t r o pi c a l

c o un t r i es t h a n in Co o l e r c li m a t e s F o r m e r ly e pid e m i c s o c c ur r e d
.
,

in t h e S o u t h e r n S t a t e s a n d t h e di s e a s e w a s v e r y c o m m o n in C ub a
,

a n d t h e C a n a l Zo n e M u c h ha s b e e n a c c o m pli sh e d in t h e l a st
.

t hi r ty y ea r s in er a dic a ti n g thi s di s ea s e I n 1 878 th e r e w e r e o n e

.
,
 HIST O R Y OF TH E C O N T R O L OF Y E L L O W F E VE R 487

hu n d r e d a n d tw e n t y fiv e t h o u s a n d c a s e s a n d t w e lv e d e a t h s fr o m
-

y e ll o w fe v e r in t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s S i n c e 1 90 5 n o t a s i n gl e c a s e
.

ha s b e e n r e p o r t e d . H a v a n a a n d R io de J a n e ir o u s e d t o b e cen
t e r s o f i n fe c t i o n . To da y due t o t h e c o n t r o l o f y e ll o w f e v e r t h e y
-
, ,

a r e hea l t h a nd va c a t i o n re s o r t s Th er e is s t ill o n e v e r y b a d dis

.

t r ic t in w e s t e r n Af r i c a E ff o r t s a r e n o w b e i n g m a d e t o c o n t r o l
.

t h e fe v e r t h e r e .

H i s tory of t h e c on tr ol of ye ll ow fev e r I t is c l a i m e d t h a t y e ll o w
.

f e v e r wa s t h e di s e as e t h a t n e a r l y a n n ihil a t e d t h e s e c o n d e xp e di
t i o n o f C o l um bu s in S a n t o D o mi n go in 14 95 .

Ye ll o w fe v e r wa s s o b a d in c er t a i n p a r t s o f C ub a t h a t n o o n e
c o uld liv e t h er e s a f e ly I n 1 90 0 a f t e r t he S p a n i s h Am e r i c a n
.
,
-

Wa r a c o m m i s s i o n w a s a pp o i n t e d t o m a k e a n i n v e s t i ga t i o n Of
,

y e ll o w f e v e r in Ha v a n a Th e .

com m i s sion wa s co m p o s e d o f
M a j o r Wa l t e r R e e d a b a c t e r i o l
,

o gis t , and D r . J a m e s C a r r o ll ,

D r Je s s e W La z e a r a n d D r
. .
,
.

Ar i s t id e s Agr a m o n t e D r Ree d .

c o uld n o t fin d a m i c r o o r ga n i s m in

t h e bl o o d o f t h e i n f e c t e d p e o pl e .

H e d e c id e d t h a t if t h e f e v e r
we r e c a u s e d by a b a c t e r iu m t h e ,

n ur s e s h a n dli n g t h e p a t i e n t s
w o uld c o n t r a c t t h e di s e a s e T hi s .

did n o t s e e m t o b e t r u e H e a l s o .

o b s e r ve d t h a t m e m b er s o f t h e

Sa m e f a m ily did n o t s e e m t o ge t
t he di s e a s e f r o m e a c h o t h e r .

At t h e e n d o f t w o o r t h r e e
w e e k s p e o pl e in t he n e i ghb o r
,

h o o d O f t h e o r i gi n a l c a s e s w o uld
C OH t r a Ct t he d i s ea se Th l S Ph t m i g ph f m q uit l v
. o o cr o r a o a os o ar a.
4 88 THE C ON T R O L O F M A LA R I A AN D Y E LLOW FEVE R

s eeme d t o i n di c a t e t h a t t he ger m wa s tr a n s m it t e d by a c a r r i e r ,

p o s s ibly a n i n s e c t a n d it t o ok t h a t l e n gt h o f t i m e t o gr o w in t he
,

Am . M us eum of N a t . Hi
st .

v
Th e n um e r o us s wa m ps o f H a a n a we r e th e b r e e din g pla c e s for m o s q uit o e s , an d y e llo w
v v v
fe e r wa s e r y pr e a l e n t B y 1 9 0 0 , t h e e ff e c t of t h e e xt e rm ina tio n of m o s q uit o e s b e ga n t o b e
v v
.

e id e n t in a l o w e r d e a t h ra t e of y e ll o w fe er .

i n s e c t s b o dy Pr o b a bly t h e k n o wl e d ge o f t he c a u s e o f m a l a r i a
’
.

g a v e t h e s e i n v e s ti ga t o r s c lu e s o n whi c h t h e y b a s e d th e s e t h e o r ies .

Pe o pl e h a d f o r m er ly t h o u gh t t h a t y e ll o w f e v e r w a s tr a n sm i t t e d
by fo m i t e s s ub s t a n ce s s u c h a s ga r m e n t s a n d b eddi n g whi c h h a d
, ,

b ee n in c o n t a c t wi t h y e ll o w f e v e r p a t i e n t s a n d ha d a b s o r b e d t he
g e r m s . T o t e s t t h e f o m e s t h e o ry a n e,xp e r i m e n t a l b u t w a s

fill e d wi t h a r t i c l e s fr o m a h o s pi t a l fo r y e ll o w f e v e r a t H a v a n a . .

V o lu n t e e r s a gr e e d t o s l e e p in t hi s hut Th e y did n o t c o n t r a c t
.

t h e di s e a s e .The e xp e r i m e n t wa s r ep e a te d w i t h a n u m b er O f
p er s o n s a n d a l w a y s wi t h t he s a m e r e s ul t s whi c h d efin i t ely pr o v ed
,

t h a t f o m i t e s did n o t t r a n s m it t he di s e a s e .

Th e t h e or y th a t t he di se a s e wa s t r a n s m itt ed by m o s quit o es
4 90 TH E C O N T RO L OF M A L AR I A A N D Y E LL O W FEVER

c a re fully e xpl a i n e d t h e d a n ge r s o f t h e e xp e r i m e n t “ Th e v o lun

“
t e e r s s a id t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e r a v a ge s o f t h e di s e a s e but we
v o lu n t e e r s o l e ly fo r t h e c a u s e o f hu m a n i t y a n d in t he i n t e r e s t o f
:Th e y a s ke d fo r n o c o m p e n s a t i o n fo r t h e i r s er vi c e s
‘

It .

w as a t en se d r a ma t i c m o m en t wh e n t h e M a j o r r a i s e d his h a n d in
,

”
r iv a t e fs a in G n t l e m n I s a lu t o u 3 H i
p y g e ,
.e ,e y , s

fur t he r c o mm e n t wa s I n m y O pi n i o n t hi s e xhibi t i o n O f m o r a l
,
’

c o ur a ge h a s n e v er b e e n s u r p a s s e d in t h e a n n a l s o f t h e a r m y o f t he
’ ‘
-

Un i t ed S t a t e s ”
Ki ss i n ge r an d M or a n w e r e bi t t e n by m o s qui t o e s
. .

Th e y b o t h c o n t ra c t e d y e ll o w f e ve r b ut b o t h r e c o v e r e d
'

Aft e r .
,

s tudyi n g m a n y o t h er ca s es .
t he i n v e s ti ga t o r s c o n c lud e d t h a t
,

t h e o n ly wa y t o c o n t ra c t y ell o w f e v e r is t h r o u gh t h e bit e o f a n
'

'

i n fe cte d m o s qui t o I t t ak e s a b o u t t w elv e d a y s for t h e p a r a s i t e

'

-
.

t o c o m ple t e it s c y c l e in t he m o s qui t o s b o dy Th e r e fo r e a n in
’
~
.
,

fe c t ed m o s qui t o d o e s n o t t r a n s m i t t he di s e a s e u n til a b o ut tw e lv e
d a y s a f t e r t a ki n g in t he p a r a s i t e fr o m t he b o dy o f a n i n f e c t e d
p er so n .
4

Am . M use um of N at . H i st .

L v
C a m p a ze a r C ub a , wa s t h e e xpe r im e n ta l ca m p in wh ic h t h e y e ll o w fe e r in e s t iga t io n w a sv
J L v
,

c o n duc t e d I t wa s n a m e d for D r
. esse W a z e a r , wh o die d a m a r tyr t o t h e in e s t iga t io n
. . .

F o r 130 y e a r s H a v a n a h a d b ee n c o n t i n u o u s ly i n f e s t e d wi t h y el
low fe v er . Th e a v er a ge d e a th r a t e f r o m it wa s a b o ut 7 50 d e ath s
 HIST OR Y OF T HE C ON T RO L OF Y E LLO W FEVE R 49 1

pe r y ea r . Af t e r t h e y ell o w fe v er i n v e s t i ga t i on M a j o r G o rga s
.

wa s s e n t by t h e Un it e d S t a t e s go v e r n m en t t o r id H a v a n a o f m o s

q u it o e
. s W i t hi n n i n e t y
d a y s t h er e w a s n o t a s i n gl e
n e w c a s e o f y e ll o w f e v e r .

Th e I s t h m u s o f P a n a m a
wa s c o n s id e r e d a pl a gu e
s p o t fo r y e ll o w f e v e r a n d

m a l a ri a. Ab o ut 1 880 t h e ,

F re n c h s t a rt e d b u ildi n g a
c a n a l a cr o s s t h e I s t h m u s ,

b ut h a d t o giv e it up b e ,

c a u se of t he prev al e nc e o f

t h e di s e a s e s whi c h c a u s e d
t he d e a t h O f t h o u s a n d s

o f t he w o r k e r s Tw e n t y
.

ye a r s l a t er t h e Un i t e d
,

S t a t e s b o u gh t t h e I s t h m u s
fr o m t he F r en c h Si n ce . .

G o r ga s h a d h elp e d t o r id
H a v a n a o f y e ll o w f e v e r ,
C u R k f ll I u o r t es y oc e e er n st i t te
t he go v e r n m e n t s e n t hl m Th t u tu e i l t d b y D N gu h i wh i h i
e s r c r so a e r o c c s

b l v d t b th f y ll w f v
.

t O erad ic ate y e ll o w fev er

u e ie eI t h ph t
o e e ca se o e o e er n e o o,

i m g ifi d 3 0 00 t im
.

th pi h t e s ro c ae e s a n e es .

f r o m P a n a m a Th e r e w e r e
.

n e i t h e r s uit a bl e d r a i n s n o r wa t e r s upply in t h e c it i e s s o G o r ga s
'

h a d a s y s t e m O f dr a in a ge c o n s t r u c t e d t h e s t r e e t s p a v e d t o e lim i
~

n a t e w a t e r filled r u t s t h e w a t e r s up ply o f t h e c i t i e s i m p r ov e d a n d
-
, ,

t h e wi n d o w s a n d d o o r s s c r e en e d a ga i n s t m o s qui t oe s Po o l s w ere .

e i t h e r d r a i n e d or o il e d E n dl e s s c a r e t h o u gh t a n d t i m e w e r e
.
, ,

d e v o t e d t o t hi s w or k I n a b o ut t wo y e a r s y e ll o w f e v e r wa s
. .

e r a di c a t e d f r o m t h e I s t h m u s a n d t h e buildi n g o f t h e c a n a l wa s
.

m a d e p o s s ibl e T hi s w a s a s gr e a t a hygi e n ic f e a t a s t h e c a n a l
.

w a s a n e n gi n e e r i n g f e a t .
4 92 TH E C ON T RO L OF M A LAR I A AN D Y E L L O W FEVE R
La ter I nve s tigation s . H id e y o N o guchi o f t h e Ro c ke fe ll e r I n s t i
tu t e i s o l a t ed a m i c r o or ga nis m , ca ll e d a s pi roc ha ete, fr om y e ll ow
fe v e r vi c t i m s in S o u t h Am e r i c a whi c h h a s b e e n un til r e c e n t ly a
, , ,

f o c u s fo r y e ll o w f e v er I t is m o r e lik e a p r o t o z o a n th a n a b a c
.

t e r ium . H e m a d e a v a c c i n e f r o m t hi s o r ga n i s m whi c h is a d m i n
,

is t e r e d e a rly in t h e di s e a s e a n d is v e r y e ffe c tiv e Th e di s e a s e

.

h a s b e e n p r a c ti c a lly e xt e r m i n a t e d in t h e We s t er n H e m i s ph e r e ,

due t o his e ffo r t s B ut e Xp e r im e n t a l w or k e r s in Af r i c a w e r e

.

u n a bl e t o i s o l a t e t h e s pi ro ch a e t e fr o m t h e bl o o d o f vi cti m s o f
ye ll o w f e v e r in t h a t c o u n t r y Th e y w er e u n a bl e t o i n o c ul a t e
.

m o n k e y s a n d gui n e a pi gs with t h e di s e a s e a s N o guchi h a d d o n e .

App a r e n tly t he ge r m c a u s i n g y e ll o w f e v e r in Af r i c a wa s diffe r

,

e n t f r o m t h a t c a u s i n g t h e di s e a s e in S o uth Am e r i c a N o gu c hi .

we n t t o Af r i c a t o in v e s ti ga t e t h e di s e a s e a n d he s u c ce e d e d in
i n o c ul a t i n g o n e s p e c i e s o f m o nk e y wi t h t h e di s e a s e Unfort u .

n a t e ly N o gu c hi b e c a m e i n f e c t e d with y e ll o w f e v e r in L a go s ,

N i ger i a a n d di e d in t h e s p r i n g o f 1 928
,
Aft e r he c o n t r a c t e d
.

t he fe v e r h e i n s i s t e d t h a t s a m pl e s o f h is o wn bl oo d b e i n o c ul a t e d
,

i n to m o n k e y s H is a s s o c i a t e s ca rr i e d o n his e xp e r i m e n t s wi t h
.

t h e c ultu r e s whi c h h e h a d s t a r t e d I t h a s n o t y e t b e e n d e c id e d
.

wh e th e r th e r e a r e o n e o r t w o typ e s o f y e ll ow fe v er F r o m d a t a .

l e ft by N o gu c hi t he Ro c k e f e ll e r I n s t itut e for M e di ca l Re s ea r c h
,

is i n c li n e d t o b e li e v e th a t th e r e a r e t wo di s ti n c t f or m s o f t h e
d i s e a s e S c i e n t i s t s a r e m o s t a n xio u s t o c l e a r up t h e i n fe c t i o n
.

in w e s t e r n Af r i c a b e f or e t h e t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a il r o a d is o p e n e d .

I f t h e di s e a s e s p r e a d s t o t h e E a s t C oa s t it m a y p a s s o v e r i n t o
,

I n di a a n d s o uth er n C hi n a whi c h a r e full o f t h e Aed e s m o s quit o

, .

C a us e .A s pi r a l p r o t o z o a n s pi r o c h a e t e wa s di s c o v e r e d in
, ,

1 9 1 8 by N o gu c hi a n d d es i gn a t ed by him a s t he c a u se o f y e ll o w
fe v e r E xp e r i m en t s a re b e i n g p erf o r m e d a t t he p r e s e n t ti m e t o
.
, ,

d e t e rm in e wh e th e r o r n o t t he s pi r o c h a e t e is r e a lly t he s p e c ifi c o r
g a n is m c a u s i n g y e ll o w f e v e r T h e v
. a c ci n e p r e p a r e d by N o g u c hi
ha s n o t y e t b ee n a c c e pt e d a s a d efi n it e p re ve n tive .
 C H APTE R X LVI I I

D E FE N S E S

AG AI N S T D I S E AS E

Th e s ca v
e n ge r s o f t h e b o dy . An t i t o xin s n e ut r a liz e t o xin s .

Ho w is t he body p rotected a ga in s t ba cteria ? A re t he p rotections

a dequa te ? Un der wha t condition s a re t he defen s es in a dequa te ?

D i sea se s of t he
b o dy m a y b e due t o gl a n dul ar di s tu r b a n c e s
s u c h a s c r e t i n i s m ; i n a d e qu a t e di e t s a s r i cke t s ;
, c o n s tituti o n a l

t e n d en c i e s o r di s tu r b a n c e s ; o r t o i n fec ti o n s fr om m i c r o o r ga n i s m s .

P a r a s i t i c m ic r o Or ga n is m s e xi s t in gr e a t n u m b e r s but m os t o f ,

th e m a re e ith er k ept o ut of t he b o dy o r d e s tr o y e d wh e n th e y e n t er
t h e b o dy Th e r e a r e c o m p a r a tiv e ly few di s ea se s c a u se d by b ac
.

t e r i a wh e n c o m p a r e d with t he e xi s ti n g n u m b er o f p a r a s itic
b a c ter i a .

B e h a vior o f b a cte r ia in t h e b o dy B a c t er i a h a v e di ffe r e n t

.

m o d e s o f a t t a c k a n d diff er e n t w a y s o f b r ea ki n g th r o u gh t h e de
fe n s e s o f t h e b o dy S o m e b a c t e r i a a c tu a lly d e s tr o y ti s s u e
. F or .

e x a m pl e ,t h e tub e r c ul o s i s b a c illu s d e v o u r s v a r i o u s ti ss u e c e ll s ,

a n d t hu s d e s t r o y s th e m I t is t h o u ght t h a t c er t a i n p a r a s iti c b a c
.

t e r i a whi c h c a u s e b o il s a n d a b s c e s s e s s e n d o ut e n zy m e s whi c h
di s s o lv e t he whit e bl oo d c e ll s S O t h a t t h e y c a n b e a b s o r b e d by
t he b a c t e r i a Th e pus f o rm e d in b o il s a n d a b s c e s s es is d e a d whit e
.

c o r pu s c l e s Ot h er b a c te r i a a c t o n t he b o dy c hi e fly th r o u gh t h e
.

t o xi n s o r e x o t o xi n s t h e y p r o du c e Th e s e p a s s i n t o t he ti s s u e s
.

s u rr o u n di n g t h e b a c t e r i a ge t i n t o t h e bl o o d a n d ci r cul a t e t hr o u gh
, ,

4 94
 H OW B AC T E R I A E N TE R THE BODY 4 95

t he b o dy . For e x a m pl e diph t h e r i a to xi n s pr o dII c e s o r e n e s s in a

,

t h r o a t o n whi c h t he diph t h e r i a b a c illi a r e m ul t iplyi n g a n d t h e ,

bl o o d c a rr i e s t h e e x o t o xi n s a r o u n d t he b o dy Th e h e a r t kidne y .
, ,

o r s o m e o t h e r r e m o t e o r ga n m a y b e a ff e c t e d Th e t e t a n u s b a c illi
.

d e v e l o p t h e i r e xo t o xi n a t t he pl a c e wh er e th e y en t er t he b o dy .

Thi s t o xi n t h en go e s t o t he v a r i o u s t i s s u e s e s p e c i a lly t he n e r v e s
,
.

B a c t e r i a l p o i s o n s o r e n d o t o xi n s r e s ul t fr o m t he b r e a ki n g d o w n
o r t he di s i n t e gr a t i n g o f c e r t a i n b a c t er i a I t is t h o u gh t by s o m e
.

s c i e n ti s t s t h a t t h e s e e n d o t o xi n s a r e n e v e r p r o du c e d a s a r e t he ,

e xo t o x in s by t he b a c t e r i a t h e ms e lv e s b ut a r e o n ly s e t fr ee du r i n g
, ,

t he b re a ki n g d o w n o f t h e b a c t e r i a l b o dy Th e t yph o id ge r m s
.

co nt a i n a v e r y p ow er ful e n d o t o xi n ; t ub e r c ul o s i s t oo h a s a , ,

s t r o n g e n d o t o xi n . Th e s e a r e p r o b a bly due t o t he b r e a ki n g d o w n
o f t h e p ro t e i n s in t h e b a c t e r i a c e ll a n d t h e c o n s e qu e n t f o rm a ti o n

o f s ub s t a nc e s t h a t a r e p o i s o n o u s t o t h e t i s s u e s Th e y a r e m or e .

c o r r e c t ly c a ll e d pois on ous s p lit protein s -

Th e r e 18 s till a f o u r t h w a y
.

in whi c h b a c t e r i a a r e re l a t e d t o di s ea se Pr o t e i n f o o d s a r e s o m e
.

ti m e s a t t a c ke d by b a c t er i a a n d a r e o n ly p a r t ly di ge s t e d o r b ro ke n
d ow n t o a gr o up o f p r o du c ts c a ll e d ptom a in es s o m e o f whi c h a r e ,

i n ju r i o u s t o t h e b o dy Pt o m a i n e s differ fr o m t o xi n s in t h a t t h e y
.

a r e p r o du c t s o f f o o d d e c o m p o s i t i o n whil e t h e t o xi n s a r e p ro du c t s
,

o f b a c t e r i a l m a n uf a c t ur e Th e pt o m a i n e s a re u s u a lly f o r m e d in
.

foo d s u n d e r s t o r a ge c o n di t i o n s in t he S h o p o r h o u se a n d n o t in t he ,

b o dy F o r e x a m pl e if p r o t e i n fo o d s a r e n o t p r o p er ly p r e s e rv e d
.
, ,

b a c t er i a m a y a t t a c k t h e m c a u s i n g di s i n t e gr a ti o n P a r t i a lly dis
, .

i n t egr a t e d fis h c r a b s c h ees e o y s t e r s o r m ilk o fte n c o n t a i n

, , , ,

i n j u r i o u s pt o m a i n es a n d wh e n e a t en will h a v e a p o i so n o u s
, ,

e ffe c t o n t h e b o dy .

H ow b a cte ria e n te r t h e b o dy On e o f t h e c o m m o n a v e n u e s o f
.

i n v a s i o n fo r b a c te r i a is t he a limen ta r y ca n a l B a c t e r i a o f typ h o id .

f e v er a n d tub er c ul o s i s a re fr e qu e n tly t a k e n in wi t h m ilk or o th er

fo o d th r o u gh t he m o u t h P e n c il s fi n ge r n a il s a n d d r i n ki n g c up s
.
, ,

a r e o f t e n r e s p o n s ibl e fo r a n a t t a ck o f diph t h e r i a o r s c a r l e t f e v e r .
4 96 DE FE N S E S A GA I NS T D I S E AS E

Th e fur n i s h e s a m e a n s fo r t h e e n tr a n c e o f ger m s
r es pi ra to ry trac t .

S p r a y o r d r o pl e t s o f s pu t u m s n e e z e d o r c o u gh e d o ut ma y b e
b r ea th e d in by o t h er p eo pl e G er m s o f p n e u m o n i a diph t h er i a
.
, ,

s c a r l e t f e v e r a n d c o ld s o f t e n e n t e r t h e b o dy in t hi s w a y
,
.

C er t a i n o th e r o r ga n i s m s e n ter t he b o dy t h ro u gh w o u n d s o r
S ki n a b r a s i o n s T h e s e S ki n o p e n i n gs m a y b e o f v a r i o u s ki n d s
. .

C ut s s c r a t c h e s t o r n h a n gn a il s a n d c ra c k e d S kin a r e r e s p o n s ibl e
, , ,

fo r t h e e n tra n c e o f di r t whi c h m a y c a rr y n o t o n ly t e t a n u s ge r m s
but wh e n p r e s en t r i n gwo r m ( a p a r a s i t i c m o ld ) h o o kw o r m s o r
, , , ,

o th e r p a t h o ge n i c o r ga n i s m s I n s e c t bi t e s f o r m o p e n i n gs t hr o ugh
.

whi c h ge r m s m a y b e i n t ro du c e d Th e b it e o f a n Aed e s m o s quit o .

m a y t r a n s m i t y e ll o w f e v er ; t he An o ph e l e s m o s qui t o m a l a r i a ; t he ,

r a t fl e a bub o n i c pl a gu e ; t h e b o dy l o u s e t yphu s f e v er ; a n d t h e
, ,

t s e t s e fly Afr i ca n S l e e pi n g s i c k n e s s The bi t e s o f ra bid d o gs

, . _ ,

c a t s w o lv es a n d o th e r a n i m a l s a r e r e s p o n s ibl e fo r hyd ro ph o bi a
, ,
.

S o m e o r ga n i s m s e n t er t h e b o dy t h r o u gh t h e eyes I f t he e y e s .

a re r ubb e d wi t h a n I n f e c t e d h a n d or d r i e d wi t h a n u n c l e a n

t owel s u ch , di s e a s e s a s t r a c h o m a a n d pi n k e y e m a y p o s s ibly
r e s ult .

S afe gua r ds o f t h e b o dy a ga in s t dis e a s e Th e b e s t d e f e n se o f t he

.

b o dy is t he s tr o n g n a t ur a l r e s i s t a n c e t h a t a c co m p a n i es go o d h e a lth .

AS l o n g a s r ul e s o f h e a lth a r e f o ll o w e d t he vit a li t y is lik ely t o b e ,

hi gh E v e n th o u gh b a c t e r i a t h e n i n v a d e t he b o dy t he n a tu ra l
.

An un b ro k en s ki
n v
is a prot e c t io n a ga in s t in a din g b a c t e r ia . k
I f t h e s in is pr ic k e d o r o th er
k
wis e b r o e n , b a c t e r ia m a y e n t e r a n d c a us e a n inf e c t io n
.

p r o te ctiv e s ub s t a n ce s a nd c ell s t e n d t o c o n t r o l th e m with s ucce s s .

I f r e s i s t a n c e is lo w due t o i ns uffic i e n t a ir o r s u n li ght i n a d e qu a t e

, ,
4 98 DE FEN S E S A G AI N S T D I S EA S E

t o t he ge r m s whi c h it c on s t a n t ly h a r b o r s S a liv a a s w e ll a s m u .

c us is w e a kly a n t i s e p t i c H a i r s gr o w o n t h e li n i n g o f t h e n a s a l
.

p a s s a ge s a n d a c t a s a c o a r s e fil t er whi c h s t r a i n s du s t p a r t i c l e s
f ro m i n h a l e d a ir Thi s du s t m a y t h e n b e e xp e ll e d fr o m t h e n o s e
. .

T h e r e a r e s p e c i a liz e d e pi t h e li a l c e ll s in t he wi n dpip e a n d b r o n
c hi a l t ub e s wi t h n u m e r o u s c ili a o n t h e i r f r e e s u r f a c e s whi c h ,

w a v e a n d fa n b a c t e r i a o r v e r y fin e du s t p a r t i c l e s up a n d o ut .

The fo r e i gn p a r t i c l e s a r e t h e n c o ugh e d o ut o f t he t h r o a t . .

The ga s tr i c j ui c e in t h e s t o m a c h p r o b a bly di ge s t s m a n y b a c
t e r i a wi t h t h e f o o d Th e a c id o f gas t r i c j ui c e s o m e t i m e s d e s t r o y s
.

o r i nh ibi t s t h e gr o w t h o f m a n y ge r m s S uch b a ct er ia t he n p a s s
.

o n thr o u gh t h e c a n a l wi t h t h e f o o d The hi gh a c idi t y in a d o g s

’
.

s t o m a c h will kill b a c t e r i a t h a t will c a u s e in t e s t i n a l i n f e c t i o n s in

m an . T ub e r c ul o s i s t yph o id f e v e r a n d dy s e n t e r y ge r ms a r e n o t
, ,

a ff e c t e d by t h e a c t i o n O f ga s t r i c jui c e a n d will p a s s i n t o t he s m a ll

i n t e s t i n e B a c t e r i a o f pu t r e f a c t i o n a r e a lw a y s a bu n d a n t in t h e
.

l a rge i n t e s ti n e I f t h e y a r e t o o a c t iv e i n t e s t i n a l di s t u rb a n c e s
.
,

r e s ul t . M o s t b a c t e r i a c a n w o r k o n ly in a n a lk a li n e m e diu m ;
th er ef o r e t o c o n t r o l a n d i n hibi t t h e i r a c t ivi t y effo r t s a r e m a d e ,

t o i n t r o duc e a c id s i n t o t h e l a r ge i n t e s t i n e Th e a c id s in m o s t .

f o o d s a r e a b s or b e d o r n e u t r a liz e d b e fo r e th e y r ea c h t he l a r ge in

S t e ppin g on a ta ck , j
rus t y na il , o r o t h e r s h a r p o b e ct s may up a n in fe c tio n
s et T e ta n us h a s
b e en k n o wn t o ge t in t o t h e b o dy in t h is wa y a n d c a us e b lo o d po is o n i n g.

t e s ti n e . A c er t a n b a c illu s ca ll ed t he L a c t o b a c illu s b ulga r icus

i , ,

is on e of t he o r ga n i s m s c a u s i n
g t h e s o u r i n g o f m ilk Wh e n t hi s .
 S A FE G UA R D S OF TH E BOD Y A G AI N S T D I S E AS E 4 99

b a c illu s is t a k e n i n t o t h e b o dy it is t h o ugh t t o go i n t o t he l a r ge
,

i n t e s t i n e wh er e it c r e a t e s a n a c id m ediu m S o m e s c i e n ti s t s t hi n k
,
.

thi s a id s t he w o r k o f t h e b a c t e r i a o f pu t r e f a c t i o n a n d c o u s e ,

qu en t ly cl e a r s up a u t o i n t o xi c a t i o n R e c e n tly a n o t h e r s t r a i n o f
,
-
.

b a c t e r i a th a t s o u r s m ilk ha s b e e n f o u n d t h a t s ee m s t o b e m or e
ef fe c t iv e .I t is t h e La c t o b a c illu s a c id o philu s Th e s e b a c t er i a will .

liv e l o n ge r in t h e i n t e s t i n e t h a n do t he L a c t o b a c illu s b ulga r ic us .

