GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT # 1

Submitted to: Sir Faisal Raza

Submitted by: M Shaheer Rizwan

NUTECH ID: F20601018

Contents
Question No. 1: .............................................................................................................................................2
“Explain in detail what is meant by Double Water Layer?” ...................................................................2
Answer: .........................................................................................................................................................2
1. Introduction: .........................................................................................................................................2
The "Double Water Layer" theory, also known as the "Double Layer" or "Double Hydration"
theory, describes the presence of two layers of water around clay particles. This concept is essential
for comprehending the behavior of clay soils and their interactions with water. The following is a
more in-depth explanation of the concept: ................................................................................................2
2. Particle Structure: ................................................................................................................................2
Clay minerals, such as montmorillonite and kaolinite, have a crystalline structure with atom layers.
These clay particles are extremely small, with dimensions on the order of micrometers (m). Clay
particles have a high surface area to volume ratio due to their small size and surface properties. .....2
3. Electrochemical Properties: .................................................................................................................2
4. Double Water Layer Formation:.........................................................................................................2
i. Stern Layer:...........................................................................................................................................2
ii. Diffuse Layer:........................................................................................................................................2
5. Significance: ..........................................................................................................................................2
i. Swelling and Shrinkage:.......................................................................................................................2
ii. Cation Exchange Capacity: .................................................................................................................3
iii. Shear Strength and Permeability: .......................................................................................................3
Question No. 2: “State all the soil classifications according to USCS along with abbreviations” ........3
Answer: .........................................................................................................................................................3
Question No 3: Explain the distribution of these 5 types of Soil bearing pressures on footings? ........5
Answer: .........................................................................................................................................................5
Contact Pressure: .........................................................................................................................................6
• Flexible Footing on clay: ......................................................................................................................6
• Flexible Footing on sand: .....................................................................................................................7
• Rigid Footing on Clay: .........................................................................................................................7
• Rigid Footing on Sand: .........................................................................................................................8
• Simplified distribution: ........................................................................................................................8
Question No. 1:

“Explain in detail what is meant by Double Water Layer?”

Answer:

1. Introduction:
The "Double Water Layer" theory, also known as the "Double Layer" or "Double Hydration" theory,
describes the presence of two layers of water around clay particles. This concept is essential for
comprehending the behavior of clay soils and their interactions with water. The following is a more in-
depth explanation of the concept:

2. Particle Structure:
Clay minerals, such as montmorillonite and kaolinite, have a crystalline structure with atom layers. These
clay particles are extremely small, with dimensions on the order of micrometers (m). Clay particles have a
high surface area to volume ratio due to their small size and surface properties.

3. Electrochemical Properties:
The surfaces of clay particles are negatively charged due to isomorphous substitution and broken chemical
bonds on their surfaces. This negative charge attracts positively charged ions (cations) from the surrounding
solution. The cations can be exchangeable (e.g., sodium, calcium) or non-exchangeable (e.g., hydrogen).

4. Double Water Layer Formation:

When clay particles come into contact with water, they interact with the water molecules in a way that
results in the formation of two distinct layers of water around the clay particle:

i. Stern Layer:
The Stern layer, also known as the "compact layer" or "ionic layer," is the first layer of water directly
adhering to the clay surface. It contains closely bound water molecules and counterions (cations). The Stern
layer is often just a few angstroms (Å) thick, and the water in this layer is relatively immobile.

ii. Diffuse Layer:

The second layer, known as the diffuse layer, extends further from the clay surface and contains water
molecules, cations, and anions from the surrounding solution. This layer is less tightly bound and allows
for more movement of water and ions.

5. Significance:

i. Swelling and Shrinkage:

The Double Water Layer is critical in the swelling and shrinkage behavior of clay soils. When clay particles
absorb water, the Stern layer and the diffuse layer interact with each other, causing the clay to expand. The
removal of water during drying, on the other hand, causes the clay particles to contract.
 ii. Cation Exchange Capacity:
The Double Water Layer is associated with the CEC of clay minerals. The exchangeable cations in the Stern
layer can be easily replaced by other cations in the surrounding solution. This property is important for
understanding the soil's ability to retain nutrients, contaminants, and its overall chemical reactivity.

iii. Shear Strength and Permeability:

The Double Water Layer also affects the shear strength and permeability of clay soils. Changes in water
content and the behavior of the Double Water Layer influence the soil's mechanical properties and its
hydraulic conductivity.

Question No. 2: “State all the soil classifications according to USCS along with
abbreviations”

Answer:
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) categorizes soils based on their physical and engineering
properties. To represent different soil types, the USCS employs a combination of letters and symbols. The
table below lists the soil classifications according to the USCS, along with their corresponding
abbreviations:

Sr No. Soil Classification Abbreviation

1. Gravel GW

2. Well-Graded Gravel GP

3. Silty Gravel GM

4. Clayey Gravel GC

5. Sand SW

6. Well-Graded Sand SP

7. Silty Sand SM

8. Clayey Sand SC

9. Silt ML

10. Silty Silt ML

11. Sandy Silt ML

12. Clayey Silt CL

13. Organic Silt OL

14. Peat PT

15. Inorganic Silt MH

16. Inorganic Clay CH

17. Fat Clay CL

18. Lean Clay CL

19. Silty Clay CL

20. Sandy Clay CL

21. Organic Clay OL

22. Peaty Clay PT

23. Silty Clay CL

24. Sandy Clay CL

25. Organic Clay OL

26. Peaty Clay PT

27. Organic Clay OL

28. Peaty Clay PT

29. Lateritic Gravel GM-GC

30. Lateritic Sandy Gravel SW-SM-GW-GP

31. Lateritic Silty Gravel GW-GP-GM

32. Lateritic Clayey Gravel GC-GM-GC

33. Lateritic Sand SP-SM-SW

34. Lateritic Silty Sand SM-GM-SW

35. Lateritic Clayey Sand SP-SC-SW

36. Lateritic Silt CL-ML-CH

37. Lateritic Silty Clay CL-ML-CH

 38. Lateritic Sandy Clay CL-ML-CH

39. Lateritic Clay CL-CH-CL

40. Lateritic Organic Clay CL-OL-CH

41. Lateritic Peat PT-PT-PT

Question No 3: Explain the distribution of these 5 types of Soil bearing pressures on

footings?

Answer:
A foundation is the point at which a structural load meets the ground. A structure's stress q applied to a
foundation is frequently assumed to be uniform. The actual pressure applied to the soil by the foundation is
a reaction known as the contact pressure p, and its distribution beneath the foundation may be far from
uniform.
This distribution is primarily determined by:
• The stiffness of the foundation, i.e. flexible stiff rigid
• Soil compressibility or stiffness
• Loading conditions - uniform or point loading

Contact Pressure:
Contact pressure is the upward force per unit area that the soil exerts on the footing's bottom surface. Several
factors influence the distribution of contact pressure, including the stiffness of the footing, the
compressibility of the soil, the eccentricity and moment of the applied load, and the roughness of the
footing-soil interface.
There are two types of contact pressure distribution: uniform and non-uniform. The contact pressure is
constant along the base of the footing in a uniform distribution, whereas the contact pressure varies along
the base of the footing in a non-uniform distribution.

• Flexible Footing on clay:

The force applied by the structure's weight on the clay surface is referred to as contact pressure in the context
of flexible footing on clay. Non-uniform settlement occurs when a foundation is built on cohesive soil. The
footing settles the most in the centre, forming a depression or "bowl" shape. Settlement, on the other hand,
is minimal at the edges. However, along the line of settlement or deflection, the contact pressure, or the
distribution of forces between the soil and the foundation, remains uniform. This phenomenon is caused by
the cohesive properties of the soil, which influence how it responds to applied loads. This pressure is
uniform and equal to the average pressure (q) because it is distributed evenly.
This pressure is calculated using the formula as:
𝑷
𝒒 =
𝑨
where 'q' is the contact pressure, 'P' is the total vertical load of the structure, and 'A' is the area of the footing
in contact with the clay. This equation assists engineers and geotechnical experts in determining how the
weight of the structure affects the clay foundation, maintaining that it remains stable and safe.
 • Flexible Footing on sand:
When dealing with a sand footing that is flexible, the contact pressure distribution is consistent and equal
to the average pressure. The same formula that was mentioned earlier is used to calculate this uniform
pressure. This means that the footing's force on the sand is distributed evenly across the contact area,
providing stability and preventing localized stress concentrations. Understanding pressure distribution is
critical for designing foundations and structures on sandy soils that are stable and safe.
Two scenarios are considered when analyzing the contact pressure of a rigid footing on clay. First, the
contact pressure is assumed to be uniform and equal to the average pressure when the footing is placed on
a homogeneous, isotropic soil. This average pressure is usually computed using a formula.
When a flexible footing is laid on Cohesionless soil, settlement at the center is minimal while it is maximal
at the edges, which is the inverse of the settlement of a flexible footing over cohesive soil. However, in this
case, as shown in the image below, contact pressure is uniform along the settlement line.

• Rigid Footing on Clay:

The provided equation describes the distribution of contact pressure beneath the footing in the context of
analyzing the behavior of a rigid footing on clay. The contact pressure, denoted by "q," is not uniform and
has the shape of an inverted bowl.
This shape is defined by the equation as:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒒 = 𝒒𝒐 (𝟏 − 𝟐 ) (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
𝒂 𝒃

The following are the key components:

Here, q0 represents the maximum contact pressure at the footing's edges. The "x" and "y" represent
horizontal and vertical distances measured from the footing's centre. The "a" and "b" are the half-lengths of
the footing along the x and y axes, describing the shape of the footing, respectively.
 • Rigid Footing on Sand:
The phrase "rigid footing on sand" refers to a situation in which a solid and unyielding structure is placed
on a sand or soil bed. "Contact pressure" in this context refers to the force per unit area applied by the
footing to the sand. The provided equation represents the distribution of this contact pressure.
The equation is given as:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒒 = 𝒒𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝟐 ) (𝟏 + 𝟐 )
𝒂 𝒃

where q0 is the minimum contact pressure at the footing's centre. The variables x and y represent horizontal
and vertical coordinates, respectively. The 'a' and 'b' parameters affect how the contact pressure varies across
the sand beneath the footing. The equation shows that the contact pressure is non-uniform and takes the
shape of a bowl, with higher pressures at the footing's edges (x and y away from zero) and lower pressure
in the centre (x and y near zero). This distribution is important in determining how a rigid footing interacts
with the underlying sand or soil.

• Simplified distribution:
For practical purposes, the contact pressure distribution can be simplified by assuming a linear variation
along the base of the footing,
For which the equation is given by:
𝒒𝟐 − 𝒒𝟏
𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + ×𝒙
𝒂
where q1 and q2 are the contact pressures at the ends of the footing and the other parameters are the same
as above.