Th er e a r e a n u m b er o f o t h e r c o n di t i o n s th a t p r o t e c t t h e b o dy
a ga i n s t t h e i n v a s i o n o f ge r m s E v e n a f t e r ge r m s e n t e r v e r y
.
,

fe w c a n c a u s e a di s e a s e un le S S t h e y m ul t iply in gr e a t n u m b e r s
, .

Th e b o dy m a y b e t h o u gh t o f a s a gr e a t livi n g c ul t u r e m e diu m .

Th e i n s id e is d a r k m o i s t w a r m a n d s uppli e s f o o d in t h e f o r m o f
, , ,

di ge s t e d fo o d s o r t i s s u e c e ll s fo r i n v a di n g s a p r o phy t e s o r p a r a s i t e s .

I n r e a lity e a c h s p e c ifi c ge r m n e e d s a d e fi n i t e c o m bi n a t i o n o f c o n
,

dit io n s . F o r e x a m pl e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e O f t h e b o dy is n o t hi gh
,

e n o u gh fo r t h e bi r d t yp e o f t ub e r c ul o s i s Th e r e f o r e thi s typ e .
,

c a n n ot a t t a ck m an Th e hu m a n t yp e gr o w s o n ly b e tw e e n
.

3 7 C a nd 40 t o 4 1 C A bi r d s t e m p e r a tu r e is m u c h hi gh e r
° ° ° ’
. .

t h a n m a n s s o t h a t hu m a n t ub e r c ul o s i s c a n n o t gr o w in bi r d s
’
.
,

B a c t er i a t h a t o r di n a r ily a t t a c k w a r m bl o o d e d a n i m a l s a r e n o t -

lik ely t o a ff e c t c o ld bl o o d e d o n e s I f h ow e v er t he t e m p e r a t ur e o f
-
.
, ,

t he c o ld bl o o d e d a n i m a l s is r a i s e d t h e y b e c o m e s u s c e p t ibl e t o t he
-
,

i n v a di n g ger m s F r o gs a r e n a t u r a lly i m m u n e t o t e t a n u s but if

.
,

t h e i r t e m p e r a tu r e is r a i s e d t h e y b e c o m e s u s c e p t ibl e t o t he di s e a se
, .

B a c t e r i a s u c h a s t e t a n u s a r e a n a er o bi c a nd gr o w o n ly in t he
a b s e n c e o f a ir I f t e t a n u s e n t e r s a s u r fa c e w o u n d e xp o s e d t o
.

a ir it d o e s n o t m ultiply
,
I t is o n ly wh e n it e n t e r s d ee p w o u n d s
.
,

wh e r e t h e r e is n o a ir p r e s e n t t h a t it s e t s up a n i n f e c t i o n M o s t
,
.

t i s s u e c e llS o ff e r a hi gh n a t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e e n t r a n c e o f ge r m s .

I t is o n ly wh e n t h e y a r e t o r n o r la c e r a t e d t h a t c o n di t i o n s a r e f a v o r
a bl e fo r t h e gr o w t h o f ge r m s in t h e m M a n y b a c t e r i a t a k e n in wi t h
.

f o o d a r e o f t h e s a p r o phyt i c t yp e Th e y m a k e n o a t t e m pt t o a t .

t a c k t h e t i s s u e s b ut s i m ply f e e d o n f o o d in t h e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l .
50 0 DE FE N S E S AGAI NST D I S E AS E

Wh e n b a c t e r i a a ctu a lly en er t b ody a nd ge t i n t o t h e bl o o d

t he
or ly m ph s t re a m th e re , a re m a n y m e t h ods o f p r o t e c t i o n Th e .

Ops o n i c I n a e x De t '
e r m i n a t io n .

Ho a c t ae r icc

4 .

w h it e . co r
p u s cl e s

pe r c e n t a ge c o r pus c le s
48 in ge s t in g b a c t e r ia 24
48
2 pa t ie n t ’
s o ps o ni c in de x
24

O ps o nin s a fi e ct b a c t e r ia s o t h a t whit e c o r pus cl e s ca n m or e e a s il y e n gulf th e m

‘

D e n it e o p . fi
s o n i c in d e xe s m a y b e c al cul a t e d fr o m m ic r o s co pic e xa m in a t io n s A pipe t t e , m a r e d a s s h o wn
. k
in t h e di a gra m , is us e d t o m e a s ur e t h e am o un t s o f b a c t e r ia in th e pa t ie n t s s e rum a n d wh it e
’

c or pus c l e s us e d in t h e t e s t .

W hi t e pu s cl e s d e v o u r b a c t e r i a a n d di ge s t t h e m Thu s t he b o dy
cor .
,

is r id o f t h e m .I f n u m b e r s o f b a c t e r i a ge t i n t o t h e ly m ph s y s t e m ,

t h e y a r e f r e qu e n t ly c a r r i ed t o a ly m ph n o d e o r gl a n d wh e r e t h e ,

b a ct e r i a a r e fil t e r e d o ut Th en a c o ll e cti o n o f c o r pu s cl e s a t t a c k
.

t h e i n v a di n g ge r m s a n d d e s t r o y t h e m Wh en a n u m b e r o f .

t ub e r c ul o s i s ge r m s a r e co m b a t i n g whit e c o r pu s c l e s in a l ym ph

g l a n d ,
t h e b o dy s o m e ti m e s d e p o s it s a w a ll o f c a l c iu m a r o u n d t h e

i n fe c t e d c en t e r Thi s r e m o v e s t he wh o l e m a s s o f i n f e c t ed m a t e r i a l
.

fr o m t he c i r c ul a ti o n I n fe ct e d ly m ph gl a n d s a r e s o m e ti m e s c ut
.

o ut o f t h e b o dy t o p r e v e n t a p o s s ibl e r e i n f e c t i o n f r o m t h e tub e r

c ulo s is ge r m s i n c l o s e d .

Th e t yp e o f whit e c o r pu s c l e t h a t d e v o u r s b a c t e r i a is t h e
ph a go c y t e Wh e n ge r m s i n v a d e t h e b o dy th e r e is a n i n cr e a s e
.
,

in t h e n u m b e r o f ph a go c y t e s p r o du c ed in o r d e r t o c h e c k t he in
fe c t io n . I f bl o o d is e x a m i n e d a n d t h e n u m b e r o f whit e c o r
,

u s cle s is v e r y gr e a t t hi s m a y i n di ca t e a n i n f e c ti o n in t h e b o dy
p , .
 DEFE N S E S A G AI N S T D I S E AS E

or p r e c ipi t a t e f o r e i gn p r o t e i n s o ut o f t he bl o od Th ey a r e u s e d
.

a s a t e s t for S p e c ifi c bl o o d s hu m a n a n d o t h e r a n i m a l s
, .

Ops on ins p r e p a r e t h e ge r m s fo r i n ge s t i o n by t h e whi t e c or pu sc l e s .

Op s o n in s s e e m t o c o m bi n e in s o m e w a y wi t h t he b a c t er i a a n d s o
a l t e r th e m t h a t t h e whi t e c o r pu s c l e s c a n b e t t e r e n gulf t h em .

Th e r e a r e diffe r e n t o p s o n i n s p r o du c e d by t he bl o o d in c o m b a t i n g
tub er c ul o s i s b o il s c a u s e d by a s t a phyl o c o c c u s a n d m e n in gi t i s
, , .

Wh en o p s o n in s a r e p r e s e n t t he Whi t e c or pu s c l e s a r e b e t t e r a bl e
,

t o d e s t r oy t he b a c t e r i a . Th e t e s t fo r t h e a m o u n t o f o p s o n i n s
in a p a ti e n t s bl o od is a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g o n e
’
. F o r e x a m pl e bl o o d
,

is t a k e n fr o m a p a t i e n t s uff e r i n g fr o m t ub e r c ul o s i s a n d t h e s e r u m
,

is s e p a r a t e d fr o m it . Th e a m o u n t o f o p s o n i n s in t hi s s e r u m is t o
b e m e a s ur e d . Th e s e r u m is m ix e d wi t h whi t e c o r pu s c l e s f r o m a
h e a l t hy a n i m a l o r p er s o n The whi t e c or pu s c l e s a r e w e ll w a s h e d
.

t o m a k e s u r e th a t n o o p s o n i n s a r e in t h e m ix t u r e b e f o r e t h e
"

s e r u m is a dd e d . Th e s er u m a n d whi t e c o r pu s c l e s a r e t h e n
a dd e d t o s o m e t ub e r c ul o s i s b a c illi . A li t t l e o f t hi s m ix t u re is
p u t o n a g l a s s S lid e, s t a i n e d, a n d e x a m i n e d u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o p.e

Th e n a c o u n t is t a k en e i t h e r o f t h e n u m b e r o f b a c t e r i a i n ge s t e d
,

by t h e fi r s t hu n d r e d c or pu s c l e s s ee n or a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e per
,

c e n t o f t h e fi r s t hu n d r e d whi t e c o r pu s c l e s s e e n t o h a v e in ge s t e d

b a c te r i a Th e s e c o n d e s t i m a t e is e a s i e r t h a n t h e fi r s t b e c a u se
.

t he whit e c o r pu s c l e s d e v o u r s o ma n y b a c t e r i a th a t in s o m e c a s e s
it is i m p os s ibl e t o c o u n t t h e m The e s t i m a t e is th e n c om p a r e d
.

t o n o r m a l bl o o d in o r d e r t o s e e t h e i n c r e a s e o f o p s o n i n s p r e s e n t ,

a n d thu s d e t er m i n e t h e i n c r e a s e in t h e a c tivi t y o f t h e whi t e c o r

p u sc le s. A n y diff e r e n ce in t h e whi t e c o r pu s c l e a c t ivi t y is a t t r ib

ut e d t o e xt r a o p s o n in s d e v e l o p e d in t h e p a ti e n t s bl o o d
’
.

Th e r e la tion of m e n ta l pois e t o dis e a s e . I n h is f a r e w e ll a dd r e s s

a s t h e r e ti r i n g d e an o f t h e c o ll e ge o f phy s i c i a n s a n d s u r ge o n s o f

o n e o f t h e l a r ge u n iv e r s iti e s a f a m o u s d o c t o r s t a t e d th a t t h e s u ga r
,

pill wa s t he o u t s t a n din g di s c o v er y o f his gen e r a t i on H e s t a t e d .

in v e ry d ecid ed t erms th a t h is l ong y ear s of e xp er i e n c e h a d c o n

 Q UE S T I O N S A N D SU GG E STI ON S 5 03

v in ce d h im t h a t it wa s n ot so m u c h t h e m e di c i n e
fi ght as t he
t h a t t h e p a t i e n t m a d e whi c h a u gm e n t e d a n d s t r e n gth e n e d t h e
,

d e fe n s e s of t h e b o dy A s e n s e of hu m or j o y c o ur a ge o p t i mi s m
.
, , , ,

a n d f a i t h a r e t r u e d e f e n s e s a ga i n s t di s e a s e A h e a l t hy a n d c o n .

te n t e d m in d in a p r op e r ly fun c ti on i n g a n d i n t e lli ge n t ly c a r e d for

b o dy is t he go a l th a t e a c h r ea d e r S h o uld s t r iv e t o a c hi e v e .

QU E S TI O NS AN D S UGG E S T I O N S

1 . D i s c us s t hr e e w a y s in wh i c h b a c t e r i a a t t a c k t he b o dy I llu s .

t ra t e e ac h w i t h a s pe c i fi c d is e a s e .

2 . D i s c us s t he di ffe r e n t w a y s in wh i c h b a c t e r i a e n t e r t h e b o dy .

3 . D i s c us s t he n a t ur a l d e fe n s e s o f t he b o dy a ga i n s t t he i n v a s i o n o f
b a c t eria .

4 D i s c us s t h e pr o t e c t ive s ub s t a n c e s f o un d
. in t he bl o o d ,
wh i c h pre
ve n t t he a c t i v i t y o f t he b a c t e r i a in t he b o dy .

S U PP L E M E N TA RY R E A D I N G S

B r o a dh ur s t J H o w We Re s i s t D is ea s e ( B L ippin c o t t
,
.
, Co J . . .

Gr e a e s v , J
E 85 E O E leme n ta ry B a c te r iology ( W B S a un der s
. . . .
, . .

Z in s s er H a n s A Textbook of B a c teri ology ( D Apple t o n

, ,
.
 C H AP TE R X LI X

I M M UN I TY

P a ul Eh r l ich E li M e t c h n i k o ff

Why ca n s om e p p
eo le i
r es s t dis eas e fully
s ucces s a nd ot hers ha ve
ve ry little r es i s ta n ce ? Wha t t heo ry
f i m m uo
n i ty i s m os t gen er a lly
“

a ccepte d? Ca n a ll peop le be m a de im m un e to dis ea s e ?

Th e bili t y o f t he b o dy t o r e s i s t di s e a s e is k n o w n a s i m m u n i t y
a .

To da y w he n t he e m ph a s i s is pl a c e d o n p r e v e n t iv e m e di c i n e r a t h er
-
,

t h a n c u r a tiv e i m m u n i t y is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ph a s e s o f
,

bi o l o gy I t is a c o m p a r a t iv e ly n ew s c i e n c e Tw o m e n l a r ge ly
. .

r e s p o n s ibl e fo r f o u n di n g t h e s c i e n c e o f i m m u n ity w e re E li M e t c h n i

k o ff a n d Pa ul E h r li c h .

E li M e tc h n ik off By 1 88 3 Pa s t e u r a n d Ko c h h a d s u c c e e d e d
.
,

in a r o u s i n g in m a n y s c i en ti s t s a n i n t e r e s t in m i c r o b e s M e t ch .

n iko ff , a R u s s i a n n a tu r a li s t w o r ki n g in S i c ily s t udi e d t he w a y

,

s p o n ges a n d s t a r fi s h di ges t t h e i r f o o d I n i n v e s t i ga ti n g t h e s e
.

a n i m a l s h e n o t i c e d c e r t a i n c e ll s m o vi n g in t h e i r b o di e s The s e .

w a n d e r i n g c e ll s a c t e d a n d l o o k e d like a m o e b a s H e fe d pa r .

t ic le s o f p owd e r e d c a r m i n e t o t he t r a n s p a r e n t l a r v a e o f s t a r fi s h
a n d t he w a n d e r i n g c e ll s i n ge s t e d t he p a r t i c l e s M e t ch n iko ff
.

w o n d e r e d wh e t h e r th ese w a n d e r i n g c ell s w o uld e n gulf m i c r o b e s .

H e s tu c k s o m e th o r n s f r o m a ro s e bu s h i n t o t h e t r a n s p a r e n t
s t a rfi s h . M a s s e s o f t he w a n d er i n g c ell s c r o wd e d a ro u n d t he
s liv e r s . H e c o n clud ed t h a t t h e s e c e ll s kill e d i n v a di ng ge r m s a n d ,

504
5 06 I M M UN I T Y

com p o u n d c a ll e d 60 6 whi c h ga v e i mm u n i t y t o t he
, m i ce . E h r li c h
t r i e d his 6 0 6 o n a c e r t a i n di se a s e in hu m a n b e i n gs ca u s e d by s pi

D ia gr a mm a fi c r e pr e s e n ta tio n o f t oxin s uni t in g wit h a n t it o xin s Th e t oxin h a s s t im ul a t e d th e

v
.

k
c e ll t o d e e l o p an a n tit o xin wh ic h l oc s or n e ut ra l iz e s t h e t o xin . Th i s is a c c o r din g t o th e s id e
c h a in t h e o ry o f a ulP E
h r lic h .

ro c h a e t e s a n th a t it c u r e d th em a l so H e c a ll e d t he a r s en i c
d fo u n d , .

c o m p o u n d s a lv a r s a n
,
H e th o u ght t h e s a lv a r s a n u n i t e d with t h e
.

c ell s o f t he b o dy a n d h e lp e d t o p r o du c e a n i mm u n i t y I n s t ea d it wa s .
,

l a t er p r o v e d t h a t t he dy e u n it e d wi t h t he s pi r o c h a e t e a n d kill ed it .

E h r li c h w a s t h e f o und e r o f t he h um ora l o r s ide c ha in t heory o f -

i m m u n ity whi c h is s t ill ge n e r a lly a c c ep t e d by bi o l o gi s t s o f t o da y

,
-
.

Th e hu m o r a l t h e o r y s t a t e s th a t p ro t e c t iv e s ub s t a n c e s a r e p r o du c e d
withi n t he b o dy u s u a lly in t he bl o o d whi c h c o u n te r a c t t he e ff e c t s
, ,

o f b a c te r i a M e t c h n ik o ff a n d E h r li c h s t i m ul a t e d r e s ea r c h in t he
.

s tudy o f i mm u n ity S i n c e t h e n th e r e h a s b e e n m u c h p r ogr e s s

. .

T o da y it is o n e o f t he b ig f e a tu r es in p r e v e n tiv e tr e a t m e n t
-
,
.

M a n y o f t he c ur e s a n d di s c o v e r i e s Of t o m o rr o w will b e buil t o n
-

t h e f o u n d a t i o n s l a id by t h e s e m e n .

Type s of im m un ity N a tura l i mm un ity is t h e i m m u n i t y o n e h a s

.

a t bir t h I t s t a y s wi t h t h e i n dividu a l a lw a y s a n d th e r e fo r e t h e r e
.
, ,
 TY P E S O F I M M UN I T Y 5 07

is n o n ee d o f a n I n o c ul a t i o n n o r a n y d a n ger o f a n a t t a c k o f t he dis
,

e a s e a ga i n s t whi c h t h e r e is t h e i mm u n i t y T h a t th e r e is a n a t ur a l
.

i m m u n i t y o f S p e c i e s is S h o w n by t h e i n n u m e r a bl e di s e a s e s o f a n i ma l s
t o whi c h hu m a n s a r e n o t s u s c e p t ibl e S i m il a r ly a n i m a l s c o n
.
,

t r a c t v e r y fe w o f t h e hu m a n di s e a s e s A n a t u r a l i m m u n ity is
.
,

a l so ,e vid e n c e d by v a r i o u s gro up s o f t h e s a m e s p e c i e s a l t h o u gh ,

thi s is s o m ewh a t r el a t iv e Th e n a t iv e s o f S o u t h Am er i c a a n d
.

Afr i c a a r e m o r e i m m u n e t o y e ll o w fe v er t h a n a r e t h e whit e pe o
p l e . P e r h a p s thi s is d ue t o a w e e di n g o u t p r o c e s s
-
du r in
g whi c h
t h e fit t e s t h a s a c qui r e d a n i m mun i t y whil e t he un fit di e d Thi s .

d o e s n o t a lwa y s expl a i n n a tu r a l i mm u n i t y h o w e v e r M e a s l e s is , .

a m ild di se a s e with whit e p eo pl e b ut f a t a l t o n a t iv e s o f c e r t a i n

,

So ut h Sea i sl a n ds . Je w s a r e m o r e i mm u n e t o t ub e r c ul o s i s th a n
I r i s h a n d E n gli s h p e o pl e . E s ki m o s I n di a n s a n d N e gr o e s a r e
, ,

hi ghly s u s ceptibl e t o tub er c ul o s i s The N o r th Am er i c a n I n di a n

.

s ee m s t o b e i m m u n e t o s c a r l e t f e v e r The c o l o r e d p e o pl e in t he
.

s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e Un it e d S t a t e s s e e m t o h a v e a n a t ur a l r es i s t

a n ce t o diph t h e r i a . Thi s typ e o f n a tu ra l i m m u n ity is o f t e n

c a ll e d r a c i a l i m m u n i t y .C e r t a i n m e m b e rs o f t he s a m e r a c e S h ow
a n a t u r a l i m m u n ity t o di s e a s e whil e o t h e r s do n o t F o r e x a m pl e .
,

s o m e c hild r e n s ee m n a tu r a lly i m m u n e t o diphth e r i a a s s e e n in

t h e i r r ea c t i o n s t o t h e S c hi c k t e s t Wh e th e r n a t u ra l i mm u n ity
.

is t he r e s ul t o f n a tu r a l s e l e cti o n o r wh e t h e r it c a n b e e xpl a i n e d
,

by e n vi r o n m e n t a l c o n di t i o n s is s till n o t d e c id e d
, .

Ac quired imm un ity diff e r s fr o m n a tu r a l i m m u n ity in th a t it is

d e v e l o p e d dur i n g t he life t i m e o f t he i n dividu a l Th e r e a r e t wo .

t yp e s o f a c qui r e d i mm u n i t y a c t iv e a n d p a s s iv e
,
Active a c quired . .

imm un ity is p r o du c e d by t he b o dy it s e lf a s a r e s ul t o f h a vi n g t he
g e r m s o r t h e t o xi n s O f a di s e a s e e n t e r t h e b o dy T h e r e a r e t h
. r ee

w a y s in whi c h t hi s m a y b e a c c o m pli s h e d ( 1 ) B y a n a ctua l a tta ck .

of t he dis ea s e . I f t hi s m e t h o d p r o du c e s im m un it v fo r a n y a ppr e
c ia b le l e n gt h o f t i m e it is lik e ly t o l a s t fo r lif e
,
F o r e xa m pl e o n c e
.
,

a p e r s o n h a s h a d t yph o id s m a llp o x o r diphth e r i a he is lik e ly t o

, ,
508 I M M UN I T Y

d evelop ctiv e i mm u n ity whi c h l a s t s for life ( 2) B y va ccin a

an a .

tion . The i n t r o du c ti o n o f d e a d or a tt e n u a t e d (w e a ke n e d ) ge r m s
o f t h e di s e a s e in s m a ll d o ses s t i m ul a t e s t h e b o dy t o p r o du ce it s
, ,

ow n a n t ib o di e s I n v a c c i n a ti n g a ga i n s t typh o id a n d y e ll o w f e v e r
.
,

t he d e a d o r ga n i s m s a re u s e d I n s m a llp o x ge r m s w e a k e n e d by
.
,

p a s s i n g t h e m t h r o u gh a c ow a r e u s e d t o m a k e up t he v a cc i n e .

Thi s is k n o w n a s a n i m a l p a s s a ge I n ra bi e s t h e ge r m s a r e
.
,

a t t e n u a t e d by d r yi n g t h e m G e r m s m a y a l s o b e w e a ke n e d by t h e
.

a ppli c a ti o n o f S l o w h e a t o r by gr o wi n g th e m o n m e di a th a t a r e

n o t quit e f a v o r a bl e I n e a c h o f t h e s e c a s es t h e b o dy c e ll s re s p o n d
.

t o t he i n o c ul a t i o n by p ro du c i n g a n tib o di e s ( ) y
3 B t he
. i nj tion
e c

of toxin fro m whic h t he bac teri a ha ve been filte r ed S o m e t i m e s t he .

t o xi n h a s s o m e a n t it o xm m ix e d wi t h it t o dilut e a n d m a k e it
s a fer , a s in diphth e r i a t o xi n a n ti t o xi n -
S o m e t i m e s s m a ll qu a n
.

t iti e s o f t h e t o xi n i t s e lf a r e u s e d a s in s c a r l e t f e v e r i mm u n iz a t i o n
, .

H e r e a ga i n t h e b o dy p r o du c e s a n tib o di es
, ,
All a c tiv e ly a c qui r e d
.

i m m u n i t y is u s u a lly l a s ti n g in it s e ffec t s Ac tiv e i m m u n ity t a k e s

.

s o m e t i m e t o p r o du c e b e c a u s e t h e c e ll s r e qui r e t i m e t o m a k e

t he ir r ea c t i on s .

P as s ive a c quir ed immun ity is O bt a i n e d by t he i n j e c t i o n o f a n ti

t o xi n s o r i mm u n e s e r u m s f ro m t h e b o dy o f a n o th e r p e r s o n o r a n
a n im a l S u c h i m m u n i t y I S I m m e di a t e in it s e ffec t s b ut it d o e s n o t
.
,

l a s t for v er y l o n g The a n t it o xi n is a l r e a dy p r e p a r e d I t s e t s t o
. .

w o r k p r o m ptly n e u t r a lizi n g t h e t o xi n p r e se n t The i n j e c ti o n o f .

s u c h m a t e r i a l d o e s n o t s t i m ul a t e t h e b o dy t o p r o du c e it s o w n

a n tib o di e s a n d h e n c e t hi s i mm u n i t y l a s t s fo r o nly a S h o r t t i m e .

I t is u s e d in t h e a c tu a l t re a t m e n t o f t h e di s e a se o r t o p r o t e c t s o m e
o n e w h o h a s b e e n e xp o se d F o r e x a m pl e diph t h e r i a p a ti e n t s a n d
.
,

th e i r f a m ili es a r e giv e n a n t it o xi n An i mm u n e s e r u m is fr e qu en tly

.

g iv e n fo r p n e um o n l a a n d i n f a n til e p a r a ly s i s .

Th e imm un ity of t o m orr ow A v e r y re c e n t i n v es ti ga t or d H e

’
- .
,

r e lle h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t he p r e se n ce o f wh a t h e h a s c a ll e d a bac
,

terio pha ge a ki nd of s up e r b a ct e r i a th a t d es t ro y o th e r b a ct er i a
,
 C H AP TE R L
TAXO N O M Y

Li n n a e us A ca t n a m e d To m

H ow ca n t he m a n y p la n ts an d an ima ls f o t he wor ld be iden tifi ed?

Wha t is t he purpos e of iden tifi ca tion ? is ta xon omy ? Wha t Wha t
con tr ibution s m a de by s ci en tis ts ha ve helped to s ys tem a tize the clas s i

fi c a tion s o f pla n ts a n d a n ima ls ?

I t is id th a t Al e x a n d er t he G r e a t wa s a pupil o f Ar i s t o tl e t he
sa ,

F a t h er o f B i o l o gy Al ex a n d er h e ld his t e a c h e r in t he hi gh es t
.

e s t ee m a n d du r i n g h is c a m p a i gn a n d c o n qu es t s k e pt a gr o up o f
, , ,

c o u r i e r s t o c a rr y u n u s u a l pl a n t a n d a n i m a l f o r m s b a c k t o his f r i e n d

a n d t e a ch er Th e s e s p e c i m e n s c a m e in s u c h l a r ge n um b e r s t h a t
.

Ar i s t o t l e h a d t o d e vi s e a m e a n s o f c a r i n g fo r t h e m in a n o r d er ly
m a n n er H e u s e d a s y s t e m o f c l a s s ifi ca t i o n t h a t wa s l a r gely b a se d
.

o n t h e h a bi t a t o f t h e o r ga n i s m s F o r his a n i m a l s h e ha d e i ght
.

g r o up s f,o u r o f whi c h w e r e bl o o d c o n t a i n i n-
g a n d k n ow n a s m a m,

m a l s bi r d s e gg l a yi n g qu a d r up e d s a n d fi s h e s ; whil e f o u r w e r e
, ,
-
,

bl oo dl es s n a m e ly s quid like a n i m a l s c r u s t a ce a i n s e c t s a n d
, ,
-
, , ,

a n i m a l s wi t h s h e ll s .

Th e b in om ia l s y s t e m of Linn a e us V a r i o u s o t h e r s c i e n ti s t s
.

c h a n ge d t hi s s y s t e m b ut C a ro lu s L i n n a e u s a S w e di s h n a tu
, ,

r a lis t , d evi s e d t he s y s t em up o n whi c h t he m o d er n m e t h o d Of

c l a s s ifi c a t i o n is b a s e d B e fo r e his t i m e in o r d er t o d e s c r ib e a
.
,

ki n d o f gr a s s a n d n o t co n fu s e it with o th er fo r m s m o re o r l e s s
5 10
 TH E BI N OM I A L SYS TEM OF L I NN A EUS 11

like it , a d e s c r ip t iv e n a m e S i m il a r t o t he fo ll o wi n gWa s u s ed G r a m e n
Xe r a m pe lin o M ilia ce a pr a e t e n ius r a m o s a q ue s p a r s a pa n ic ula S iv a
, , ,

Xe ra m pe lin o co ge n e r a r v e n se a es t ivu m , C a r o lu s Lin n a e us wa s

, .
s

a n a s s i s t a n t t o t h e Pro f e s so r o f B o t a n y in t h e Un iv e r s i ty o f

Up s a l a S w e d e n
, Whil e c a t a l o gui n g pl a n t s h e h a d c o m e a c r o s s
.
,

m a n y d e s c r ip t i o n s s u c h a s t h e o n e j u s t give n H e r e a liz e d t h a t.

s u ch a n a m e w a s t o o l o n g a n d i n c o n v e n i e n t a n d he i n i t i a te d a n um x

b er o f r e f o r m s in t he e xi s t i n g s c h e m e o f c l a s s ifi c a t i o n H e ga v e :

t he n a m e Pea bulb o s a t o t hi s pl a n t I n h is s y s t e m w hi c h h e
.

c a ll e d t h e bin om i a l n o m en c la tur e t w o n a m e s s u ffi c e d t o dis

,

t in guis h t hi s o r ga n i s m f r o m a ll o t h e r s On e n a m e d e s i gn a t e s
.

t he ge n u s o f t he pl a n t o r a n i m a l t h e o t h er t h e s p e c i e s , All .

o r ga n i s m s th a t h a v e s i m il a r c h a ra c t ers a r e gr o up e d t o ge t h e r a n d

thi s gr o up is c a ll e d a ge n u s The n a m e giv e n t h e m is t h e ge n e r i c

.

nam e . The ge n u s is s ubdivid e d i n t o gr o up s with v a r yi n g c h a r

a c t e r s c a ll e d a s p e c i e s a n d t h e n a m e giv e n is t h e s p e c ifi c n a m e .

Th e ge n e r i c n a m e fo r a ll t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e c a t t r ib e is F e li s Th e .

g e n u s F e li s is s ubdivid e d i n t o t h e s p e c i e s s u c h a s le o li
( o n ) pa r ,

dus ( l e o p a r d ) d o m e s t i c a ( h o u s e c a t )
, Th e r e f o r e t he li o n is
.
,

k n o w n a s F e li s leo t he l e o p a r d a s F e li s p a r du s a n d t he h o u s e
, ,

c a t a s F e li s d o m e s t i c a Th e i n i t i a l l e tt e r s o f t h e n a m e o f t he
.

g e n u s is a lw a y s c a pit a li ze d a n d th a t o f t h e S p e c ifi c n a m e i s w r itt e n

with a s m a ll l e tt er .

Wh a t a t a s k Li n n a e u s u n d e r t o o k " H e publi s h e d h is m o s t i m p o r
t a n t w o r k S ys tema N a tur d e in t w e lv e e di t i o n s a n d like a ll s c ie n
, ,

t is t s o f his t i m e w r o t e t h e d e s c r ip t i o n s in L a ti n
, Thi s p r a c t i c e .

c o n ti n u e d u n t il v e r y r e c e n t ly E x c h a n ge s o f s c i e n tifi c p ap e r s o n
.

c l a s s ifi c a ti o n s c o uld b e m a d e th ro u gh o ut t h e w o r ld in a c o m m o n

l a n gu a ge Re ce n t ly s c i e n t i s t s h a v e e m pl o y e d t h e i r m o th e r t o n gu e
.
,

fo r t he d e s c r ip t i o n o f a n y n e w c r e a t u r e Wh e n t he di s c o v e r y is a n
.

i m p o r t a n t o n e t he p a p e r is t r a n s l a t e d by t h o s e who n ee d t he d a t a
,
.

L i n n a e u s die d in 1 7 78 b ut his w o r k live s o n a n d with a few m o di

, ,

fic a t io n s is s till u s e d t o da y
,
-
.
5 12 TAX O N OM Y

N Y. . Z o eto at ca l S o c i et y

Th e r e are ma r k diffe r e n c e s in s ize , s h a pe , a n d h a b it s o f pr e s e n t da y m a mm a l s

ed Th e
v
.

j
gia n t a n t e a t e r , M y rm e c o ph a ga ub a t a , i s a n a t i e o f t r o pica l Am e r ica . I t s c oa r s e h a ir is a lm o s t
k
b r is t l e -l i e in s t r uc t ur e Th e lo n g n a r r o w s n o ut a n d a lo n g t o n gue e na b l e it t o lic
. k
up in
s e ct s .

T h e b a s is c la s s ifi c a t ion of t o da y Th e s c i e n t i s t o f t o da y
of th e -
.
-

kn ow s m a n y m o r e a n i m a l s t h a n Ar i s t o t l e o r L i n n a e u s k n ew .

Th e re a r e p r o b a bly m o r e t h a n a m illi o n di ffe r e n t ki n d s o f a n i

m a l s n o w k n o w n a n d n e a r ly a s m a n y pl a n t s
, Wi t h t he m e t h o d o f
.

id e n t ifyi n g a n d c l a s s ifyi n g a n i m a l s a n d pl a n t s in a n o r d e r ly a n d
s c i e n t ifi c m a n n er t h e r e h a s gro w n a divi s i o n o f bi o l o gy t ax o n o m y , ,

th a t is c o n c e r n e d wi t h t hi s c l a s s ifi c a ti o n Ta xo n o m y ( fro m ta xis
.

a rr a n ge m e n t ; n o mos
— la w) is t he divi s i o n o f bi o l o gy t h a t
h a s t o do wi t h t h e c l a s s ifi c a t i o n o f a n i m a l s a n d pl a n t s o n t h e b a s i s
o f fu n d a m e n t a l s i m il a r iti es Th e m o d e r n m e t h o d o f c la s s ific a
.

t i o n o f pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s d oe s m o r e t h a n c a t a l o g a n i m a l s fo r
t he c o n v en i e n c e o f t h e s c i e n ti s t s I t e xp r es s e s a ki n s hip a n d r e l a
.

t io n s h ip Th e r e l a ti o n s hip o f pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s ha s b e e n de
.
5 14 T AX O N O M Y

l ly r e l a te d
a re c o se . An i m a l s t h a t y t h e i r y o u n g in p o u c h es a re
c a rr

c l a s s ifi e d t o ge t h e r . Bi r d s t h a t h a v e w a di n g h a bi t s b e l o n g t o t he

N Y
. . Z obloai ca l S oci et y

Th e Arma dill o (Ta tu n ove n c in c t um ) is c o ve r e d with a b o n y s h e ll S om e . s pe c ie s curl up

in t o a b a ll, pr e s e n tin g t h e a r m or o n a ll s ide s .

same gr o up . H a bit s l
a on e do
d e t e r m i n e c l a s s ifi c a ti o n ; o th e r
n ot

f a c t s m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d Th e wh a l e is fr e qu e n t ly th o u ght o f a s
.

a fis h b e c a u s e it s wi m s a n d liv e s in t h e w a t e r Ac t u a lly it is a
.

m a m m a l b e c a u s e it s u c kl e s it s y o u n g Wh e n a n i m a l s or pl a n t s
.

c r o s s b r e e d wi t h e a c h o th e r t h e y a r e u s u a lly f o u n d t o b e c l o s e ly
,

rel a ted . F o r t hi s r e a s o n Suc ce s s ful c r o s s b r e e di n g is o n ly po s s ibl e

with th o se f o r m s t h a t a r e c l o s e ly r e l a t e d F o r e x a m pl e t h e .
,

h o r s e a n d d o n k e y will c r o s s b r e e d a n d p r odu c e a m ul e Th e m ul e .

is p r o b a bly a lw a y s s t e ril e a n d will n o t p r o du c e o ff s p r i n g D o gs

, .

a n d w o lv e s will c r os s b r e e d a n d t h e hyb r id o ff s p r i n g will r e p r o

du ce C o n s e qu e n tly , d o gs a n d w o lv e s a r e th o u ght t o b e m or e
.

cl o s e ly r e l a t e d t h a n a r e h o r s e s a nd d o n k e y s .

S o m a n y m o difi c a ti o n s o f L i n n a e u s s y s
’
Th e L a w of P r iorit y .

t e m o f c l a s s ifi c a t i o n a r o s e t h a t c o n fu s i o n r e s ul t e d An I n te r na .

t io n a l C o m m i s s i o n o n C l a s s ifi c a t i o n w a s f o u n d e d in 1 895 I t s pur .

p o s e wa s t o d r a w up a s et o f r ul e s which w o uld b e a c c ept e d a nd

 THE LA W OF P RI O RI T Y 5 15

a d o p t e d by t h e s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e e n t i r e w o r ld On e o f t h e b a s i c .

r ul e s f o r m ul a t e d by t hi s c o m m i s s i o n is t h e L a w o f Pr i o r i t y Thi s .

h a s t o do wi t h t he s c i e n t ific n a m e e a c h a n i m a l a n d pl a n t i s t o
\

b e a r S upp o s e a n un fa m ilia r m ic r o s c o pic a n i m al is o b s e r v e d Th e

. .

s c i e n t i s t d r a w s it ph o t o gr a ph s it p e r h a p s he kill s it
, ,
a n d s tudi e s ,
'

it a s s t a i n e d a n d s e c t i o n e d m a t e r i a l H e t h e n c o n s ult s t h e de
—
.

s c r ip t iv e c l a s s ifi c a t i o n o r ga n iz e d S i n c e 1 8 9 5 a n d s e e k s t h e p r op e r

pl a c e t o c a t a l o g his S p e c i m e n I f t h e S p e c i m e n is n o t s i m il a r t o
.

a n y k n o w n o r ga n i s m t h e s c i e n t i s t giv e s it a ge n e r ic a n d S p e c ifi c
’

nam e ,
w r i t e s a d e s c r ip t i o n a nd publi s h e s his fi n di n gs I f n o
, .

o th e r s c i e n t i s t r e a di n g h is p a p e r h a s e v e r c o m e a c r o s s it o r s e e n

a d e s cr ip t i o n o f it e l s e wh e r e thi s s c i e n ti s t is th e r ea ft er cr e dit e d
,

wi t h t he di s c o v er y H e h a s a dd e d a n e w c r e a tur e t o t h e li s t o f
.

k n ow n or ga n i s m s .

I ns e ct a

Th e ph ylum Ar th r o po da is s ub di vid d i
e n to fi v e p r e s e n t - d a y c la s s e s Th e r e
. are m a n y fo s s il
a r th r o po d s , s om e k
o f wh ich a r e q uit e unl i e pr e s e n t - da y fo r m s .

Th e m e th o d of th e cla s s ifi ca tion of t o da y
-
. All livi n g thi ngs ar e

pl a c e d i n t o o ne o f t wo ki n gd o m s ,
t he pl a n t ki n gd o m or t he an i
5 16 TAX O N O M Y

m al ki n gd o m Th es e t wo ki n gd o m s a r e fur th e r divid e d C er
. .

t a i n o u t s t a n di n g lik e n e s s e s e n a bl e a s c i e n t i s t t o divid e t h e pl a n t

M us eum of Nat ura l H i story

Th e crus ta c ea v
a ry in s iz e a n d s h a pe fr o m m ic r o s c Opic r e pre s e n ta t iv e s t o lo b s t e r s w e igh in g
n e a r ly fi
fty po un ds .

ki n gd o m i n t o f o u r divi s i o n s c a ll e d phyl a ( S i n gul a r phylu m ) I n ,

.

t hi s b o o k t h e a n i m a l ki n gd o m will b e divid e d i n t o t e n phyl a .

Th e v a r i o u s phyl a h a v e b e e n c a r e fully a n a lyz e d a n d c o m p a r e d ,

a n d fi n e r gro upi n gs c a ll e d c l a s s e s m a d e :
,
Aga i n a fi n e r s o r t i n g
,

is m a d e a n d t h e c l a s s e s a r e S pli t i n t o o r d e r s C er t a i n ch a r .

a c t e r s a ga i n p e r m i t a s ubdivi s i o n o f t h e o r d e r s i n t o ge n e r a Th e .

g e n e r a a r e s e p a r a t e d i n t o gr o up s S h o wi n g v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s hip .

Th e s e a r e t h e s p e c i e s Th e y a r e v e r y m u c h a lik e b ut m a y s t ill
.
,

diff er S li gh t ly in f o r m h a bi t a t o r di s t r ibut i o n
, , .

On e phylu m o f a n i m a l s t h e a r t h r o p o d a is di s t i n gui s h e d f r o m
, ,

t h e o t h e r t e n phyl a in t h a t a ll o f it s m e m b er s a r e s e gm e n t e d ,

h a v e a n e x o s k e l e t o n a n d j o i n t ed l e gs On e o f t h e c l a s s e s o f t he
.

ph ylu m a r t hr op o d a h a s a c h a ra c t er i s t i c e x o s k e l e to n i m p r e gn a t e d
5 18 T AX O N O M Y

Th e l ifi c a ti o n o f m a n is a n o t h e r e x a m pl e
c a ss .

Phylu m Chorda ta ( m o s t m e m b e r s h a v e b a c kb o n e s a n d h a v e
c e n t r a l n er v e c or d s ) .

C l a s s M a mm a lia ( p r e s e n c e O f h a i r ; t h e y o u n g a r e fe d o n
m ilk ; a m u s c ul a r di a ph r a gm s e p a ra t e s t h e t h o r a x f r o m
t he a bd o m en) .

Or d e r P rim a tes ( e r e c t o r n ea r ly s o ) .

G e n u s H o mo .

S p e c i e s s a pi en s .

C la s s ific a tio n of pl a n t s .

k
Th e pla n t in gdo m is di ide d v
in t o four la r ge gr o ups c a ll e d
ph y la . Th e ow e r in g fl
gr o up
o f s pe rm a t o ph y t e s a r e t h e m o s t
r e c e n t pla n t s .

I . P h ylum TH ALLO P H YTA ( tha llus y o u n g b r a n c h ; p hyton

pl a n t s ) I n c lud e s v e r y S i m pl e pl a n t s s o m e t i m e s S i n gl e c e ll e d
.
,
-
,

but m o r e o ft e n m a n y c e ll e d s o m e h a v e c hl o r o phyll o th e r s a r e
-
,

wi t h o ut thi s gr e e n m a t e r i a l ; n o n e h a v e r o o t s s t e m s o r l e a v e s , ,
.

T h e r e a r e t w o s ubphyl a F un gi a n d A lga e
, Th e F u n gi a r e .

n o n gr e e n pl a n t s o f v e r y gr ea t e c o n o m i c a l i m p o r t a n c e
-
Th e r e .

a r e f o u r c l a s s e s f o u n d in t h e s ubphylu m fu n gi .

Cl a s s I F is s io n fun gi B a cteri a
. .

Class I I — Tub e fungi .H a v e t ubul a r b o di e s E x a m pl e is .

brea d mold .
 C L AS S I F I C AT I O N O F P LAN TS 5 19

Cl ass I I I S ac fun gi . p or e s in a s a c E x a m pl es
P r o du c e S .

a r e t h e yea s ts p owde r y m ildews a n d m a n y o t h e r s

, , .

Cl as s I V Clu b fu n gi a r e S O c a ll e d b e c a u s e t h e i r s po r e s a r e
‘

p r o du c e d up o n a c lub s h a p e d s tr u c t u r e M us hrooms p ufl ba lls

-
.
, ,

s muts a n d r us ts b e l o n g t o t hi s gr o up
,
.

Th e s ubphylu m Al ga e i n c lud e s t h e c hl o r o phyll b e a r in g th a ll o -

,

h t s I n s o m e f o r m s t h e c hl o r o phyll is m a s k d by s m th
—
p y e . e o e o e r

c o l o r in g m a t t er Th e y r a n ge f r o m S i ngl e c e ll e d f o r m s t o fila m e n
.

t o u s c o l o n i e s o r e v e n l o n g r ibb o n o r r o p e lik e m a s s e s m a n y f e e t in
-

l e n gth T h e y a r e n e a r ly a ll a q u a t i c Th e s ubphylu m Al ga e is
. .

s ubdivid e d a s f o ll o w s

Cl as s I — B 1ue gr e e n alga e c o n t a i n a blu e pi gm e n t in t h e

-

c e ll s in a ddi t i o n t o t h e gr ee n c o l o r E x a m pl e s a r e N os to c pru
.

n i or m e a n d
f Os ci lla to ri vi o la cea .

Cl a s s I I G r e e n alga e a r e o f c o u n tl es s f o r m s u n i c e llul a r , ,

fil a m e n t o u s pl a t e lik e a n d in i r r e gul a r m a s s e s o f c e ll s Th e r e
, , .

a r e b o t h f r e s h w a t e r a n d s a lt w a t e r f o r m s
- -
a n d o t h e r s liv e o n ,

l a n d One f o rm will gr o w o n sno w p a t c h e s P leurococcus vul

. .

g a r i s a n d V a u c her i a t er r es tr i s a r e e x a m pl e s .

C l a ss I I I B r own a lga e a r e n e a r ly a ll m a r i n e pl a n t s .

Th e y a r e t h e c o m m o nly k n o w n s ea weeds .

Cl a ss I V — R e d alga e a r e m o s t ly m a r i n e
.
Our m o s t d e li .

c a te a n d b e a utiful s ea weeds b e l o n g t o thi s m a i n c l a s s .

II . P h ylum B R Y O P H YTA G
( r .
, bryon m o s s ; p hyton
pl a n t ) C on t a i n s o n ly t wo c l a s s e s t h e
.
,
liv e r w o r t s a n d t he m o s s e s .

Th e se pl a n t s a r e s m a ll a n d liv e m o s tly o n l a n d Th e y S h o w a .

r e a te r d v l o p m nt f ti u s th a n t h a l ga e a nd m a y b
g e e e o s s e e e

e i t h e r th a llu s lik e ( liv e r w o r t s ) o r h a v e s t e m s wi t h r o o t lik e pr o

-

i d rm i n g
j e c t o n s a n v e r y S i m pl e l e a v e s T h e y r.e p ro du ce by f o

S p or es

— —
.

I I I P h ylum
. PTE R I D O P H YTA ( Gr pteris fe rn ) Thi s .
, .

i n c lud e s a gr o up whi c h wh e n t h e w o r ld wa s y o u n ge r pl a ye d a
, ,

v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t in t he v ege t a t i o n o n t he e a r t h M os t c oa l is .
520 T A X O N OM Y

m ade f r o m fe r n s O f t h e p a s t Th e y h a v e t r u e r o o t s s t e m s a n d
.
, ,

l e a v e s b ut r e p r o du c e lik e t he m o s s e s by fo r m i n g S p o r e s T he
, , .

Pt e r id o phy t a i n c lud e t h r e e c l a s s e s : t h e t r u e f e r n s t h e h o r s e t a il s ,

( E qui s e t u m ) a n,
d t h e lc p o d s o r c lub m o ss es .

I V P h ylum
. S P E R M ATO P H YTA ( Gr s p er ma s ee d ) Th e .
, .

e e d b e a r i n g pl a n t s a r e gr o up e d i n t o t w o s ubphyl a
-
Th e Gy m .

n o sp e r m a e ( Gr gy.m n,
os n a k e d ) o r n a k e d s,
e e d e d pl a n t s -
,

i n c lud e a s m a ll gr o up r e l a t e d t o t he f e r n s o n o n e s id e a n d t h e
fl o w e r i n g pl a n t s o n t he o t h e r Two c l a s s e s a r e f o u n d in t hi s s ub
.

phylu m : t h e C y c a d s o f whi c h t h e s o c a ll e d s a go p a l m is a n
,
-

e x a m pl e a n d t h e C o n if er s o r e v e r gr e e n s
,
a s pi n e s S p r u c e s fir s
, , , ,

h e m l o c k s c yp r e s s a n d o t h er s
, ,
Th e e v e r gr e e n s i n c lud e t h e
.

s e qu o i a s t h e la r ge s t a n d o ld e s t t r e e s
,
Th e s ubphylu m Angi o
.

S pe r m a e ( Gr a n gei o n
.
,
c a s e o r v es s e l ) o r t r u e fl o w e rI n g pl a n t s
, ,

i n c lud e t h e c o m m o n gr a s s e s a n d gr a i n s fl o w er i n g t r e e s a n d s h r ub s
, ,

a n d fl o w e r i n g pl a n t s I t is divid e d i n t o t wo s ub c l a s s e s M o n o
.
-
,

c ot y le do n e s a n d D i c o t yl e d o n e s .

Th e cla s s ifi c a tion of a n i m als .

t
‘ ‘
o o Za o a .

T h e n um b e r o f s pe c ie s gi e n v
in th e dia gr a m is a ppr oxima t e
a n d n o t e xa c t .

P h ylum I P R OT O ZO A ( Gr .
, p ro to s fi r s t zoon anim al) .

S i ngl e -
ce ll e d a n i m a l s wi t h o ut t r u e o r ga n s , o r t is sues Oc c a s i o n a lly
.
5 22 TAX O N O M Y

n ai l a n i m a l s a s Obelia weis ma n ia Th e s e a n i m a l s r e p r o d u
, c e by .

bud s a nd by e ggs a n d s p e r m s I n t h e c o l o n i a l t yp e s c e r t a i n
,
.
,

bud s o f t he o r i gi n a l c o l o n y a r e fr ee swi m m i n g j e llyfi s h Th e s e -

.

p r o du c e t he e ggs a n d s p e r m s .

Cla ss I I S c yph o zo a M a r i n e j e llyfi s h l a rge in S iz e E x

—
.
, .

a m pl e s a r e A u r e li a fl a vi dula a n d P or tu gue s e m a n o
f wa r -
.

Cla ss I I I — An th o z o a L a r ge hyd r a lik e a n i m a l s S i n gl e o r

.
-
,

co l o ni a l u s u a lly a t t a c h e d wi t h m a n y t e n t a c l e s a r r a n ge d in
, ,

c i r c l e s Of m ul t ipl e s o f fiv e Th e s ea a n em on es a n d cora ls a r e
.

t h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m pl e s .

P h ylum I V P LAT YH E LM I N TH E S ( Gr pla tys fl a t ; hel .

,

min t hos — w o r m ) o r fl a t w or m s Th re e l a y er e d a n i m a l s bil a t

,
.
-
,

e r a lly s y m m e t r i c a l u s u a lly s m a ll r ibb o n o r l e a f lik e fl a t a n d

, ,
-
, ,

liv e in wa t e r M o s t fl a tw o r m s a r e p a r a s i t i c E x a m pl e s a r e
. .

ta p eworm a nd li ve r fluke .

P h ylum V N E M ATH E LM I N TH E S ( Gr n em a tos a .

,

t hr ea d ) o r r o u n d wor m s
,
T h r ee l a y er e d e l o n ga t e d t h r e a d lik e
.
-
, ,
-

a n i m a l s o f t en p a ra s i t i c
,
Vin ega r eels t h e ho rs e ha i r wo rm t h e po r k
.
, ,

wo r m o r t ri c hi n a t h e t hr ea dwo r m a n d t h e ho okwo r m a r e e x a m pl e s
— —
, , .

P h ylum VI E C H I N O D E R M ATA ( Gr ec hi n os h e d ge ho g ; .
,

derma s ki n ) R a di a lly s ym m e t r i ca l
. S pi n y S ki n n e d anim a l s ,
-

whi c h liv e in s a l t w a t e r m o r e co m pli c a te d in s t ruc tu r e t h a n t h e

,

wo rm s . F iv e c l a s s es
Class I As t e r o ide a S ta rfis hes . .

Cl a s s I I Oph iuroide a Th e bri ttle s ta rs o r s n a ke s ta rs

. .

Cl a s s I I I E chi n o ide a S ea urc hin s . .

Clas s I V H olo th u r oide a I n c lud e s t h e s ea cuc um bers

. .

Cl as s V C rin o ide a S t o n e lik e d e e p s e a f o r m s n ow a l m o s t

.
-
,
-
,

e x t i n ct . S ea li lies a n d s ea fea thers a re e x a m pl e s .

P hylum VI I AN N E LI D A ( L a t a n e llus a r i n g) Bil a t e r a l

.
, .
,

s e gm e n t e d w o r m s ; c o m p o s e d o f b o dy r i n gs o r s e gm e n t s Th e .

di ge s tiv e t r a c t is a tub e wi t hi n a tub e lik e b o dy N o j o i n t ed .

a pp e n d a ge s Th er e a r e t wo cl a s s es
.
 TH E C LAS S I F I C A T I O N O F AN I M A LS 5 23

Cla ss I Ar c hia nn e lida . Pr i m i t iv e m a r i n e w o rm s with o ut

p a r a p o di a o r s et a e . E x a m pl e : Po lygordius u
C la ss I I C h a e topoda . B r i s t l e s a l o n g t h e b o dy . E x a mp l e s
a re t he ea r t hwor m o r s a n dwo r m .

Class I I I H ir u din e a . Wi t h o u t b r i s tl e s a n d h a vi ng s u c ker s

at bo t h en ds of t he b o dy . E x a m pl e s a re t he leec hes ,
P h ylum VI I I : M O LLUS C A ( L a t mollis s o ft ) S o ft b o di e d .
, .
-

u n segm e n t e d a n i m a l s o ft e n p r o vid e d wi t h a S h e ll whi c h is s ec r e t e d

,

by a p a r t o f t h e b o dy .

C la ss I G a s tr opo da ( b e lly Wi t h or wi t h o u t S h e ll s ,

whi c h wh en p r e s e n t a r e o f o n e pi e c e a n d c o il e d S n a ils whelks

, , .
, ,

a n d s lugs .

Cla ss II — P e le cypoda ( h a t c h e t -
f o o t e d) . S h e ll s in t wo
v a lv e s o r p a r t s Cla ms o ys ters s ca llops a n d m us s els
.
, , , .

Cla ss I I I — C e ph a lo po da ( h e a d f o o t e d ) F o o t p a r t ly s ur -
.

r o u n d s h ea d a n d b e a r s t e n t a c l e s o r gr a s pi n g o r ga n s S quids .
,

oc top us es , a n d c utt le fis hes .

P h ylu m IX — AR TH R O P O D A ( Gr .
, a r t hr os
— j oint ; p us
o

f o o t ) An i m a l s a r e s e gm e n t e d a n d h a v e c hi t i n o u s e xo s k e l e t o n s
.
,

a n d j o i n t e d a pp e n d a ge s Th e y liv e in w a t e r o n l a n d in t h e a ir
.
, , ,

Th e r e pt il e s a r e l e gl e s s v e rt e b ra t e s wit h a s ki n c o ve r in g ma d e o f s c a l e -li k e pla t e s .

5 24 TAX ON OM Y

or in althr ee pl a ce s M o s t o f th em u n d e r go a m et a m o r ph o s i s
l . .

Th e r e a r e fiv e c l a s s es
Cla s s I O n ych oph or a
. Pr i m i t iv e a ir b r e a t hi n g a r t h r o p o d s
.
-

with t r a ch e a e a n d n e ph r idi a P erip a tus ca p ens ia . .

Cl as s I I C r us ta c e a B r e a t h e by m e a n s o f gill s Th e h e a d
. .

a n d t h o r a x a r e fu s e d ; t w o p a i r s o f a n t e n n a e Th e y h a v e a .

cr u st y e x o s k e l e t on s t r e n gt h e n e d wi t h ,
li m e E x am pl e s .
,

cra bs a nd lobs ters .

Cla ss I I I M yr i a po da (n u m b er l e s s l e gs ) H a v e l o n g b o di e s .

wi t h ma n y s egm e n t s a n d m a ny p a i r e d j o i n t ed a pp e n d a ge s ;
b r e a th e by t r a ch ea e Cen tipedes a n d mi llip eds a r e e x a m pl es
—
.
.

Cl a s s I V Ar a c h n ida ( Gr a ra c hn e — S pid e r ) Thi s gr o up

.
,
.

h a s n o a n t e n n a e f o u r p a i r s o f l e gs a n d a p a i r o f c l a wlik e
, ,

a pp e n d a ge s o n e a c h S id e o f t h e m o u t h H e a d a n dt h o r a x c o m .

b in e d a s in c r u s t a c e a n B r e a t h e by b o o k gill s b o ok lu n gs o r -
,
-
,

t r a ch e a e The s piders da ddy lon g legs s co rpion s mi tes a n d

.
,
- -
, , ,

ticks a r e in t hi s c l a s s .

Cl a s s V I n s e cta The l a r ge s t c l a s s o f a n i m a l s
. B o dy s e g .

m e n t e d ; th r e e b o dy r e gi o n s h e a d t h o ra x a n d a bd o m e n ; , , ,

th r ee p a i r s o f j o i n t e d l e gs ; u s u a lly c o m p o u n d e y e s ; b r ea t h e
t h r o u gh t r a c h e a e o r a ir t ub e s I n s ects . .

P h ylum X C H O RD ATA (L a t
. c ho r da c ord
) A n im a l s .
, .

h a vi n g a s k e l e t a l a x1s gill s li t s in e m b ry o o r a dul t a n d a n e r v e

, ,

c o r d d o r s a l t o t h e a li m e n t a r y c a n a l Thi s phylu m is divid e d i n t o .

f o u r s ubphyl a on e of whi c h is t he V er t e b r a t a in whi c h a n e r ve

,

c o r d is p r o t ec t e d by a s e gm en t e d b o n y spi n a l c o lu m n Th e s e , .

v er te b r a te s a r e divid e d i n t o se v e n c l a s s e s .

Cla ss I C yc lo s tom a t a E e l lik e v e r t e b r a t e s with r o u n d

.
-

m o uth s a n d wi t h o ut fu n c t i o n a l j a w s w i t h o u t s c a l es a n d fin s , .

L a mpreys and ha gfis hes .

Cla ss I I —E la s m ob r a n ch n . F i s hlik e v e r t eb r a t e s with o ut a

bl a dd er wi t h
, j a ws , a nd with a c a r til a gin o u s s k e l e to n S ha rks .
,

ra ys , a n d s ka tes .
526 T AX O N O M Y

am phibi a n s u n d er go a c om pl e t e m e t a m or ph o s i s The l a r v a e f or m .

c o m e s f r o m t h e e gg a n d liv e in t h e w a t er a n d p o s s e s s gill s F rogs . .

C la s s V — R e pt i lia C o ld bl o o d e d v e r t e b r a t e s u s u a lly c o v
.
-

e r e d wi t h s c a l e s b r e a t hi n g th r o u gh o u t life by m e a n s of lu n gs
, .

The h e a r t is t h r e e c h a m b e r e d
-
L iza r ds s n a kes a n d tur tles.
, , .

C l a s s VI — Av e s Th e bi r ds . Wa rm bl o o d e d v er t e b r a t e s c o v
.
-

e r e d wi t h f e a t h e r s F r o n t li m b s a r e wi n gs ; t h e y h a v e a ir s p a c e s
.

in t he b o n e s n o di a ph r a gm a n d a f o u r c h a m b e r e d h ea r t
, , Bir d s -
.

la y e ggs wi t h a S h e ll o f li m e a n d u s u a lly c a r e fo r t h e i r y o u n g
, .

C l a s s VI I M a mm a lia Wa r m bl o o d e d a n i m a l s c o v e r e d
.
-

wi t h h a ir a t s o m e s t a ge Us u a lly h a v e m a m m a r y gl a n d s a n d
, .

s u c kl e t h e y o u n g Th e y h a v e a di a ph ra gm b e t w e e n t h e t h o r a x
.

a n d a bd o m e n T hi s c l a s s m a y b e divid e d i n t o e l e v e n o r d e r s
.

Or d e r 1 M ON O T R E M A TA E gg l a yi n g m a m m a l s . D u ck -
.

bill S pi n y a n t e a t er
, .

Or d er 2 M AR S U P I A L I A C ar r y i m m a tu r e y o u n g in a
.

S p e c i a l a bd o m i n a l p o u c h K a n ga r o o w o m b a t o p os s u m
.
, , .

N Y . . Z o olo gi ca l S oc i et y

D arwin did n ot s a y tha t m an ca m e fr o m m on k eys . H e a n d o th e r e vl o ut io n is t s b e lie v

e th a t
t h e re i s a c o m m o n a n c e s t or o f man a n d c e r t a in o f t h e a pe s .

Or d er 3 E D E N T AT A To o t hl e s s . or with v e ry S i m pl e te e t h .

H a ir y a n t e a t e r S l o th a r m a dill o
, ,
.
 THE C LA S S I F I C AT I O N OF A N M A LS I 527

Or d er 4 — C ETA C E A . Ad a p t e d t o m a r i n e lif e . Wha le , pOr

p o i se d o lphin s
,
.

Or d e r 5 — S I REN I A F i s hl ik e in f o rm ; p e c t or a l li m b s
.
“

p addl e lik e E x a m pl e s : m a n a t e e du go n g s ea c ow
-
.
, , .

Or d er 6 R OD E N T I A I n c i s o r t e e t h c hi s e l S h a p e d u s u a lly
.
-
,

t w o a b o v e a n d t wo b e l o w E x a m pl e s : b e a v e r r a t p or cu .
, ,

pi n e r a bbit s qui rr e l
, ,
.

Or d e r 7 U N G U L ATA H o o f s ; t e e t h a d a p t e d for gr i n di n g
. .

a Odd t o e
. H o r s e s z e b r a s r hi n o c e r o s
-
.
, ,
.

b E ven t oe
. Ox S h epp a n t e l op e c a m e l gi r a ff e d ee r
-
.
, , , , , ,

pg i hipp o p o t a m ,
u s .

c Pr o b o sc id ea
. E l e ph a n t s . .

Or d e r 8 I N S E C TI V O RA S m a ll i n s ec t ea ti n g furr y o r .
,
-
,

s pi n y c o v e r e d ; l o n g s n o ut M o l e s s hr ew s h e d ge h o g .
, ,
.

Or d e r 9 C H I R O PT E R A F o r e li m b s a d a pt e d t o fli gh t .
,
.

t e e th p o i n t e d E x a m pl e : b a t . .

Or d e r 1 0 C A RN I V O R A L on g c a n i n e t e e th s h a rp a n d .
,

l o n gc l a w s E x a m pl e s : do g c a t li o n b e a r s e a l a n d s ea li o n
.
, , , , ,
.

Or d e r 1 1 P R I M AT E S Thi s o r d er of a n i m a l s i n c lud e s m a n
. .

E r e c t or n e a r ly s o fo r e a pp e n d a ge s p r o vid e d wi t h a h a n d
,
.

Le m u r s m on k ey s b a b o on s m a n dr ill s a p e s gibb on s or a n g
, , , , , ,

u t a n s c hi m p a n z ee s go r ill a s a r e in t hi s gr o up
, , .

a. Le m u r o id e a S m a ll s qui rr e l lik e a n im a l s livi n g in tr ee s

.
-

a n d bu s h e s Th e l e m u r s a n d m a r m os e t s
. .

b C e bid a e Th e N e w Wo r ld m o n k e y s G r a s pi n g t a il s a n d
. . .

fla t n o s e s H o wli n g m o n k e y s pid e r m o n k e y c a pu c hi n
.
, ,
.

c. C e r c o pi t h e c id a e The Old Wor ld m o n k e y . T a il n o t .

g r a s pi n g o r S h o r t ; n o s t r il
, s p o i n t i n g d o w n w a r d D is .

ti n c t o pp o s a bl e t hu m b B a b o o n m a n d r ill
, .
,
.

d S i m iid a e
. The a n t h r o p o id ( m a n lik e ) a p e s
. N O dis -
.

t i n c t t a il ; a r m s l o n ge r t h a n l e gs Gibb on o r a n g .
,

u t a n c hi m p a n z ee a n d gor ill a
, , .

e. H o m i n id a e The hu m a n r a c e . .
530 A P P E ND I X

d e a d t ho u gh s t ill gr e e n w a t e r pl a n t s in t he b o t t o m o f a 4 by 6 i n c h
, ,
-

b a t t e ry j a r wh i ch h a s b e e n c a r e full y s t e r iliz e d a n d po ur o n a er a t e d ,

di s t ill e d w a t e r t o a d e pt h o f 2 — 5 t o 3 i n c h e s I t is v e r y i m p o r t a n t
. n ot

t o us e t o o m uc h pl a n t m a t e r i a l I n ge n e r a l s uffic i e n t w e e d m a t e r i a l
.
,

s h o uld b e a dd e d t o c o v e r t h e b o t t o m wi t h a gr e e n i s h l a y e r I n a ddi .

t i o n pl a c e in e a c h c ul t ur e 8 o r 1 0 wh e a t gr a in s w h i c h h a ve b e e n t h o r
,

o ugh ly b o il e d Af t e r t h e c ul t ur e h a s s t o o d fo r o n e w e e k a dd a pur e
.
,

c ul t ur e o f a m o e b a s I f y o u h a v e n o a m oe b a s l o o k fo r t h e m in t h e i r
.
,

n a t u r a l h a bi t a t e g p o n
,
d o
. r a q u
. a ,
r i u m O n ly a ve r y s m a ll v a r i e t y
.

o f a m o e b a s a r e us ua lly f o un d in s uc h pl a c e s I f a gr e a t e r v a r i e t y is .

p r e f e r r e d t h e,
y m a y b e pur c h a s e d f r o m a bi o l o gi c a l s upply h o us e
1
.

By r e c ul t ur i n g fr o m t i m e t o t i m e a m o e b a s c a n b e k ep t fo r t he e n t i r e
-

s c ho o l y e a r .

Th e a m o e b a c ul t ur e S h o uld b e k e pt in m e di um li gh t a n d in a c o o l
r o o m w h e r e t h e t e m p e r a t ur e d o e s n o t v a r y gr e a t ly An o p t i m um .

o f 2 0 C ( 68 F ) is s a t i s f a c t o r y I t is di ffic ul t t o k e e p a m o e b a c ul t ur e s
° °
. . .

d ur i n g t he s um m e r b e c a us e o f t he h i gh t e m pe r a t ur e H o w e ve r if .
,

t h e c ul t ur e s a re s t o r e d in a c o o l f a i r ly w e ll li gh t e d b a s e m e n t t h e
,
-
,

a n i m a l s w ill us ua lly s ur viv e .

Upo n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e pr o pe r ly pr e p a r e d a m o e b a c ul t u r e t he r e ,

fo r m s a gr e e n i s h l a y e r o f l o o s e m a t er i a l M i c r o s c o pi c e x a m i n a t i o n .

w ill S h o w t h a t t h i s l a y e r is r i c h in di a t o m s d e s m id s a n d o t h e r pl a n t , ,

c e ll s a n d it is o n a n d in t h i s b o t t o m l a y e r o f gr e e n i s h m a t e r i a l t h a t t h e

a m oe b a s f e e d a n d m ul t i ply Wi t h i n a w e e k o r a t m o s t t w o W
. ee ks , ,

a f t e r i n o c ul a t i o n t h e c ul t ur e S h o uld b e r i c h in a m o e b a s w h i c h w ill

g e n e r a ll y liv e a n d r e pr o d uc e fo r s o m e t i m e .

Th e m a i n po i n t t o b e e m ph a s iz e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s t yp e o f
c ul t ur e is t h a t t h e w a t e r m us t r e m a i n c l e a r Th a t is it s h o uld n o t .
,

be c o m e cl o u dy o r S h o w e vid e n c e o f fe r m e n t a t i o n in t h e fo r m a t i o n o f a
s u rfa c e film o r s c um I f t h e c ul t ur e de v e l o ps e i t h e r o f t h e s e c h a r a c
.

t e r is t ic s t o o m uch pl a n t m a t e r i a l is pr e s e n t a n d s uc h a c ul t ur e s h o uld
,

b e t h r o wn Out a n d a n e w o n e s t a r t e d .

1
S a t is fa c t o r y c ult ur e s o f P a r a m ecia a n d a m o eb a s m ay b e Ob t a in e d e it h e r

fr o m t h e N e w Y o r k B io lo gic a l S upply H o us e or J . D . D a ws o n , C o lle ge of

t h e C it y of N ew Yo rk ,
N ew Y or k .
 APP E ND I X 53 1

F ue l V alue of C e rt ain F oo ds l

T O TA L PR TE I N CAR
N
BO
F AT
ME OF FO O D M E A S UR E
O
C A LO R I E S C A L O R I E S LO R E ggggg
A l
CA I S
s

M ilk an d M ilk P r o duc t s

M il k ,
who le
B ut t er m il k
C he e s e , Am e r i c a n
C h e e s e , c o t t a ge
C r e a m , t hi n
B ut t er
I ce c r ea m

Olive o il
Co t t on se ed O il

B re a d an d C e r e al s
B re a d , w hi t e

Gr a h a m Br e a d

B o s t o n b r o wn b rea d

Bra n , whe a t
C or n m e a l c o o k e d ,

H o m i n y gr i t s c o o k e d ,

M a c a r on i , c oo k d
e

Oa t m e a l , c o o k e d
R ic e b r o w n s t e a m e d
, ,

R i c e , w hi t e , s t e a m e d

E gg wh o l e
,

E gg, w hi t e
E gg y o l
, k
M e a t , F is h an d P o ul try
Ba c on , c oo k d
e

Ada pt e d fro m C h a r t s i n Am e r
1
. R e d C ro s s pa m ph le t , “
Foo d Why ?
.

Wha t ? H o w ? ”
5 32 APP END I X

F ue l V alue of F oo ds ( Con tinued)

T O TA L P TE I N CA R O
N
B
A ME OF F OOD M E AS U RE RO
C A LO R I E S C A LO R I E S
F AT
L R ES HY D R TE
A
CA O I
CA LO R EI S

M e a t , F is h , a n d P o ul try
Con tin ued
B e e f l ea n
, ,
b r o il e d

C hi c k e n , ro a s t

F ish, l e a n b r o il e d
,

Ham , b o il e d

La m b , c ho p br o il e d
, .

La m b ,
roa s t

Liver , ca lf b r o il e d
,

M ut t o n , r oa s t

Oy s t e r s r a w
P o r k c h o p l e a n , br o il e d
,

Ve a l le g, l e a n , b r o il e d
V e ge t a b le s
As pa r a gus

B e a n s li m a d r i e d
, ,

B e a n s li m a fr es h
, ,

B ea n s dr i e d
, .

B e a n s s t r i n g fr e s h
, ,

Be et s

C a bb a ge , c ho p pe d
534 AP P E ND I X

F ue l V alue of F oo ds ( Con tinued)

T O TA L PR TE I N CAR BO
N M E A S UR E
'

F AT
ME FOO D O
C A LO R I E S C A L O R I E S LO R ES CA
TSR
A
T
E
OF J
CA I
S

F r ui t s , F r e s h Con tin ued

Or a n ge j ui c e
P e a c h es
Pears
P i n e a p pl e

P lu m s
R a s pb err i e s
R h ub a r b
S t r a w b e rr i e s

F ruit s , D ri e d
Apr i co t s
D a t es un s t o n e d
,

F i gs
P r un e s
R a i s in s

N ut s
Al m o n d s

Pea n ut s

Pecan s
E n gli s h w a l n ut s

S ugar an d S we e t s
S uga r
H o n ey
M a pl e s y r up
M ol a s s es
Corn s y r up

Gi n ger b r e a d , pl a i n

S p o n ge ca k e (2 e ggs ,

w a t er )
 APP END I X 535

H E ALT H H AB I T S C OR E SHE E T

Ad a pt e d , b y pe r m i s s i o n , f r o m A n A n a lys is of I n s tr uction for Habi ts

a n d P r a cti ces i n H ea lth a n d A c ci den t P r eve n ti on p r e p a r e d by E .

G e o rge Pa yn e ( L y ons C a r n a h a n , p ubli s h e r s ) .

D ir e c t io n s Th e t e a c he r s h o uld go o ve r t he o ut li n e p o i nt by po i n t
.

a n d e xpl a i n a n y i t e m s upo n w h i c h t h e s t ud e n t s w i s h h e l p Th e h a b i t s
.

a n d pr a c t i c e s m a y b e c h e c k e d a t a n y t i m e n e a r t h e b e gi n n i n g a n d
,

t he e n d o f e a ch s e m e s t e r Th e s c o r i n g S h o uld b e r e c o r de d in t h e
.

b i o l o gy n o t e b o o k . E a c h s t ud e n t S h o uld a im t o m a k e h is r e po r t a s
a c c ur a t e a s p o s s i b l e .

D ir e c t ion s for S c or in g .

1 All o w f ull v a l ue o r n o t h i n g fo r e a c h i t e m
. .

2 P r a c t i c e in a n y i t e m d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e r e c a n n e ve r b e a n
.

e x c e pt i o n . F o r i n s t a n ce if a b o y o r gi r l is k e p t up o n e n i gh t a w e e k
,

b ey o n d h is r e gul a r h o ur o f r e t i r i n g t o a t t e n d a m o vi n g p i c t ur e S h o w ,

n o t h i n g S h o uld b e a ll o w e d fo r t h e fi r s t i t e m un d e r r e gul a r i t y On .

t h e o t h e r h a n d S h o uld t h e r e b e a n i m p e r a t iv e r e a s on fo r k e e pi n g him
,

up l a t e r t h a n t h e r e gula r h o ur o n a n o c c a s i o n o f s pe c i a l n a t ur e h e ,

m a y r e c e iv e f ull c r e di t B ut if s uc h o cc a s i o n s o c c ur o f t e n o r r e gu
.

la r ly h e s h o uld b e giv e n n o c r e di t
, .

3 I n s c o r i n g X a n d X I t h e b o y o r gi r l S ho uld b e give n full c r e di t

.

fo r i t e m s w i t h wh i c h h e h a s h a d n o e xpe r i e n c e F o r in s t a n ce s o m e
.
,

c h ild r e n w o uld h a v e n o i n c e n t ive t o pl a y o n r a il ro a d t r a c k s b e ca us e ,

t h e r e w o uld b e n o n e in t h e i r vi c i n i t y .

4 Add t h e s c o r e s a n d c o m pa r e w i t h t he m a xi m um o f 5 00
. .

S C ALE F OR M E AS UR I N G I ND I VI DUAL AN D S OC I AL B E H AVI OR

—H AB I T S AN D P R AC TI C E S IN AC C I DENT P R EVENT I ON
AN D H E ALT H
1 . F O OD
Va r i ety
D r in k fr o m a pi n t t o a q ua r t o f m ilk e ve r y da y
E at b r e a d a n d b ut t e r e v e r y m e a l
E at s o m e fr ui t e v e r y da y ( fr es h d r i e d o r pr es e r ve d )
, ,
53 6 AP P EN D I X

E at s om e gre e n , l e a fy ve ge t a bl e e ve ry da y (S pi n a ch l e t t u ce
, ,

k le
a , etc .
)
E at s o m e s t ar c hy ve ge t a bl e e ve ry da y ( a s p ato
o t )
E at a c o o k e d c e r e a l fo r b r e a k f a s t d a ily

E at m e a t s b ut o n c e d a ily . s

E at c a n di e s c a k e s e t c
, o n ly a s d e s s e r t
,
.
,

Qua n t i ty C he ck w i t h r es ul t s d e t er m i n e d in pe r s o n a l di e t a r y wo rk

q
F o o d R e uir e m e n t s in C a lo r ie s Age S ex

B OY S G RL
I S

Tot a l C al . P r o t e in C al . E n e r gy C al . T o t al C a l . P r o t e in C al . E n e r gy C al .

—
1 2 13 —
2 3 00 2 7 00 2 76 3 24 — —
2 02 4 2 3 7 6 —
1 8 5 0 2 1 50 —
222 2 58 —
1 6 2 8 1 89 2
— — — — — — 1 7 1 6—
13 14
— —
2 50 0 2 9 00 3 00 3 4 8
—
22 0 0 2 5 5 2
—
1 9 5 0 22 50
—
2 34 2 70
— —
1 980

—
14 15 2 60 0 3 1 00 3 1 2 3 72 22 88 2 7 2 8 2 0 5 0 2 3 50 24 6 2 8 2 1 80 4 2 068
—
15 16 2 7 00 33 00 3 2 4 3 96 — 2 3 7 6—
3 204 2 150 2 450 — 2 58 2 94— —
1 8 92 2 1 5 6

Regula r ity
E at a b r e a k f a s t e ve r y m o r n i n g
w a rm
E a t s o m e t hi n g w a r m fo r l un c h ( a s s o up )
E a t m e a l s e ve r y da y a t t h e r e gul a r h o ur a n d in r e gul a r a m o un t s
D o n o t e a t ca n di e s ca k e s ic e cre a m e t c b e t w e e n m e a l s
, ,
-
, .
,

I f h u n gr y e a t s o m e b re a d a n d b ut t e r D o n o t e a t wi t hi n t wo .

h o urs o f a n o t h e r m e a l

M a n n er of ea tin g
E at s owl
ly in a c a l m u n ex c i t e d fr a m e o f m i n d
,

C he w a ll f o o d s t h o r o ughly
E n ga ge in pl e a s a n t c o nve r s a t i o n w i t h t he f a m ily
Te ll a s t o ry o r a n e c d ot e o r i n t e r e s t i n g i n c i de n t o f t he da y

II . AI R
B rea t hin g
B r e a t he de eply t a k e t e n d e e p b r e a t h s b e f o r e o pe n w i n d o w
n i gh t a n d m o r n i n g

B re a t h e a l wa ys t hr o u gh t he n o s t ril s n o t t h r o ugh t h e m o ut h ,
5 38 AP P E ND I X

V . R E L AX AT I O N AN D RES T

Amoun t o f S leep

S le ep n e e de d (S le e p a lo n e )
R
HOU S

—1 0 16 ye a rs
—1 0 17 ye a rs
—
8 % 9% 18 ye a rs

Regula rity f s leep

o

Go t o b e d a t s ame ve r y n i gh t
h o ur e

Ge t up a t s ame h o u r e ve r y m o r n i n g

M a n n er of s leep
Sl eep on t he s id e ,
m a i n ly t h e r i gh t S ide
Rela xa tion
Us e s m a ll pill ow
C ul t iv a t e a h o b by t h a t w ill b e of l a s t ing bene fi t
Re a d go o d b oo k s a n d m a ga zi n e s r e gul a r ly

B e pu n c t u a l t o a ll e n ga ge m e n t s

VI . P OS T U RE
S ittin g
S it e re c t wh il e ve rs i n g
c on

S it e re c t w h il e s t udyi n g a n d wr i t i n g

S t a n din g
S t an d e re c t wi t h che s t for wa r d ,
h e a d h i gh

Wa lkin g
Wa l k w i t h e r e c t c a r i ia ge fe e t po i n t i n g di re c t ly f o r w a r d
'

C a r r y b o o k s in h a n d s wi t h a r m s s t r a i gh t
,

VI I . C LE A N LI N E S S
H a n ds an d n a i ls
Wa s h h a n d s b e f o r e e a c h m e a l O
C l e a n fi n ge r n a il s o n ce e ve ry da y R
C

Ke e p h a n d s a n d n a il s c l e a n a n d c ut i c l e pus h e d b a c k a t a ll i
t m es D
C

Ke e p n a il s o ut o f m o ut h do n o t b i t e t he n a il s T
U
 AP P END I X 539

Teet h, mouth, hea d

C l e a n t ee t h , m o u t h , and t o n gu e m o r n i n g and n i ght
Do n ot put fi n ge r s , e
p cn il s , etc .
,
in t h e m o ut h
Do not d a m pe n fi n ge rs in t he m o ut h t o t urn p a ge s of a

Do not li c k po s t a ge s t a m p s o r e n ve l ope s

B a t hin g
Ta ke a t ub b a t h t w i ce e ve ry we e k
Ta k e a m o r n i n g S h o w er
Al w a ys us e an i n dividu a l t o we l

B o wel mo vem en t
H a ve a b o w e l m o ve m e n t l ly e ve r y da y
r e gu a r

D o n o t t a k e d r ugs o r m e di c i n e fo r t h i s D e pe n d s o l e ly o n fo o d
.
,

w a t e r e xe r c i s e a n d h a bi t
, ,

VI I I . C L O TH I N G
C lea n lin es s
Ke e p c lo t h in g w e ll d us t e d a n d pr o pe r l y c l e a n e d
~

Ke e p d r e s s e s a n d h o s e pr o pe r ly m e n d e d
We a r c l e a n hos e e ve r y da y

We a r w a r m po r o us c l o t h i n g in w i n t e r
,

We a r li gh t po r o us c l o t h i n g in s um m e r
,

We a r s h o e s w i t h b ro a d h e e l s a n d o f s uffic i e n t l e n gt h
,

M is cella n eous
P ut on a wr a p wh e n i t t i n g d o w n a f t e r e xe r c i s e s
S

Ke e p c l o t h i n g pr o pe r ly a i r e d
D O n o t s l e e p in c l o t h i n g w o r n d ur i n g t h e da y
Al w a ys h a ve a c l e a n h a n d k e r c hie f

IX . H OM E ST UD Y
Regula r ity
I n ge n e r a l , stu dy at t he same t im e e a ch da y , pre fe r a bly ear ly
e ve n i n g
5 40 A P P END I X

Light
Us e a s t ea dy an d su ffic i e n t art i fi c i a l li gh t . Av o id a gl a r i ng

li gh t
Q ui et
H a ve a q ui e t roo m fo r study . Av o id f a m ily c on ve r s a t i on s ,

ra di o , et c .

S ys tem
Avo id m o vi e s and p a r t i e s d ur i n g t he s ch o o l we e k

X . SA F ET Y HA B I TS
I n t he s treets

Lo k o in b o t h di r e c t i o n s b e fo re i
cro s s n g t he s t re e t s

Go s t ra i gh t a cross t he s t re e t a n d a t i t he c ro s s n gs o n ly
D o n o t t a r ry in t h e s t r e e t b ut c r o s s pr o m pt ly
H e l p y o un ge r c h ild r e n t o c r o s s t h e s t r e e t s a fe ly
D O n o t pl a y o n r a il r o a d t r a c k s
D o n o t h a n dl e d a n gli n g w i r e s o r c o m e in c on t a c t wi t h l i
e ect r c

wi r e s
D o n o t r id e o n t h e o u t s id e o f s t r e e t c ars
D O n o t b e g r id e s o n a ut o s
D O n o t c li m b o n t r uc k s a n d w a go n s

At ho m e
Be c a reful a b o u t t h e us e o f m a t ch e s k e e p t he m in a s a fe pl a ce
B e c a r e ful a b o ut t h e us e o f k e r o s e n e a n d o t h e r i n fl a m m a b l e
m a t e r i a l s ; k e e p t h e m in a s a fe pl a c e ; do n o t s t a r t a fir e w i t h
t hem
Be ful a l wa y s in us i n g t h e ga s r a n ge
c a re

B e s ur e e l e c t r i c w i r e s a re di s c o n n e c t e d b e f o r e t o u ch i n g t h e m
B e c a r e f ul a b o ut t h e s t a i r w a y s a n d fir e e s c a p e s
D o n o t c li m b o n c h a i r s t a b l e s a n d s t e p l a dd e r s u n l es s n e c e s
, ,
-

s a r y a n d t h e n o n ly a f t e r e x a m i n i n g t h e m
,

D o n o t pl a c e h e a vy o b j e c t s o r s h a r p i n s t r um e n t s wh e re t h e y
m a y f a ll upon s o m e o n e
D o n o t l e a ve ch a i rs o r o t h e r o b j e c t s whe r e s o m e o n e m a y
s t u m bl e o ve r th em in t h e d a r k
 B aldwin , B . T .
, a nd Wood , T D
. .
, Weight Height Age
- -
Ta bles . Am erican C hild Heal th
Associati o n , N ew Yor k , N Y
. .
G ain ( lb s )

B a ldwin , B . T .
, a nd Woo d, T D
. .
, Wei ght
-
H eight Age Ta bles
-
. America n Child H eal th
Associat ion, N ew Yor k , N Y . .
5 44 A P P EN D I X

A S UG G E S TE D C OUR S E OF S TUD Y IN AD VAN CE D

B I OLOG Y

( N o w b e i n g t r i e d in 30 s cho o s l )

TE R M I

I . C ELL S T U D I E S

1 . S t udy of livi n g gre e n c e ll ill us t r a t e d in S pi r o gy r a o r E l o d e a

t he .

( a ) S t r uc t ur e ; m i c r o s c o pi c s t udy .

( )
b F u n c ti o n s ; e m ph a s i s o n f o o d m a n uf a c t ur e -
.

( )
c A d a p t a t i o n s t o e n vi r o n m e n t .

2 . S t udy o f t h e livi n g a n i m a l c e ll ; ill us t r a t e d in a m o e b a o r P a r a

m e c ium .

( )
a S t r I ic t ur e ; m i c r o s c o pi c stu dy .

( )
b F un c t i o n s .

( )
0 Ad a p t a t i o n s t o en vi r o n m e n t
( d) C o m pa ri s on of p l a nt an d an im a l ce ll s as to str u c t ure an d
fun c t i o n s .

3 . S t ud y o f t h e t ypi c a l o r ge n e r a liz e d c e ll .

( )
a S t r u c t u r e .

(b) C o m p a r i s o n a n d n a t ur e o f p ro t o pl a s m .

C e ll d ivi s i o n .

( )
a A m i t o s i s .

( )
b M i t o s i s ; n a m e s o f p h a s e s o p t i o n a l .

5 . As s o c i a t i o n o f c e ll s in t i s s ue s a n d o r ga n s .

( )
a S t u dy o f h u m a n t i s s u e s ; f o u r o f t h e f o ll o w i n g r e q ui r e d

e pi t h e li a l m us c l e b o n e c o n n e c t iv e n e r v e
, , , , .

( )
b D iff e r e n t i a t i o n s p,
e c i a liz a t i o n p h y s,i o l o gi c a l divi s i o n o f
l ab or .

()
c C o m p a r i s o n o f t i s s u e c e ll w i t h i n d e pe n d e n t p l a n t o r a n i m a l

c e ll .

6 . H i s t o ry o f c e ll t h e o r y ; c o n t r ib ut i o n s o f a n y t hr e e o f t h e fo ll o w
in g : H o o k e M a lpi gh i Le e uw e n h o e k S chl e id e n S c hw a n n M a x
, , , , ,

S c h ul t z e .
546 AP P E ND I X

2 . E n d o c r i n e gl an d s a n d h o r m o n e s ; s e c r e t i n , p a n c r e a t i c
h o r m o n e ; s e c r e t i o n s o f t hy ro id , a d r e n a l , a n d pi t ui t a ry
gl a n ds .

(g) E xc r e t i o n .

1 . F o r m a t i on p r i n c i pa l wa s t e p r o du c t s ; c a rb o n di oxide
of ,

w a t e r u r e a u r i c a c id
, , .

2 Or ga n s o f e x c r e t i o n
. .

3 Hy gi e n e o f e x c r e t i o n
. .

( h) S um m a ry o f m e t a b o li s m O f c a r b o hyd r a t e s fa t s a n d p ro t e i n s , , .

P a r a s i t i s m s a pr o ph y t i s m a n d s y m b i o s i s
, , .

( )
a D e fi n i t i o n s a n d e x a m p l e s ; o m i t a ll d e t a il e d s t udy e x ce p t ,

a s i n c l ud e d un d er b a c t e r i a a n d m a l a r i a l p a r a s i t e .

( )
b L if e h i s t o r y a n d i m p o r t a n ce t o m a n ki n d o f o n e p ar a s i t e ;

m a l a r i a l o r ga n i s m s u gge s t e d .

(c ) E ffe c t o f p a r a s i t i s m o n h o s t a n d o n pa r a s i t e
C o m pa r a t ive s t udy o f diffe r e n t t ype s o f n u t r i t i o n .

III . I RR I TA B I LI TY
A f un c t i o n of p ro t o p a s m l
ill us t r a t e d in pr o t o z o a
; .

Tr o pi s m s in pl a n t s ; ge o t r o p i s m h yd r o t ro pi s m ph o t o t r o pi s m
, ,

d e m o n s t ra t e , un l e s s c o v e r e d in e l e m e n t a r y b i o l o gy .

3 . I r r i t a b ili t y in m a n .

( )
a G e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n s o f t h e n er v o us s y s t e m ;
e m ph a s i s o n f un c t i o n .

1 C e n t r a l n er v o us s y s t e m
. .

a. B ra i n ; i n c l udi n g c e r e br um c e r e be llu m m e d ull a , , ,

a n d t h e i r ge n e ra l f un c t i o n s .

b S pi n a l c o r d a n d it s ge n e r a l fun c t i o n s
. .

c. N e r v e s c r a n i a l a n d s pi n a l ; o m i t n a m e s o f i n divid ua l
,

n e r ve s .

2 Aut o n o m i c s y s t e m
. .

3 N e ur o n s c r a n i a l a n d S pi n a l
.
,
o m i t n a m e s o f i n divid ua l

n e r ve s .

( )
b Th e t y p e s o f n e r v o us r e a c t i o n s .

1 I n b o r n a ut o m a t i c a c t ivi t i e s ; r e fl e x a c t i o n s a n d t he
.

r e flex a r c .
 AP P E ND I X 5 49

3 . B a c t e r i a a s us e ful o rga n I s m s .

( )
a I n f o o d p pr e a r a t i o n .

1 R i pe n i n g a n d fl a vo r i n g o f d a i ry p ro du c t s
. .

2 M a k i n g o f vin e ga r
. .

( )
b I n a g r i c u l t u re .

1 D e cay
. .

2 N i t r i fi c a t i o n ; c o m p a r i s o n w i t h de n t r ific a t io n
. .

3 N it r Oge n ; fi x a t i o n
. N i t r o ge n cy c l e
. .

4 R o t a t i o n o f c r o ps
. .

( )
0 I n o t h e r i n d u s t r ie s a n d a r t s
. .

Re t t in g o f fl a x .

2 Ta n n i n g o f l e a t h e r
. .

B a c t e r i a a s h a r mful o r gan i s m s .

( )
a I n d e c a y o f f o o d s ( o p t i o n a l ) m e t h o d s o f f o o d p r e s e r v a t i on .

( )
b I n c a u s i n g di s e a s e .

5 . P a t h o ge n i c nn c r o o r ga n l s m s ; s t udy o f t h e f o ll o w i n g di s e a s e s
diph t her i a t ub er c ul o s i s c o ld s t yph o id fe ve r s m a ll po x t e t a n u s
, , , , , ,

hydr o ph o b i a m a l a r i a y e ll o w f e v e r f o c a l i n fe c t i o n s t o b r i n g o ut
, , ,

t h e f o llo w i n g pr i n c i pl e s

) i n fe c t i o n ; f d n d dr in k i u
( a S o u r ce s o f co n t a c t o o a , a r h m a n , ,

c a rr i er s i n s e c t c a rr i e r s
,
.

( )
b B a c t e r i a l p o i s o n s ; t o xi n s p t o m a i n e s , .

( 0 ) M e t h o d s o f p r o t e c t i o n s ; s k i n a d a p t a t i o n s o f
“

re s,p i r a t o r y
t ra ct , w h i t e c o r pus c l e s An t ib o di e s (a n t i t o xi n s
. lys i n s , ,

a ggl ut i n i n s a n d o ps o n n is )
,
.

( )
d M e t h o d s o f i m m u n i t y a n d i m m u n iz a t i o n .

1 Ac t ive ;
. va c c in a t io n t o xi n a n t i t o xi n
, i n n o c ul a t i o n ;
-

P a s t e ur t re a t m e n t .

2 . P a s s ive ; a n t i t o xi n t r e a t m e n t .

3 . Te s t s fo r i m m un i t y ; S c h i c t e s t k .

( )
e D e s c r i pt i o n of t he i
c a us a t g e n e r a l c hive
a o r ga n s m ,
r a c t er

o f di s e a s e s ym t o m s di i e v e n t i o n an d t rea t m en t
p , a g n o s s p r , , ,

( w h e r e di s c us s i o n is f e a s i b l e ) f o r e a c h o f t h e di s e a s e s .

(f) Wo r k o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h .

(g) Bi o gr a phy ; s c i e n t i fi c c o n t r i b ut i o n s of Jen n e r Li s t e r Pa s , ,

t e a r Ko c h M e t c h n i k o ff E hrli ch
, , , .
552 INDEX
—
dip h t h e r ia , 4 5 1 4 5 2 , 4 5 6 ; p r e p a r a t io n 3 99 4 99 ; fo r m s o f, 3 9 2 3 9 3 ; fun c —
k
,

o f t e t a n us 4 6 1 ; p r o duc e d in b o dy , t io n s o f, 3 9 3 3 9 5 ; gr o w t h i n m il -

v 14 0 ; gr o w t h o f, 3 9 8 —
, ,

5 0 1 ; s c a r le t fe e r , 4 5 9 ; s t a n da r di z in g, 3 9 9 ; i n a gr i
4 5 6 ; use o f, 5 0 1 —
c ult ur e , 4 0 5 4 1 1 ; i n o ur b o dy , 4 9 4
Aort a , 1 5 3 , 1 5 9 5 00 ; in a i r 4 9 5 —9 6 ; 4 7 5
4 in dus t
°

, ,

Aphi ds , 2 7 1 4 73
—
in e y e s 4 9 6 ; i n fo o d p r e p a r a t io n
, ,

— ,

—
App e n di citi s , 1 3 5 4 0 3 4 0 4 4 05 ; i n in d us t r ie s 4 03 4 04 ;
v
, ,

Appe n di x, e rm ifo r m , 1 3 5 i n ly m p h a n d ly m p h n o de s , 1 6 6 1 6 7 ,

Ar a c hn i da , 5 2 4 5 0 0 ; l a b o r a t o r y p r o b l e m t o de t e r m in e
Ar c h a e o pt e r yx, e a r lie s t k n o w n b ir d, 3 8 3 b a c t e r ia l c o n t e n t o f m il , 4 0 1 ; l a b o r a k
Ar c hi a n n e li da , 5 2 3
Ar i s to tl e , c la s s i fi c a t io n b y , 5 1 0 F a t h er °
t o r y p r o b le m t o de t e r m in e n um b e r o f
b a c t e ri a i n a ir , 4 00 4 0 1 ; la b o r a t o r y —
o f B io l o gy , 1 0 ; ide a o f e v o lut I o n , 3 7 1 p r o b le m t o s h o w e ff e c t o f a n t i s e p t ic s
k —
w o r o f, 1 1
Ar t e rial b l o o d, 1 4 4
on g wt h o ,
r o
c ul t i a t io n
f 4 0 1 4 0 2 ; m e dia fo r
3 96 3 97 ; v m e t h o ds
, of
—
Ar t e ri e s , dir e c t io n o f flo w o f b lo o d in e n t e r in g b o dy , 4 954 9 6 ; m e t h o ds o f
,
—
n i
fu c t o n s o f 15
h a r de n in g o f, 1 6 8 ; m e a n in g o f n a m e ,
4 15 6 ;
, id , f
e n t i y in g 3 9 5 3 9 6 ; n i t rify in g , 4 0 6 ;
n it r o ge n - fi xin g , 3 9 4 , 4 0 7 4 09 ;
,

—
1 5 3 , 1 5 6 ; r e gula t io n o f s iz e o f, 1 5 6 ; t io n o f, 3 9 4 ; o c c ur r e n c e o f 3 9 7 3 9 9 ;
n ut r i

,
—
r up t ur e o f, 1 68 ; s t ruc t ur e o f w a lls o f, o f de c a y 4 06 p a r a s it ic 3 93 ; p a t h o
‘

, , ,

156 ge n ic 3 94 p h y s io l o gi c a l fun c t io n s o f,
3 93— —
°

Ar t e rio l e s , 1 5 9 3 9 5 ; r e l a t io n t o di s e a s e , 4 94 4 9 5
—
°

Art e rio s cle r o s is , c a us e s o f, 1 6 8 s a p r o p h y t ic , 3 9 1 , 3 94 ; s o il 4 0 5 4 1 1

Art r y , p u m o n a r y , 1 5 3
e l s t uc t u e o f 3 9 1 3 93
r r
— ,

Art h r o po da , c la s s i fi e d 5 17 , —
5 23 5 24 ;
,

a c t e ri a l c o n t e n t , l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m in
v k
, ,

m e a n in g o f 5 2 3 , a ir in a r i o us p l a c e s 4 0 0 in m il 40 1 , ,

Art i fi ci a l s e l e c ti o n , im p o r t a n c e in a n im a l s a c t e r i o ly s i n , a n t ib o dy , 5 0 1 ; fun c t io n
a n d p la n t s , 3 5 2 of 4 65 , 4 69 ,

As c ar i s , dia gr a m o f m it o s is o f e gg o f, 6 1 B a c t e r io lo gy , de fi n it io n o f, 1 7
As e xual r e pro duc t i o n , by
— e ge t a t i e v v
B a ct e r i o ph a ge , 5 0 8
p r o p a ga t io n , 2 5 5 2 6 3 ; o f a l ga e , 2 4 7 B a n ti n g, F G , w o r wit h in s ulin 1 99 k —
v
. .
,

2 4 8 ; o f b a c t e ri a 2 4 7 ; o f h y dr a , 2 4 8 B e a c h plum , im p r o e d 3 4 8 3 4 9 3 5 2 , 3 5 3
— , , ,

v
,

—
2 4 9 25 0 ; o f p r o t o z o a n s , 2 4 8 ; o f y e a s t , B e e t l e , p o t a t o , e ff e c t o f e n ir o n m e n t a l
250 25 1 c o n dit io n s o n , 3 4 1
As s i mi l a t io n , a life p r o c e s s , in a m oe b a , B e h r i n g S ee Vo n B e h r in g
— B e ri b e ri , c a us e o f, 98 — v
.

4 4 ; in gr e e n p l a n t s , 3 9 4 0 9 9 , 1 00 ; p r e e n
As t e r oi de a , 5 2 2 t io n o f, 99 , 1 0 0
As t h m a , c a us e o f 4 7 7 t r e a t m e n t o f, B il e , b a s is for m a n ufa c t ur e o f, 1 6 1 ;
v
,

477 ; a c c in a t io n fo r , 4 7 7 fun c t io n o f 1 3 2 ,

Auri cl e s , o f h e a r t S ee H e a r t B in e t , Alfr e d, t e s t s b y , 2 2 8
v
.

Aut on o m i c n e r o us s y s t e m , de s c r ip t io n B in e t s c a l e , 2 2 8
v
,

2 10 ; dia gr a m o f, 2 1 0 ; fun c t io n s o f, B in e t S i m o n S cal e , T e r m a n s r e is io n ,

’

—
-

2 10 2 1 1 ; im p o r t a n c e
—
in n e r o us 2 28 v
v i
a ct i it e s , 2 2 1 2 2 2 ; r e la t io n t o ce n
— B in o mi al s y s t e m , o f c la s s ifi c a t io n , 5 1 0
v
t r a l n e r o us s y s t e m , 2 1 0 2 1 1 5 11
—
v
A e s , a n im a ls o f c la s s , 5 6 2 B i o g e n e ti c l a w , 3 8 8 3 8 9
v
Axo n , o f n er e c e ll , 8 6 , 8 7 B i o lo gy , a ffe c t e d b y w o r in o t h e r k
s c ie n c e s , 1 9 ; di is io n s o f, 1 7 ; m e a n v
B a cilli , fo r m o f b a c t e ria 3 9 2 in g o f 1 5 ; o f t o m o r r o w , 1 — 9 ; p ur
—
-
, ,

B a cillus , a c idO p h o lus , 1 4 0 ; b ulga r ie n s f 6 7 ; r e la t io n t o c h e m is t r y , 1 6

—
p o s e o , ,

1 4 0 ; t y p h o id 4 6 5 ,
r e la t io n t o h e a l t h , 7 8 ; r e la t io n t o
B a ct e r i a , 3 9 1 4 1 1 ; a c t io n b o dy ,
—
o t h e r s c ie n c e s , 1 6 r e la t io n t o p h y s ic s
—
-
on
—
4 94 4 9 5 ; a er o b i c , 3 93 ; a n a er o b i c , 1 5 1 6 ; r e la t io n t o o c a t io n s 8 9 v
,

3 93 ; b e n e fi c ia l a c t i it ie s v—
4 0 3 4 1 1 ; B ir d s , e gg la y in g o f, 2 99 ; fo o d o f 2 9 9
,
-
,

c a us e o f p us , 4 9 4 c a us e o f dis e a s e , 4 9 4 n e s t - b uildin g o f 2 98 ; in fa n c y a m o n g
4 9 5 ; c a rr ie d t h r o ugh ly m p h a t ic s 5 0 0 2 98 2 99 ; r e p r o duc t io n o f, 2 8 8 2 8 9
-
,
— ,

,
— v
c o lo n y o f 3 9 5 ;
fo r gr o w t h 3 9 9 —
,

,
c o n di t io n s n e c e s s a r y
4 00 ; c ult ur e s o f 3 9 6
B i s h o p, o n it a m in E 1 0 3 1 04
k
B la c b e rr y , p r o duc t io n o f w h it e , 3 4 7 L
,
,

—
3 9 7 3 98 ; de n it ri fy i n g, 4 0 7 ; de s t r uo
, 348 , 349
—
—
t io n o f w hi t e c o r p us c le s
5 04 5 05 ; e ffe c t o f t e m p e ra t ur e o n ,
b y , 5 00 B la dd e r , ur in a r y fun c t io n o f, 1 7 5 1 7 6 ;
,

s t r uc t ur e o f, 1 7 5
,
 I N DE X 55 3

B la s t ul a , 2 8 6 B rui s e , c a us e o f, 1 6 8
B le e de r s S ee H a e m o p h ilia
. B r y o ph yt a , 5 1 9
B loo d, a r t e r ia l , 1 4 4 ; a t is s ue , 8 7 , 1 4 6 ; B ud din g, l a b o r a t o ry p r o b le m in y e a s t
c ir c ul a t io n o f, 1 4 3 , 1 5 3 1 6 1 ; c lo t t in g
—
c e lls , 2 4 8 24 9 ; —
—
m e t h o d o f r e p r o duc
of 14 8 c o m p o s it i o n o f 1 4 5 c o r p us c le s t I o n , 24 8 2 5 0 ; o f h y dr a , 24 9 2 5 0
—
— —
°
,

o f, 8 7 8 8 1 4 7 1 4 8 ; c o un t , 1 4 7 ; c o ur s e o f s p o n ge s , 2 5 3
o f, 1 5 9 1 6 1
— ,

ea r ly dr a w in g o f c ir c ula B ul b s , p r o p a ga t io n b y , 2 6 2 2 6 3 —
t io n o f 1 5 1 ; fun c t io n s o f, 1 4 5 1 4 6 —
B ur b a n , L ut h e r , e xp e r im e n t a l m e t h o ds k
— v —
, ,

150, 162 gr o up i f 1 8 14 9 ; h ea t
4 o f, 1 4 ; fr uit im p r o e d b y , 3 4 7 3 4 9 ;
—
n g o
°

o f 1 5 0 ; I m p o r t a n c e o f, 1 4 3 1 5 0 ; la b
, o n p o t a t o b ligh t , 3 44
ora t ory p r o b le m s o n s t udy o f, 8 7
—
14 3 14 4 ; la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f c o r C a lc ar e a , 5 2 1
—
p us c le s o f, 1 4 4 1 4 5 ; la b o r a t o r y s t udy C a l cium , n e e d fo r , 1 1 1
o f s e rum o f 1 44 ; n e c e s s it y o f c ir c u C a lki n s , D r , e xp e r im e n t s o n r e ge n e r a
la t io n o f 1 4 9 —1 5 0 ; n e e d o f w a t e r t o
, .

, t io n , 5 6
1 6 7 ; o f fr o g 8 9 ; o f m a n 8 8 ; o xy ge n
, C al o ri e , de fi n e d , 9 3 ; n e e ds , 1 0 5
,

a t e d in lun gs 1 7 9 ; p r o p e r t ie s o f, 1 4 5
, C a lo ri m e t e r , m e a s ur e m e n t o f h um a n
1 4 6 ; s e r um o f 1 4 4 ; t r a n s fus io n o f . e n e r gy b y , 1 8 9
v
,

14 9 ; e n o us 1 44 , C a lyx, o f o w e r , fun c t io n o f, 2 7 4 fl
B loo d pl a s m a , c o m p o s it io n o f 1 4 5 C a n ni n g, 4 0 0
k
,

B lo o d pl a t e l e t s , fun c t io n o f, 1 4 8 ; s t r uc C a pill a ri e s , b r o e n 1 6 8 ; fun c t io n o f , ,

t ur e o f 1 4 8 ,
1 5 7 ; in lun gs 1 7 9 ; p r e s s ur e in , 1 5 7 ; ,

B loo d s e r um , l a b o r a t o r y s t udy o f, 1 4 4
v
B l oo d e s s e l s , 1 4 3
s t r uc t ur e o f, 1 5 7
l a b o r a t o r y s t udy o f, C ar b o h y dr a t e s , m a n ufa c t ur e o f 3 6 3 7 ; ,
—
15 1 S ee a ls o A r t e r ie s , C a p illa r ie s , m e t a b o lis m o f, 1 8 8 ; c o n s t it ue n t s o f,
—
.

a n d V e in s 36 3 7
B on e , fo r m a t io n o f 79 ; l a b o r a t o r y C ar b o n c y cl e , 4 0 9
,

p r o b le m s o n m i c r o s 0 0 p ic s t r uc t ur e o f, C a r di a c o pe ni n g S ee S t o m a c h p a r t s o f
v
.
,

7 8 ; la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f c r o s s s t r ue C a r n i o r a , a n im a ls o f O r de r , 5 2 7
—
t ur e o f 7 7 7 8 ; p r o p e r gr o w t h o f 8 0 C a rr e l] , Al e xi s , c ult i a t io n o f c e lls , 5 4 v
k
, ,

B o n e c e ll , dia gr a m o f 8 0 5 5 ; p r e p a r a t io n o f D a in s o lut io n , 5 5
B r ain , p a r t s o f, 2 0 6 2 0 7 — ,

f C l — k
—
206 20 7
s t uc t u
r r e o ar t i a e
g , f u n c t i n
o s o f 7 9 80 ;
,

C a t al yt i c a ge n t s , in diges t io n , 3 8
in ds , 7 9 ,

B r e a t hin g, c o n t r o l b y c a r b o n dio xide C a t a r r h , c a us e o f, 4 7 4 ,

1 8 3 ; c o n t r o l b y o xy ge n 1 8 3 ; l a b o r a C e b ida e , 5 2 7
,

t o r y p r o b l e m o f m o difi c a t io n s o f, 1 8 3 ; C e ll , a b s o r p t io n in gr e e n , 3 4 3 5 a m it o s is —
la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m o n m e c h a n ic s o f, in , 6 0 ; a s s im il a t io n in 3 9 4 0 ; c ult i a — v
v — —
,

1 8 1 ; m o e m e n t s o f, 1 8 1 1 8 2 t io n o f, 5 4 5 5 dige s t io n in gr e e n 3 8
B r e e din g, a im s o f 3 4 5 — v v
,

3 5 1 ; a r t ifi c ia l dir e c t di is io n o f, 4 1 , 6 0 ; dis c o e r y
v — v
,

s e le c t io n i n 3 5 2 fo r im p r o e d q ua li t y ,
, o f n uc le us o f 2 7 2 8 ; di is io n o f 4 1 ; , ,

3 5 0 ; fo r in c r e a s e d p r o duc t io n 35 1 ; e xc r e t io n in gr e e n , 4 0 ; fo o d m a n ufa c
fo r p o in t s , 3 4 9 — 350 ; h y b r idiz a t io n ,
,

t ur e o f s t udie s o f, 3 6 3 8 ; fun c t io n s —
— — —
3 5 1 ; im p o r t a n c e o f a n im a l , 3 4 4 3 4 5 ; f gre e n , 3 4 40
—
hi s t o r y o f, 2 7 3 3 ;
—
°

o
3 5 3 ; i m p o r t a n c e o f p la n t , 3 4 3 3 4 5 ; gr o w t h a n d di i s io n , 4 0 4 1 , 5 3 64 ; v
v
,

M e n del s e xp e r im e n t s in 3 2 2 m e t h o ds in c lus io n s in 3 7 ; in dir e c t di is io n o f

—
’

— —
, , ,

o f a n im a l 3 5 3 3 5 4 ; m e t h o ds o f p l a n t
,

p r o p a ga t i o n in , 3 5 1 3 5 3 ; r e s ul t s o f
-
60 6 3 ; irr it a b il it y in gr e e n , 4 0 4 1 ;
k e y t o a ll b io lo gi c a l p r o b le m s 2 9 3 0 ; —
—
,

c lo s e 3 5 3 3 5 4 la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f E lo de a , 2 8 2 9 -

—
°

B r e e di n g e xp e ri m e n t s , o f p la n t s , b y l a b o r a t o r y s t udy o f o n io n , 2 5 2 6 ,

-M e n de ] 3 2 2 , l a b o r a t o r y s t udy o f n a r c is s us le a f, 3 0
3 1 ; la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f S p ir o gy r a
B r o n chi , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9
—
n a m ed a n d
— ,

B r o n ch i a l t ub e s , 1 7 9
B r o n c hi ti s , 4 7 4
3 1 33 m it o s is o f, 6 0 63
de s c r ib e d b y H o o e , 2 7 2 8 ; n a t ur e k —
B r o n c h o - pn e um o n ia , p r e dis p o s in g fa c a n d c o m p o s it io n o f, 5 3 5 5 ; p r im a r y
— ,

2 8 5 ; r e l a t io n t o h e r e dit y , 5 5 ;
t ors 4 74
,

B r o n t o s a ur us , r e s t o r a t io n o f, 3 7 2 S ee
2 69
r e s p ir a t io n in gr e e n , 3 8 3 9 ;
,

res t i g
n
—
v
.

D in o s a ur a n d di i din g 5 3 6 4 se x 269 s om a t i c -

v
, , ,

B r o w n , R o b e rt , de s c r ib e d m o e m e n t o f 2 6 9 ; s t r uc t ur e o f 3 0 ; t h e o r y , 2 8 , 3 0
— —
,

v
,

m o le c ule s 3 5 3 6 ; o b s e r e d n uc le us o f 5 2 64 t y p i c a l a n im a l , 4 2 52 un i t o f
—
, ,

l l
ce s 2 7 2 8
, fun c t io n o f o r ga n is m 3 0 ; un i t o f ,

B r o wn ia n m ot io n , 3 6 s t r uc t ur e o f o r ga ni s m , 30 , 53 ; 73 ;

WH . FIT Z . AD . B 10 .
—36
5 54 IN DEX
—
5 7 5 8 ; w a ll o f, 52, 58 ; k o f a ll ,
b o dy c e lls o f
w or a r io us a n im al s 3 07 ; v
2 7 0—
,

162 2 7 1 ; r e l a t i o n t o h e r e d it y 3 15
—
,

C e ll ulo s e , o f p la n t c e lls , 5 2 3 7, 3
1 2 1 3 2 6 3 3 1 333 -

v v
,

C e n t r al n e r o us s y s t e m , di is io n s o f, C h r o n olo gi c a l a ge , 2 2 9
2 0 5 ; fun c t io n s o f 2 0 6 2 1 0 ; p r o t e o -
C h ym e , 1 2 9
t io n o f, 2 0 5 2 0 6— ,

C ili a , in P a r a m e c ium 4 8 4 9 , 5 0 ; in , ,

C e n t r o s o m e , fun c t io n o f, 5 9 ; I n c e ll r e s p ir a t o r y t r a c t
v
di i s io n 6 1 6 2 — C ir c ul a t i o n , o f b lo o d
75 17 9
14 3 ; co ro n a ry ,
, ,

v
, ,

C e ph al o po da , 5 2 3 1 5 4 ; e a r ly i n e s t iga t io n s o f t h e, 1 6 3
C e r c 0 pit h e ci da e , 5 2 7 1 6 5 ; e ff e c t o f i o le n t e m o t i o n s o n
—
v
C r b
e e e ll um , f i
u c t on o
n f 2 0 7 ; le e l o f
,
—
v i
1 67 ; n e c es s t y o f 4
1 9 1 5 0 ; o r ga n s o f
— ,
,

r e c t io n i 2
n , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 2 0 ; n a t ur e o f, 153 154 ; p or t a l 1 60 1 6 1 ; ul m o
a — p ,

2 07 n a ry , 1 60 ; s y s t e m ic 1 5 9 1 6 0 ; t im e
v
,

C e r e b r o - s pin a l n e r o us s ys t e m S ee fo r c o m p le t e 1 6 1 S ee B lo o d
v Cir c ul a t o r y s y s t e m , 1 5 1 —
. .
,

C e n t r a l n e r o us s y s t e m 1 6 2 ; dia gr a m
C e r e b r um , fun c t io n o f, 2 0 6 — 207 le e l v
o f 1 5 5 ; fun c t i o n s o f 1 68 ; h y gie n e o f
o f rea c t io n i n 2 1 8 2 2 0 ; n a t u e o
r f 1 6 —
7 1 69
, , ,

v
, , ,

2 0 6 ; p o s it io n o f 2 0 7 s iz e i n a r i o us C l a s s ifi c a t io n , b a s is o f, 5 1 2 5 1 4 ; diff1
—
-

v
,

a n im a ls , 2 0 7 ; s t r uc t ur e o f 2 0 6 ,
i
c ult e s i n , 5 1 1 5 1 4 ; e o l ut i o n in 5 1 7 ,

C e t a c e a , a n im a ls o f Or de r , 5 2 7 5 18 ; ge o gr a p h i c a l dis t r i b ut io n a n d ,
C h a e t o po da , 5 2 3 —
5 7 3 ; h a b it s a n d 5 1 3 5 1 4 ; I n t e r n a ,

C h a m b e r s , Pr o f R H , dis s e c t io n s un de r
. . . t io n a l C o m m is s io n o n 5 1 4 5 1 5 ; m o r ,
-

m ic r o s c o p e b y , 2 3 4 5 ; o n h e r e dit y , 5 5 p h o l o gy in , 5 1 3 o f p l a n t s a n d a n i m a ls
,

Ch a n c e , l a w o f, l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o 5 18— 5 27 p r e s e n t m e t h o d o f, 5 1 5 — 5 18
,

de m o n s t r a t e , 3 1 7 C lo a c a , in fr o g, 1 1 5
C h ar a ct e r , do m in an t 3 2 4 3 3 3 ; o f o ff C l o s e -b r e e din g, r e a s o n s fo r a n d r e s ul t s
,
— ,

s p r in g 3 0 6 3 1 7 ; r e c e s s i e , 3 2 5 333 v
,

o f, 3 5 3 3 5 4
,
-

C h ar a ct e r - de t e r m in e r s , in c h r o m o s o m e s C l o t ti n g o f b l o o d , 1 4 8
,

5 5 , 3 19 C o c c i , fo r m o f b a c t e r ia 3 9 2
C h ar a c t e r s , a c q uir e d 3 3 6 —3 3 7 C o e l e n t e r a t a , c l a s s ifi e d 5 2 1 —
,

, do m i 5 2 2 ; m ea n ,

n a n t , 3 2 4 , 3 3 3 ; i n h e r it e d , 3 3 6 ; 3 18 in g o f 5 2 1
la w o f un it 3 2 7 — v
,

333 33 3 ; recessi e C o h n h e i m , J , e xp e r im e n t o n t r a n s m is
—
.
, ,

3 5 3 3 3 ; s e c o n da ry s e ua l
2 x 2 8 1 282 s io n o f t ub e r c ul o s is
,
438 ,

C h e mi s t r y , a n d i t s r e la t io n t o b io lo gy , 1 6 C o l d, a c o m m o n dis e a s e c a us e s o f 4 7 3 , ,

C h e m o t r o pi s m , s h o wn b y a m o e b a , 4 6 4 7 5 ; c h r o n i c 4 7 4 ; e ffe c t s o n b o dy ,
—
.
,

S e e T r o p is m s 4 7 3 4 7 4 ; p r e dis p o s in g fa c t o r s 4 74 ;
k
C hi c e n po x, e ffe c t s o f, 4 7 8 ; m e t h o d o f — v
p r e e n t io n o f 4 7 5 4 7 6 r e m e dia l m e a s
,

s p r e a d, 4 7 8 ur e s 4 7 6 ; t r a n s m is s io n o f 4 7 4 4 7 5 —
C hil d- l a b or l a w s a n d e uge n i c s , 3 6 6 3 6 7 — ,

C o lli p , e xp e r im e n t w it h p a r a t h y r o id e x
,

C h ir o pt e r a , a n im a ls o f O r de r 5 2 7 t ra ct s 1 9 6
ll f
C h r o ph y , in p la n t s , un c t o n o 3 6 3 7 i f — ,

j
,

C o n uga t i o n , 2 64 ; o f P a r a m e c ium , 4 9
g —
, ,

é 59 50 2 6 7 2 68
C hl or o pl a s t s , fir s t s e e n 2 8 ; fun c t io n o f C o n n e c ti e
,

ti s s ue , 8 1 8 2— v
v
, ,

5 9 ; s t r uc t ur e o f, 2 8 C o n s e r a ti o n , o f s o il 4 1 1
C h or da t a , c la s s ifi e d , 5 2 5 — v
,

5 2 7 ; m e a n in g C o n s t i pa ti o n , c a us e s o f, 1 3 9 ; p r e e n t io n
o f, 5 2 5 of 139 140 , ,

C h r o m a ti n gr a n ul e s , fun c t io n o f, 5 7 C o n tin ui t y , o f ge r m p la s m , 3 3 6
s t ruc t ur e o f, 5 5 C o n t r a c t il e t i s s ue , 8 3

—
C h r o m o s o m e , c h a n ge s i n n um b e r , 3 3 9 ; C o n t r a ct il e a c uo l e , o f a m o e b a , 4 2 ; v of
n um b e r in s e x c e lls , 2 7 0 2 7 1 P a r a m e c ium 4 7 ,

Ch ro m o s o m e t h e o r y , o f in h e r it a n c e , 3 3 1 C o r olla , o f o w e r fun c t io n o f, 2 7 4 fl ,

333 C o r o n ar y c ir c ula t io n , 1 5 4
C hr o m o s o m e s , 5 5 ; v
b e h a i o r in c e ll C or pus c l e s , w h it e de s c r ip t io n o f, 8 8
v v fun c t io n s o f 8 8 1 4 7 —
,

di is io n , 6 2 ; b e h a io r in m a t ur a t io n 1 4 8 ; in in fe c
2 68—
, , ,

2 6 9 2 8 4 3 1 6 ; c o n t in uit y o f, 3 0 6
, , t io n 1 4 8 ; n um b e r o f, 8 8 14 7 ; r ed
, , , ,

3 07 ; l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o s h o w de s t r uc t io n o f, 1 4 6 ; fo r m a t io n o f,
c h a n c e c o m b in a t i o n s o f ge n e s in 3 17 ; 1 4 6 ; fun c t io n o f, 8 8 1 4 6 ; n um b e r o f,

—
, ,

l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o s h o w p o s s i b l e 8 8 1 4 7 ; s iz e o f 8 8 ; s t r uc t ur e o f 8 8
i f
c o m b in a t o n o ge n e s in
—
3 2 6 3 2 7 ; lo ,
,

C o rt e x, o f b r a in a r e a s o f 2 0 6 2 0 7 2 1 3 ; ,
,

, ,
,

c a t io n o f ge n e s in fruit fl y , 3 1 2 ; lo c us fun c t io n s o f 2 0 7 2 1 3 s t r uc t ur e o f 2 0 6
o f ge n es , 3 3 1 n um b e r i n s e x c e lls a n d C ot yl e do n s , 2 7 8 2 7 9
,
— , ,
556 I N D EX

E c hi n o de r m a t a , c la s s i fie d , 5 22 ; m ea n E pit h e li l c e lls l b o t o y p ob le m o
a , a ra r r n
i g f 522
n o 75 ; h p f 75
—
, s a e o ,

E chin oide a 5 2 2 E pit h um 7 5 7 7

li e
v
, ,

E c t o d e r m , de e l o p m e n t o f, 286 ; of E ps i 1 3 2
re n,
e m b r y o , 2 8 6 ; s y s t e m s fo r m e d fr o m , 2 8 6 E s o ph a gus 1 2 2 1 2 3 , ,

de n t a t a , 5 2 6 ; a n t e a t e r , 5 1 2 E ssay P p ul ti
on M lt h us 3 4 3
o a on , a
—
,

E duc a ti on , a n d e uge n ic s , 3 6 5 ; h e al t h a n E uge i 3 5 5 3 7 0 ; h ild l b l w d

j v
o b e c t i e o f, 4 1 5 4 1 7
— 3 6 6 —
n cs ,
3 67 ; m p ul du t i d
c a or a s an ,

—
y co s or e ca on an
E J
dw ar ds , o n a t h a n , fa m il y o f, 3 5 7 6
3 5 ; im m i g t oi d 3 6 7 3 68 ra n an
,

v
,

E fi e c t o r , r e s p o n s e a c t i it y o f 2 0 9 la b o r e r c o m p e n s a t i o n l a w s a n d 3 6 5 °

v
, ,

E gg c e ll , c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of 2 6 8 , m o e m e n t fo un de d a n d n a m e d, 3 5 5
E ggs , diff e r fr o m s e e ds , 2 8 1 ; o f in s e c t s , n e e d fo r un de r s t a n din g 3 6 3 ; r e la t io n
2 8 1 ; o f b ir ds , 2 8 1 ; p r o duc t io n b y of
—
m a r ria ge t o , 3 5 5 3 5 6 ; 3 6 3 — 3 64 ;
,

fr o g 2 8 4 2 8 5 — S e c o n d I n t e r n a t io n a l C o n gr e s s o f, 3 5 5
v v
,

E h r li c h , p o r t r a it 5 0 4 ; t h e o r y o f im e r s us e ut h e n i c s 3 68 ; o c a t io n a l
m un it y , 5 05 — k
, ,
’
5 06 ; w or of 14 guida n c e a n d 3 6 7 ; wido w s p e n s io n s
E la s m o b r a n c hii , a n im a ls o f O r de r , 5 2 4
,

a n d, 3 6 5 3 6 6
— ,

E la s ti c t i s s ue , us e o f, 8 1 E uge n i c s L a b o r a t or y , a t C o ld S p rin g
E lo de a , dia gr a m o f 30 ; la b o r a t o r y H a r b o r , 3 5 6 ; s y m b o l s use d in c h a r t
s t udy o f c e lls o f, 2 8 — k k
,

29 m a in g a t 3 5 6 ; w o r do n e b y , 3 6 2
m b r y o , de e lo p m e n t o f s e e d 2 7 8 —
v
,

E 279 ; , 3 63
p r o t e c t io n o f in l o w e r a n i m a ls 2 9 5 E us t a c h i a n t ub e s , 1 2 2
2 9 6 ; 2 88 — 2 8 9 ; in in s e c t s , 2 9 7 —
, ,

298 ; E ut h e n i c s , c o n s is t s o f, 3 6 5 3 6 8 ; m e a n -

in m a m m a ls 2 9 9 — 301 in m a n 3 0 1 in g o f, 3 5 5 , 3 6 2 ; v e r s us e uge n ic s 3 68
E m b ry o s a c , 2 7 4 2 7 6 2 7 7
, ,

Ev an s , on v
it a m in E 1 0 3 1 0 4— ,

v Ev
, , ,

E m b r y o lo gi ca l e vide n c e , o f e o lut io n e n in g pr i m r o s e s , de V r ie s e xp e r im e n t s
’

v
,

3 8 8 3 8 9 s im ila r it ie s in de e l o p m e n t o f w it h m ut a n t s o f, 3 3 7
—
-

e m b ry o s o f v
e r t e b r a t e a n im a ls 3 8 8 3 8 9 Ev o lut io n , o r ga n i c A r i s t o t le s 1 de a o f 3 7 1
v
. ,

E m oti o n s , da n ge r s o f io le n t 1 6 7 D a rw in s n a t ur al s e le c t io n t h e o r y o f
’

E n a m el, of t e e t h 107
,
—
3 7 3 3 7 6 ; de V r ie s m ut a t io n t h e o r y o f
’
,

E
,

n c y s t m e n t , o f p r o t o z o a n s , m e a n in g o f, 3 7 6 — 377 e m b r y o l o gi c a l e i de n c e s o f, v
,

2 5 3 ; w h y fo r m e d 2 5 3 —
3 8 8 3 8 9 ; ge o gr a p hic a l e ide n c e s o f v
E n do crin e gl a n d s , 1 9 1
,
—
3 8 5 3 8 6 ; h is t o r y o f, 3 7 1 ; ge o lo gic a l
,

E n do d e r m , o f e m b r y o 2 8 6 v
e i de n c e s o f —
3 8 1 3 8 4 ; in p l a n t s 3 8 9 ;
k
, , ,
’
E n d- or ga n s , in s in fun c t io n s o f, 1 7 3 L a m a r k s us e a n d dis us e t h e o r y o f,
3 7 1—
,

E n do s p e r m , 2 7 8 , 2 7 9 ; in gr a in s 2 7 9 ; 3 7 3 ; m e a n in g o f 3 7 1 ; m o rp h o
v v
, ,

s y s t em s fo r m e d fr o m , in e m b r y o , l o gi c a l e ide n c e s o f, 3 8 6 , 3 8 7 ; e s t igia l
286 e vid e n c e , 3
s 8 7 — 3 88
E n do t o xin s , m e a n in g o f 4 95 ; o f t ub e r Ev o lut io ni s t s , b e lie fs o f, 3 7 1
c ulo s is 44 2 ; o f t y p h o id , 4 6 5 4 6 6
,
— E xcr e tio n , de fi n i t io n o f, 1 7 0 h y gie n e o f,
E
,
—
n e r gy , h um a n , m e a s ur e d b y
ete r , 1 89 ; k
c a l o r im
i n e t ic in p la n t c e lls 3 9 —
1 7 4 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 ; im p o r t a n c e o f, 1 7 0 ; o f
m a n , 1 7 0 1 7 6 ; p r o c e s s in a gr e e n c e ll
k
, ,

E n t e r o in a s e , us e in dige s t io n 1 3 3
E n vir o n m e n t , e ff e c t o n a n c e s t ra l t r a it s
,

Ex
40
cr e t o r y Or ga n s , 1 7 0 —
17 6
v
,

fl
3 1 3 3 1 5 ; in ue n c e o n de e lo p m e n t o f
-
Ex o t o xi n s , 4 95 ; in dip h t h e r ia , 4 5 1 ; in
a n im a l s , 3 0 8 3 1 0 ; in ue n c e o n de
-
fl s c a r le t fe v er , 4 5 8 ; in t e t a n us 4 5 9 ; ,

v e lo p m e n t o f p l a n t s 308 309 ; m et h in t ub e r c ulo s is , 4 4 2

o ds o f im p r o in g , v
3 64 3 6 7 ; e r s us
,
—
,

v E xpe r i m e n t a t i o n , m o de r n m e t h o ds o f 1 5
h e r e dit y , 3 6 9 — 370 E xpir a t i o n , m e a n in g o f, 1 8 2 ; p r o c e s s o f
E vi r o n m e n t s , e ff e c t o f diff e r e n t 3 0 8 in m a n , 1 8 2
v
,

E n z y m e s , dige s t i e a c t io n o f, 1 2 8 13 1 ;
j
,

fun c t io n in p la n t s 7 1 in ga s t r ic ui c e
, , F 1 , de fi n e d , 3 1 9
1 2 8 ; in in t e s t in e , 1 3 2 1 3 3 ; i n p l a n t F 2 de fi n e d 3 1 9
—
-

v
, ,

c e lls 3 8 ; in s a li a , 1 2 1 ; o f p a n c r e a t i c F a m ilie s , o f in fe r io r a b ilit y ; 3 5 8 3 6 2

j
,

uic e , 1 3 1 S p e c ifi c a c t i o n o f, 1 2 8 1 2 9
— ,
—
o f s up e r io r a b ilit y , 3 5 6 3 5 8
13 1 F a t i gue , c a us e o f 2 3 2 ; e ff e c t o f o n
v 2 3 2— v
, ,

E piderm is
s t udy
,

of
la b o r a t o r y
le a f, 3 0 3 1 , — p r o b le m s on
6 7 ; la b o r a t o r y
in di id ual 233 ; ,
h ow t o o er
c o m e , 2 3 3 ; t e s t o f mus c le s o f fr o g fo r ,

p r o b le m o n c r o s s s e c o n o f l e a f, 6 7 ti 230
6 8 ; o ut e r la y e r o s n , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 f ki F a t s , la b o r a t o ry p r o b le m o f e ffe c t o f
E piglo tt i s , use o f, 1 2 2 k —
a l a li o n , 1 3 1 1 3 2 ; m e t a b o lis m o f 1 9 0 ,
 I NDE X 57

F e r m e n t a t ion —
, d
—
i
ur n g
y e a s t p la n t s , 2 5 0 2 5 1
r e p r o duc t io n of t io n of
s perm s , 285
e ggs , 2 84 2 8 5 ; p r o duc t io n of

F e rtili z a t io n , a da p t a t io n s fo r , in p la n t s , F r ui t , fun c t io n o f, 2 7 9
2 9 3 ; do ub le , 2 7 8 ; e xt e r n a l a n d in Fr ui t fl y , l o c a t io n o f ge n e s in c hr o m o
t e r n a l , 2 8 3 , 2 8 8 ; in fr o g, 2 7 0 2 7 1 — s o m e s o f, 3 1 2 , 3 3 2
— ,

F ue l , in p la n t s , 3 7
2 8 3 2 8 4 , 2 8 5 ; in hi gh e r p la n t s a n d
a n im a l s , 2 6 8 , 2 6 9
—
in p l a n t s , 2 7 7 2 7 8 ; F un cti on s , o f gr e e n c e lls , 3 4 4 1 —
s ign ifi c a n c e o f p r o c e s s , 2 8 5 F un gi , c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f, 3 3 ; c la s s ifie d,
v v
F e e r S ee Y e llo w fe e r , T y p h o id
.
'

—
5 1 8 5 1 9 ; m e a n in g o f, 3 3
Fib rin o ge n , in b lo o d, 1 4 3 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 8
Fi b ro us t is s ue , fun c t io n s o f 8 0 8 1 — G al e n , ide a o f c ir c ul a t io n 1 6 3 1 6 4
v
, ,

Fib ro a s cul ar b un dl e s , s t r uc t ur e o f, 7 0 G a lt o n , S ir F r a n ci s , a p p lic at io n o f s t a t is

Fil a m e n t , o f S p ir o gy r a , 3 2 t ic a l m e t h o d t o s t udy of h um a n
Filt er pa s s e r s , 3 9 3 h e r e dit y 3 5 7 ; in t e r e s t in e uge n ic s ,
v
,

Filt era b l e ir us , 3 9 3 355

Fi s h , c a r e o f y o un g, 2 9 6 ; s p a w n in g o f,
—
v
G a l a n o t r o pi s m , s h o w n b y a m o e b a , 4 6
28 3 284 G a m e t e s , fe m a le , 2 6 6 ; fo r m a t io n o f,
Fi s s io n , b in a r y , a fo r m o f c e ll di is io n,
— v 2 6 4 ; m a le , 2 6 6 p r o duc t io n in fl o w e r
4 4 , 24 7 2 4 8 in g p la n t s , 2 7 5 2 7 7 -

Fixa ti o n , o f n it r o ge n , b y b a c t e r ia , 4 0 7 G a n gli o n , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1
4 08 G a s t ric j ui c e , c a us e o f fl o w o f, 1 2 0 ;
—
Fla n de r s , o n in t e llige n c e t e s t in g, 2 3 9 — 23 1 c o m p o s it io n o f, 1 25 1 26 ; e ffe c t on
F la t wo r m s S e e P l a t y h e lm in t h e s p r o t e in 1 2 6 ; e n z y m e s in , 1 2 8 ; fun c
v
. ,

F l a , us e le s s p a r t s r e m o e d b y b a c te r ia , t io n s o f, 1 2 8 l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m , h o w
x
4 )5 p r o t e in is a ffe c t e d b y , 1 2 6 ; s e c r e t io n
—
F lo w e r s , c a ly x o f, 2 7 4 ; c o r o lla o f, 2 7 4 ; o f, 1 2 7 1 3 0
e s s e n t ia l o r ga n s o f, 2 7 4 p r o duc t io n o f G a s t r o po da , 5 2 3
fe m a le ga m e t e , 2 7 6 2 7 7 — p r o duc t io n G a s tr ul a , 2 8 6
o f m al e ga m e t e , 2 7 5 2 7 6
— G e n e r a t i on S ee S p o n t a n e o us ge n e r a
.

Fl ui d, t is s ue 1 6 5 t io n
,

F o a m t h e o r y , o f n a t ur e o f p r o t o p la s m , 5 4 G e n e s , c h a n ge i n c h a r a c t e r o f, 3 3 9 3 4 0 ; —
F o c al in fe ct io n , c o m m o n , 4 7 8 ; de fi n e d , c h a r a c t e r o f, 3 1 6 ; c o m b in a t io n i n s e x
—
1 7 4 1 7 5 , 4 7 7 ; e ff e c t o f, 4 7 7 ; p r e c e lls , 3 3 2 3 3 3 ;
— v
c r o s s in g- o e r o f, 3 3 9 ,
v e n t io n , 4 7 8
—
3 4 0 3 4 1 ; de fi n it io n o f, 3 0 6 ; do ub le ,
F o c us in g, m is c r OS C O p e , r ule s fo r , 2 4 3 3 1 ; fun c t io n s o f, 3 0 6 ; la b o r a t o r y
F o lds , I n s m a ll in t e s t in e , 1 3 6 p r o b le m t o s h o w p o s s ib le c o m b in a t io n s
F o lli cl e , h a ir , 1 7 3 —
in c e lls , 3 3 6 3 3 7 ; l o c a t io n in c hr o m o
F o o d , b a c t e r ia i n p r e p a r a t io n o f, 4 0 3 s o m e s o f fr ui t fl y , 3 1 2 , 3 3 2
4 04 ; de fin i t io n o f, 9 1 v—
im p r o e m e n t v
G e o gr a phi c a l e ide n c e s , o f e o lut io n , v
in q ua n t it y a n d q ua lit y o f, 3 4 4 3 4 5 h a b it a t s o f a n im a ls 3 8 5 ; M o n go lia n
—
m a n ufa c t ur e in gr ee n c e ll s 3 6 3 8 ; n u E xp e dit io n s , 3 8 5 3 8 7 — ,

— ,

v v
e r v a t io n o f, 3 9 9
4
—
t rie n t s , 9 1 1 04 ; o f p la n t c e lls , 3 6 p r e s
0 0 ; s t o r a ge o f, 7 1
G e o l o gi c a l e i de n c e s , o f e o lut io n , 3 8 1
3 8 4 ; fo s s il s 3 7 9 , 3 8 1 3 8 2 —
Fo o d m a n ufa ct ur e , i n gr e e n c e lls 3 6 3 8 ; — G e ot ro pi s m , 2 0 3
,

p
,

r o c e s s o f, 3 6 3 7 ; t h e p r o duc t s fo r m e d
—
G e r m c arri e r s , 3 9 7 3 9 9 , 4 5 4 4 5 5 , 4 8 2 —
In, 3 7 — 38
— —
G e r m pla s m , c a use s o f a r ia t io n , 3 3 6 v
F oo d n ut ri e n t s , 9 1 1 04 ; t a b le o f, 9 4 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 3 4 2 ; c o n t in ui t y o f, 3 3 6 ;
o o d s , c o n t a in in g m in e r a l , 9 6 ; c o n t a in e ff e c t o f e n ir o n m e n t v— on , 34 1 34 2 ; —
in g p ro t e in s , 9 5 ; e n e r gy v a lue o f, 9 2 ; t h e o ry o f, 3 3 5 3 3 6
v
fue l a l ue o f, 9 2 ; im p o r t a n ce o f, 9 1 G e r mi c i d e , 4 0 2
F or m a ti o n o f fruit , 2 7 9
F o s s il s , fo r m a t io n o f, 3 7 8 , 3 8 1 ; s t a t e o f —
3 39 342
v
G e r min a l ari a t ion s , t r a n s mit t e d, 3 12 ,

p e r fe c t io n , 3 8 1
F o ur o c lo c k s , h e r e dit y o f, 3 2 0 3 2 2
- ’ — G e r m i n a ti o n , 2 7 9
G i ga n t i s m , c a us e o f, 1 9 7
F r e ak S ee M ut a n t s
.

—
fl
G il b e rt , W , in ue n c e o n H a r e y , 1 6 3
. v
Fr o g, b r e e din g h a b it s o f, 2 8 2 2 8 3 ; de G ill s , t a dp o le , 2 8 7
v e lO p m e n t o f,
—
285 286 ; la b o r a t o r y G la n d, o il , 1 7 3 ; s w e a t , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3
s t udy o f a lim e n t a r y c a n a l o f, 1 1 6 la b —
G la n ds , duc t le s s , 1 9 1 2 0 1 ; e n do c ri n e ,
o r a t o r y s t udy o i in t e r n a l o r ga n s , 1 1 4 19 1 ; e xp e r i m e n t of gr a ft in g, 20 1 ;
1 1 6 ; life hi s t or y o f, 2 8 7 ; p r o duc e d m e a n in g o f, 1 1 8 ; lo c a t io n in m a n ,
—
p a rt h e n o ge n e t ic a lly , 2 7 1 2 7 2 ; p r o duc 1 9 2 ; lo c a t io n in a r a t , 1 93 ; p o s it io n
5 58 I NDE X

of
127
ga s t r ic , 1 2 5 ;
r e gula t io n
ra te
o f s e c r e t io n ,
of s e c r e t io n
1 2 7 128 ;—
o f, H e xa cti n e lli da , 5 2 1
H ippo cra t e s , F a t h e r o f M e dic in e 1 0 1 1
.
,
—
r e la t io n to dige s t io n 1 18 , 1 19 S ee H ir udin e a , 5 2 3
v
, .

A dr e n a l I n t e s t in a l L i e r P a n c re a s
, , , , H o lo t h ur o i d e a , 5 2 2
P a r a t h y r o id P in e a l B o dy P it uit a ry H o m i n i da e , 5 2 7
v v k v
, , ,

R e p r o duc t i e S a li a r y , H o o e , R o b e r t , fi r s t o b s e r e r o f c e lls ,

G ra n ula r t h e o r y , o f n a t ur e o f p ro t o 2 7 ; m ic r o s c o p e o f 2 7 ,

p la s m 5 4 , H or m o n e , de fi n it io n o f 1 3 3 ; s e c r e t in , ,

G lo tt i s , 1 2 2 133 19 1
v v
,

G ly co ge n , in li e r , 1 6 1 H or s e , e o lut io n o f t h e 3 7 5 3 7 6 3 7 7
G o it e r , a n d io din e , 1 9 4 1 95 ; dis t r ic t s , — H um a n h e r e dit y , diffi c ult y in s t udy in g
, , ,

—
1 9 4 1 9 5 ; e n de m ic , 1 9 4 ; e xo p h t h a l 3 5 7 ; m e t h o ds o f in e s t iga t in g 3 5 6 v ,
,

m ic , 1 95 3 62
G o l db e r ge r , D r
—
o s e ph , w o r .on J
it a k v H um o r a l t h e o r y , o f im m un it y 5 0 6 ,

m in P P , 1 0 4 H y b r i d, a p p e a r a n c e o f 3 1 9 3 2 4 ; de
G o n a ds , 2 0 0 —
s c e n da n t s o f, 3 1 9 3 2 2 ; m e a n in g o f
, ,

G oo s e esh, fl
”
c a us e o f, 1 7 2 3 19, 32 1 ; p r o p o r t io n in diffe r e n t
Go r ga s , e r a dic a t in g y e llo w fe e r 4 9 1 v i
ge e a t o n s 3 1 9 3 2 2
r
—
—
, n ,

G r a fti n g, b ud 2 5 8 ; e ff e c t o f, 2 5 8 2 5 9 ; H y b ridi z a t i o n , m e t h o d o f b r e e din g 3 5 1

,

in s ur ge r y , 2 5 9 2 6 0 ; p r o c e s s o f 2 5 7 — H y dr a , r e p r o duc t io n o f, 2 4 9 — 250
,

2 5 9 ; p r o p a ga t io n b y 2 5 7 2 6 0 ; s t e m , — ,

H y dr o c h lo r i c a cid, in ga s t r ic uic e , e ff e c t j
—
2 5 7 2 5 8 ; t o n gue , 2 5 9
,

of 1 2 9 1 3 0
-

k
G r e e s , c o n t r ib ut io n s t o s c ie n c e , 1 0 1 2 — ,

H y dr o ge n , a c h e m ic a l e le m e n t t e s t fo r ,
G r o wt h , o f s c ie n c e 1 0 1 7 ; m e n t a l , 2 2 5 ,
— 16
,

G uar d c e ll s , o f s t o m a t a 6 7 , H y dr o ph o b i a S ee R a b ie s
.

G uin e a pi gs , in b r e e din g e xp e r im e n t s , H y dr o t r o pi s m , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5
3 29 H y dr o z o a , 5 2 1
G y m n o s p e r m a e , c l a s s ifi e d, 5 2 0 ; m e a n H y gi e n e , de fe c t s r e e a le d b y e xa m in a v
in g o f, 5 2 0 t io n , —
4 1 6 4 17 ; m ental 2 2 2— 23 7 ;
1 6 7—
,

of c ir c ul a t o r y sy st em 1 69 ; of
H a b it , b r e a in g a 2 2 4 —
k 1 3 8—
,

— 2 2 5 ; fo r m a t io n
o f 2 2 0 2 2 1 ; m e a n in g o f 2 2 1
,
,

,
dige s t io n
1 8 5 ; o f s in 1 7 4 —
,

k
14 1 ;
175
,
of r e s p ir a t io n ,

H a e m o glo b in , 1 8 2 ; a n d o xy ge n 14 6 ;
fun c t io n o f 8 8 1 4 6 1 4 7 ; in c o r p us c le s
, ,
— ,

,
H yph a e , o f m o ld 2 6 4 2 6 5
H y po c ot yl , 2 7 8
, ,

88
H a e m o philia , 1 4 8 I m mi gr a t io n , a n d e uge n ic s 3 6 7 — 3 68
— v
,

H ai r fo lli cl e s , o r igin o f, 1 7 3 I m m un it y , 5 0 4 5 0 9 ; a c t i e 4 5 2 , 4 5 6
v—
, ,

H ar v e y , W illi a m , dis c o e r e r o f c ir c ula 458 ; a c q uir e d 501 ; a n t it o xin s

, in ,

t io n o f b lo o d 1 6 3 1 6 4 1 6 5 ; in ue n c e fl 5 0 5 ; E h r lic h s s ide - c h a in t h e o r y o f
’

4 5 8— v
, , ,

o f G ilb e r t o n 1 6 3 ; p o r t r a it o f 1 4 3 ; 5 06 ; e s t a b lis h in g a cti e 459 ;

k v
, , ,

t h e o r y c o n fi r m e d b y L e e uw e n h o e e s t a b lis hin g p a s s i e , 5 0 8 ; l y s in s in
— ,

5 0 5 ; m e a ni n g o f a c t i e , 4 5 2 ; m e a n v ,

19 20
— v
—
H e al t h , a n d a da p t a b ilit y , 4 1 4 4 1 5 ; a n d in g o f p a s s i e , 4 5 6 ; m e a n in g o f p e r
—
e duc a t io n 4 15 4 17
, a n d l o n ge it y
4 1 4 ; dis e a s e a n d, 4 1 3 4 1 4 ; m e a s ur e
m e n t o f, 4 1 9 ; s c ie n c e a n d 4 1 7 4 1 9—
— v ,
m a n e n t 4 5 6 ; n a t ur a l 5 0 6 5 0 7 ; o f
a n im a l s
m o r r o w 5 08 —
,

3 4 5 ; o f p la n t s 3 4 7 ; o f t o
,

5 0 9 ; p h a go c y t ic t h e o r y
,

H e a lt h e duc a ti o n , n e e d o f 7 4 1 5 4 1 7
,
— — ,

o f, 5 0 4 5 0 5 ; r a c ial 5 0 7
H e a r t , a ur ic le s o f, 1 5 2 1 5 4 1 5 9 — v
, , ,

I m m un i z a t io n a c t i e 4 5 2
la b o r a t o ry s t udy o f 1 5 2 1 5 3 ; p r o p e r
1 60 ; ,
— ,

v
I m pr o e d B e a c h plum , de e l o p m e n t o f,
,

v
3 4 8—
,

t ie s o f m us c le s o f, 8 5 1 5 2 1 5 4 ; s t r ue 349, 352 , 35 3
v v I m pul s e , n a t ur e o f n e r e 2 2 2 — v
, ,

t ur e o f 1 5 2 1 5 4 ; a l e s o f, 1 5 2 , 1 5 4 2 23
°

v
. , ,

e n t r ic le s o f 1 5 2 15 4 , ,
I m pul s e s , t y p e s o f, 2 1 5
H e m oly s in , a n t ib o dy , 5 0 1 I n co m pl e t e do m i n a n c e , m e a n in g o f 3 1 9
v I n di ge s t io n , c a us e s o f 1 3 8 —
,

H e pa t i c e in , 1 6 1 14 1 , 1 6 8
H e r e di t y , in An da lus ia n fo w ls , 3 1 8 —
,

3 20 ; I n ge s t i o n , a l ife fun c t io n o f a m o e b a 4 3
’
in fo ur o c l o c k s 3 2 0 3 2 2 ; in o r ga n — I n fa n c y , a m o n g b ir ds , 2 9 8 — 2 99 ; a m o n g
, .

in s e c t s , 2 9 7 —
-

v
,

,
—
is m s 3 3 3 ; m e t h o ds o f in e s t iga t in g
h um a n , 3 5 6 3 6 2 r is e o f n o w le dge o f k m a ls 2 95 —
2 9 8 ; a m o n g lo w e r a n i
296 ; a m on g m a m m a ls
v
e n ir o n m e n t , 3 69 v
,
—
2 99 3 00
,

a m o n g s e e d p la n t s , 2 9 3 2 9 5

18
3 333 ;
-
e rs us
-

3 in m a n , 3 0 1 3 0 3 -

H e rr e s h off fa mily , in h eri t a n c e o f, 3 6 1 I n f e cti o n . S ee F o c a l in fe c t io n

 60 I NDE X

t ur e a n d fun c t io n o f,
18 0 18 1 —
mo e v M e m b r a n e , m e a n in g o f 7 5 , m uc o us 7 5 ,

m e n t o f, 1 8 2 ; p r o t e c t io n o f, 1 7 9 ; r e d s e r o us , 76
c o r p us c le s , 1 7 9 ; s iz e , 1 8 2 ; s t ruc t ur e M e n de l G r e gor , e xp e r im e n t s w it h p e a s
v 3 2 2 3 2 6 , 3 2 7—
— ,

o f, 1 7 9 ; o l um e o f a ir in , 1 8 3
L ym ph , c ir c ula t io n o f, 1 6 5 1 6 6 ;
3 2 9 ; p o r t r a it o f, 3 1 8 ;
— uid , fl v
r e dis c o e r y o f w r it in gs 330
M e n de li a n la w s , o f do m in a n c e , 3 2 2 —
,

1 3 7 ; p r e s s ur e o f, 1 6 6 ; s o ur c e o f, 1 6 5 ; 3 24
S p a ce s , 1 6 6 ; v
e s s e ls , 1 6 5 1 6 6
— of s e gr e ga t io n ,
—
L y m ph gla n d, fun c t io n o f, 1 6 7
3 2 4 326 ; of
c h a r a c t e r s , 3 2 7 3 3 0 ; o f h e r e dit y , s um —un it

L y m ph n o de s , b a c t e r ia in , 1 6 7 ; fun c m a r iz e d 3 3 1
t io n s o f, 1 6 7 ; p o s it io n o f, 1 6 6 1 6 7 — °
M e n t a l a ge , 2 2 8
,

s t ruc t ur e o f, 1 6 7 M e n t al h ygi e n e , 2 2 7 — 23 7
Ly m ph a t i c s y s t e m , 1 6 3 1 6 9 — M e n t a l po i s e , c a us e o f la c o f 2 3 3 2 3 5 k
—
-
,

Ly m ph a ti c s , 1 3 7 ; fun c t io n s o f, 1 6 6 1 6 7 ; n e e d o f 2 2 7 , 2 3 3 ; r e la t io n t o dis e a s e
v v 5 0 2—
, ,

a l e s in , 1 6 6 5 03
L y s in s , us e o f, 5 0 1 k
i n ds o f, 5 0 1 M e s e n t e r y , fun c t io n o f 7 7
v
,

M e s o d e r m , o f e m b r y o 2 8 6 ; de e l o p m e n t ,

M A , 2 28 o f 2 8 6 ; s y s t e m s fo r m e d fr o m , 2 8 6
M a cr o n uc l e us in P a r a m e c ium 4 9 — M e t a b o li s m , b a s a l , 1 9 3 ; in c e ll , 5 9 —
. .
,

50 60
M a l a ri a 4 8 0 — k
, ,

4 8 6 ; c a us e 4 8 2 ; dia gn o s is in ds 1 8 7 ; m e a n in g o f 5 9 6 0 ; o f
—
-

v
, , , ,

o f, 4 85 ; h is t o r y o f,
4 8 1 4 8 2 ; in e s t i c a r b o h y dr a t e s 1 8 8 ; o f fa t s , 1 90 ; o f
ga t io n o f c a us e 1 5 ; m e t h o d o f s p r e a d t i 1 —
8 8 190
,

— p r o e n s
v
, , ,

o f, 4 80 4 8 1 —
4 8 2 ; n a t ur e o f, 4 8 4 4 8 5 ; p r e a le n c e
p r e e n t io n v o f, 486 ;
M e t a m o r ph o s i s , o f fr o g 2 8 7
M e t a ph a s e , s t a ge in c e ll di is io n 6 2
,

v
— k
,

t rea t m en t o f 4 8 5 M e t c h n i o ff , o n b a c t e r ia o f p ut r e fa c t io n ,
al a r i al pa r a s i t e , life c y c l e o f, 4 8 2 4 8 4 1 4 0 ; t h e o r y o f im m un it y 5 04 — 5 05
m ult ip lic a t io n o f, 4 8 3 4 8 4 — M e t h o d, m o de r n s c ie n t ifi c , 1 3 — 15
,

M aln ut ri ti o n , c a us e o f, 1 0 4 ; e ffe c t o n M i cr o n , un it o f m e a s ur e m e n t , m ic r o
e m b ry o , 3 1 3 s 0 0 p ic w o r 3 9 2— 3 93 k
M a l pighi , dr a wi n g o f c ir c ula t io n b y , 1 5 1
,

M i c ro n ucl e us , i n P a r a m e c ium 4 7 5 0 2 4 8 —
v
, ,

m o e m e n t o f b l o o d in c a p illa r ie s fi r s t M i cr o py l e , o f e gg 2 7 0 2 7 6
se e n b y , 1 64
—
M c os c o p , 1 9 2 5 ; c a r e o f 2 3 24
i r e
, ,

—
k v
,

M a l pi ghi a n l a y e r , o f s in , 1 7 2 c o m p o un d 2 0 ; hi s t o r y o f de e l o p
,

M alt h us , e ff e c t o f e s s a y o n D a r wi n , 3 7 3 m en t
’
1 9 2 0 ; H o o ke s , 2 7 ; la b o r a
—
-
,

E s s a y on P o p ula t i o n 3 4 3 t o r y p r o b le m o n us e o f 2 4 2 6 ; p a r t s
M a m m a lia , c la s s ifie d 5 2 6- 5 2 7
,

—
of 2 1 23 ; r u le s fo r fo c us in g 2 4
,

v k
, , ,

M a m m a l s , de e l o p m e n t o f e m b r y o , 2 9 9 M il , a c ido p h o lus 140 ; in c r e a s e in ,

3 0 0 ; fo o d o f, 3 0 0 ; in fa n c y , 2 9 9- 3 0 1 ;
y e a r s o f de p e n de n c e , 3 0 0 3 0 1 , 3 0 2
— p r o duc t s o f, 3 4 4 ;
p h o id 4 6 7 ;
in ue n c e o n t y
l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o
fl
—
M an , in fa n c y in , 3 0 1 3 03 p r o t e c t io n o f
,

de t e r m in e b a c t e r ia l c o n t e n t 4 0 1 ,

y o un g, 3 0 M in e r a l s , fo o ds c o n t a in in g , 9 6 ; in s uffi
M a n ufa ct ur e , o f fo o d, b y gr e e n p la n t s , c ie n c y 9 5 ; n ee d of 9 5
36 38— ,
—
M t o s i s , in a n im a l c e ll 6 1 6 3 ; in p la n t
i
,

M ar co n i , G ugli e lm o , p o r t r a it o f, 1 c e ll 6 3 6 4 ; l a b o r a t o ry s t udy o f, 6 3 ;
M ar s upia li a , a n im a ls o f O r de r , 5 2 6 p r o c
,

e s s o f 60 —
,

63
v v
,

M a s ti ca t i o n , im p o r t a n c e o f, 1 2 3 p r o c e s s M it ra l a l e , o f h e a r t 1 6 0 ,

o f, 1 2 0 M ol d, la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m , o n s p o r e
M a s ti go ph or a , 5 2 1 fo r m a t io n 25 1 252 ; , hy ph a e , 2 5 1 —
M a s t o do n , r e s t o r a t io n o f, 3 7 9 m y c e lium 2 5 7 ; r hiz o id , 2 5 1 ; s e xua l
,

M a t ur a ti o n , o f e gg, 2 64 ; o f s e x ce lls o f r e p r o duc t io n in 2 6 4 2 6 5 ; s p o r a n gium

fr uit fl y , 2 6 9 ; o f s p e r m , 2 6 4 ; p r o c e s s o f —
2 5 1 25 2 2 5 3
, ,

of 2 68 2 7 0 ; — v
a r ia t io n due t o , 2 8 5
,

M ol e cula r t h e o ry , 3 5
,

v
,

M c C oll um , in e s t iga t io n o n die t s , 93 M o l e c ul e s , la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o s h o w

95 v
m o e m en t of 3 5 ,

M e a s l e s , a ft e r -e ff e c t s , 4 7 8 ; m e t h o d o f M o llus c a , c la s s ifie d, 5 2 3 ; m e a n in g o f,
v
s p r e a d , 4 7 8 ; p r e e n t io n o f, 4 7 8 5 23
M e a s ur e m e n t , o f h e a lt h , 4 1 9 k
M o llus s , t h e y o un g o f, 2 9 6
—
M e di a , de fi n it io n o f b a c t e r ia l , 3 9 5 ; fo r M o n go lia n e xpe dit io n s , 3 8 5 3 8 7
v — M o n o t r e m a t a , 5 2 6 ; duc b ill 5 1 3 k
c ul t i a t io n o f b a c t e r ia , 3 9 6 3 9 7
M e di cin e , e a r ly p ra c t ic e s o f, 3 , 1 0 1 3 — M o r ga n , T H , o n h e r e dit y 5 5 ; p o r
,

k
. .
,

M e dull a , o b lo n ga t a , de s c r ip t io n o f, 2 0 7 ; t r a it o f, 3 1 8 ; w o r o n h e r e dit y 14 ;
k
,

fun c t io n o f, 2 0 7 wo r o n m ut a t io n s in fr uit fli e s , 3 1 2
 I NDE X O6 1

M orph olo gi cal e vid en ces , of e

—
v o lut io n , in v
N i co la i e r , dis c o e r y o f t e t a n us b a c illus ,

s t r uc t ur e o f a n im a ls , 3 8 7 3 88 460
M or ph o l o gy , m e a ni n g o f, 1 7 —
N it rifi c a t io n , p r o c es s o f, in s o il , 4 0 6 4 0 7
M orul a , 2 8 5 N it r o ge n , c y c le , 4 0 6 , 4 1 0 ; fi xed b y
v —
—
”
M o t h e r o f in e ga r , 3 9 1 b a c t e r ia , 4 0 6 , 4 07 4 0 9
—
1 2 0 ; us e o f, in dige s t io n , 1 2 0 1 2 1
—
M o ut h , o f m a n , 1 2 0 1 2 1 ; s t r uc t ur e o f, N it r o ge n , fix a t io n , 4 0 7 4 0 9
N o de s S ee L y m p h n o de s
.

M uc o us , lin in g o f n a s a l p a s s a ge s , fun c N o dul e s , us e o f r o o t , t o s o il , 4 0 8

t io n o f, 1 7 8
—
N o guc hi , H i de go , 2 3 ; w o r -
o n y e llo wk
M us cl e t i s s ue , 8 5 8 6 ; c a r dia c , 8 5 ;
—
v
fe e r , 4 9 1 , 4 9 2
c r o s s s t r ia t e d , 8 5 ; fun c t io n o f, 8 5 8 6 ;
- N o s t r il s , 1 7 8
s t r uc t ur e o f, 8 3 un s t r ia t e d , 8 5 N uc l e i , p o la r , 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 7 8 ; S p e r m ,
us cl e , l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m s o n s t r ue 275
k — la b o r a t o r y N ucl e o pla s m , s t r uc t ur e s fo un d in , 5 7
t ur e o f s e le t a l , 8 3 8 4 ;
p r o b le m o n s t r uc t ur e o f s m o o t h o r in N ucl e us , o f c e ll , 2 7 2 8 —
e n do s p e r m , 2 7 8
v o lun t a r y , 8 4 e gg , 2 7 7 ;
—
v
ge n e r a t i e , 2 7 5 ; t ub e , 2 7 5 ,
M us cl e s , a n t a go n is t ic , 8 6
— wor of 5 7 5 8 k ,

—
M us c ul ar a ct io n , a n t a go n is t ic , 8 5 8 6 N ut ri e n t s , fo o d , 9 1 1 0 4 ; de fi n it io n o f ,

M ut a n t s , c a us e s o f, 3 7 7 ; e xa m p le s o f 91 t a b le o f, 9 4
o c c urr e n c e , 3 3 7 3 3 9 ;
— im p o r t a n c e in N ut ri ti o n , o f P a r a m e c ium , 4 8 4 9 —
—
b r e e din g 3 5 3 3 54 ; m e a n in g o f, 3 3 7 v
N ut riti e pr o c e s s e s in o r ga ni s m s , p ur
v
,

M ut a t ion t h e ory , o f e o lut io n , 3 7 6 ; a n d p ose oi , 3 4

n a t ur a l se le c t io n , 3 7 7
M y c e lium , in m o ld, 2 5 1 j v
O b e ct i o n s , t o a c c in a t io n , 4 2 3 , 4 2 7
M yria po da , 5 2 4 fi s pri n g, c a us e o f diffe r e n c e s a m o n g,
M yxe de m a , 1 9 4 3 1 5 ; c h a r a c t e r o f, 3 0 6 3 1 7 —
O il gla n ds , 1 7 3
N a r ci s s us , la b o r a t o ry s t udy o f e p ide r O n i o n c e lls , la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f, 2 5 2 6 —
m is o f le a f o f, 3 0 3 1 — h is t o r y o f in di idua l , 3 8 8 v
v
N a s a l pa s s a ge s , r e m o a l o f dus t b y , 1 7 8
w a r m in g a n d m o is t e n in g a ir b y , 1 7 8 O n y ch o ph or a , 5 2 3
N a t ur a l im m un it y , m e a n in g o f, 5 0 6 ; o f 6 ge n e s i s , m e a n in g o f, 2 7 0
v
r a ce s a n d in di idua ls , 5 0 7
— phi ur oi de a , 5 2 2
N t
a u r a l s e l e ct o , 3 7 3 3 7 5 ;
i n a n d m ut a p s o n i n s , e ff e c t o n b a c t e r ia , 5 0 0 , 5 0 2 ;
’
t io n t h e o r y , 3 7 7 ; D a r w in s t h e o r y o f t e s t fo r a m o un t o f, 5 0 2
— j
,

3 7 3 3 7 6 ; o b e c t io n s t o t h e o r y o f, 3 7 6 O r a n ge , n a e l , 3 4 9 v
v v
N a e l o r a n ge , de e lo p m e n t o f, 3 4 9 O r ga n , de fi n it io n o f 7 3
—
v v
,

N e e dh a m , e xp e r im e n t s t o p r o e s p o n O r ga n ic e o lut io n , 3 7 1 3 8 9 ; D a r w in ia n
t a n e o us ge n e r a t io n , 2 4 1 t heory o f, 3 73 3 76 ; —
e m b r y o lo gic a l
N e gri b o di e s , in r a b ie s , 4 33 , 4 3 5 v
e ide n c e s o f, 388 389 ; — de V r ie s
’

N e m a t h e lmin t h e s , 5 2 2 —
t h e o r y o f, 3 7 6 3 7 7 ; fa c t o r s in , 3 7 1
N e rv e c e n t e r s , 2 0 8 v
ge o gr a p h i c a l e ide n c e s , 3 8 5 3 8 6 ; ge
—
v
N e r e t i s s ue , in m a n , 8 6 ; un it o s t r ue
— f v
o lo gi c a l e i de n c e s , 3 8 1 3 8 4 ; h is t o r y
-

t ur e , 8 6 8 7 ; w o r o f, 8 6 k —
k
o f, 3 7 1 ; L a m a r c ia n t h e o r y o f 3 7 1
v v
,

N e r e s , fun c t io n o f, 2 0 8 2 09 m o t o r , 2 1 0 373 m o r p h o lo gic a l e ide n c e s o f, 3 8 6

p a t h w a y o f, 2 0 9 2 1 1
— s en sory , 209 387 v v
e s t igia l e ide n c e s o f, 3 8 7 3 8 8
—
v
N e r o us r e a ct io n s , im p o r t a n c e o f, 2 2 3 ; O r ga ni s m , o ff s p r in g o f s im p le , 2 9 2 2 9 3 —
ki n ds o f, 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 2 2 1 — la b o r a t o r y O r ga n i s m s , h e r e dit y in , 3 3 3 ; p ur p o s e o f
s t udy o f, 2 2 5 ; n a t ur e o f, 2 1 6 2 1 7 —
v —
life p r o c e s s e s in , 3 4
N e r ous s y s t e m , 2 0 2 2 1 4 ; a ut o n o m ic O r ga n s , o f dige s t io n , 1 1 8 1 1 9 ; 1 2 5 1 3 5 — —
—
‘

p o r t io n o f 2 10 2 1 1
— , c e llul a r s t ruc t ur e Or i gi n of S p ec i es , b y D a r w in , 3 7 3

—
o f, 2 08 2 1 0 ; c e r e b r o- s p in a l o r c e n t r a l O s m o s i s , in a b s o r p t io n o f fo o d, 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 ;

—
p o r t io n o f, 2 0 5 2 1 0 ; e ffe c t o f t o b a c co ,
2 3 6 2 3 7 ; e ffe c t o f a l c o h o l , 2 3 7 m a in
in r o o t h a ir , 69 ; in p h o t o s y n t h e s is ,
m e a n in g o f 3 4 ; p r o c e s s o f, 3 4 3 5 —
v
s ub di is io n of 2 05 ;
, p ri n c ip le of
,

s t e r h out , o n h e r e dit y , 5 5
O p e r a t io n o f, 2 05 ; s t ruc t ur e o f, 2 0 8 O va , o f fr o g, 2 8 3
2 1 0 ; s t udie s o f, m a n a n d o t h e r ert e v v
O e r pr o duc ti o n , o f s p e c ie s , 3 7 3
—
b r a t e s 2 1 1 2 1 2 ; t h e m e t h o ds o f s t udy
,

—
fl
O vul e s , in o w e r , 2 7 4 , 2 7 6 2 7 7 , 2 7 9
in g, 2 1 2 2 1 3 O xy ge n , a c h e m ic a l e le m e n t , t e s t fo r ,
v
N e ur o n , a s s o c i a t i e , 2 0 9 de s c rip t io n o f,
°

1 6 ; im p o r t a n c e t o life , 2 4 1 24 2 —
2 08 ; dia gr a m o f, 2 0 9 O xyh a e m o glo b in , 1 4 7
5 62 I NDE X

P al a t e o f m a n 1 2 0 h is t o r y o f e n t ir e r a c e o r Ph ylo ge n y
Pal e o n t olo gy 3 7 8
,
,

g r o u p, 3 8 8 — 3 89
,

P alis a de c e ll s o f le a f 6 7 Ph ylum , in t a xo n o m y 5 1 6
,

P a n cr e a s dige s t i e s e c r e t io n s
, v
of
,

1 3 1 ; P h y s i c s , a n d it s r e l a t io n t o b i o lo gy , 1 5 1 6
,
,

—
in t e r n a l s e c r e t io n o f 1 9 9 ; r e l a t ion t o P h y s iolo gi c al fun cti o n s , o f o r ga n is m 3 4
, ,

di ge s t io n 1 1 8 S ee D ia b e t e s I n s ulin P h y s io lo gy , m e a n in g o f, 1 7
j k
.
, ,

P a n c r e a ti c ui c e , e n z y m e s o f, 1 3 1 Pigm e n t , in s i n 1 7 2
j
,

P a pill a e , o f t o n gue , 1 2 0 ; fun c t io n s o f, Pin e a l b o dy, e ff e c t o f in ury t o , 2 0 0 ;

173 l o c a t io n o f 2 0 0 ,

P a r a s it e , de fin it io n o f, 2 5 2 ; gr o up o f Pi s c e s , a n im a ls o f c la s s 5 2 5
—
b a c t e r ia , 3 9 3 3 9 4 Pit uit ar y gl a n d, l o c a t io n o f, 1 9 6 ; r e la
,

P a r a m e cium , c o n uga t io n o f 4 9 5 0 2 4 8 , j— t io n t o gr o w t h —
196 197 S ee A c r o
2 67 —
, , , .

2 68 ; e ffe c t o f a lc o h o l 50 ; m e ga ly D w a r fi s m G iga n t is m
—
on , , ,

l a b o r a t o r y Pla c e n t a , a n im a ls 2 8 9 , 2 9 1 ; o f p la n t s
ir rit a b i t y
l i
s t udy o f, 4 6 4 7 ;
f
o ? 5 0 51 ;
—
lo c o m o t io n o f 4 9 ; 2 74 , 2 7 8
, ,

—
m o de o f de fe n s e 5 0 5 1 ; n ut r it io n o f Pla n t , a n d a n im a l b r e e din g 3 4 3 —
,

353
—
, ,

4 8 4 9 ; r e p r o duc t io n o f 4 9 5 0 e xp e r im e n t s b y M e n de l 3 2 2 o r ga n s o f
-
, ,

fl
P ar a t h yr oid gl a n ds , l o c a t io n o f 1 9 6 ;
r e la t io n t o m e t a b o lis m 1 96 ; s ecre
o w e ri n g 2 7 3 ,

Pla n t s , c e l lula r n a t ur e o f, 3 0 3 1 gr o w t h
,
—
i
t o o , 196 f S T t o f s e
,

d 2 —
93 2 95 ; m a n ufa c t ur e o f
—
n e e e a n y e
—
.
,

P ar t al c a r e , S h o w n b y b ds 98 9 9
e i 2 2 f d 3 6 3 8 ; r e p r o duc t io n o f h igh e r
—
n o o
—
r , , , ,

fi s h e s a n d fr o gs 2 9 6 in s e c t s 9 7 9 8 2 2 2 7 3 2 7 9 ; s p e c ia liz a t io n in h igh e r , 6 9
m a m m a ls 2 9 9 3 0 1 —
,

m a n 3 0 1 3 04— ,

7 2 ; s t o r a ge o f fo o d in 7 0 7 1 —
,

v
P ar e n t h o o d , de e lo p m e n t o f 3 0 3 3 0 4 — ,

Pla s m a , c o m p o si t io n o f b lo o d 1 4 5
,

k
, ,

P ar , D r W H , in o c ula t io n s wit h t o xin Pla s m a m e m b r a n e , fun c t io n o f, 5 8 ; o f

—
. . .

a n t it o xin 4 5 2 4 5 3
, c e ll , 3 2
P ar o t i d gl a n d, in m o ut h 1 2 1 Pl a s m o dium m al a ria e S ee M a la r ia l
P a rt h e n o ge n e s i s , 2 7 1 —
.
,

272 p a r a s it e
v
Pa s s i e i m m un it y , a c q uir in g 5 0 8
—
Pl a t e l e t s S ee B lo o d p l a t e le t s
, .

P a s t e ur , L o u s , 3 ; de a s o , 4 3 5 4 3 6 ; Pla t yh e lm in t h e s , 5 2 2
i i l f
—
t r e a t m e n t fo r r a b ie s 4 3 0 4 3 2 ; w o r Pl e ura e , o f m a n 7 6 k
v
, ,

t o dis p r o e S p o n t a n e o us ge n e r a t io n Pl e ur o c o c cus , dia gr a m o f, 3 3 la b o r a t o r y

2 4 2—
,

2 44 p r o b le m o n , 3 1 ; r e p r o duc t io n o f, 2 4 7
P a lo , e xp e r im e n t s o n dige s t io n , 1 3 8 —
v v 1 3 9 Pl e xus , 2 1 0
P a yn e , H a b it s a n d P r a c t ic e s in A c c i Plum , de e l o p m e n t o f n e w s p e c ie s o f,
—
v
v
de n t P r e e n t io n a n d H e a lt h
”
4 19 348 34 9 ,

t h e a p p e n di x Plum c o t , h o w p r o duc e d 3 4 9 ,

P e a s , s w e e t M e n de l s e xp e r im e n t s o n Plum ul e , 2 7 8
’

h e re dit y o f 3 2 2 —
,

3 6 ; 3 7 330
,
2 2 — P o in t —
s , b r e e din g fo r , 3 4 9 3 5 0
P e l e cy po da , 5 2 3 P o i s e , m e n t a l S ee M e n t a l p o is e .

P e ll a gr a , de fi c ie n c y dis e a s e 1 0 4 P olar , n uc le i 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 2 7 8 ; b o die s 2 7 0

, , , ,

P e ps i n , 1 2 8 P o ll e n , a ge n c ie s t o s c a t t e r 2 7 6 e ffe c t o f,
P e ps in o ge n , 1 2 8 —
277 278 ; gr a in s 2 75 , 2 76 277 ; ,
,

P e pt i c gl a n d, r e la t io n t o dige s t io n 1 1 8 la b o r a t o ry s t udy o f e ffe c t o f s uga r s o lu

v
,

P e pt o n e , fo r m o f p r o t e in , 1 2 8 t io n o n 2 7 5 ; n uc le a r d i is io n i n 2 7 6 , ,

P e r i c a r di um , o f m a n 7 6 , p r o duc t io n o f 2 7 5 ; t ub e 2 7 5 2 7 6 2 7 7 , , , ,

P e ri o s t e um , o f b o n e 7 8 , Po llin a t io n , a ge n t s o f, 2 9 3 ; a r t ifi c ia l ‘

P e ri s t a li s , de s c rib e d 1 2 3
P e rit o n e um , o f m a n , 7 6
P e r s pir a t io n , 1 7 0
,
m e t h o d o f, 3 5 2 ; p r o c e s s o f, 2 7 6
Po lyn e uriti s , c a us e o f, 1 0 0 ; c ur e fo r , 1 0 0
P op ula t i on M a l t h us E s s a y o n , 3 4 3
’

v
,

P e t ri , R J de is e d P e t r i dis h 3 9 6 P or e , o f s kin 1 7 3
.

—
,

P h a go c yt e s , fun c t io n o f 1 4 6 1 4 7 , 5 0 0 P orife ra , c la s s ifi e d 5 2 1 m e a n in g o f 5 2 1
,

—
°

5 04— v
, , ,

5 05 Po r t al , c ir c ula t io n 1 6 0 1 6 1 ; e in 1 6 1
—
P h a go c y t i c t h e o r y , o f im m un it y 5 04 5 0 5 P o s t ul a t e s , o f K o c h 4 4 0 ,
,

,
,

Ph a go c yt o s is , 1 4 7 P o t a t o e s , p r o p a ga t io n o f 3 5 0 ,

P h ar y n x 1 2 2 F o uch e t , o n S p o n t a n e o us ge n e r a t i o n ,
,

P h ot o s y n t h e s i s m e a n in g of 3 7
—
2 4 2 2 44
o f, 36 37
, , p r o ce s s
Pr e cipit in s , fun c t io n o f, 5 0 1 5 0 2 —
v
,

P h ot ot r o pi s m , l a b o r a t o r y p r o b le m t o Pr e s e r a tio n o f foo d, dis c us s e d 3 9 9 ,

S h o w , 2 03 ; s h o w n b y a m o eb a , 4 6 Pri m a t e s , c la s s ifi e d , 5 2 7 ; a n im a ls o f
Phr e n olo gy, 5 , 2 1 4 o r de r o f, 5 2 7
5 64 I NDE X

R e t i cul ar t h e or y , o f n a t ure o f p r o t o p la s m , S e lf — a c ti n g n er v ous s ys t e m S ee Au

v
.

54 t o n o m ic n e r o us s y s t e m
R hi n o c e r o s , p r e h is t o r ic , 3 7 8 S e lf- pit y , a s t r a it o f p e r s o n a lit y , e ff e c t o f,
R hi z o da , c la s s ifie d 5 2 1 , 23 6
R hi z o id, o f m o ld 2 5 1 S e r um of b lo o d S ee B lo o d
—
.
,

R hi zo m e s , p la n t s w it h , 2 6 1 p r o p a ga S e xua l c h ar a ct e r s , s e c o nda r y , 2 8 1 2 8 2 ~

t io n b y 2 6 1 S e xual r e pr o duc t i o n , in high e r p la n t s a n d

,

R h yt h mi c s e gm e n t a ti o n , o f s m a ll in t e s a n im a ls , 2 6 4 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 3 2 9 1 ;
— in m o ld ,
— m e a n in g o f, 2 64 in P a r a m e
t in e , 1 3 0
k
Ri c e t s , c a us e , 1 0 2 — v
1 0 3 ; p r e e n t io n a n d
2 64 2 6 5
—
oium , 2 6 7 2 6 8 ; in S p ir o gy r a , 2 6 5 2 6 7 —
c ur e o f 1 0 0 , 1 0 3
, k
S hi c t e s t , a p p lic a t io n o f, 4 5 7 o f s us
R o de n t i a , c la s s ifi e d , 5 2 7 c e p t ib ilit y t o dip h t h e r ia , 4 5 3
k
R oo t s t o c , p la n t s wit h , 2 6 1 p r o p a ga S i de - c h ain t h e o r y , o f im m un it y , 5 0 6
t io n b y , 2 6 1 v
S i e e t ub e s , o f p la n t s fun c t io n o f, 6 8
R o o t h ai r s , o f p l a n t s 6 9 S i miida e , 5 2 7
j v
,

R o s s , M a or R , in e s t iga t io n o f m a l a r ia , S im o n , T h e o do r e , t e s t s b y , 2 2 8
—
.
‘

S ir e ni a , a n im a ls o f O r de r , 5 2 7
48 1 482
R o t a ti o n o f c r o p s , n e e d fo r , 4 09 4 1 1— k —
S in , fun c t io n s o f, 1 7 3 1 7 4 ; h y gie n e o f,
R o un d w or m s . S ee N e m a t h e lim in t h e s —
1 7 4 1 7 5 ; la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f t h e , 1 7 0
R o ux, is o l a t io n o f dip h t h e r ia t o xin 4 5 1 17 1 o r ga n o f e lim in a t io n , 1 7 0 , 1 7 3
R un n e r s , us e o f in p r o p a ga t in g, 2 6 0 —
,

26 1 1 7 4 ; s e n s e o r ga n , 1 7 3 ; s t r uc t ur e o f,
,
— k
1 7 2 1 7 3 ; t h ic n e s s o f, 1 7 2
v —
S ali a , c o m p o s i t io n o f, 1 2 1 1 2 2 ; dige s S la n t , a ga r , 3 9 7
v — v
t i e a c t io n o f 1 2 1 1 2 2 ; e n z y m e s o f, S li ps , m e t h o d o f e ge t a t i e p r o p a ga t io n , v
,

fl
1 2 1 ; fa c t o r s in ue n c in g s e c r e t io n o f, —
— 25 5 256
1 2 1 ; fun c t io n s o f, 1 2 0 1 2 1 ; s e c r e t io n s S m all in t e s t in e , a b s o rp t io n fr o m , 1 3 6
—
1 3 7 ; a da p t a t io n s o f, 1 3 6 1 3 8 ; dige s
o f, 1 2 1
v
S ali ar y gla n ds , p o s it io n o f, 1 2 0 ; fun c — —
t io n in , 1 3 0 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 ;
t io n o f, 1 2 0 1 2 1— v j —
t i e uic e s o f, 1 3 2 13 3 ; fo lds in , 1 3 6
v
S a po n ifi c a t i o n , in t h e dige s t i e p r o c e s s , v
gl a n ds o f, 1 3 1 ; m o e m e n t s o f, 1 3 0 ;
13 1 v illi o f, 1 3 6 , 1 3 7
S a p ph y t e s , gr o up o f b a c t e r ia , 2 5 1 , 3 9 4 , S m all po x, c a s e s a n d de a t h s in U n it e d
4 g
g S t a t e s , 4 2 4 ; e p ide m ic s o f, 4 2 0 ; h is t o r y
v
S c a r l e t fe e r , p r o b a b l e c a us e o f, 4 5 8 ;
—
o f, 4 2 0 hi s t o r y o f in o c ula t io n s a ga in s t ,
t e s t t o de t e r m in e s us c e p t ib ilit y t o , 4 5 8 4 2 0 4 2 1 ; n a t ur e a n d s y m p t o m s o f,
t r a n s m is s io n o f, 4 5 9
—
v
4 2 3 , 4 2 5 ; p r e p a r a t io n o f a c c in e fo r ,
k
S c hl e i d e n , n o w le dge o f c e lls , 2 8 4 26 ; v
p r e e n t io n , 4 2 5 4 2 6 ; s p r e a d,
Sc h u l t z e c o n t r i b ut i o n t o c e ll t h e o r y 2 9 4 2 5 ; v a l ue o f a cvc in a t io n 4 2 6 -
427
k
, , , .

S ch w a n n , Th e o dor e , w o r o n c e l ls , 2 8 S ee V a c c in a t io n
—
S ci e n c e , a ge o f, 1 3 ; a im o f, 6 ; a n d S oil , b a c t e r ia o f, 4 0 5 4 1 1 ; c o n s e r a t io n — v
— c o n t r ib ut io n s by
h e a lt h , 4 1 7 4 1 9 ;
k — — o f, 4 1 1
G r e e s , 1 0 1 2 ; gr o wt h o f, 1 0 1 1 ; o f S o m a ti c c e ll s , 2 6 9
v
p r im it i e m a n , 1 0
— v
S o m a ti c a ri a t i o n s , n o t t r a n s m it t e d , 3 1 0
S ci e n t ifi c m e t h o d, m o de r n , 1 3 1 5
fif
S p l n z a ni , o n s p o n t a n e o us ge n e r a t io n ,
v
S c ur y , 9 7 ; c a us e o f, 1 00 , 1 0 2 ; t r e a t
—
m e n t fo r , 1 00 , 1 0 2 S pa wn i n g, o i fis h , 2 8 3 2 84 ; o f fr o gs ,
—
S cyph o z o a , 5 2 2
S e cr e t a go gue s , 1 2 8
28 2 283
S pe ci e s , p r o duc t io n o f n e w , 3 4 7 3 4 9 ; in —
t a xo n o m y , 5 1 7
S e cr e ti n , 1 3 3
—
S e c r e ti o n s , in t e r n a l , 1 9 1 1 9 2 ; o f gr e e n S p eci es a n d Va ri eti es , b y D e V r ie s 3 7 6 3 7 7 ,
—
S p ec i es , Or igi n of, b y D a r w in , 3 7 3
c e ll , 4 0
S e e d, a pp e n da ge s , 2 9 4 diff e r fr o m e ggs , S pe ci a li z a t io n , in h igh e r p la n t s , 6 9 7 2 —
—
2 8 1 ; di s p e r s a l o f, 2 9 4 2 9 5 ; fo o d r e S pe rm c e ll , c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f, 2 6 8
v —
s e r e o f, 2 9 4 2 9 5 ; fo r m a t io n o f, 2 7 8 S pe r m a t o ge n e s i s , m e a n in g o f, 2 69
2 7 9 ; p r o t e c t io n o f 2 9 4 , S pe r m a t o ph yt a , 5 2 0
S e gm e n t a t io n , r h y t h m ic , o f s m a ll in t e s S p e r m s , p r o duc t io n o f fr o g, 28 5
t in e , 1 3 0 S phi n ct e r s , 1 2 5
S e gr e ga ti o n , o f ge n e s durin g m a t ur a t io n , S p l n a n , p r o duc t io n o f h a r dy w h e a t b y ,
—
M e n de lia n la w o f, 3 2 4 3 2 6 ég
a
fi
S e l e ct i o n , a r t i c ia l , im p o rt a n ce in p la n t s , S pinal c o r d, de s c r ip t io n o f, 2 0 7 2 0 8 —
352 dI a gr a m o f c r o s s s e c t io n , 2 0 8 ; fun c
 I NDE X 5 65

v
t io n o f, 2 0 8 ; le e l o f r e a c t io n s o f, 2 1 8 , S w e e t pe a s , M e n de l s e xp e r im e n t s in
—
’

fl
2 1 9 , 2 2 0 ; r e la t io n t o r e e xes , 2 0 8 h e r e dit y o f 3 2 2 3 2 6 ; 3 2 7 3 3 0
—
-
,

s t r uc t ur e o f, 2 0 7 2 0 8 S y m b i o s is , de fin e d 3 94
v
,

S pir e m e , fo r m a t io n o f, in c e ll divis io n , S y m pa t h e t i c n e r o us s y s t e m
—
61 6 2 v
t o n o m ic n e r o us s y s t e m
S ee A u .

S pir illa , fo r m o f b a c t e r ia , 3 9 2 S yn a ps e , p r o p e r t ie s o f, 2 08 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 0
v
S pi r o c h a e t e , c a us a t i e o r ga n is m o f y e l S y s t e m , c ir c ula t o r y 1 5 1 — 1 6 2 ; dia gr a m
v v
,

o f c ir c ula t io n 1 5 5 ; n e r o us s y s t e m ,
lo w fe e r , 4 9 2
S pir o gyr a , de s c r ip t io n o f, 3 1 ; la b o r a — ,

2 0 2 2 1 4 ; l y m ph a t i c 1 6 3 1 6 9 —
t o r y p r o b le m o n t h e c e lls o f, 3 1 3 3 ;
— v
,

S y s t e m de e lo p m e n t in e m b r y o 2 8 6 ,

m e a n in g o f, 3 2 ; r e p r o duc t io n o f, 2 4 7 S y s t e m a N a tur a e ( L in n a e us ) 5 1 1
—
“

—
24 8 ; 2 6 5 2 6 7 ; sp e c ia liz e d s t r uc t ur e s S y s t e m i c cir c ula t i o n , o f b lo od , 1 5 9 1 6 0
,

—
o f, 3 2 ; t y p ic a l gr e e n c e ll , 3 1 3 7
v
S pl e e n , a c t i it y o f, 2 0 0 ; lo c a t io n o f, 2 0 0 Ta b le , of c a lo ri c n e e ds ,
1 0 5 ; o f fo o ds
S pli t - pr o t e in s , p o is o n o us , fo r m a t io n o f, c o n t a in in g m in e r a ls , 9 6 ; of fo o d
4 95 n ut r ie n t s , 9 4 ; o f v
it a m in s , 1 0 1
S po n ge s , us e o f b a c t e r ia in p r e p a r a t io n T ar t ar , o n t e e t h , 1 09
o f, 4 0 4 T a s t e - b ud s , im p o r t a n c e o f, 1 2 0
v
S po n t a n e o us ge n e r a t io n , c o n t r o e r s y o n ,
—
T a xo n o m y , m e a n in g o f, 5 1 2
—
diffi c ul t ie s ,

— —
v
2 4 2 2 4 4 ; e xp e r im e n t a l e ide n c e o n , 5 13 5 14
—
2 3 9 24 1 24 2 2 4 3 ; t h e o r y o f, 2 3 9 T e e t h , a r r a n ge m e n t o f, 1 0 8 1 0 9 ; c a us e s
S po ra n gi a , la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m , in v a ri o f de c a y , 109 1 12 ; —c a us e s of m a l
o us m o l ds , 2 5 2 fo r m a t io n , 1 8 0 ; de n t a l c a r e , 1 1 0
fi
S po r e , o f b a c t e r ia , de n e d , 3 95 111 ; k
in ds o f 1 0 7 1 08 ; in di idua l — v
S por e -fo r m a t io n , c a us e o f, 2 5 0 ; o f y e a s t — ,

c a re o f, 1 0 9 1 1 1 ; la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m
c e ll s , 2 5 0 ; r e p r o duc t io n b y , 2 5 0 o n c ondit io n o f t e e t h , 1 1 2 n um b e r o f
S po rt S ee M ut a n t s —
1 0 7 4 0 8 ; o f a dul t s , 1 0 8 ; o f c h ildr e n ,
,

S poro z o a , 5 2 1 1 0 8 , 1 09 ; r e la t io n o f die t t o , 1 1 1 1 1 2 ; —
v
S t a n fo r d R e i s io n o f B in e t - S im o n s c a l e , s t r uc t ur e o f, 1 0 7 , 1 08 ; t a r t a r o n , 1 0 9
2 28 T e l o ph a s e , s t a ge in c e ll divi s io n , 6 3
S t ar c h , dige s t io n o f, 1 3 0 T e m p e r , b a d e ff e c t o f, 2 3 6 ; r e a s o n fo r ,
S t e a ps in , 1 3 1 2 3 5— 23 6
S t e n t or , r e ge n e r a t io n o f, 5 6 v
T e r m a n , r e is io n o f B in e t - S im o n s c a le
S t o m a c h , fun c t io n o f, 1 2 9 ; gla n ds o f, b y , 228
—
1 2 5 1 2 6 ; o f fr o g, 1 1 5 ; p a r t s o f, 1 5 2 T e n do n s , us e o f, 8 1
°

S h a p e o f, 1 2 9 ; v v a l e s o f, 1 2 5
—
T e t a n us , a n t it o xin , 4 6 1 ; b a c illi , 4 6 0 ;
S t o m at a , o f le a f, 6 7 , 6 9 ; gua r d c ells o f, c a us e o f, 4 5 9 4 6 0 ; dis c o e r y o f b a c il v
6 7 ; p o s it io n o f, 6 7 lus o f, 4 60 e n t r a n c e in t o b o dy , 4 60 ;
S t ora ge , o f fo o d in p la n t s , 7 0 — 71 n a t ur e of 461 ; o c c urr e n c e , 4 60 ;
S t ruct ur e , o f a m o e b a , 4 2 o f P a r a m e c ium ,
—
v
p r e a le n c e , 4 59 ; p r e e n t io n , v
4 62 ;
4 6 4 7 ; o f c e ll , 5 3 — 5 5 ; o f p r o t o p la s m t r ea t m en t , 4 6 1
—
5 5 5 7 ; o f hi gh e r p l a n t s , 6 6 7 2 — T e t a n y , c a us e o f, 1 9 6
S t r uggl e for e xi s t e n c e , 3 7 3 Th a ll o ph yt a , c l a s s ifi e d , 5 1 8 5 1 9 ; m e a n —
S ti m ul a t io n , o f gla n ds , c h e m ic a l , 1 2 1 , in g o f, 3 3 ; p la n t s o f, 3 3
; m e c h a n ic a l , 1 2 1 ; p s y c hic a l , 1 2 1Th e r m ot r o pi s m , s h o w n b y a m o e b a , 4 6
158 T hi gm ot ro pi s m , s h o w n b y a m o e b a , 4 6
S ti m ulus , m e a m n g o f, 4 0 ; o f gl a n ds Th o r a ci c duct , 1 6 5
.

S ee S t im ula t io n h y m us gl a n d , lo c a t io n o f, 1 99 ; r e l a t io n
S t ylo n y c hi a , r e ge n e r a t io n o f, 5 6 t o gr o w t h , 1 99
S ub li n gual gl a n d , in m o ut h , 1 2 1 Th yr oid gl a n d, dis t ur b a n c e s o f s e c r e t io n ,
S ub m a xill ar y gl a n ds , in m o ut h , 1 2 1 —
1 9 4 1 9 5 ; gr a ft in g o f, 1 9 3 19 4 ; in —
S ucc us e n t e ri c us , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 fl ue n c e o n gr o w t h , 1 9 4 ; p o s it io n o f
k —
,

S unli gh t , in r e l a t io n t o r ic e t s , 1 0 3 1 9 2 1 93 ; s e c r e t io n o f, 1 93 S ee a ls o .

S uppo rt i n g t i s s ue s , in m a n , 7 7 ; in C r e t in is m , C r e t in s , G o it e r , M y x o de m a
la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m o n , Th yr oxin , s e c r e t io n o f t h y r o id , 1 9 4
ia
nts, 7 1 ;

g Tidal air , 1 8 3
—
S ur ge r y , a n t is e p t ic , 4 ; a s e p t ic , 4 5 ; Ti s s ue , b lo o d , 8 7 , 1 4 5 1 4 8 ; c o n t r a c t ile ,
— — 8 3 ; us e o f e p it h e lia l , 7 5 7 7 —
fun c t io n s
e a r ly , 3 , 1 1 1 3 ; gr a ft in g in 2 5 9 2 60
m o de rn m e t h o ds in , 1 3 1 5 — .

— m us c ula r , 8 5 ; n e r e , 8 6 v
vv
S ur i al o f t h e fitt e s t , 3 7 4
o f, 8 8 8 9 ;
8 7 ; o f le a f, 6 8 6 9 —
S w e a t gla n ds , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3 fl
Ti s s ue ui d, 1 6 5
566 I N DEX

Tit an o t h e r e s , p r e hi s t o r ic m a m m a l , r e s —
Ty ph oi d, 4 6 4 4 7 2 ; b a c il li 4 64 ; c a rr ie r s

—
,

t o r a t io n o f, 3 7 9 of 4 65 ; c a us e o f, 4 6 4 ; dia gn o s is o f,
v
,

T o b a c c o , e ffe c t o n n e r o us s y s t e m 2 3 6 , 4 6 64 6 7 e p ide m ic , 4 69 4 7 2 ; fo o d
23 7 , 1 69 us e o f b a c t e r ia in c ur in g, 4 0 5 in fe c t io n 4 6 7 ; im m un i t y t o , 4 69 ;
k
,
“
T o n gue , a s e n s e o r ga n 1 2 0 M a ry , ”
4 6 5 ; m il in fe c t io n , 4 67
— v
,

T o n s illi t i s S ee T o n s ils n a t ur e o f, 4 64 4 6 5 ; p re a le n ce 4 6 4
v
.
, ,

T o n s i l s , e n la r ge m e n t o f, 1 8 0 ; in fe c t io n p r e e n t io n o f, 4 68 ; p r o t e c t io n of
o f, 1 8 0 ; c o d l e u l t f m 4 7 5 — 4 76 b o dy a ga in s t , 4 6 5 r o ut e s o f in fe c t io n

—
s o
—
s r r , ,

To ur n i q ue t , w h e n t o us e 1 6 8 4 6 7 4 6 8 ; s y m p t o m s of 4 64 ; t r a n s
v v
, ,

T o w e r , e xp e r im e n t o f e ff e c t o f e n i r o n m is s io n o i , 4 6 7 4 68 ; a c c in a t io n a n d ,
m e n t o f ge r m p la s m 3 4 1 — 342 4 69
v v
,

—
T o xin - a n t it o xin , dis c o e r y o f a lue o f,
4 5 2 4 5 3 ; is o la t io n o f dip h t h e r ia , 4 7 1 v
Ultr a io l e t r a y s
-
S ee s un ligh t .

o f t ub e r c ulo s is , 4 4 2 Un gula t a c la s s ifie d 5 2 7 ; a n im a ls

, , of
Tr a c h e a , 1 7 9 , 1 7 8 o r de r , 527
Tr a c h e i ds , in a le a f, 6 8 , 7 0 Unit c h ar a ct e r s , 3 18 , 3 2 7 3 3 0 —
Tr ai t s , a n c e s t r a l , e ff e c t o f e n i r o n m e n t v —
Ur e a , 1 7 0 , 1 7 2 1 7 3 ; fo r m a t io n o f, 1 6 1
on , 3 13 3 15
— Ur e t e r s , p o s it io n o f, 1 7 5 fun c t io n o f, 1 7 5
Tr a n s fus io n , o f b lo o d 1 4 9 , Uri n e , 1 7 0
Tr i c h o c y s t s , o f P a r a m e c ium , fun c t io n o f, Uro n y c hi a , r e ge n e r a t io n o f, 5 6
47, 50 5 1 — v
U ul a , 1 2 0
T ri p e , m e a n in g o f 1 2 6
Tr o pis m , in a m o e b a , 4 5 4 6 — ,

m e a n in g o f, V a c cin a tio n s m a ll p o x de c r e a s e o f s m a ll
k in ds o f, 4 5 —
, ,

45 ; 4 6 la b o r a t o r y p r o b p o x in P r us s ia a n d Aus t ri a due t o 4 22
—
le r i s t o S h o w p la n t , 2 0 3 2 0 4 ; us e o f,
,

h is t o r y o f, 4 2 1 — 4 2 2 ; in t r o duc t io n in t o
,

i j
2 ol
Trud e a u, 4 4 0 4 4 2 ; —
in e s t iga t io n s o f v
A m e r ic a 4 2 3 o b e c t io n s t o 4 2 3 , 4 2 7 ;
r es ul t s o f c o m p ul s o r y
,

4 2 5— 4 26 ; t y
,

t ub e r c ul o s is 4 —
4 1 44 2 ;,
m et hod of p h o i d, 4 6 9 ; l
a ue o f 4 2 — v
6 4 27 5 08 ,
,

t r e a t m e n t fo r t ub e r c ul o s is 4 4 2 ; p o r , V a c cin e , fo r r a b ie s , 4 3 2 ; fo r s m a llp o x ,
t r a it o f 4 3 7 ; s a n it a r ium o f, 4 4 1 , 4 4 2
,
4 2 6 ; p r e p a r a t io n o f 4 2 6 5 08 , ,

V a c uo l e , fun c t io n o f c o n t r a c t ile 5 9
T r y ps i n o ge n , 1 3 1
Tub e r cl e b a cilli , dis c o e r y o f, 4 3 8 4 3 9 ; v — fun c t io n o f fo o d , 5 9 s t r uc t ur e o f fo o d
,

5 8—
,

e ff e c t o f 44 2 4 4 3 ; s t a in in g o f, 4 3 8 59
v v
, ,

w h e n fo un d 4 3 9 V a l e , m it r a l , 1 6 0 ; in e in s 1 5 8
v K V a r ia t i o n s , ge r m in a l 3 1 2 3 3 9—3 4 2 ; in
, ,

T ub e r c uli n t e s t , de is e d b y o ch , 4 4 6
4 4 7 ; fo r c o w s 4 4 4 4 4 5 i 37 ;
4 i h it a n ce o f — ,

3 7 4 3 75 ;
,

—
s p ec e s n e r
k
, , , ,

Tub e r c ulo s i s , a c q uir e d fr o m m il , 4 4 5 ; so m i

a t c 3 0 8 3 10
v
,

b a c illi o f 4 3 8 4 3 9 ; c a us a t i e o r ga n V ar i c o s e v e in s , c a us e o f 1 68
v
, , ,

is m o f 4 4 2 ; c o n di t io n s fa o r in g de Va r i eti es , s p ec i es a n d, o f de V r ie s 3 7 6
44 3 —
, ,

v e lO p m e n t 4 4 4 ; dia gn o s is , 4 44 ; 377
v
,
—
dis c o e ry o f c a us e o f, 4 3 8 4 4 0 ; e c o V a s cula r , a n d s up p o r t in g t is s ue s o f le a f,
n o m ic i m p o r t a n c e of 4 4 8 ; e r a dic a la b o r a t o r y p r o b le m 6 8 —6 9
v
, ,

t io n o f, 44 4 ; e xp e r im e n t s o n s p r e a d V e ge t a ti e pr o pa ga ti o n , A r tificia l m eth
,
—
of 4 3 7 4 3 8 ; i m un it y t o , 4
m 4 2 —443 ; ods of b y c ut t , in gs 2 —
5 5 2 5 6 ; b y gr a ft
,

in r e la t io n t o h e re dit y 44 3 448 ; , , in g 2 5 7 2 60 ; b y r e ge n e r a t io n 2 5 6
, , ,

mo r t a lit y in E n gla n d a n d W a le s 44 5 ; N a tur a l m et h o ds of b y b ulb s ,

m o r t a lit y in U n it e d S t a t e s 44 3 ; o f
,
257 ;
—
2 6 2 2 6 3 ; b y la y e rin g 2 6 0 ; b y r hi
,

v
,
— ,

a n i m a ls
v e n t io n 4 4 6 4 4 8
,
—
4 44 ; p r e a le n c e , 4 4 8 ; p r e
,

s p r e a d o f 44 4 44 5 ; ,
— s om es 2 6 1
t ub e r s 2 6
,
—
1 262
,
b y run n e r s 2 6 0 2 6 1 b y ,

s y m t o m s o f 4 4 4 ; t r e a t m e n t o f, 44 6 ;
p V e in s , dir e c t io n o f b lo o d fl o w in 1 5 7
—v
, ,

t y p e s o f, 4 4 2 ; a c c in a t io n for p r e 1 60 ; h e p a t ic 161 ; p or t al 16 1
v e n t io n o f, 4 4 7 4 4 8 p r e s s ur e in 1 5 8 1 5 9 ; a l e s in
,
—
158 v v
,

Tub e r s , p r o p a ga t io n b y 2 6 1 2 6 2 — v a ric o s e , 1 6 8
, ,

T ub ul e s , o f i dn e y s 1 7 5 k ,
,

v
V e n a c a a , lo w e r o r in fe r io r , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0
T uli p, la b o r a t o r y s t udy o f p a r t s o f, upp e r o r s up e 1i o r , 1 5 3 1 6 0
273 274 — V e n o us b l o o d, 1 4 4
,

T wi n s , c a us e s o f ide n t ic a l , 3 1 4 3 7 0 V e n t il a t io n , m e t h o ds o f 1 85
J
, ,

V e n t ri c l e s S ee H e a r t
Tyn dall , o h n , a p p a r a t us
v
a n d e xp e ri
m e n t t o dis p r o e S p o n t a n e o us ge n e r a
.

V e r mifo r m a ppe n dix, 1 3 4 1 3 5 —

—
t io n , 244 2 4 5 ; im p o rt a n c e o f e xp e ri V e s alius , c o n t rib ut io n s t o s ur ge ry 1 2
k
, ,

m e n t 24 5
, 13 ; n o wle dge o f c ir c ula t io n 1 64 ,